Examples of different chemotypes.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
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For a long time, essential oils were well-known for their therapeutic importance. They were used as perfumes and flavors for foods and beverages or to heal both the body and mind for many years [1, 2, 3, 4]. They were used in ancient civilizations as Chinese, Indian, and ancient Egyptian and show their uses in many treatments in different forms. The ancient Chinese were the first culture to use aromatherapy in folk medicine, and then the ancient Egyptians created undeveloped distillation machine that is used for the crude extraction. Greece learned a large deal from the ancient Egyptians, and they also learned the therapeutic and aromatic advantages of the aromatic plants [5, 6, 7, 8].
\nVolatile oils consist of very small aromatic molecules that are easily absorbed through the skin and respiratory system. These medicinal compounds next enter the bloodstream and then spread all over the whole body where they can create their useful curing powers. As they are too concentrated, even a small amount of volatile oil is effective. Nowadays aromatherapy is one of the most popular complementary therapies, offering a highly effective treatment to both the acute and chronic diseases. In addition, the continuous use of aromatherapy and home-use products helps our immune system [9].
\nVolatile oils are aromatic compounds which occur only in 10% of the plant kingdom and are stored in plants in specific secretory cells such as glands, hairs, ducts, cavities, or resin ducts [10, 11, 12, 13]. Essential oils are hydrophobic in nature; they can be dissolved by polar solvent like alcohols and nonpolar solvents, waxes, and oils. Most of them are pale yellow or with no color with the exception of the blue volatile oil of Matricaria chamomilla L., and most are liquid and of low density than water except the essential oil of Cinnamomum verum Blume. and Syzygium aromaticum L. [14, 15].
\nVolatile oils are easily oxidizable by light, heat, and air due to the presence of olefenic double bonds and functional groups such as hydroxyl, aldehyde, and ester [16, 17].
\nThe oils contained within the plant cells are liberated through heat and compression from different organs of the plant, for example, the leaves, flowers, fruit, bark, and gums. The extraction of the oils from different plant organs is achieved by different methods, such as hydro-distillation, which is the most common method of extraction [18, 19]. Essential oils are composed of a mixture of volatile components and consist of about 20–60 individual compounds, and some may contain more than 100 components as jasmine, lemon, and cinnamon volatile oils [20, 21, 22, 23].
\nThe fragrance and chemical composition of the oils can vary according to different factors as the geo-climatic location and growing conditions (soil type, climate, altitude, and amount of water available), season, and time of day when harvesting is done. Therefore, these factors influence the biochemical synthesis of the oils in a plant, so that the same species of the plant make the same volatile oil but maybe of different chemical compounds, which will affect their therapeutic activities. These different chemical compositions led to different chemotypes. Chemotype is in general a different population of the same species of plant which produces many chemical profiles for a particular class of secondary metabolites. Examples of some chemotypes are shown in Table 1 [24, 25, 26, 27].
\nPlant name | \nChemotype 1 | \nChemotype 2 | \nChemotype 3 | \n
---|---|---|---|
Thyme (Thymus vulgaris L.) | \nThymol | \nThujanol | \nLinalool | \n
Peppermint (Mentha piperita L.) | \nMenthol | \nCarvone | \nLimonene | \n
Rosemary (Rosmarinus officinalis L.) | \n1,8 Camphor | \nCineole | \nVerbenone | \n
Dill (Anethum graveolens L.) | \nCarvone | \nLimonene | \nPhellandrene | \n
Lavender (Lavandula angustifolia Mill.) | \nLinalool | \nLinalyl acetate | \nβ-Caryophyllene | \n
Examples of different chemotypes.
Although only 100 species are widely known for their volatile oils, there are over 2000 plant species widespread over 60 families such as Lamiaceae, which is also called the mint family. It is one of most important plant families in the plant kingdom. This family is rich in essential oils, especially menthol thyme, Rosemary, and Oregano. Apiaceae or Umbelliferae is a family of mostly aromatic
Class of compounds | \nExample | \nBioactivities | \nReferences | \n
---|---|---|---|
Ketones | \nCarvone, menthone, pulegone, fenchone, camphor | \nMucolytic, cell regenerating, sedative, antiviral, neurotoxic, analgesic, spasmolytic | \n[38, 39, 40] | \n
Aldehydes | \nCitral, myrtenal, cuminaldehyde, citronellal, cinnamaldehyde, benzaldehyde | \nAntiviral, antimicrobial, tonic, vasodilators, hypotensive, calming, antipyretic, sedative | \n[26, 41] | \n
Phenols | \nThymol, eugenol, carvacrol, chavicol | \nAntimicrobial, spasmolytic, immune stimulating | \n[26, 40] | \n
Alcohols | \nLinalool, menthol, borneol, santalol, nerol, citronellol, geraniol | \nAntimicrobial, antiseptic, tonifying, spasmolytic | \n[26, 40] | \n
Lactones | \nNepetalactone, bergaptene | \nAntimicrobial antiviral, antipyretic, sedative, hypotensive, analgesic | \n[26, 40] | \n
Hydrocarbons | \nLimonene, myrcene, pinene, sabinene, cymene, myrcene, phellandrene | \nStimulant, antiviral, antitumor, decongestant, antibacterial, hepatoprotective | \n[26, 40] | \n
Esters | \nLinalyl acetate, geraniol acetate, eugenol acetate, bornyl acetate | \nSpasmolytic, sedative, antifungal, anti-inflammatory | \n[26, 40] | \n
Oxides | \nBisabolone oxide, linalool oxide, sclareol oxide | \nAnti-inflammatory, expectorant, stimulant | \n[26, 40] | \n
Different classes of volatile oils and their biological activities.
Different classes of volatile oil.
Different classes of volatile oil.
Many plant essential oils are used as medicine for hundreds of years and have demonstrated several health benefits, including effects on infectious, chronic, and acute diseases. The medical preparations made with plant essential oils as well as their single constituents applied in the therapy of human infectious diseases are well documented. However, the selection of suitable safe oil and the determination of the best efficient dose should be taken into consideration to avoid any side effects when they are applied [41]. The action of volatile oils begins by entering the human body through three possible ways including direct absorption through inhalation, ingestion, or diffusion through the skin tissue.
\nVolatile oil components are lipid soluble, so they have the ability to penetrate the membranes of the skin before being captured by the micro-circulation and drained into the systemic circulation, reaching all target organs [42, 43]. An example of this are the inflammatory disorders which are associated with pain, redness, and swelling, leading to loss of vital functions. Tea tree oil has been shown to increase monocytic differentiation in vitro and reduce inflammation, therefore assisting the healing of chronic wounds [44].
\nVolatile oils enter the body through the respiratory system. Due to their volatile ability, they can be inhaled easily through the upper respiratory tract and enter the lungs, by which it can be spread to the blood stream. In general, the respiratory tract is considered to be the most easiest way of entry, followed by the dermal pathway [45]. Inhalation of essential oils has given rise to olfactory aromatherapy, where simple inhalation has resulted in enhanced emotional wellness, calmness, relaxation, or rejuvenation of the human body. The release of stress is welded with pleasurable scents which unlock odor memories. Essential oils are complemented to medical treatment and can never be taken as a replacement for it [46, 47, 48].
\nOral ingestion of essential oils needs to be done carefully due to the possible toxicity of some oils. Ingested volatile oil compounds and/or their metabolites may then be absorbed and delivered to the rest of the body and then distributed to different organs. Once volatile oil are entered in to the body, they create their therapeutic effect through physiological functions (Table 3). For example, Roman chamomile is extensively used to relieve pain from physical conditions, menstrual cramps, and tension with its application on the lower abdomen [49, 50, 51, 52].
\nNo. | \nName | \nActive compounds | \nRef. | \nBiological activities | \nRef. | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|
1. | \nChamomile essential oil (Matricaria chamomilla L.) | \nBisabolol and chamazulene | \n[53, 54] | \nAnti-inflammatory Anti-allergic Anti-pruritic Decongestive Antispasmodic | \n[55, 56, 57] | \n
2. | \nAnise essential oil (Pimpinella anisum L.) | \nAnethole | \n[58] | \nAntispasmodic 2-Emmenagogue Stomachic Carminative Diuretic | \n[59, 60] | \n
3. | \nNutmeg essential oil (Myristica fragrans Houtt.) | \nSabinene, 4-terpineol, myristicin | \n[61] | \nAntimicrobial Pesticidal activity General tonic Antioxidant | \n[62, 63] | \n
4. | \nCedar essential oil (Cedrus libani (A. Rich.)) | \nLimonene | \n[64] | \nLarvicidal Lymphotonic Powerful diuretic Regenerative blood Astringent Scalp tonic Antifungal | \n[65, 66] | \n
5. | \nGarlic essential oil (Allium sativum L.) | \nDiallyl disulfide | \n[67, 68] | \nProtects and maintains the cardiovascular system Hypoglycemic Regulates blood pressure Antimicrobial | \n[67, 69, 70] | \n
6. | \nClove essential oil (Syzygium aromaticus L.) | \nEugenol, eugenyl acetate | \n[71, 72] | \nAntiviral Antimicrobial Antifungal Aphrodisiac | \n[73, 74] | \n
7. | \nCinnamon essential oil (Cinnamomum cassia (Blume)) | \nCinnamaldehyde | \n[75, 76] | \nPowerful antibacterial Antiviral Antifungal | \n[77, 78] | \n
8. | \nEucalyptus essential oil (Eucalyptus globulus Labill.) | \n1,8-Cineole | \n[79, 80] | \nAnticatarrhal Expectorant and mucolytic Antimicrobial and antiviral | \n[81, 82] | \n
9. | \nPeppermint essential oil (Mentha piperita L.)\n | \nMenthol and menthone | \n[83, 84] | \nTonic and stimulant Decongestant Anesthetic and analgesic Antipruritic Expectorant | \n[85, 86] | \n
10. | \nLavender essential oil (Lavandula officinalis Chaix) | \nLinalool and linalyl acetate | \n[87, 88] | \nAntispasmodic Sedative Relaxing Analgesic and anti-inflammatory | \n[89, 90] | \n
11. | \nTea tree essential oil (Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel) | \nTerpinene-1-ol-4 | \n[91] | \nAntimicrobial Antiviral Antiasthenic Neurotonic Decongestant Radioprotective | \n[92, 93, 94] | \n
12. | \nLemon essential oil (Citrus limonum) (L.) Osbeck | \nLimonene | \n[95, 96] | \nStrengthen natural immunity Tonic nervous system Antimicrobial and antiviral | \n[97, 98, 99] | \n
Therapeutic properties of some essential oils.
There is a significant and growing interest to find safe and effective methods of treatment. Aromatherapy is one of the most usable methods across the world. It has gained popularity due to its safety, easy accessibility, and effective effects. From previous data we can notice that essential oils have a lot of pharmacological effects and can help in the treatment of many diseases.
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