Molten metal properties.
\r\n\tLiterature showed the presence of ACE2 receptors on the membrane of erythrocyte or red blood cell (RBC), indicating that erythrocyte (RBC) can be considered as a peripheral biomarker for SARS-C0V2 infection.
\r\n\r\n\tIncreased levels of glycolysis and fragmentation of RBC membrane proteins were observed in the SARS-C0V2 infected patients, demonstrating that not only RBC’s metabolism and proteome but its membrane lipidome could be influenced by SARS-C0V2 infection changing the homeostasis of the infected erythrocyte. This altered RBC may result in the clot and thrombus formation; the major signs of critically ill Covid-19 patients.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book is going to be a succinct source of knowledge not only for the specialists, researchers, academics and the students in this area but for the general public who are concern about the present situation and are interested in knowing about simple non-invasive measures for identifying viral and bacterial infections through their red blood cells.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-121-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-120-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-122-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"fa5f4b6ef59e28b6e7c1a739c57c5d2f",bookSignature:"Prof. Kaneez Fatima Shad",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10494.jpg",keywords:"Spike Protein, Hemoglobin, Proteins for Oxygen Transport, Altered Protein Structures, RBC ACE Receptors, RBC ACE-2 Receptors, Carboxypeptidase, Mas Receptor, Metabolomics, Gas Transport, Glucose-6-Phosphate, Phosphoglycerate",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 15th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 30th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 29th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 19th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 18th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Shad is a governing body member and mentor of Women in World Neuroscience (WWN), a division of the International Brain Research Organization (IBRO). She is also a member of IBRO-APRC Global Advocacy responsible for brain research funding distribution in this region.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31988/images/system/31988.jpg",biography:"Professor Kaneez Fatima Shad, a neuroscientist with a medical background, received Ph.D. in 1994 from the Faculty of Medicine, UNSW, Australia, followed by a post-doc at the Allegheny University of Health Sciences, Philadelphia, USA. She taught Medical and Biological Sciences in various universities in Australia, the USA, UAE, Bahrain, Pakistan, and Brunei. During this period, she was also engaged in doing research by getting local and international grants (total of over 3.3 million USD) and translating them into products such as a rapid diagnostic test for stroke and other vascular disorders. She published over 60 articles in refereed journals, edited 8 books, and wrote 7 book chapters, presented at 97 international conferences, mentored 34 postgraduate students. Set up a company Shad Diagnostics for the development of cerebrovascular handheld diagnostic tool Stroke meter into a wearable.",institutionString:"University of Technology Sydney",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"6",institution:{name:"University of Technology Sydney",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Australia"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"280415",firstName:"Josip",lastName:"Knapic",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/280415/images/8050_n.jpg",email:"josip@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copy-editing and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"1624",title:"Patch Clamp Technique",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"24164a2299d5f9b1a2ef1c2169689465",slug:"patch-clamp-technique",bookSignature:"Fatima Shad Kaneez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1624.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1359",title:"Underlying Mechanisms of Epilepsy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"85f9b8dac56ce4be16a9177c366e6fa1",slug:"underlying-mechanisms-of-epilepsy",bookSignature:"Fatima Shad Kaneez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1359.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5780",title:"Serotonin",subtitle:"A Chemical Messenger Between All Types of Living Cells",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5fe2c461c95b4ee2d886e30b89d71723",slug:"serotonin-a-chemical-messenger-between-all-types-of-living-cells",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5780.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6683",title:"Ion Channels in Health and Sickness",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8b02f45497488912833ba5b8e7cdaae8",slug:"ion-channels-in-health-and-sickness",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6683.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9489",title:"Neurological and Mental Disorders",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3c29557d356441eccf59b262c0980d81",slug:"neurological-and-mental-disorders",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad and Kamil Hakan Dogan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9489.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7842",title:"Basic and Clinical Understanding of Microcirculation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a57d5a701b51d9c8e17b1c80bc0d52e5",slug:"basic-and-clinical-understanding-of-microcirculation",bookSignature:"Kaneez Fatima Shad, Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi and Nazar Luqman Bilgrami",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7842.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31988",title:"Prof.",name:"Kaneez",surname:"Fatima Shad",slug:"kaneez-fatima-shad",fullName:"Kaneez Fatima Shad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"René Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"rene-mauricio-barria",fullName:"René Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"38379",title:"Sand Mold Press Casting with Metal Pressure Control System",doi:"10.5772/51082",slug:"sand-mold-press-casting-with-metal-pressure-control-system",body:'\nA new casting method, called the press casting process, has been developed by our group in recent years. In this process, the ladle first pours molten metal into the lower (drag) mold. After pouring, the upper (cope) mold is lowered to press the metal into the cavity. This process has enabled us to enhance the production yield rate from 70% to over 95%, because a sprue cup and runner are not required in the casting plan [1]. In the casting process, molten metal must be precisely and quickly poured into the lower mold. Weight controls of the pouring process have been proposed in very interesting recent studies by Noda et al. [2]. However, in the pressing part of the casting process, casting defects can be caused by the pattern of pressing velocity. For example, the brake drum shown in Fig. 1 was produced with the press casting method. Since the molten metal was pressed at high speed, the product had a rough surface. This type of surface defect in which molten metal seeps through sand particles of the greensand mold and then solidifies, is called Metal Penetration. Metal penetration is most likely caused by the high pressure that molten metal generates, and it necessitates an additional step of surface finishing at the least. Thus, the product quality must be stabilized by the suppression of excess pressure in the high-speed press. For short-cycle-time of production, a high-speed pressing control that considers the fluid pressure in the mold is needed. Pressure control techniques have been proposed for different casting methods [3-4]. In the injection molding process, the pressure control problem has been successfully resolved by computer simulation analysis using optimization technique by Hu et al. [5] and Terashima et al. [6]. Furthermore, a model based on PID gain selection has been proposed for pressure control in the filling process. Although the pressure in the mold must be detected in order to control the process adequately using feedback control, it is difficult to measure the fluid pressure, because the high temperature of the molten metal (T ≥ 1200 K) precludes the use of a pressure sensor. Thus, in our previous papers by Tasaki et al. [7], the pressure during pressing at a lower pressing velocity was estimated by using a simply constructed model of molten metal’s pressure based on analytical results of CFD: Computational Fluid Dynamics. A new sequential pressing control, namely, a feed forward method using a novel simplified press model, has been reported by the authors of Ref. [7]. It has been shown that this method is very effective for adjusting pressure in the mold. However, in the previous paper, the actual unstationary flow and the temperature drop during pressing was not considered; a detailed analysis that considers the temperature change during pressing is required to reliably predict and control the process behaviors.
\nPouring and pressing processes in press casting.
In this chapter, a novel mathematical model with the pressure loss term of fluid in vertical unstationary flow is derived by assuming that the incompressible viscous flow depends on the temperature drop of the molten metal. The model error for the real fluid’s pressure is minimized by the use of parameter identification for the friction coefficient at the wall surface (the sole unknown parameter). Furthermore, the designed velocity of the switching pattern is sequentially calculated by using the maximum values of static, dynamic, and friction pressure, depending on the situation in each flow path during the press. An optimum design and a robust design of pressing velocity using a switching control are proposed for satisfying pressure constraint and shortening the operation time. As a final step in this study, we used CFD to check the control performance using control inputs of the obtained multi-step pressing pattern without a trial-and-error process.
\nThe upper mold consists of a greensand mold and a molding box. The convex part of the upper mold has several passages that are called overflow area, as shown in Fig. 2. Molten metal that exceeds the product volume flows into the overflow areas during pressing. These areas are the only parts of the casting plan that provide the effect of head pressure. As the \n\ndiagram shows, these are long and narrow channels. When fluid flows into such the area, high pressurization will cause a casting defect. Therefore, it is important to control the pressing velocity in order to suppress the rapid increase in pressure that occurs in high-speed pressing. The upper mold moves up and down by means of a press cylinder and servomotor. The position of the upper mold can be continuously measured due to encoder set in the servo cylinder to control molten metal pressure.
\nDiagrammatic illustration of pressing.
The online estimation of pressure inside the mold is necessary in the press casting system. The CFD analysis, based on the exact model of a Navier-Stokes equation, is very effective for analyzing fluid behavior offline and is useful for predicting the behavior and optimizing a casting plan. However, it is not sufficient for the design of a pressing velocity control or for the production of various mold shapes, because the exact model calculation would take too much time. Therefore, construction of a novel simple mathematical model for the control design in real time is needed in order to realize real-time pressure control. A simplified mold shape is shown in Fig. 3, where bi and di are the height and the diameter, respectively. PB is the pressure of the molten metal on a defect generation part where the pressure will cause a defect. The pressure fluctuation during pressing is approximated by a brief pressure model for an ideal fluid; i.e., an incompressible and viscous fluid is assumed. Here, eh(t) in Fig. 3 is the fluid level from under the surface of the upper mold. The head pressure of PB is directly derived from eh(t). The press distance z(t) of the upper mold is the distance that the upper mold must travel until it makes the bottom thickness of the product with the poured fluid in the lower mold. By increasing the pressing velocity or the flowing fluid velocity, the dynamical pressure changes rapidly by the effect of liquidity pressure. The hydrodynamic pressure for the peak fluid height is then involved in determining PB. Therefore, PB depends on the head and hydrodynamic pressure determined by using Bernoulli’s theorem, and the pressure loss by viscosity flow friction is represented by the following equation:
\nMold shape and flow pass change.
where ρ[kg/m3] is the density of fluid and g[m/s2] is the acceleration of gravity. The adjustable parameter λ is the coefficient of the fluid friction depending on the fluid temperature, and l(eh) is the mold wall height of the part that causes shear stress in the vertical direction. The surface area of the flow channel decided by the mold shape is represented by Di(i=1,2,3), and Di changes as D1 = d2 -d1; D2 = d3 - d1; D1 = d4/n during pressing. The number of overflow areas is represented by n. By the second term on the right-hand side in Eq. 1, the pressure PB will rise rapidly due to the increasing fluid velocity when fluid flows into the overflow areas. The validity of the proposed pressure model as expressed by Eq. 1 was checked with several CFD simulations in our previous paper[7] under such the condition that temperature of molten metal is constant. The friction coefficient λ was then uniquely identified by a parameter identification fitting with the results derived from the CFD model. We have proposed a switching control for the pressing velocity to suppress the pressure increase. Thus, the pressing velocity necessary to suppress the pressure for defect-free production must be determined and implemented. Here, a multi-switching velocity pattern can be obtained using the following equation, and derived from the pressure model.
\nwhere the kth(k = 0,1,..)-step velocity is decided in order that the maximum velocity satisfies the desired pressure constraint PBlim[Pa]. Because the diameter Dk and square ratio of surface area (ASk/AMk)2 discontinuously change by each stage during pressing as shown in Fig. 3, a multi-switch velocity control is adopted. The number k of steps of pressing velocity with multi-switching can be determined by the mold shape in the case of Fig. 4, with the maximum value of k being 3.
When the pressing velocity changes from
Pressing input shaped by trapezoidal velocities.
In the next chapter, parameter identification of λ [-] will be shown for each simulation condition to consider the pressure increase suppression for viscous fluid with a temperature decrease. Pressure has been rapidly increased while liquid flows into narrow pass d(eh)[m] such that stage-3 in Fig. 3. As seen from Eq. 1, the effect of λ on the variation of pressure Pb(t) becomes larger with the increase of liquid level eh[m] and flow velocity
Density (const.) | \n7000 [kg/m3] | \n
Viscosity (T=1673) | \n0.02 [Pa∙s] | \n
Viscosity (T=1423) | \n0.2 [Pa∙s] | \n
Specific heat | \n771 [J/(kg∙K)] | \n
Thermal conductivity | \n29.93 [W/(m∙K)] | \n
Coefficient of heat transfer | \n1000 [W/(m2∙K)] | \n
Liquidus temperature | \n1473 [K] | \n
Surface tension coefficient | \n1.8 [-] | \n
Contact angle | \n90 [deg] | \n
Molten metal properties.
Several parameter identifications of the fluid friction coefficient λ(Τend) at end time of pressing for various upper mold velocities have been carried out by comparing the proposed model with the CFD model analysis. The conditions of molten metal in these identification simulations are shown in Table 1. For the assumpution of temperature-drop cases, initial temperatures are set at 1673, 1623 and 1573[K] respectively. Although the
\nPressure suppression (Tconst.=1673[K]).
inverse trend of relative change between temperature-drop and viscosity-increase have been clarified, it seems difficult to obtain theoretical equation analytically on the relative change for a wide range of temperature variations and variety of materials. In the temperature drop from 1673 to 1423[K], the viscosity increase is arbitrarily assumed as the linearly dependence changing from 0.02 to 0.20[Pa∙s]. Here, the maximum value of the pressure behavior by Eq. 1 of the proposed model is uniquly fitted to the results of the CFD model simuation.
\nIn each case, the time-invariant parameter λ(Τend) have been identified as shown in Fig. 6. Using the designed velocity pattern in Fig. 5 conducted under the condition of constant temperature during pressing, the pressure behavior considering the fluid’s heat flow to the molds exceeds the pressure constraint (top in Fig. 6) because of the higher viscosity(bottom in Fig. 6) as shown in Fig. 6. As seen from Fig. 6(a), (b) and (c), the lower temperature at end time induces the larger the value of λ. The temperature drop from start to end of pressing is almost 50[K] in these results. The pressure increase during pressing due to the larger value of λ(Tend) with the decreased temperature is confirmed. The simulation results of a simple model such that λ(Τend) is given as a constant value by fitting almost explains the results of the CFD model. Therefore, it is expected that we can conduct the control design using this simple pressure model under the restricted temperature change.
\nParameter identification results.
In this section, the proposed sequential switch velocity control considering the viscosity increase related to the temperature drop during pressing will be checked by using CFD model simulation with heat flow calculation.
\nPressure suppression simulation using CFD simulator with designed velocities.
As example, for the designed pressing velocity patterns using λ(Τend) derived by the previous simulations, where Tend =1622, 1574 and 1522[K], the pressure suppression results for the each temperature condition of Tinitial =1673, 1623 and 1573[K] were checked for a upper pressure constraint: 10[kPa]. Here, the optimum design and robust design are introduced by using the proposed switching control method. Fig. 7(a, upper) shows a comparison of the designed velocity patterns and the magnified view. These lines show the desighed opitimum velosity patterns in the each case of temperature drop. The switched velocities (2nd constant velocity) are slightly different as 6.2, 5.5 and 5.2[mm/s], for the influence of the viscosity increase with the temperature drop. The end time of pressing are then 0.520, 0.546 and 0.560[s] respectively, and the biggest difference of the pressing time is only 0.040[s]. These velocity patterns which differs slightly, guarantees the exact suppression of pressure less than the constraint value as shown in Fig. 7(a, lower). Fig. 7(a, bottom) shows the magnified view of the pressure peak part at the end time of pressing. On the other hand, Fig. 7(b) shows pressure suppression varidation for a robust design of pressing velocity. The designed velocity by λ(Τend =1522) in case of lowest temperature has been checked for Tinitial = 1673, 1623 and 1573[K]. As seen from Fig. 7(b, bottom), each muximum pressure value is suppressed under the upper constraint of pressure with some allowance. However, the end time is a little bit late compared with the optimum design case. As seen from this result, both methods satisfies the pressure suppression. However, optimum design satisfies both requirements of pressure constraint and shortening the operation time. On the other hand, robust design satisfies only pressure constraint, although this is useful, when temperature drop is not exactly known, but knows the least temperature for all batch operations. These analyses presented that the proposed control to suppress the maximum pressure of viscous flow with temperature drop can design the press switching velosity pattern optimally and robustly, for such the case that temperature drop from start time to end time of press is about 50[K].
\nIn this section, we proposed an optimum control method of molten metal’s pressure for a high-speed pressing process that limits pressure increase in casting mold. Influence of viscosity increase by temperature drop can be applied to the sequential pressing velocity design. The control design was conducted simply and theoretically, and included a novel mathematical model of molten metal’s pressure considering viscous flow. The friction coefficient depending on temperature is meant to generate higher pressure than that in the case modeled without temperature drop during pressing. Using the pressure constraint and information on the mold shape, an optimum velocity design and robust velocity design using multi-switching velocity were derived respectively without trial-and- error adjustment. Finally, the obtained velocity reference’s ability to control pressure fluctuation and to realize short cycle time was validated by the CFD simulations. In the near future, the proposed pressure model for optimizing the pressing process will be modified with the theoretical function models on temperature and viscosity-change, and futheremore real experiments will be done.
\nIn this section, we tried several molten metal experiments to clarify the mechanism of physical metal penetration growth and the boundary condition of physical metal penetration generation, and to validate the control performance of the feedforward method using the proposed pressing input design. Several experimental confirmations for the proposed pressure control method with a mathematical model of molten metal pressure were achieved for brake-drum production. The press casting productions with reasonable casting quality for each pressing temperature has been demonstrated through molten metal experiments.
\nLiquidus temperature of iron metal is about 1400[K], and the casting mould commonly used is heat-resistant green sand mould, for its advantages of high efficiencies of moulding and recycling. However, some defects are often caused by high pressurized molten metal [10]. Pressurized molten metal soaks into the sand mould surface, and then solidifies and form the physical metal penetration. Physical metal penetration as a typical defect related to higher pressurization inside the mould is offen ocurr on the casting surface. The metal penetration generated on complex shape product such as the products with tight, thin and multilayer walls, is difficult to be removed, while in the case of simple shape product, the defect can be removed by later surface processing. If the defect generation can be prohibited by pressing velocity adjustment, the sound iron castings can be obtained.
\nPhysical factor caused metal penetration is explained by a diagrammatic illustration (Fig. 8) of interfacial surface between the molten metal and the sand mould, and a balance between two sides competing pressure on the boundary [\n11\n]. Fig. 8 also shows the relationship between the pressure balance and the metal penetration growth. In Fig. 8, on one side, the molten metal acts as a static pressure, Pst (Pa), a dynamic pressure, Pdyn (Pa), and a pressure, Pexp (Pa), because of expansion during solidification, which can force the liquid into the interstices of the sand grains. On the other side, due to the suppression effect of infiltration, the frictional loss pressure between the liquid metal and the sand grains, Pf (Pa), the pressure resulting from the expansion of the mould gasses, Pgas (Pa), and the pressure in the capillary, Pg (Pa), are all acted on the boundary surface. The governing equation that describes the pressure balance at the mould and metal interface can be written as:
\nwhere the molten metal soaks into sand surface in the case that the right hand side of this equation is larger than the left hand side. As a result, the metal penetration defect is generated. Depending on the contact angle of iron and sand, the capillary pressure can be changed to be negative or positive as shown in Fig. 9. Thus, the pressure has both of beneficial or detrimental effects in preventing penetration at the same time. So capillary pressure can be negligible in Eq. (3). The Pexp can be eliminated in the case of the casting with open type mould as shown in Fig. 10. This means that Pexp is strongly related to the casting process design. Furthermore, using a slower filling velocity and selecting the moulding material that does not contain the component which can generate gasses, Pdyn and Pgas are then both negligible. Here, we obtain a simplified relational equation of pressure balance:
\nPressure balance and penetration defect.
Cancel effect of capillary pressure.
In the conventional gravity casting, molten metal infiltrating into sand particles is generally generated when the high static pressure is added inside the mould. Sound casting products with metal penetration-free are designed such as whose maximum height of liquid head is under the allowable static pressure after filling. But, in the sand press casting case, it is confirmed that the penetration defect on the product surface is generated, even if the mould with a low static pressure is utilized. This indicates that the influences such as the dynamic pressure and the pressure due to the viscous friction depending on temperature drop, must be considered.
\nTo observe the penetration growth under the force of gravity, a test experiment has been achieved with molten metal. A suggested casting mould shape and the casting are shown in Fig. 10. The molten metal was poured into the casting mould quickly at 1,400 ℃, and kept at 1673[K] until the end of filling. The casting mould is 1,000 mm in height and Φ45 mm in diameter. Here, the static pressure at the depth of Hl (m), Pstb is simply written as
\nWhere ρ = 7,000 (kg m-3) is the density of molten metal, g = 9.8 (m s-2) is gravity acceleration, Hl (m) is the vertical depth from the top of the casting product. Equation (5) can give the static pressure value easily, then a pressure constraint value for preventing the penetrated surface can be derived directly according to the maximum depth without metal penetration defect.
\nGravity casting test with opened mold.
The mould release agent covering the casting pattern before moulding was not used in order to prevent the loss of the surface tension; the caking additive of the sand mould was selected for keeping steady the molten metal’s properties. A cylindrical casting mold with the diameter of 45(mm) was selected for restricting the temperature distribution of molten metal during pouring. The elimination of physical factors for the penetration generation is considered as follows:
\nThe surface of the product is observed by using the optical microscope. To investigate thoroughly under the casting surface, the cylindrical product is sliced along the direction perpendicularly to its axis, and the cut specimens at each depth, Hl, are pictured respectively. The penetration growths in the early phase and the final phase of solidification are confirmed clearly from Figs. 11(a) and (b). In Fig. 11(a) (Hl =150 (mm)), early phase of penetration in casting surface is identified, and some small sand grains are wrapped in cast metal. In the case of Fig. 11(b) (Hl = 950 (mm)) or bottom part of the product, the infiltration depth of molten metal to sand particles is over 1 (mm). Here, a high pressure loading about 65 (kPa) is estimated by calculating Eq. (5) of the static pressure. In the same way for Hl = 150 (mm), Pbottom is obtained as 10 (kPa). Therefore, molten metal’s pressure, 10 (kPa), on the sand surface means an upper limit of penetration generation in this casting condition.
\nMetal penetration growths for each depth, Hl, with a 50 (mm) increment from 50 to 850 (mm) are shown in Fig. 12. Maximum infiltration depth observed in the investigation area of Fig. 12 is increased with vertical depth, Hl. The sand particles inside the metal cannot be removed easily by the next process such as the blast finishing and the grinding. Thus metal penetration defect must be prevented completely, and liquid pressure constraint 10 (kPa) in the case of Hl = 150 (mm) is set for defect-free production.
\nPenetrated surface observation on casting skin.
Metal penetration growths for each vertical depth.
Substituting the obtained pressure constraint in the previous chapter and mould shape information of target cast product of the drum brake to Eq. (2) in previous chapter, the multi-step velocity pattern is sequentially calculated. Here, the pouring temperature is set to 1,400℃. The initial pressing velocity ż0 until the upper mould contacts with top surface of poured molten metal, is the maximum pressing velocity, 375 (mm s-1), of press machine. Each velocity for each flow situation are represented in Table 1. The vertical movement is driven accurately by servo cylinder and physical guide bars. The press casting equipment is shown in Fig. 13.
\nPress casting equipment and mold holding part.
Designed pressing velocity patterns.
The multi-step velocity pattern is shown in Fig. 14. The acceleration of pressing movement is ideally assumed as constant 1 (m s-2). The time constant of this drive system can be set to zero, because the identified exact value is 0.002 s or negligible. Therefore, step type velocity input is shaped as multi-overlapped trapezoid.
\nFor discontinuous flow depended on mould shape, the pressing velocity, 50 (mm s-1), was set in the case of wide liquid surface area. Here the first and second switching velocities, ż1 and ż2 calculated by considering the pressure constraint, are higher values in brackets of Table 2 This means that the pressing in the wide flow path must consider an upper limit velocity to prevent the disturbance flow causing overflow to the outside of mould. The velocity constraint was given by experimental trial and error process. Pressure suppression was evaluated by comparing with other conditions shown in Fig. 14.
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\nStop\n | \n
Pressing Velocity [mm/s] | \n375.00 | \n50.00 (344.6) | \n50.00 (542.3) | \n9.94 | \n0.00 | \n
Switching Position [mm] | \n0.00 | \n254.22 | \n254.22 | \n279.44 | \n280.20 | \n
Multi-step velocities related to discontinuous change of flow passage.
Effectiveness of the pressure control with multi-step velocity design is confirmed by observing the casting surface. The surface roughness of tested specimens under the given conditions is shown in Fig. 15. In the case of higher velocity pressing (HV: ż1= ż2 = ż3 =50.00[mm/s]), the product surface is the roughest. Dash line circles on the surface show the infiltrated sand particles. This result indicates that the metal penetration defect is clearly generated by pressing with high pressure over 10 kPa. Both in the case of lower velocity (LV: ż1= ż2 = ż3 =9.94[mm/s]) and proposed switching velocity (SV: ż1= ż2 =50.00[mm/s], ż3 =9.94[mm/s]), sound products of smoothed surface or defect-free production can be obtained. The pictures of magnified product surface in Figs. 15(a) to (c) are given under the experimental condition of higher pressing temperature 1,400℃ (HT). Here the pressing temperature is adjusted by monitoring with a sensor and naturally cooling the molten metal with the pouring temperature, about 20~30 degrees higher than the pressing temperature. Fig. 15 show that the different surface state does not depend on temperature.
\n\nFig. 16 shows the overview of the casting pressed by the switching velocity pattern (SV). From these photos, better product of SV-HT is clearly verified, because the switch velocity is designed just for the higher temperature 1,400℃. There is a tiny penetration in casting of SV-LT. Higher pressure at the same pressing is generated with higher viscous flow related to lower temperature.
\nConsequently, the proposed pressing pattern shows defect-free production in the short filling time as almost same as the highest pressing pattern considered with the disturbance flow suppression. The time difference between the cases of HV-LT and SV-LT is only 0.07 (s). This result shows 2 (s) shorter than the case of LV-LT with well production. Furthermore, the comparative validation of the different temperature in Fig. 16 shows that the pressing velocity is designed properly for the monitored poured liquid temperature immediately before pressing. The proposed press casting production considering molten metal’s pressure suppression will meet the requirement for practical use with temperature variation range.
\nProduct surface observations for penetration defect.
Casting product in case of different temperature conditions.
The pressing velocity control was proposed in order to suppress increasing pressure with short filling time. A pressure limitation of the penetration generation has been confirmed by a gravity casting experiment for a relation analysis between the static (head) pressure and the infiltrated metal length. Next, by applying the obtained constraint pressure for defect-free to the theoretical control design method with pressing velocity adjustment, the effectiveness of the proposed control method is validated by molten metal experiment. The final results showed that the proposed pressing control realizes sound cast production in almost the same filling time with the high speed pressing, which can cause defect. These confirmation results indicate that the press casting process with our proposed control technique can be adapted properly for environment change such as temperature drop in continual process.
\nThe online estimation of pressure inside the mold is necessary in the press casting system. The CFD analysis, based on the exact model of a Navier-Stokes equation, is very effective for analyzing fluid behavior offline and is useful for predicting the behavior and optimizing of a casting plan [8-9]. However, it is not sufficient for the design of a pressing velocity control or for the production of various mold shapes, because the exact model calculation would take too much time. Therefore, construction of a novel simple mathematical model for the control design in real time is needed in order to realize real-time pressure control.
\nTo analyze flowing liquid motion during pressing, several experiments with colored water and an acrylic mold have been carried out as shown in Fig. 17. The nature of flow will dictate the rectangular Cartesian, cylindrical and spherical coordinates etc. In 3D flow, velocity components exist and change in all three dimensions, and are very complicated to study. In the majority of engineering problems, it may be sufficient to consider 2D flows. Therefore the acrylic mold shaped flat is prepared for flow observation of liquid. The main purpose of our study on the press casting process is to suppress the defect generation of casting product. Air Entrainment during filling is one of the most important problems to solve for flow behavior by adjustment of pressing velocity. If the air is included in molten metal, it will stay and be the porosity defect. By the past experimental result, upper mold velocity less than 50 mm s-1 of pressing without air entrainment has been confirmed. From this fact, the pressure model construction is considered for only stationary flow in vertical without air entrainment, or the pressing velocity lower than the upper limit for the defect-free for air porosity.
\nObservational experiment of unstationary flow.
\nFig. 18 shows the rising flow during pressing and each stream line of molten metal’s flow. The unstationary Bernoulli equation for two points: S and B on a given stream line in the flow of an incompressible fluid in the presence of gravity is
\nwhere ρ kg m-3 is the density of fluid and g m s-2 is the acceleration of gravity. The integral is taken along the stream line, and cannot be easily evaluated in general. For the rising flow in press casting, the integral can be quite closely approximated by an integral along the vertical axis. In the case of Fig. 18, the stream line is taken to vertically extend from the bottom surface of upper mold to the free surface of fluid. Placing the origin to the bottom of upper mold surface, substituting PS = 0 (based on gauge pressure) and eh = eS-eB, and neglecting
Change of stream line of rising liquid.
The fluid velocity
Here, rewriting the extended Bernoulli equation in terms of z m and considering with the initial volume of fluid poured in the lower mold, one obtains
\nMold shape for a part of overflow.
Comparative result between proposed mathematical model and measured pressures.
where Δp(T, eh) means a pressure loss depended on liquid temperature change on flow from upstream to downstream and the vertical flow length eh contacting with the wall.
\nTo confirm the proposed pressure model for pressed liquid, several experiments using simplified shape mold and water have been carried out. The acrylic mold and its shape are shown in Fig. 19. The vertical movement of the upper mold is derived accurately for reference input of velocity curve by servo-press system. In the experiment as shown in Fig. 20, the actual pressing velocity (solid line) is reshaped for reference input (dashed line). This slight difference is due to the driving motor characteristic approximated by first order lag element with the time constant: 0.020 s. As an example of the confirmation result with proposed model, pressure behavior measured by piezoelectric-type pressure sensor (AP-10S, by KEYENCE Corp.) is shown in Fig. 20 (lower), solid line. Here, the maximum pressing velocity is set to 20 mm s-1, and total moving displacement of press is 22 mm. The dashed line in Fig. 20 (lower) is the pressure calculated result with Bernoulli’s equation for steadyfluid flow as described. As seen from this figure, the calculated result of the proposed pressure model considering the unstationary flow, is in excellent agreement with actual pressure behavior during pressing.
\nIn a practical situation, the temperature decrease due to the heat transfer between the molten metal and the mold surface should be considered as an important influence on liquid pressure during pressing. For decreasing temperature, the viscosity increase and higher pressure are then generated, and therefore the penetration defect occurs. Generating the shearing force on the wall surface of the flow path, a point at the upstream is pressurized higher than one at the downstream. Considering the pressure difference between PB at the bottom of the upper mold and PS at the free surface, it is written as Δp = PB −PS. Here, the equilibrium relation of force between the shearing force Fw and Δp is derived as following equation by considering the frictional loss pressure.
\nHere, using the friction coefficient λ depended on molten metal’s temperature T (K), Δp Pa can be represented by the following equation:
\nAfter substituting Eq. (10) to Eq. (9), the proposed pressure model conformable to the complex model of CFD is constructed by depending on liquid temperature to express more precisely the molten metal’s pressure. Here, λ(T) means the coefficient of fluid friction depending on the fluid temperature; it will be sole unknown parameter of the proposed model. l(eh) is the mold wall length of the part that causes shear stress in the vertical direction. Di(i = 1, 2, 3) represents the surface area of the flow channel decided by the mold shape as shown in Fig. 3, and Di will change as D1 = d2-d1, D2 = d3-d1, D1 = d4/n during pressing. n is the number of overflow areas. By the pressing velocity term in the newly proposed pressure model, it is easily understood that PB will be rapidly rising due to the increasing fluid velocity when fluid flows into narrow flow path areas.
\nIn this section, a mathematical modeling and a switching control for pressure suppression of pressurized molten metal were discussed for defect-free production using the press casting. For the complex liquid flow inside vertical path during pressing, the liquid’s pressure model for the control design was newly proposed via the unstationary Bernoulli equation, and was represented in excellent agreement with actual pressure behavior measured by a piezoelectric-type pressure sensor. Next, the sequential pressing control design with switching velocity for the high-speed pressing process that limits pressure increase, was applied with considering the influence of viscous change by temperature drop. Using the pressure constraint and information on the mold shape, an optimum velocity design and robust velocity design were derived respectively without trial-and-error adjustment. Consequently, the effectiveness of the pressing control with reasonable pressure suppression has been demonstrated through the CFD. In the near future, the proposed pressure model for optimizing the pressing process will be modified with the theoretical function models on temperature and viscosity-change, and furthermore real experiments with molten metal will be done.
\nMonogenetic volcanoes are the most common type of subaerial volcanoes on the Earth [1] that occur in any tectonic setting as intraplate, extensional, and subduction [2]. They can be distributed as isolated centers, monogenetic volcanic fields [3], or associated with large volcanic systems as polygenetic volcanoes or calderas [4], displaying a plumbing system relatively simple of a dispersed nature [5]. Monogenetic volcanoes are associated with small eruptions fed from one or multiple magma batches, with volumes typically ≤1 km3 of basic to silicic composition and form over a short period from hours to decades. Monogenetic centers can build several volcanic landforms in response to their relationship with different environmental settings [6]. They can be produced by different eruptive styles (e.g., Hawaiian, Strombolian, violent Strombolian, phreatomagmatic, Surtseyan, and effusive activity) that are determined by internal- and external- factors [7], and evidencing several magmatic processes (e.g., fractionation, mixing, contamination) [5]. Therefore, each monogenetic volcanic system is different depending on many factors (mentioned above). For this reason, current efforts around the world focus on understanding monogenetic volcanism in different scenarios, in order to provide a better understanding of this variability and to provide tools to estimate possible scenarios of future eruption [8].
\nThe Central Volcanic Zone (CVZ) of the Andes and particularly northern Chile (18–28°S) (Figure 1), is an excellent natural laboratory to study monogenetic systems of changing magma compositions in time and space related to the evolution of an active continental margin, and a ~ 70 km thick orogenic crust [9]. Despite this, prominent active polygenetic volcanoes in Chile such as Parinacota [10], Guallatiri [11], Aucanquilcha [12], Ollagüe [13], Lascar [14], Socompa [15], Lastarria [16], and Ojos del Salado [17] have received priority of research over monogenetic volcanoes (Figure 1). Monogenetic volcanism studies in northern Chile have rarely been mentioned, such as Chao dome [18], Tilocálar volcanoes [19], Juan de la Vega maar [20], Corral de Coquena maar [21], SC2 scoria cone [22], or Tinto dome [23]. Monogenetic volcanoes usually have been studied indirectly through i) regional geologic mapping from the Chilean Geological Service (Sernageomin); ii) only previously reported as disaggregated or preliminary data (conference papers and undergraduate thesis); iii) or by researches of a large magmatic system (such as polygenic volcanoes or calderas) mainly associated to petrological knowledge, leaving aside the mechanisms that control eruptive styles (volcanological sense) [24, 25]. Nevertheless, recently, several monogenetic volcanoes have been studied such as Cerro Chascón dome [26], Cerro Overo maar [27], La Poruña scoria cone [28], Chanka, Chac-Inca, and Pabellón domes [29], El País lava flow field [30], Tilocálar monogenetic field [31], Cerro Tujle maar [32], and many others preliminary data reports, which have increased our understanding of the monogenetic volcanism in this part of the Central Andes and provided tools to estimate possible scenarios of future eruptions that could affect the communities of the Altiplano.
\na) Map showing the location of the Northern, Central, Southern, and Austral Volcanic Zones (NVZ, CVZ, SVZ, and AVZ, respectively) of the Andes defined by Thorpe and Francis [33] (modified from [34]). b) Location map of the CVZ (modified from [34]) showing the central active polygenetic volcanoes [35]. c) Map of northern Chile showing the major morpho-tectonic units of the Central Andes (modified from [9]).
In this contribution, an overview of the monogenetic volcanism that overlaps spatially and temporally the spectrum of architectures, range of eruptive styles, lithological features, and different magmatic processes of mafic and felsic monogenetic volcanoes of northern Chile (18°S-28°S) is reported. Previous studies, such as research publications and preliminary data reports, were used to assemble the volcanological, petrological, and geochronological information in the framework of this overview. A total of 907 Miocene-Quaternary monogenetic volcanoes (individual and parasite) have been identified, carefully evaluating their distribution in time and space. New stratigraphic and sedimentology data of all monogenetic volcanic center types are presented, which added to compositional and geochronological data, are used to illustrate a plumbing system model. In addition, a general eruptive model for monogenetic volcanoes in northern Chile is proposed, where external (e.g., magma reservoirs or groundwater available) and internal (e.g., magma ascent rate or interaction en-route to the surface) conditions determine the changes in eruptive style, lithofacies, and magmatic processes involved in the formation of monogenetic volcanoes. The methods used and databases generated in this contribution are available in the supplementary material.
\nThe CVZ is located between 14°S (Quimsachata, Peru) and 28°S (Ojos del Salado, Chile) of the Andean Cordillera, including southern Peru, northern Chile, southwestern Bolivia, and northwestern Argentina (Figure 1a and b). This volcanic zone is a highly elevated region, reaching a width of 350–400 km at much of it over 4000 m a.s.l., constituting the Western Cordillera and Altiplano-Puna physiographic provinces (Figure 1c). It is the second-highest altitude plateau in the world in size (after Tibetan Plateau of Central Asia) [36] built on a thickened continental crust that attains a maximum thickness of ~70 km [37]. The crustal thickening and high elevation of the CVZ are related to the crustal shortening [38], sub-crustal magmatism [39], delamination of eclogitic lower crust and lithosphere [40], and climatically controlled low erosion rates with limited sedimentation on the subduction trench [41]. In addition, this crustal thickness is the reason for the magma composition features that characterize the rocks that make up the CVZ as residual garnet during differentiation, crustal contamination, melting-assimilation-storage-homogenization (MASH), and assimilation by depletion of heavy rare earth elements (HREE) in volcanic rocks [25].
\nThe magmatic activity of the CVZ has been continuous from the Upper Oligocene to the present day [42]. The basement is mainly comprised by i) Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Miocene-Oligocene continental volcanic and sedimentary rocks; ii) Paleozoic and Mesozoic marine sedimentary rocks; iii) Precambrian and Paleozoic metamorphic rocks; and iv) Paleozoic, Mesozoic, and Paleocene intrusive rocks ([43] and references therein).
\nThe Central Andes is known as the home of “andesitic” magmatism [36]; nevertheless, lava and pyroclastic rocks of dacitic, rhyolitic, and occasionally basaltic andesite and basaltic composition volcanic rocks also occur in the CVZ, building calderas, extensive ignimbrite sequences, stratovolcanoes and monogenetic volcanoes [44].
\nIn this study, 907 monogenetic volcanic centers were identified in northern Chile (Figure 2). Among which, 306 centers correspond to parasitic monogenetic volcanoes associated with polygenetic volcanoes (Figure 2a), which are at the flank of stratovolcanoes linked to crustal/edifice magma storage [45], and 601 centers correspond to individual monogenetic volcanoes (Figure 2a). The monogenetic centers show a variety of volcanic structures such as domes (35.1%), lava flows (33.4%), scoria cones (29.6%), maars (1.5%), and tuff cones (0.4%) (Figure 2b). These centers can be found as isolated centers (e.g., Cerro Punta Negra), clusters (e.g., Purico-Chaskón complex), or forming small volcanic fields (e.g., Negros de Aras).
\nDistribution of monogenetic volcanoes across northern Chile based on a) their relationship with polygenetic volcanoes and b) their volcanic landform.
Using the location of the total number of the monogenetic volcanoes (i.e. 905), the average nearest neighbor analysis can be used to differentiate the distribution of each kind of monogenetic landforms (e.g., [3, 46]). The average nearest neighbor analysis shows R-statistic values of 0.71 for all monogenetic volcanoes of northern Chile, 0.74 for domes, 0.69 for scoria cones, and 0.62 for lava flows (Table 1). These value ranges are identified as a clustered distribution of volcanic centers [46]. For maars and tuff cones, the average nearest neighbor analysis was not obtained due to the small number of centers identified (18 monogenetic centers that are 1.9% of the total) to generate a statistically significant result.
\nFeature | \nRo (km) | \nRe (km) | \nR-statistic | \nZR | \nPattern | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
All monogenetic structures | \n2.56 | \n3.61 | \n0.71 | \n−16.63 | \nClustered | \n
Domes | \n4.51 | \n6.05 | \n0.74 | \n−8.71 | \nClustered | \n
Lava flows | \n3.85 | \n6.2 | \n0.62 | \n−12.62 | \nClustered | \n
Scoria cones | \n4.57 | \n6.45 | \n0.69 | \n−9.48 | \nClustered | \n
Results for the average nearest neighbor in northern Chile.
Ro: Observed Mean Distance; Re: Expected Mean Distance; R-statistic: Nearest Neighbor Ratio; ZR: Z-score.
On the other hand, using the total number of monogenetic volcanoes (i.e. 907) and the area in which the monogenetic volcanoes are distributed in northern Chile (46,610 km2), the area that envelopes all the monogenetic volcanic centers identified is of 1.95 x 10-2 centers/km2. The temporal distribution is characterized by a decrease in eruptive centers from Miocene (268 monogenetic centers) to Pliocene (258 monogenetic centers), and a later increase in the Pleistocene (363 monogenetic centers) (Figure 3). Domes and scoria cones abundance show the same trend mentioned before, whereas lava flows, maars, and tuff cones display a trend to increase from Miocene to Pleistocene (Figure 3). The activity during the Holocene (18 monogenetic centers) is mainly dominated by dome eruptions (Figure 3).
\na) Temporal distribution of monogenetic volcanic landforms across northern Chile. b) Histogram of the temporal distribution of monogenetic volcanic landforms during Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene, and Holocene.
The temporal evolution of the monogenetic volcanoes from older to younger shows a migration from south to north with a concentration in the central part of northern Chile (cluster 3: Antofagasta Central). Based on the kernel density map, the monogenetic volcanoes of northern Chile may be mainly grouped into five regional clusters (Figure 4a). These distributions of volcanic centers display a high density of features and a preferred elongation trending. Monogenetic centers are alienated NW-SE preferentially for clusters 1 and 2, N-S, NW-SE, and NE–SW for cluster 3, NE–SW for cluster 4, and WNW-ESE and NW-SE for cluster 5 (Figure 4a). The volcanic structures distribution across the northern Chile map (Figure 4b) exhibits that scoria cones and domes are mainly associated with NNW–SSE, NW-SE, and WSW-ENE tectonic structures and lineaments, in decreasing order of frequency. Lava flows are mainly aligned N-S and NW-SE, while maars and tuff cones occur mainly along N-S, NW-SE, and WSW-ENE trending tectonic structures and lineaments, in decreasing order of frequency. The distribution of magma paths suggests that for Miocene, the main direction of the shortening of structures at the upper crust should have been about E-W, WNW-ESE, and NNW–SSE [47]. This is consistent with the development of N-S and NNE–SSW reverse faults and folds reported for cluster 2 (Antofagasta Norte; Figure 4a), cluster 3 (Antofagasta Central; Figure 4a) and cluster 4 (Antofagasta Sur; Figure 4a), and WSW-ENE structures for cluster 5 (Atacama; Figure 4a) in previous studies [48]. During the Pliocene to Holocene, the main direction of shortening inferred to have been E-W, NE–SW, WNW-ESE, and NNW–SSE direction of contraction, in decreasing order of frequency. This is consistent with the N-S and NW-striking normal faults, NE-striking reverse faulting, NW-SE, and WSW-ENE strike-slip faults reported in previous studies [17, 48].
\na) Kernel density map for monogenetic volcanoes and the main clusters identified. The numbers represent the main regions: 1. Arica-Iquique, 2. Antofagasta Norte, 3. Antofagasta Central, 4. Antofagasta Sur, and 5. Atacama. b) Map of the major fault systems and lineaments across northern Chile.
The spatial–temporal correlation of monogenetic centers, combined with the tectonic structures within northern Chile, allows the identification of three different structural styles of monogenetic volcanoes (Figure A.1), as has been suggested by Le Corvec et al. [2] for monogenetic volcanism and by Tibaldi et al. [49] for the CVZ. The first case (Figure A.1a) corresponds to a compressional environment mainly characterized by N-S and NNE–SSW reverse faults and folds over the monogenetic feeding conduits. Nevertheless, in this case, the magmatic plumbing system has been associated with the development of normal or strike-slip faults allowing the ascent of magmas to the surface such as the Tilocálar complex [19] at the south of the Salar de Atacama basin into the cluster 3 (Antofagasta Central; Figure 4). The second scenario (Figure A.1b) is mainly characterized by N-S and NW-SE, striking normal faults into an extensional environment. This case has been reported to scoria cones, lava flows, and mainly domes into the Ollagüe region and San Pedro-Linzor volcanic chain area [13, 50], which correspond to cluster 2 (Antofagasta Norte; Figure 4). The last scenario (Figure A.1c) corresponds to a strike-slip environment mainly characterized by NW-SE left lateral and WSW-ENE strike-slip faults. Monogenetic volcanism associated with this scenario has been mainly reported by Tibaldi et al. [49] for cluster 3 (Antofagasta Central; Figure 4), Baker et al. [17], and González-Ferrán et al. [51] for cluster 5 (Atacama; Figure 4). These scenarios have also been reported in others areas of monogenetic volcanism in the CVZ of the Andes such as the Uyuni region by Tibaldi et al. [50], Antofagasta de la Sierra Basin by Báez et al. [52], or in the southern Puna Plateau by Haag et al. [3]. These interpretations were developed based on the distribution and alignment of the monogenetic centers. Therefore, it is essential to consider that the tectonic structures have been formed before of the magma intrusion that originated monogenetic centers. In this context, the emplacement of these volcanic centers was favored by these tectonic structures.
\nIn this study, 318 domes, 303 lava flows, 268 scoria cones, 14 maars, and 4 tuff cones have been identified. This identification is primarily based on the morphological aspects of the volcanic edifices, which is characterized by the dominant eruption style and number or combination of eruption phases following Bishop [53] and Walker [54] (Figures 1 and 2).
\n\nScoria cones\n (Figure 5a) are mainly characterized by circular to elliptical shape in plan-view, showing different landforms as ideal (e.g., La Poruña), gully, horseshoe, tilted, amorphous or crater row that in some cases display lava flows associated (e.g., Negros de Aras volcanic field). These lava flows (Figure 5b) are mainly characterized by ʻaʻā flow structures associated with early (e.g., Del Inca) or late-stage (e.g., Ajata) eruptions with channel, ogive, leeve, lobe, and breakout lobe structures.
\nVolcano types from northern Chile. a) Poruñita scoria cone (Ollagüe stratovolcano in the background). b) Scoria cone and lava flows from Negros de Aras monogenetic volcanic field. c) La Torta de Tocorpuri dome. d) Chao dome with its pyroclastic deposit (PD) and lava dome stages (I, II, and III) (Google earth™ image). e) La Espinilla maar-dome and Del Indio dome (DI). f) Tilocálar Norte lava flow. g) Ajata lava flows. h) Cerro Tujle maar. i) Alitar maar, fumaroles occur in white areas (Alitar stratovolcano in the background). j) Luna de Tierra tuff cone (Ollagüe stratovolcano in the background).
\nDomes\n (Figure 5c) of northern Chile are characterized by a pile up of lava in large thicknesses over their vents. They are often referred to as tortas (pies or pancakes) (e.g., La Torta de Tocorpuri), controlled by the slope angle of the pre-eruptive surface, viscosity, effusion rate, phenocryst contents, and in some cases, related to early pyroclastic density currents (e.g., Chao). Overall, domes (Figure 5d) show coulee (e.g., Chao), lobate (e.g., Chascón), platy (e.g., Pabellón-Apacheta), and axisymmetric (e.g., Chillahuita) landform structures. Few domes (Figure 5e) in northern Chile occur within craters (e.g., La Espinilla).
\n\nLava flows\n (Figure 5f) are mainly characterized by a jumble of irregular and coherent block of lava (up to meters), across with smooth, planar, and angular surfaces. They can be classified as ʻaʻā (e.g., El Negrillar) and blocky (e.g., Tilocálar Norte) lavas, and may display a simple (e.g., Ajata) or compound (e.g., Tilocálar Sur) landform with several features as a channel, ogive, leeve, lobe, and breakout lobe structures (Figure 5g).
\n\nMaars\n (Figure 5h) show a characteristic landform characterized by a preserved crater that cut into the pre-eruptive landscape (e.g., Tujle). The crater cavities reach from 30 m to 200 m deep; they are partially sediment filled with a crater diameter from 300 m to 3 km. Sulfur deposits (e.g., Juan de la Vega maar), fumaroles (e.g., Alitar maar), and domes (e.g., La Espinilla) are present in maar volcanoes associated with events that appear late of the maar eruptions (Figure 5e–i).
\n\nTuff cones\n (Figure 5j) in northern Chile display a horseshoe landform, a wider crater relative to basal diameter than the scoria cones, exhibiting a crater rim from a flat surface up to 10 m dominated by salt deposits. They are mainly associated with salt plains or salares (e.g. Luna de Tierra).
\nThe monogenetic volcanic centers (mafic and felsic volcanism) are characterized by the heterogeneity of volcanic products, which can be mainly classified into eight lithofacies based on field observation, componentry and sedimentological characteristics such as:
\nBombs and lapilli beds (BL): This lithofacies is mainly found both at the base and the summit of scoria cones. It is poorly sorted, reversed graded to massive and mostly clast-supported, and consists of poorly to non-agglutinated juvenile clasts (Figure 6a and b). BL lithofacies is interpreted as the result of Strombolian eruptions.
\nLapilli and ash beds (LA): This lithofacies is mainly located at the base of scoria cones. It is well sorted, normal or reversed graded to massive, with parallel or cross-lamination, and mostly clast-supported with non-agglutinated juvenile clasts (Figure 6c). This lithofacies is interpreted as the result of hydromagmatic eruptions.
\nAgglutinated to spatter bomb and lapilli beds (AS): This lithofacies is mainly found at the summit of scoria cones or pyroclastic deposits. It comprises a brittle core and fluid rim to completely fluid clasts (spatter) that agglutinate moderately forming beds (up to 5 m thick) (Figure 6d). LA lithofacies is interpreted as the result of Hawaiian to transitional eruptions.
\nWelded scoria to clastogenic lavas (CL): This lithofacies is mainly located at the summit of scoria cones and pyroclastic deposits. It is formed by scoria of lapilli and bombs size fragments highly welded (coalesced), forming dense agglutinate layers (clastogenic lava) (Figure 6e). CL lithofacies is interpreted as the result of Hawaiian to transitional eruptions.
\nLapilli and ash beds with lithic fragments (LAL): This lithofacies is mainly found both at the base and the summit of scoria cones and pyroclastic deposits. It is moderately sorted, normal or reversed graded to massive and mostly clast-supported deposits with abundant lithic fragments (>20%) locally moderate to no agglutination/welding (Figures 6f and 7a). LAL lithofacies is interpreted as the result of hydromagmatic eruptions.
\nPeperite (P): This lithofacies is located at the base of scoria cones and pyroclastic deposits, overlying the pre-eruptive surface. It is mainly a mingling of juvenile material and unconsolidated host sediment (Figure 7b). P lithofacies is interpreted as the result of magma-wet sediment/shallow water eruptions.
\nLava flow (LF): This lithofacies is found at the flank and ring plain of stratovolcanoes, both at the base and at the summit of scoria cones (from boccas) (Figure 7c and d), at the crater of other volcanic edifices (polygenetic or monogenetic), and as an isolated vent. Lava flow lithofacies is characterized by three primary vertical levels (Figures 7e and 8a-e). This lithofacies flowed, reaching length up to 11 km and piling up from low to large thicknesses (< 1 m – 400 m), and based on their morphology, it can be classified as lava flows or domes. LF lithofacies is mainly interpreted as the result of Strombolian eruptions.
\nRaft blocks (RB): This lithofacies corresponds to mounds or blocks of agglutinate to welded pyroclasts located on top of lava flows and associated with scoria cones (Figure 8f and g). The individual blocks are the result of the cone rafting (RB lithofacie), which initially were the product of Strombolian style eruptions.
Field photographs of lithofacies of the monogenetic volcanoes in northern Chile. a) Lithofacies BL from Poruñita scoria cone. b) Lithofacies BL from La Poruña scoria cone. c) Lithofacies LA from Negros de Aras scoria cones. d) Lithofacies AS from Ajata scoria cone. e) Lithofacies CL from Tilocálar Sur pyroclastic deposit. f) Lithofacies LAL from Cerro Overo maar.
Field photographs of lithofacies of the monogenetic volcanoes in northern Chile. a) Lithofacies LAL showing a juvenile fragment with cauliflower-shaped from Cerro Overo maar. b) Lithofacies P showing a mingling of juvenile material and unconsolidated host sediment from Tilocálar Sur pyroclastic deposit. c) La Poruña lava flow and scoria cone. d) Lithofacies LD showing the boccas of the Ajata scoria cone with levee structures of the Ajata 3 lava flow. e) Lithofacies LD showing the primary three principal levels of this lithofacies (top auto-breccia, core, and basal auto-breccia) from El País lava flow field.
Field photographs of lithofacies of the monogenetic volcanoes in northern Chile. a) South dome (Guallatiri volcano area) showing the three primary levels of this lithofacies. Red areas indicate foliated lava sequences that are described in Watts et al. [23] in ref.s therein. b) El Ingenio (also called La Celosa) felsic dome (Ollagüe volcano area) exhibiting a torta type morphology. c-d) mafic enclaves from El Ingenio dome and south dome, respectively. e) Flow structures of El Mani dome. f) Scoria cone from Negros de Aras showing a horseshoe morphology associated with lava flow and with agglutinated material deposited on the summit crater. g) Lithofacies RB of unconsolidated and agglutinated pyroclastic material located at the distal part of the lava flow of \nFigure 8f\n from Negros de Aras.
The spectrum of architecture and lithofacies of volcanic structures involve several interactions between internal and external processes. It is affected by the continuous degassing and interactions of the magma with the environment at different levels en-route during its ascent from the source to the surface, resulting in a volcanic eruption that can be explosive or effusive [55]. In many cases, the outcrops of monogenetic volcanic centers are covered by some debris flank due to desert physical weathering and mass movements or covered by eolian deposits. Nevertheless, integrating the different lithofacies identified and the cross-sections from different edifices are possible to build the history of the eruptive style involved in the formation of the monogenetic volcanoes of northern Chile.
\nIn general, scoria cones are composed of the lithofacies that indicate a rapid and continuous evolution from the Strombolian eruption style (lithofacies BL) to Hawaiian and Transitional styles (lithofacies AS and CL). This transition is characterized from the base to the upper levels by poorly sorted, reversed graded to massive and mostly clast-supported deposits, which consist of poorly to non-agglutinated juvenile clasts, to the summit by clastogenic lavas and welded agglutinated bomb (e.g., Ajata, La Poruña, Del Inca, Negros de Aras scoria cones). In addition, magmatic effusive stages are associated with the lithofacies LF (lava flow) and RB (raft blocks). They are represented by lava flows at the base or the summit of the scoria cones (e.g., Ajata, La Poruña, Del Inca, Negros de Aras scoria cones), and mounts from the volcanic edifice of scoria cones at the lava flows (e.g., Negros de Aras), respectively. That means scoria cones show a range of magmatic activity from explosive to effusive styles (Figure 9).
\na) Schematic drawing of monogenetic volcanic landforms of northern Chile, showing the conceptual link between monogenetic and polygenetic volcanoes and their relationship with their environmental setting. The numbers indicate the volcanic landforms detailed in the diagram of the theoretical link/transition between eruptive styles, eruption phases, and volcanic landforms for monogenetic volcanoes of northern Chile. Examples of Chilean volcanoes in each case. b) Cerro Overo maar. c) Scoria cone from Negros de Aras with a crater associated with a phreatomagmatic eruptive phase. d) Tilocálar Sur maar.
Nevertheless, in some cases (e.g., Negros de Aras scoria cones), hydrovolcanic records may be identified either at the summit or at the bases of the scoria cones (Figure 9). This corresponds to the lithofacies LAL (lapilli and ash beds with lithic fragments) and LA (Lapilli and ash beds), which suggest magma-water interactions during the initial (e.g., Poruñita scoria cone) or later phases (e.g., Negros de Aras scoria cones), where shallow water levels are available. This characteristic is also recognized at the base in some pyroclastic deposits (e.g., Tilocálar Sur), where fluidal and jigsaw-fit textures are locally preserved (lithofacies P) (Figure 7b).
\nOn the other hand, lava flows and lava domes are characterized by the lithofacies LF (lava flow), suggesting a magmatic effusive nature with different morphological features (Figure 9). The main differences between lava flows (e.g., El País lava flow field; Figure 7e) and lava domes (e.g., Tinto dome; Figure 8a) are the changes in the viscosity, volatile content, and magma ascent rate [55]. These features control the magma degassing during their ascent from the source to the surface, and therefore, the fragmentation processes [56]. Despite these differences, deposits that are inferred to represent explosive phases have been found at the base of the lava domes (e.g., Chao dome), which corresponds to the initial stages of pyroclastic deposits characterized by bombs and lapilli beds (lithofacies BL).
\nMaars (e.g., Cerro Overo) and tuff cones (e.g., Luna de Tierra) are characterized by LAL (lapilli and ash beds with lithic fragments) and LA (Lapilli and ash beds) lithofacies, which are associated with hydromagmatic eruptions, suggesting magma-water interactions. These phreatomagmatic and Surtseyan eruptions may be associated with external factors that trigger the magma-water interaction at different degrees of ratio and different depths of magma-water interaction [57]. The maars are mainly associated with areas characterized by i) folded ignimbrite basement (e.g., Tilomonte ridge for Tilocálar Sur maar, Cerro Tujle ridge for Cerro Tujle maar or Altos del Toro Blanco ridge for Cerro Overo maar), ii) groundwater aquifers (e.g., Monturaqui-Tilopozo-Negrillar aquifer for Tilocálar Sur maar), and iii) salt flats or lagoons as discharge zones (e.g., Salar de Atacama for Cerro Tujle maar or Laguna Lejía for Cerro Overo maar) (Figure 9). In contrast, tuff cones are located at low topographic positions filled with poorly consolidated sediments as salt flats (e.g., Salar de Carcote for Luna de Tierra) or caldera basins (e.g., La Pacana caldera for Corral de Coquena), where the resulting tephra came from phreatomagmatic eruptions through shallow surface water [58] (Figure 9).
\nOverall, the architecture spectrum and the volcanic lithofacies of the monogenetic centers of northern Chile (Figure 9) are similar to those reported for the northern Puna region (Argentina) by Maro and Caffe [59] and Maro et al. [60]. This suggests a wide range of eruptive styles involved in the eruption history of this small-volume volcanism, and in some cases, large volume as well. Nevertheless, in northern Chile, this range of eruptive styles is characterized by effusive (e.g., Ajata lava flows or Tinto dome) and/or explosive magmatic (e.g., Tilocálar Sur or Chao dome) activities dominated by Strombolian to Hawaiian/Transitional styles (e.g., La Poruña scoria cone), and hydromagmatic activities, as phreatomagmatic (e.g., Cerro Overo maar) or Surtseyan (e.g., Luna de Tierra tuff cone) styles, which were often simultaneous or alternating during the growth of the monogenetic volcanoes in northern Chile (Figure 9).
\nPetrographically, products from scoria cones, lava flows, maars, and tuff cones comprise mainly aphyric rocks (e.g., SC2). On the other hand, domes can be variable from aphyric (e.g., La Albondiga) to porphyritic rocks, which in some cases show mafic enclaves (e.g., Tinto dome). Overall, samples are characterized by hypocrystalline, hypidiomorphic, and hyalopilitic textures, where aphyric rocks show 40–50% vol. microphenocryst and microlite content, whereas porphyritic rocks exhibit 20–50% vol. phenocryst. The main mineral assemblage corresponds to euhedral to subhedral clinopyroxene (15% vol.; max 1.15 mm) and plagioclase (25–40% vol.; max 7 mm) with subordinated olivine (5% vol.; max 0.9 mm) and Fe–Ti oxide phases (1% vol.; max 0.2 mm). Nevertheless, in some cases, orthopyroxene (3% vol.; max 0.4 mm) and hydrous minerals, such as amphibole (Figure 10a), biotite, or sideromelane (10% vol; max 5 mm) can also be found. The main textures correspond to fluidal, reabsorption, and disequilibrium textures, such as mingling (Figure 10b), skeletal (Figure 10c), and resorbed edges rimmed by a network of clinopyroxenes (Figure 10d), sieve texture, and zoned rims (Figure 10e). The groundmass (50–80% vol.) is glassy with a microlites of plagioclase > clinopyroxene > olivine > amphibole/biotite > orthopyroxene, and opaque phases, where tabular-shaped microlites display flow structures (Figure 10f). In general, the mafic inclusions commonly are fine-grained and microvesiculated and range from 2 to 20 cm in size (Figure 10g). They exhibit crystal assemblages of plagioclase, pyroxene, amphibole, biotite, olivine, and quartz. The groundmass shows mainly plagioclase > pyroxene > amphibole and rare biotite and Fe-Ti oxides, with acicular phases and diktytaxitic texture (vesicles with plagioclase around cavity; Figure 10h).
\nPhotomicrographs and micro-vesiculated photos are showing typical petrographic textures of monogenetic volcanoes products from northern Chile. Thin sections under cross-polarized- (a, c-h) and plane-parallel- (b) light. a) Amphibole breakdown/reaction rim with skeletal and sieve textures from Cerro Tujle maar. b) Mafic and felsic bands are showing mingling texture from El Maní dome. c) Olivine phenocryst showing skeletal growth from SC2 scoria cone. d) Quartz xenocryst resorbed and rimmed mainly by clinopyroxenes from Tilocálar Sur lava flow. e) Plagioclase with sieve and reabsorption textures and showing zoned rim from Luna de Tierra tuff cone. f) Fluidal texture showing olivines with absorption and skeletal growth textures from Cerro Overo maar. g) Silicic product from El Ingenio dome. h) the diktytaxitic-like texture of the groundmass of the enclave from El Ingenio dome. Mineral abbreviations are amphibole (amp), plagioclase (Pl), Clinopyroxene (Cpx), olivine (Ol), quartz (Qz), K-feldspar (Fsp), Biotite (Bt), opaque mineral (Opq).
In general, products of monogenetic centers in northern Chile contain two or three plagioclase populations. The first one is characterized by defined edges and no resorption features (Figure 10e). The second population of plagioclase show inner zones with sieve texture overgrown by euhedral rims of plagioclase, and plagioclase that is thoroughly sieved (Figure 10e). The last population of plagioclase exhibits oscillatory zoning and, in some cases, coarse-sieve texture and smooth edges. The mineral assemblage consists of plagioclase, olivine, orthopyroxene, and clinopyroxene, in order of decreasing abundances, with amphibole and opaque mineral (e.g., magnetite and ilmenite) as minor phases for mafic products, and plagioclase, amphibole, biotite, quartz, K-feldspar, pyroxene, titanite and opaque mineral (e.g., magnetite and ilmenite), in order of decreasing abundances, with apatite and zircon as accessory phases for felsic products. For mafic products, olivines are present in samples showing reabsorption features characterized by different types of skeletal crystal morphologies (Figure 10f). Pyroxene is commonly recognized as individual crystal, and as reaction rims on olivine crystals or glomerocrystals. Quartz xenocrysts are also identified and are resorbed and rimmed by a network of mafic microlites (e.g., clinopyroxene) (Figure 10d). For felsic products, quartz crystals have rounded edges; amphibole and biotite show euhedral to subhedral habits affected by the intense breakdown (Figure 10g). Overall, the groundmass is very finely crystalline, with microlites of plagioclase, ortho- and clinopyroxene, olivine, amphibole, and opaque minerals with interstitial glass (Figure 10).
\nThese characteristics correspond to disequilibrium textures, giving evidence of magma mixing, heating of the reservoirs where the crystals are located or assimilation of crustal rocks, fast ascent, cooling, and decompression (e.g. [61]). The mixing processes correspond to mechanical mixing processes or mingling [62], which occur when mafic magma had insufficient interaction time with the felsic magma to generate a chemical mixing [62]. This process occurs at around 0.1–10 km depth [63], developed in different degrees, being evidenced by mafic enclaves (e.g., Tinto dome) and alternating mafic and felsic bands (e.g., El Maní dome) with flow structures [64]. Assimilation and fractional crystallization can be interpreted by the role of amphibole fractionation and plagioclase crystallization, respectively [29]. Whereas, all rims on amphibole and biotite phenocrysts suggest a fast magma ascent as a consequence of decompression [65].
\nGeochemically, based on the total alkali-silica diagram (after [66]), mafic monogenetic volcanism in northern Chile range mainly from basaltic andesite to dacitic in composition, which corresponds to scoria cones, lava flows, domes, maars, and tuff cones (Figure 11a). On the other hand, felsic products range from dacitic to rhyolitic composition, which corresponds to domes (Figure 11a). All the samples have calc-alkaline composition (not shown; after [67]), whilst mafic and felsic samples are mainly in the medium-K and high-K fields, respectively (not shown; after [68]). Based on geochemical compositional variations (Sr/Y, Sm/Yb, Dy/Yb, and La/Sm ratio contents), monogenetic products can be divided into two types (Figure 11b-d). A group with high contents of Sr./Y, Sm/Yb, Dy/Yb, and La/Sm ratio shows deep assimilation under high pressures and thick crust assimilation garnet signature [69]. The second group has low Sr./Y, Sm/Yb, Dy/Yb, and La/Sm ratios, and displays shallow assimilation with amphibole and clinopyroxene fractionation [70].
\na) Total alkalis–silica diagram (after [66]). b) SiO2 vs. Sr./Y diagram. c) SiO2 vs. La/Sm diagram. d) SiO2 vs. Dy/Yb diagram. The segmented lines correspond to the two group areas described in the text. e-f) comparison of whole-rock 87Sr/86Sr and 143Nd/144Nd ratios of monogenetic volcanoes with elevation (continuous line) and crustal thickness (dashed line), respectively. Arc front means elevation and crustal thickness profiles taken from Scott et al. [85]. SC: Scoria cone; LF: Lava flow; D: Dome; E: Enclave; M: Maar. g) 87Sr/86Sr vs. 143Nd/144Nd diagram; EMI (enriched mantle I) green area from Lucassen et al. [84] and references therein; the gray area from Scott et al. [85] and orange area from Franz et al. [86]. h) 87Sr/86Sr vs. SiO2 diagram. Arrows of differentiation trends (with relative mineral contribution) after Mamani et al. [69] and Delacour et al. [87]. Grt: Garnet; Cpx: Clinopyroxene; amp: Amphibole; Pl: Plagioclase; AFC: Assimilation fractional crystallization; FC: Fractional crystallization; ATA: Assimilation during turbulent magma ascent.
Eruptive products of monogenetic volcanoes of northern Chile show values between 0.705–0.708 for 87Sr/86Sr, and 0.5122–0.5126 for 143Nd/144Nd (Figure 11e-g). These values are higher than expected for magmas derived from the asthenospheric mantle, and relatively restricted compared to isotopic data of stratovolcanoes from the CVZ (Figure 11e). Overall, less differentiated products show 87Sr/86Sr values lower (< 0.707) than more differentiated products (> 0.707) (Figure 11e,f). The 87Sr/86Sr vs. SiO2 diagram shows that assimilation and fractional crystallization (AFC) occur at different degrees and levels during the magmatic ascent from the source to the surface (Figure 11h). Fractional crystallization processes characterize these products, with a low degree of contamination and increasing HREE depletion (e.g., Dy, Yb, or Y), which suggest residual garnet of mantle melting enhanced by lithospheric delamination [71]. Nevertheless, a group of samples of mafic lava flows and scoria cones displays a reverse isotopic behavior of decreasing 87Sr/86Sr ratio values with the increasing of the SiO2 (Figure 11h). This trend cannot be explicated by mixing processes where is an increase of LILE content compared with HFSE or by AFC processes that expect an enrichment of 87Sr/86Sr ratio values during the differentiation [72]. In this context, assimilation during turbulent ascent process has been proposed (ATA; [73, 74]). This ATA process generates a selective fusion and assimilation of felsic crust, enriching of LILE (e.g., Sr or Rb; Figure 11b) compared with HFSE (e.g., Y or La; Figure 11b,c), and an enrichment of radiogenic strontium (Figure 11e, f, and h) like the more evolved silicic products over a relatively short time [73, 75].
\nOn the other hand, the felsic products can be explained by the presence of a magma reservoir located in the middle-shallow crust (e.g., polybaric crystallization using the amphibole thermobarometer; [76, 77]). Two feeding reservoir systems have been identified for silicic magmas at ~4–8 km depth (~740–840°C) and at ~15–20 km (~940–1000°C) depth, respectively [76, 77]. In addition, melting-assimilation-storage-homogenization (MASH; [72]) zones have been interpreted and identified by petrological and seismic tomographic studies at ~15–40 km depth such as Altiplano-Puna Magma Body (APMB), Lazufre Magma Body (LMB) or Incahuasi Magma Body (IMB) [78, 79, 80]. These magmatic reservoirs are associated with a magmatic flare-up and magmatic steady-stage during the formation of the large ignimbrite deposits and growth of stratovolcanoes in northern Chile [81, 82]. This suggests that after these magmatic phases (flare-up and steady stage), the formation of shallow magmatic reservoirs (at 4–8 km depth) could have been formed as remnants of these eruptions. These would have been fed by a magmatic system of super-eruption scale (e.g., APMB, LMB, or IMB) of dacitic magmas and by new magma batches of less-evolved magmas [29, 83], triggering silicic eruptions of large volume with mafic inclusions as enclaves.
\nTherefore, based on the geochemical and isotopic compositional variations, the monogenetic volcanic products of northern Chile are characterized by two groups of magmas. One of them presents a magma evolution dominated by a high-pressure garnet source at deepest crust levels [87, 88] (Figure 12) characterized by different magmatic processes as FC, AFC, and ATA (Figure 12). The second group of magmas presents a magma evolution dominated by low-pressure garnet-free source middle-upper crust level to shallow crustal levels. This group of magmas is characterized by crystallizing of amphibole during the magma ascent (e.g. [29, 83]), and by AFC magmatic processes with different mixing degree (Figure 12).
\nConceptual model diagram of the magmatic system for monogenetic volcanoes in northern Chile. This model relates mantle-derived magmas with felsic upper crustal partially molted levels of magma storages such as shallow pre-eruptive reservoirs and large magmatic bodies (e.g., Altiplano-Puna Magma body). Processes during the magma ascent from source to the surface, such as MASH (melting-assimilation-storage-homogenization), mixing, AFC (assimilation fractional crystallization), ATA (assimilation during turbulent magma ascent) or magma-water interaction (phreatomagmatism). Distribution of these zones is constrained by stratigraphic [30, 31, 32], petrologic and thermobarometric [26, 75, 83, 88, 89], and geophysical [78, 79, 80] data. Partial melting and assimilation of lithospheric mantle by delaminated material at the base of the lithosphere model were taken from [71].
Monogenetic volcanism in northern Chile (18–28° Lat. S) is represented by 907 centers characterized by small (e.g., SC2 scoria cone) and large-volume (e.g., La Torta de Tocorpuri dome) volcanic structures. It exhibits a wide range of composition, from basaltic andesite (e.g., Cerro Overo) to rhyolite (e.g., Corral de Coquena) and a wide spectrum of volcanic landform, lithofacies, and hydromagmatic and magmatic eruptive styles (with the transition from explosive to effusive, and vice versa).
\nAmong these eruptive styles, the most abundant activity corresponds to effusive and Strombolian eruptions. In contrast, the fewer frequency activities are the phreatomagmatic and Surtseyan eruptions (Figure 3), which is concordant with an arid climate in northern Chile from the Miocene [41, 90]. This could be related to the degree of glaciation because when everything is too cold and frozen, not a lot of water can infiltrate to become groundwater. At the same time, in warmer periods, meltwater can form lakes or flow toward basins from the peaks.
\nAlthough the numbers of monogenetic volcanoes represented in this contribution are limited by the exposure, and more features could be hidden by Neogene sedimentary and volcanic cover. Monogenetic volcanoes were mainly emplaced during Pleistocene and Miocene, generating scoria cones, domes, lava flows, maars, and tuff cones, in order to decrease. The relative abundance of volcanic features is, in part, limited by the amount of time for eruptions, where the spike in the Pleistocene is prominent, for being a short time period (~2 Ma). While the preservation of Miocene features is also notable in that they are still accessible favored by the arid climate in northern Chile from the Miocene.
\nSpatially, monogenetic volcanoes are mainly associated with NW-striking lineaments or with the intersections of NW-striking lineaments, NNW-to-NNE-striking faults, and WNW-striking lineaments, in decreasing order. Although the main tectonic setting in northern Chile corresponds to the compressional environment, tectonic phases of Quaternary crustal relaxation (neutral to extensional stresses) could have favored the rising of magmas in small batches up from the source (deep or shallow) to the surface.
\nA general eruptive model for monogenetic volcanoes in northern Chile is proposed in this work, where the external (e.g., magma reservoirs or groundwater availability) and internal (e.g., magma ascent rate or interaction en-route to the surface) conditions determine the changes in eruptive style, lithofacies, and magmatic processes involved in the formation of monogenetic volcanoes. Especially during explosive volcanic eruptions, which involve interaction with water, the resulting volcanic lithofacies and architecture will be diverse, reflecting the potential hazards that future eruptions could generate. The understanding of the tectonic and hydrologic setting of the region using traditional geophysics and volcanology surveys should play an essential role in volcanic monitoring, particularly in localities of the Altiplano (e.g., Ollagüe and Talabre village) located nearby active stratovolcanoes presenting permanent fumarolic activity (e.g., Guallatiri, Ollagüe or Lascar stratovolcanoes). This is especially important if such monogenetic volcanoes are surrounded by water-saturated high altitude sedimentary basins, such as salt flats (e.g., Salar de Carcote, Lejía, or Chungara lakes), where even a small-volume of any type of magma ascent could erupt in complex volcanic eruptions in northern Chile.
\nMethods and databases (Table A.1. Monogenetic volcanoes location database; Table A.2. Geochronological database; Table A.3. Geochemical database; Figure A.1. Structural styles of monogenetic volcanoes in northern Chile; Figure A.2. Tectonic structures and lineaments database).
The authors wish to thank the Collaborative Research Center 1211–Earth Evolution at the Dry Limit and Dr. Eduardo Campos for providing the vehicle used during fieldwork. The authors would also like to thank all members of the Núcleo de Investigación en Riesgo Volcánico - Ckelar Volcanes team for fruitful discussions and support during fieldwork. The authors highly appreciate the time and effort of Dr. Alison Graettinger for her comments to improve this contribution.
\nThere are no conflicts of interest.
This research is part of G.U. Ph.D. thesis, which is funded by CONICYT-PCHA Doctorado Nacional 2016–21161286 fellowship and supported by the Universidad Católica del Norte. This study is emerged and funded by CONICYT-PAI MEC 2017–80170048 (titled “Fortalecimiento del área de volcanismo en el Departamento de Ciencias Geológicas”), and the Antofagasta Regional Government, FIC-R project, code BIP Nº30488832-0 (titled “Mitigación del riesgo asociado a procesos volcánicos en la Región de Antofagasta”); based on the Memorandum of Understanding of Research Cooperation between Universidad Católica del Norte and Massey University.
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