Initial level of classification.
\r\n\tThis volume presents the multifaceted aspects and should allow readers at all levels an entry into the exiting world of Chlamydomonas research.
\r\n\t
This chapter aims to meet one of the most demanding and complex challenges of the current educational system: the educational response to diversity in the various educational contexts. Based on their research work, increasingly connected with the social demand and reality, university lecturers are opening lines of research, which deal with these issues. In that sense, our proposal consists in the implementation of new learning environments through immersive virtual reality (VR), from an interdisciplinary (technological and pedagogical) work oriented to face diversity, associated with disability, of students with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs) in this case, and seeking to achieve the following overall aim:
\nTo design learning environments for the purpose of recreating school situations by means of immersive virtual reality and assessing the improvements brought by immersive virtual learning environments with regard to the difficulties posed by the participating students.
\nAfter an initial section dedicated to reviewing the literature and all the research works on virtual technologies, the second section provides a description of the most important tools used to design immersive virtual environments as well as the structure of the software developed. An analysis is subsequently performed about the contributions, which can be used for the intervention with students who have deficits in communication skills from immersive virtual reality—as opposed to the desktop one. The third section lists the innovations and works carried out by authors based on the utilisation of the aforementioned technological tool. In addition, the present work will finish with a number of proposals for improvement meant to ensure further progress in this area from the results obtained and their educational implications, along with the bibliographic references used.
\nVirtual reality (VR) has been used to plan, practise and implement behaviours and to observe the responses within a computer-generated virtual context. These systems offer a three-dimensional representation of real, controlled and safe environments that can be executed in a repetitive manner
\nA number of early works [1–8] already highlighted the advantages of virtual reality as a tool to create predictable learning environments. Other subsequent and more recent works [9–24] have verified the advantages of virtual reality as a support and help tool for students with deficits in communication, social and emotional skills, and more precisely for students diagnosed with autism spectrum disorders (ASDs).
\nAn aim is consequently set at this stage to undertake a review of all the research carried out on virtual technologies and the advantages that they bring to students with communication difficulties. Szatmari et al. [25] already started in their first research studies that the utilisation of virtual reality with ASD students made it possible to obtain great academic achievements in a relatively independent way. Along the same lines, aspects characterising VR such as the design of a strictly controlled environment and a highly individualised intervention are the advantages considered by [26] for its use with students who have communication problems.
\nThis review helps to confirm the increased possibilities of this virtual tool, which can be used to teach ASD children to improve their understanding of other people’s mental condition, authors [3, 5, 27–29] even claim that children with ASDs tend to have normal cognitive skills and do not show delays in their language. Authors [8, 30] advocate an intervention through computer-assisted learning based on presenting the information in such a way that the potential confusion and the anxiety induced by the manifold sources which characterise the real world for such students can be reduced. Research following the same approach was undertaken by Brown et al. [7], who designed a city-like virtual environment with different buildings, which the user had the chance to explore, simultaneously putting into practice the various skills of everyday life.
\nAll the research works mentioned so far, which were based on desktop virtual environments, together with others [3, 27–29] pursue the aim of teaching children with ASDs to achieve a better understanding of other people’s mental condition. This perspective serves to justify that desktop virtual environments provide the best possible method to train social skills and, as argued by Parsons et al. [31], the ability to understand other people’s behaviours, as well as the interpretation of language in the terms utilised by the speaker, can be trained by means of computer-based tasks in which it is possible to monitor the level of input stimuli received by the user, and sharing a series of characteristics with the real world through the use of sophisticated graphics and design. These types of learning can even allow the transfer of learned skills.
\nThe research carried out in the 2000s reinforced a positive response to virtual environments on the part of users, insofar as the use of avatars may provide them with the ability to predict emotions [32], as well as show that they remembered the knowledge acquired during the sessions [33]. These authors see VR as an additional tool for the utilisation and training of social skills in the classroom and perhaps for an increased use of the already existing methods and investigations.
\nAnother of the aspects characteristically associated with VR utilisation has to do with the fact that it offers a safe working environment for students with communication problems and that a need existed to achieve a generalisation of the learned skills [34]. Along these lines, Mohamed et al. [35] focus their research on the use of platforms for the design of environments. The model designed revolves around tasks to be worked on within a scenario where children had to follow with their eyes a path that the environment indicated to them and any error resulted in the system making a noise. It was possible to check that, thanks to virtual environments, children managed to improve their attention, even though the virtual model designed could not be validated.
\nThe utilisation begins with a kind of social stories in virtual environments combined with video modelling for the purpose of enhancing and developing ASD students’ conversation skills [36]. A bet is also made on a VR understood as attractive and easily administered sophisticated training packages aimed at promoting learning through different contexts [37], continuing with a proposal to make virtual environments more realistic, reproducing the great complexity represented by the human face and achieving the most complete possible reading of the user’s features [38]. These authors used the TEACCH method, which includes large quantities of visual materials, and each area was structured in such a way that it had some visual information as well as the instructions related to the beginning and the end of the task.
\nThe progress made in the research initiatives implemented shows an absence of adverse psychological responses to virtual environments by students with ASDs, exactly as it happens with typical development children [20]. Furthermore, when the environment has greater realism, children pay much more attention to the contents presented. These authors also insist on the need for animations to be adapted to children’s preferences and for virtual scenarios to be more realistic so as to interest children to a far greater extent in their contents. Their findings ultimately lead them to point out that generalisation problems appear with such environments and that, in certain situations, the user is unable to interpret the avatar’s intentions.
\nAdvances are made in the incorporation of another tool with VR, robotics in virtual environments, as an element that can improve ASD students’ social skills, thus seeking to monitor the child’s look and the social interaction distance. It became obvious that ASD students exponentially increased visual contact at the moment when the robot came closer to them, unlike what happened with the control group [39], but without forgetting that any variation whatsoever in the virtual environment generated changes in the child’s psychological and social ratios. Another line of research advocates the identification of VR as a platform for social discussion and interaction with other children, which offers the possibility of achieving improvements in the social skills of ASD students [23].
\nIt was subsequently checked in some results that what had been worked on in virtual reality could be transferred to the real world if highly structured procedural tasks with rules were used, while at the same not forgetting that these programmes had to be suited to the user’s specific characteristics and individual capabilities [40]. Other research studies [41] applied virtual reality for ASD students as a tool which can facilitate the real-time recognition of emotions (recognising the emotions of others as well as their tones of voice); the theory of the mind (recognising and responding to other people’s thoughts and wishes); and the capacity for conversation (initiation, maintenance and closing)—obtaining high scores in recognition and the theory of the mind thanks to VR utilisation.
\nLikewise, the paper by Lorenzo et al. [42] suggests a set of protocols with immersive tasks to train social skills. The results confirm that certain problems arise in their execution at first but also that a considerable improvement as well as a certain transfer of the learned skills take place as those tasks are gradually performed in the immersive environment. Recent research works, such as the one undertaken by Wallace et al. [43], have stressed the need to provide environments with greater realism, since that would allow children with ASDs to perceive the negative responses, which are sent to them by the environment, thus helping them to enhance their social skills. The current study performed by Lorenzo et al. [44] constitutes an advance with respect to what has hitherto been reviewed; it stresses the fact that the immersive virtual environments designed to work on emotional competences with ASD students have permitted a high degree of interactivity, along with a chance for the training of social roles which are represented in emotional scripts prepared like social stories. Their findings have similarly revealed medium rates for the transfer of learning from the virtual environment to real situations. Didehbani et al. [45] equally used three primary domains to work with virtual reality amongst students diagnosed with ASDs: recognitions of emotions, social attributions and attention and executive functions. The results obtained show an improvement in recognition of emotions, social attribution and the analogical reasoning of the executive functions which are largely due to the social-interaction-related advantages brought by virtual reality.
\nThis section is going to offer a review of possible software and hardware architectures used to work with students, on this specific occasion, with students who have problems regarding communication and social skills as well as executive functions, as is the case of students with ASDs.
\nA set of tasks are presented in a learning environment where children with ASDs must respond to instructions given by a computer or by a/some person/s [46]. The results obtained by these authors show that the increased level of motivation and the reduction of inappropriate behaviours, which had been observed during the instruction stage, is unfortunately not accompanied by a significant improvement in learning. Along the same lines, an interactive computer program is utilised to teach ASD students reading and communicative skills [47]. Such virtual types of learning reflect improvements in the child’s vocabulary during the training period and a high degree of motivation and interest towards the planned tasks as well.
\nOne of the first bets on immersive virtual reality can be found in the work of Szatmari et al. [25], who implemented a virtual immersive reality where children wore a helmet equipped with two video cameras in front of their eyes—and the point of view changed when the children moved. The learning tasks focused on the children’s learning to cross the street in such an immersive environment. That required a previous process of adaptation to the environment. The results show how children learned to cross the street, but a number of problems arose when the environment parameters were modified. To those advances must be added the contributions made by Strickland [4], in whose work children could use a pair of 3D vision glasses and a low-cost tracking system with their PC in the classroom. This made it possible for children to learn to know what to do in each situation and to be able to take that learning to the real world right away.
\nOther systems used were: a dialog program by means of bubbles where the user can think and talk to the main characters of various social situations [48]; virtual desktop environments aimed at allowing ASD children to have a working environment where they can learn to organise the tasks that these children must do at home after returning from school, with two modes: the ‘training’ mode, very passive and in which the child had to familiarise with the environment; and the environment and mode referred to as ‘late’, where the child carried out the activities and navigated and interacted with the 2D and 3D objects present in the environment [49].
\nContinuing with desktop virtual reality, computer games are proposed with eight problems related to social situations that the user had to solve, additionally suggesting alternative solutions [50]. Ten training sessions alternated with six test sessions were developed in the previous works. In the training sessions, the tutor explained which specific solutions corresponded to the different situations raised. The findings showed improvements in the utilisation of problem-solving techniques. Following this same approach, the paper by Cheng et al. [51] suggests using a software called KidTalk, which allowed the child to interact in very rudimentarily represented real situations where the child participated through a text chat. The results obtained are quite satisfactory, even though a recommendation was made both to broaden the sample and to extend the intervention time.
\nDesktop virtual reality thus clearly seems the most often used for interventions with these students, and another example can be found in its utilisation by Leonard et al. [52] to work on decision making: knowing what to do when the time comes to make a choice (a place which was a café or a bus). The scheme programme is complemented with some previous sessions during which the children watched a video of the real situation on which they had to work in the virtual environment. The design of a three-dimensional animated head called ‘Baldi’ additionally served as a kind of avatar, which provides a realistic and visible feeling of realistic speech through which children with ASDs could learn vocabulary [53]. It is checked that vocabulary learning takes place, its generalisation to highly structured situations being largely due to the avatar and not only to speech.
\nThe work of Pioggia et al. [54] enriches virtual environments with the insertion of a new element: the use of a robot to practise social and emotional skills. In the first part of the session, the same as in the studies performed by Leonard et al. [52], the children viewed several real situations, after which they interacted with an android and their behaviours were recorded in another room. Along the same lines, Moore et al. [55] use desktop virtual reality as a collaborative environment for the recognition of emotions. Tasks such as the recognition of what has been expressed by the avatar, the identification of the emotion suited to the context and the identification of the context according to the emotion expressed were used to that end.
\nIt also becomes obvious that the school environment reality increasingly merges into desktop virtual reality. This is illustrated by Vera et al. [56], who designed a whole school to be used with ASD students, to perform all the tasks carried out therein, taking into account their realism, interactivity and adaptability to the difficulties that these children pose. These authors express a certain degree of imaginary play when it comes to the responses given. Herrera et al. [57] subsequently added two touch screens similar to what immersive virtual reality might look like, with the aim of working on imagination and symbolism in the social situation of going to a supermarket. The programme is complemented with a number of tests meant to assess the improvements achieved after carrying out the intervention. The results show satisfactory improvements amongst students with ASDs. Taking up the work [26], interventions are performed in decision making, as exemplified by learning to cross the street, but increasing the number of users; a positive transfer of learned skills is verified [10].
\nAnother of the software programs used is the iSET desktop application, which permits to record emotions in a variety of social situations so that they can be subsequently tagged, Madsen et al. [58] along with the creation of a laboratory virtual environment where the child wears a cap with a receiver that sends the emotional information to a website; likewise, the child uses a glove which has as its aim to generate different pressures on the hand [59]. Other authors [24] resort to desktop virtual reality, reproducing a virtual class and a scene outside the classroom with the aim of training social competences: recognition and expression of feelings, non-verbal behaviours, visual contact and a suitable way to listen to others. Significant improvements become evident in the results obtained with this program.
\nThe utilisation of the FEW program based on the film Alice in Wonderland for the purpose of detecting the possible changes experienced by the character as the story progresses [60], as well as the Mind Reading system through a library of emotions [61], together with the FaceIT software, by means of which users identified the changes operated in specific facial expressions [62], complete the contributions of the desktop virtual reality oriented to the development of emotional competences in students with ASDs.
\nThe paper by Wallace et al. [20] revolved around the non-utilisation of any type of device, such as glasses or the like. Two working groups were formed: one with ASD children and the other with a control group. Users worked in three scenarios: in the first scenario, the user drove along a real road and all the other cars drove in the opposite direction, the children observed without interacting; in the second scenario, the child will act as the observer of a social situation and will have to react to it; and in the third scenario, the child will have to walk along the corridor of a school, thus being able to witness the different activities in progress. The innovative works of these authors, based on their results, and despite expressing a good connection between virtual and real images, reveal problems linked to interaction and context generalisation.
\nNevertheless, as an element of support for desktop virtual environments, Bevilacqua et al. [63] proposed in their paper the utilisation of a Webcam automatic algorithm to measure levels of disability depending on the expression of emotions. Other new aspects introduced to improve such programs focus on using avatars, the Computer Expression Recognition Toolbox (CERT) facial recognition library and the Emotion Mirror system [64], even though a number of problems appear with regard to the contextualisation of emotions, insofar as the life experiences presented in desktop virtual reality do not have the same degree of interaction and realism as immersive virtual.
\nAmongst the first bets on immersive virtual reality stands out the work of Lorenzo et al. [42], who advocate the use of immersive virtual reality incorporating a series of improvements such as the collection of data not only to evaluate students’ behaviour but also for its training and potential improvements, as well as the function of system sensors when it comes to determining if the task performed was properly developed in the virtual environment, which permits to know the extent to which social skills and executive functions have improved. This line of work initiated by the aforementioned authors was extended with the study undertaken by Matsentidou and Poullis [65], who designed a cave in immersive virtual reality by means of four HD screens, four projectors and cameras, unlike the previous authors, who used an immersive L. These authors ultimately wanted the virtual reality cave to be effectively used with ASD children, checking whether or not children were able to benefit from the application of the acquired knowledge to their real life. Unlike what happened in the previous case, the system proposed was not tested and should be implemented in non-school-related situations.
\nAmongst the most current papers dedicated to the new advances in virtual reality stands out the one by Zeng et al. [66], where immersive virtual reality serves to develop the attention of ASD students, something which had not been proposed in this type of system yet, but had actually been carried out in desktop virtual reality. As for new research initiatives, the work undertaken by Lorenzo et al. [44]—which continues along the lines of investigations already initiated with immersive reality—transfers their contributions to the training and development of tasks such as the recognition of emotions amongst students diagnosed with ASDs. These authors prepared social scripts as well as situations in the style of social stories that these students had to identify and solve in immersive learning environments.
\nAnother of the contributions to immersive virtual reality has recently been made by Newbutt et al. [67] with the aim of simplifying the installations utilised in the classical immersive virtual reality systems, choosing the OCULUS glasses—an HDMI device which, unlike those previously used by Strickland et al. [26] and Strickland [4], needs no cables. Environments are designed in a personal computer that provides a stronger feeling of immersive thanks to its being equipped with a set of loudspeakers—which the 3D glasses used by Lorenzo et al. [44] did not have. The authors mentioned above point out that the ASD children readily accepted the OCULUS glasses to work and were additionally able to solve the tasks proposed successfully.
\nThe bet on immersive virtual environments for students who have a deficit in communication and social skills, more precisely, who suffer from ASDs, is supported on two basic premises: (a) the characteristics of their cognitive style, which requires an explicit kind of teaching by means of visual aids as well as a highly structured environment and (b) the possibility to exploit the advantages that such environments bring us in terms not only of interacting, instructing and practising quasi-real school situations but also of transferring the practised learning to the school environment [42]. The design of highly structured virtual environments can constitute an educational innovation as well as a learning strategy that can be raised as a challenge and an innovation to be applied with disabled students, and more specifically with ASD students, characterised for being essentially visual learners who find it easier to retain and assimilate visual information.
\nThe basic research question of this study—Can immersive virtual environments serve as a learning tool for disabled students with a visual cognitive style?—was taken as a starting point to formulate the following specific aims:
\nTo design new immersive learning environments to train skills associated with the executive function and the improvement of social and emotional competences with ASD students.
Utilising Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) as a personalised support tool within a structured visual environment.
Evaluating the level of generalisation of the acquired learning to the school environment.
The specific aims set provided the basis for an action plan through an immersive virtual reality system used to recreate school situations with a high degree of realism and interaction with the user seeking to obtain the responses desired according to the dysfunctions faced. This was done by means of a mixed design: on the one hand, a quasi-experimental one with a control group and an experimental group; and, on the other hand, an applicative direct and systematic observational methodology that made it possible to develop the educational intervention in immersive learning environments. The methodological design used implies a change of paradigm, insofar as the aim sought is not to evaluate dysfunctions but to carry out an intervention with them, additionally assessing the extent to which they improve through the use of immersive learning environments. These are the stages implemented during the last few years:
\nInitial stage. Problem-questions are proposed as a starting point.
Planning and design stage. The attention is focused on the design of immersive environments as well as of the information collection instrument. These immersive environments must permit not only the identification and recognition of disabilities but also their training and improvement.
Implementation stage. Users are made to practise and experiment by means of immersive virtual environments.
Analysis stage. It consists in the study and examination of the results obtained and their educational implications, assessing the improvements provided by immersive virtual environments regarding disabilities in comparison with desktop virtual environments.
The immersive environment used [42] was created through the arrangement of two screens in an L shape where the different scenarios were projected with a wide-angle lens in order to reduce the projection distance—and therefore the space requirements too. The user’s immersive is achieved using a pair of active glasses of the brand Stereográfics (CristalEyes model), which allow users to have a 3D feeling as something real in front of their eyes. The user additionally wears a cap with light-emitting diode (LED) that will be detected by means of infrared cameras. A Mikrotron MC1324 GigE camera was also used for the detection of the child’s expressions in the immersive environment. The addition of loudspeakers and a high-fidelity amplifier permits to hear any kind of voice, noise or song according to the needs, which may eventually arise in the virtual environment. Thanks to the HP Z800 Work Station—which includes all the necessary software components—it will be possible to generate the scenarios, distributed to both projectors through a video signal, showing their content on the screens. The system is completed with the monitor, the immersive virtual reality generation module, the Vizard program and the data capture module, along with the visual control performed with the manipulating robot. Furthermore, a voice recognition system served to check when the user was carrying out the task, and whether the volume and intonation of the voice were suited or not to the situation presented. Figures 1 and 2 provide a sample of the elements shaping the system described above.
\nBy way of example, Figures 3 and 4 show some of the immersive virtual environments created.
Elements of the virtual reality room. (a) and (b) Projectors, (c) 2 screens in an L shape, and (d) virtual reality glasses.
Positioning system.
The study undertaken through several stages [42, 44] had students diagnosed with ASDs from the primary and secondary educational stages as its participants. The control group included students who were working in school centres that applied the traditional support methodology used to deal with their difficulties in social skills and executive functions such as emotional competences; in turn, students with similar characteristics formed the experimental group, but their intervention took place in the immersive learning environments designed. The sample was shaped in the first stage with 10 primary education students from public schools located in the city of Alicante (Spain) and a second group of 10 students from secondary schools also located in Alicante; and in a second stage, with 20 randomly chosen children who had to carry out the tasks in the IVRS and a second group, the control group, 20 children, chosen randomly, will carry out the tasks in the VR.
\nImmersive environment: playground of a primary education school.
Immersive environment: playground of a secondary education school.
Taking the aims established as a reference, priority was given to making a proposal of activities in the immersive learning environment. These were the instruments designed:
\n-First stage. The focus on work with executive functions and social skills led to design: the TEVISA support task protocol; THE PIAV avatar instructional protocol; and the monthly interview with the teachers of the schools while the aforementioned protocols were implemented. This protocol was used to suggest the students a set of tasks referred to executive functions as well as social competences, and associated with situations at a classroom level in which disabilities were present. The implementation of immersive tasks followed the two-step process described below:
\nPrevious task. Identifying the situation (space, avatars and materials); description of the task to be performed; task instructions and self-evaluation.
Support task. Identifying the situation (space, avatars and materials); following the instructions and carrying out the task: answering the questions about the task performed.
An evaluation using the PIAV protocol took place while the tasks described above were carried out: body motor coordination control; voice control; look control; attention control; and empathy control. The discussion groups created by the participating teachers on a monthly basis assessed the evolution of students’ behaviour in the school tasks, which resembled those undertaken in immersive environments.
\nStudent from the secondary educational stage performing one of the social stories in the immersive virtual environment.
-Second stage. Focused on the identification, training and development of emotional behaviours amongst students diagnosed with ASDs. A script of emotional tasks in the form of 10 social stories was designed for the purpose of identifying the emotions implicit in those different social stories and the training of appropriate emotional responses when facing the social situations posed. The students had to identify what the avatars did, where they were and how they felt in the situation which arose, after which attention was paid to the management and training of the situation. The control group performed the tasks based on the social stories in the desktop virtual environment, whereas the experimental group did so in the immersive virtual environment. Figure 5 show one girls carrying out the immersive tasks with social scripts.
\nThe results obtained throughout these years [42] have given a response to the initial problem-question raised: immersive virtual learning environments can serve as a support tool to work on the disabilities of students who have a visual cognitive style—as is the case of students with ASDs.
\nDuring the first stage of our study, and even though students showed some confusion at the beginning of the sessions when it came to following task instructions, it was checked that they improved the understanding both of the actual tasks that they had to perform and of the instructions to do so. Despite the absence of high percentages (scores) for Response Category No. 4—which corresponds to tasks being carried out at a highly acceptable level—it became clear that the tasks were acceptably performed even if some confusions might appear. Amongst the data confirming the internal consistency rates for each one of the virtual blocks and environments created in the application of the TEVISA task protocol stands out the fact that reliability rates range between 0.68 and 0.91. As for the results obtained by both primary and secondary school students, overall they show a gradual but significant increase in students’ behaviours in the different PIAV blocks, and even though the maximum values were not reached at the end, an improvement in the behaviour of the students involved was empirically verified [42]. The findings additionally reveal a gradual but relevant reduction of inappropriate behaviours as the intervention sessions are undertaken in immersive environments. The results obtained in the school context by primary school students show an average 2.23 out of 4 in their initial process of learning generalisation from virtual environments to the classroom, whereas secondary school students’ average in this respect is situated at 2.5 out of 4. Averages above three are eventually obtained as work develops in the immersive environment. The participating teachers express the average progress achieved and applied in the classroom context.
\nAs verified by the authors [44], the findings in the second stage of the present study show emotional behaviours increasingly suited to the situations proposed in the emotional protocol tasks, along with a significant improvement obtained by the students who worked in the immersive virtual environment compared to those who did so in the desktop environment. Hence, the confirmation of the higher degrees in the resolution of emotional responses in the immersive environment than in the desktop one, even though no significant differences appeared in the desktop control group with respect to the immersive one at the beginning of the sessions.
\nFrom the very beginning, the present paper advocates the use of educational innovations coming from virtual technologies applied to disabilities. Our suggestion is to keep moving ahead and to extend the implementation of immersive virtual methodologies to other types of disabilities with the aim of achieving a standardised use of such technologies within the dynamics of the teaching-learning process.
\nFlood events occur with high frequency globally, due to reasons related to climate change, to deforestation, and to problematic urban design of many high-populated areas. As a result, the effective disaster management (DM) of flood events, aspiring to mitigate the occurrence along with the negative consequences of those incidents, has emerged.
\nThe current chapter provides a comprehensive interview of an interdisciplinary research regarding the use of volunteered geographic information (VGI) in procedures, methods, and strategies related to DM of flood events.
\nThe next sections introduce the notion of VGI and its applications to DM of events related to floods. Various similar terms are mentioned along with a literature review which unfolds the range of activities that compose the so-called applications of VGI to flood event management. Those applications cover significant aspects of both VGI and DM components. In specific, the scope of the applications ranges from participatory activities of volunteers up to pure VGI data analysis, generated from social media content and other VGI sources. In terms of DM, those applications contribute significantly to various phases of the DM cycle: from prevention and preparedness up to mitigation, response, and recovery. Furthermore, a set of four main clusters of open challenges of the research field is addressed and described. The chapter ends with a conclusions section which accumulates the essential assumptions of this research topic.
\nThe term volunteered geographic information was initially defined by Michael Goodchild (2007) who used it to describe the act of having citizens, without having any related scientific background, produce geographic information. In contrary to the conventional flow in research which is from the scientific world to the society (top to bottom), the “phenomenon” of VGI followed a reverse path [1]. The enormous rhythm of voluntarily generated data forced the scientific community to identify this modern trend initially and to research ways for effective exploitation, sequentially, in benefit of a wide range of scientific fields.
\nMany similar terms have been used in the international scientific literature, including collaboratively contributed geographic information (CCGI, [2, 3]), citizen observatory [4, 5], neo-geography [6], ubiquitous cartography [7], participatory geographic information systems [8], user-generated spatial content [9], crowd-sourced geographic information [10], citizen science [11, 12, 13], citizen sensing [14, 15], and human sensor network [16, 17]. All the above terms overlap in their definition either partially (i.e., citizen science) or totally (i.e., CCGI), depending on the spatial dimension of the generated information.
\nInitially the VGI term described digital data production activities, as a result of the Web 2.0 technologies which evolved user interaction through the World Wide Web [18, 19]. However, as the volunteered procedures with spatial context evolved through the last decade, and considering the similar terms mentioned previously, the scope of VGI, is highly related, among others, to digital activities for community self-organizing [20] or other participatory activities that may not contain computer interaction at all [21, 22].
\nThe high rhythm of VGI data production in some cases is so enormous that it initially led to assumptions regarding a geography without geographers and to wikification of GIS, describing thus the transformation of GIS to participatory due to VGI data, in a way similar to the articles of the well-known Wikipedia [23]. After a few years of research though, VGI concluded to emerge as a valuable tool for research instead of a replacer of geography [24].
\nThe VGI data sources can be grouped into two main categories: (1) the conventional, pure, structured, or purpose-driven VGI sources and (2) the unstructured, unintentionally driven ones.
\nThe first category consists of specialized web spots in which the users are invited to report or generate specific information, by following some basic rules or some simple procedures. Probably the most popular representative of this category is OpenStreetMap (OSM), developed by Steve Coast. OSM counts millions of users who contribute to mapping information, while the mapping quality in high-populated cities of the world is equivalent to one of the conventional mapping data providers [25, 26]. Regarding floods, there is published research for manipulating OSM content for the needs of flood event management [27].
\nVarious other specialized VGI sources, which focus on DM, are based on the Ushahidi platform. Ushahidi means testimony in the language of Suachili. It was initially developed for mapping violent incidents in Kenya during the countries post-electoral events in 2008. Since then, Ushahidi has been evolved in an organization which provides web software for crisis situations. The platform has been widely used for DM purposes, of natural events [28, 29], while applications exclusively regarding flood events are analyzed in the following sections.
\nThe second category of VGI data sources consists of popular web spots through which the users generate geo-information unintentionally. Those VGI sources include almost all of the popular social networks (Facebook, Twitter, WeChat, YouTube). Considering the billions of users of the social media, the volume of produced information is tremendous. While numerous researches are based on the exploitation of those data. Moreover, as the use of that category of sources, in developing countries, is constantly rising [30], a large volume of information regarding floods is available, contributing thus to data availability which is characterized as problematic [31]. Apart from the latter, the enormous volume of generated information can contribute significantly in the emergency response of a flood-disastrous event, as the immediate information is vital for an effective rapid response.
\nA significant property of VGI is related to conventional VGI sources and its compliance to specifications [23]. It is generally accepted that the volunteers tend to ignore strict specification rules as a really disciplined data production could kill their interest in generating data [32, 33]. Well-designed user interfaces and purpose-driven approaches for generating data are considered efficient ways in order to increase the amount of generated formed information.
\nMoreover, some of the most important aspects of VGI that need to be assessed are quality and credibility. Regarding both, Linus’ law seems to be applied in the vast majority of cases [25, 26, 33, 34]. Linus’ law is linked to the Linux operating system and implies that the more programmers develop a software, the less bugs the software will have [35]. In terms of VGI, Linus’ law implies that the more volunteers appear in a certain region, the more accurate and complete the information will become.
\nEven though Linus’ law seems to be applied in most of the cases, latest research, to unstructured VGI sources, like social networks, demonstrated that the information produced by the majority of the users might be wrong. Until today, those cases usually refer to information regarding controversial and subjective topics that have political orientations and impact. An indicative example is the spread of fake news during the presidential elections of 2016, through Twitter [36, 37]. Moreover, there are a lot of cases in which many researchers propose various quality frameworks for assessing VGI different than the validity of Linus’ law [38]. In terms of DM of physical events like floods though, the validity of Linus’ law seems to be effective.
\nFinally, another significant property of VGI refers to the spatial heterogeneity of the produced spatial content. Even if in a certain area the quality of the produced information may be considered as sufficient, in other areas, data quality may be proven significantly different. An indicative example is presented in [39] in which a comparison was performed, between the spatial distribution of flood events extracted from VGI and the floods that were reported in official authoritative sources. While in various parts of the world the information was equivalent to the official data, in other areas there was missing information. As a result, assessments of VGI data in areas of interest always need to be performed in order to be assured that the data quality is sufficient for the use that it is designated for.
\nDM is the term that describes the scientific and operational activities and strategies which focus on mitigating the negative consequences of a catastrophic event occurrence. In general DM consisted of five main parts that compose the DM cycle. Those parts are (A) prevention, (B) mitigation, (C) preparedness, (D) response relief, and (E) recovery, divided in rehabilitation and reconstruction [40]. For each part there is a plethora of published research, while the range of events that are confronted through DM is pretty large: from political crisis situations and wars up to physical events such as floods, earthquakes, and fire events [41].
\nThe general notion of VGI has been emerged as an important component that aspires to contribute to each one of the components of the DM cycle [42, 43]. Besides, the importance of volunteered activities in the DM procedures is clearly stated in the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction of the United Nations [44], according to which the role of volunteers and community-based entities in general is to collaborate with authorities by providing “specific knowledge, and pragmatic guidance.”
\nMeaningful ways of contribution according to each type of disastrous event though are still a challenge [45, 46]. Specifically regarding flood event management, in the following sections, various indicative applications of VGI for each one of the DM cycle components are analyzed.
\nNumerous published researches focus on utilizing VGI data sources for DM of flood events.
\nIn terms of flood identification, in [39] a Twitter corpus consisting of 87.6 million tweets was analyzed, leading to the identification of 10.000 flood events, globally. The main steps of methodology applied and included initially geo-referencing of the tweets and, sequentially, identifying flood events in the geo-parsed content.
\nIn terms of tracking a flood event, in [47] the contribution of unconventional VGI data sources (social networks) was assessed, for DM purposes. The research focuses on the devastating Queensland floods, which occurred in Australia from December 2010 up to February 2011. Those floods caused damages to more than 30 cities and rural communities in southern and western Queensland, while various agricultural sub-areas were inundated. The cost of the floods was about 5 billion Australian dollars. From a VGI point of view, the social networks Facebook and Twitter were used as data sources for extracting related information. Apart from the text of each post, embedded photos and videos were processed, identifying thus various sub-events. During the unfoldness of the floods, about 15 k tweets were posted per hour. Among the conclusions it is stated that VGI contributed significantly to the tracking and provided immediate and in-depth information, crucial for prevention, mitigation, preparedness, and response tasks of the DM cycle. In addition, they stated that by using VGI, the enhancement of their emergency situation awareness can lead to better decisions in planning operations for giving aid, not concluded.
\nThe above assumption was verified in similar research [48], regarding the Colorado floods, occurring in the United States in 2013. The significance of correctly tracking all the phases of a natural disastrous event emerged, completely documenting that the negative impact of similar flood events that may potentially occur in the future can be minimized. Moreover, VGI data sources were able to fill an important gap of information regarding the floods, especially since the flood occurrence, until the time that the scientific teams arrived in the area. In terms of methodology, the basic components include collection of tweets published within 9 days since the flood occurrence and the classification of those, to specific categories, including (1) geo-tagged tweets, (2) tweets containing obvious URLs to photos and videos, (3) tweets containing place names, and (4) tweets containing structural terms, determined by the engineering team.
\nApart from tracking, the significance of rapidly produced information to authorities and DM stakeholders is emphasized on the international research [42, 49, 50, 51] as timely information is vital for the emergency response phase of the DM procedures. Moreover, the lack of information increases radically the budget that needs to be allocated for restoration. VGI sources have the potential to significantly contribute to that part [52].
\nIn [53] a method for extracting flood event-related information through VGI sources was presented. Their extensive research provides meaningful insights regarding the most effective automated classification methods for dividing the posted information into certain categories. From a DM perspective, they focused on event detection of pluvial and fluvial flood events, while the collection of specialized information that could be extracted through geo-tagged photos contributed effectively to tracking and to verifying conventional hydrological models.
\nMoreover, in [46, 54] methodologies for effective processing of social network data for DM purposes of flood events are presented. Among the main findings is that effective classification and geo-referencing can lead to advanced insights regarding DM of flood events. Moreover by automating the methods, mapping of consequences of a flood event can be performed in real time, contributing significantly to risk response of a flood event.
\nAs stated in previous sections, the general notion of VGI is not strictly related to digital data procedures but also highly related to participatory approaches. After all, community involvement has been emerged as an important part of the DM operational activities, as by imbuing the community with a sense of ownership of the risk reduction process, resilience to deal with natural hazards is increased [19]. Moreover those approaches can be proven vital, especially in developing countries, which are expected to confront with the major consequences of the climate change, despite their minimum contribution to the problem [55], while data availability in many cases is affected, due to laws, security protocols, illiteracy, cultural barriers, and economic reasons [31]. In addition, the budget needed for organizing can be minimized by engaging local authorities to provide premises and by using open-source software solutions [56] for collecting and processing information related to floods.
\nAn interesting approach was presented in [22] who refer to the Chametla community located in Baja California that aimed to reduce the risk of negative consequences in the event of a potential flood occurrence in Baja California, Mexico. The community received appropriate training by experts. In specific, they organized a workshop, in Chametla, in which the participants were able to annotate on printed satellite imagery their property along with various spots of the area that are considered vulnerable to floods, building thus a related map. Sequentially, they presented their results, and upon related discussions, they were able to correct and adjust various spots on the map. The output was reviewed by risk management experts who provided additional corrections. The final map was created by a GIS technician who digitally mapped all the printed information. The workshop participants created an ordered list of tasks that they could do in order to minimize the area’s vulnerability to the floods. Those tasks included, among others, the pavement of few streets and the creation of drainage. In addition they distributed surveys for collecting socioeconomic and flood awareness level information of the locals. They concluded that the majority of the inhabitants are taking measures for being protected in the event of a hurricane or other similar disastrous event.
\nA similar approach had been presented in [57] who introduced a methodology, for exploring the potentials of joined activities of scientific teams and locals. They used two case studies, the Upper Danube and the Upper Brahmaputra river basins, while the aim of the participatory activities was to assimilate local knowledge in scientific flood event management procedures for mitigating potential disaster in mountain areas. They organized two related workshops, one for each case study, in which the participants, entitled as local actors (LAs), received training, in a story telling mode, regarding the climate change and its potential consequences in the next 40 years. Sequentially they were invited to evaluate proposed response tasks by defining and prioritizing criteria, according to their local knowledge. The output was processed by subject matter experts and was assimilated in related strategies for coping with flooding.
\nA community though may not be solely consisted of locals. In [21] an innovative participatory approach was presented, linked to the decision-making for prevention, preparedness, and mitigation tasks of flood events. In specific, a community was created, consisting of more than 117 Brazilian Scientists and flood subject matter experts from NGOs and private companies. As case studies, the municipalities of Lajeado and Estrela, located in South Brazil, were used. In those areas, mostly due to the geo-morphological characteristics, floods occur frequently, sometimes twice per year. The expert community was asked to define the most suitable criteria that define an area as vulnerable to floods. The feedback was received through the distribution of related questionnaires. Sequentially, the criteria were ranked according to their level of importance with the use of two related processes: the analytic hierarchic process (AHP) and the analytic network process (ANP). Finally, by using GIS and mp algebra, they created related maps that indicate the areas most vulnerable to floods according to the output of each ranking process.
\nApart from pure VGI-related activities, there is a lot of published research that tends to combine VGI along with a plethora of other data sources, creating thus the so-called mashups [58] which act complementary to each other aspiring to have the most efficient output. Those mashups consist of VGI data along with imagery, authoritative data, and ground-truth observations and measurements.
\nIn specific, in [43] a hybrid approach was presented, manipulating flood-related data extracted from social networks and data gathered from a graphics processing unit (GPU) for accelerated hydrodynamic modeling. The approach was assessed in two flood events of the Tyne and Wear floods which occurred in June and August 2012, respectively, in the United Kingdom. About 1800 and 160 tweets were collected for each flood, respectively, while 43 and 13 tweets met the defined criteria for assimilation to related inundation models.
\nIn [19] a method for implementing VGI in flood forecasting and mapping activities was presented. In specific, information through YouTube and through data collected by applying various queries in Twitter and various other Internet searches was extracted. The volume of extracted information that was assimilated in their flood-related models was small (~20 videos in YouTube, lack of related data in Twitter).
\nThe output of the research presented in [18, 43] emerges the contribution of VGI data to calibrating inundation models, rises though challenges for assimilating effectively large volume of produced VGI information in related models.
\nApart from methodologies and approaches for manipulating VGI data for DM of flood events, there is published research indicating the development of web applications.
\nIn [19] a novel participatory platform for engaging communities in all aspects of the flooding life cycle, entitled “NOAH,” was introduced. The approach was applied in biosphere reserves, recognized by UNESCO. Definitely the app is associated to the conventional type of VGI sources.
\nIn particular the users of the platform are divided into two specific categories: the anonymous users, who make contributions without providing any personal information, and the registered ones, who share observations in a more authenticated way. While sharing observations the users are requested to classify the reported observations in predefined categories. Various validation rules of the system focus on increasing the quality of the shared information. Those rules include, i.e., the mandatory presence of GPS coordinates in each uploaded photo, while post-processing procedures are applied on the shared information. The collected data are used for assessing and calibrating an inundation model, by validating or adjusting the water level according to a geo-tagged photo. Finally they assessed the usability of their platform by distributing questionnaires to the users. The feedback gained was that their platform is at an above-average level in terms of usability, while a general assumption was that VGI can contribute to mitigating a flood event occurrence and to providing information for adjusting inundation models.
\nIn [59] a collaborative mapping approach was presented, based on the Ushahidi platform, through which ordinary people shared flood-related observations by using their mobile devices. The observations indicated points with measurements regarding the flood levels in various parts of Sao Paolo, Brazil. Among the conclusions of the research is the difficulty in engaging citizens to report to the platform. Moreover, by distributing questionnaires, feedback was collected regarding the app’s usability and the data reliability. The main findings were that an improved user interface of the app, would be significant for user engagement.
\nIn the current section, the author addresses the open challenges of VGI data sources when those are utilized for DM purposes, related to floods. The open challenges are accumulated to four main clusters, all blended by the general notion of quality: (a) classification, (b) geo-referencing, (c) visualization, and (d) automation. In the following paragraphs, each cluster is analyzed thoroughly.
\nThe first set of challenges is related to dividing the ones related to flood information into the proper categories. A complete and proper classification structure could lead to extract information that can give valuable insights in various phases of a flood event occurrence. Various classification structures have been presented [42, 48, 54, 57, 58, 59, 60, 61]. A conclusion though to an essential, commonly used, classification can be proven beneficial for advancing the general research to a next step. In Table 1 the author suggests a conceptual classification structure, consisting of 12 main categories.
\nMain classification structure: categories | \n|
---|---|
Identification of rain/storm | \nInfo related to DM (including prevention) | \n
Identification of flood | \nInfo related to Consequences* | \n
Irony expressed due to lack of effective flood management | \nEmotions expressed as a result of the consequences of the flood* | \n
Effects on social life* | \nSituation overview | \n
Weather-related information | \nFlood aid* | \n
Self-organizing of volunteers for flood-related purposes | \nFlood modeling information | \n
By adopting the basic principles of a classification schema like the one proposed, a researcher can receive, as output, a high level of specialized information which is vital for contributing efficiently to various phases of the DM cycle.
\nMoreover, by further sub-classifying categories of the initial classification structure, formed specialized information, regarding a flood event, can be extracted (i.e., Tables 2–5). In Table 2 a consequence-measurement scale ranging from I to V is proposed. The scale has an acceding logic in terms of the impact of the consequences, starting from value I, which is associated to simple identification of a rain or storm, up to value V, which is linked solely to human loss.
\nConsequence score | \nDescription | \n
---|---|
I | \nSimple identification of rain or storm | \n
II | \nTorrential storm, human fear, terror | \n
III | \nDamages, problems in the traffic network, minor human injuries, flooded streets, airport, school, or other public premises are closed; help tickets to fire brigade | \n
IV | \nHuge damages, missing people, homeless people, serious danger to human life, emergency situation, no electricity or water at a city level. Busses change track due to flood, isolated hamlets, and people that cannot escape a premise | \n
V | \nLoss of human life | \n
Quantification of consequence score values.
Effect score value | \nDescription | \n
---|---|
I | \nAlmost zero effect. People may just need to have an umbrella | \n
II | \nPeople are afraid to commute and travel because of the weather | \n
III | \nMeetings, exhibitions, and events are canceled due to the storm. People cannot move | \n
IV | \nThe majority of services, stores, and companies stop | \n
V | \nZero social activity: people stay at homes or at places in which they are protected from the flood | \n
Quantification of effects on social life.
Categories of flood aid | \nDescription | \n
---|---|
F. | \nSpots in which food and clothing supplies are gathered | \n
D. | \nPlaces in which flood victims can register the damages provoked from the flood event occurrence | \n
V. | \nGeneral volunteered actions | \n
Sub-classification of flood aid.
Categories of emotions | \nDescription | \n
---|---|
S | \nSadness for damages/human loss | \n
H | \nHappy emotions for a successful mitigation of a negative consequence | \n
SL | \nSolidarity | \n
Sub-classification of emotions.
Similar quantification logic is applied in Table 3 regarding the effects on social life, while in this case Value I is related to the minor impact of a rain and Value V is related to zero social activity.
\nFinally, Tables 4 and 5 subdivide the information related to flood aid and expressed emotions, respectively. Three main types are defined for each main classification category.
\nThe second cluster of challenges is related to correct and precise geo-referencing of the information, as the only way to have accurate maps is to have sufficient geo-referencing of the data. This vital set of challenges has a lot of complex characteristics that need to be taken into account, especially while processing specific sets of data mostly linked to unconventional VGI data sources like texts posted through social networks.
\nThere are some social media that include location-related info in their semantics. Indicatively, Twitter has the ability to embed x and y coordinates of the spot in which a post is published (geo-located tweets). However, the percentage of those tweets against the total sum varies from 1 to 5% [62, 63, 64]. Moreover, as various researchers have stated, the geographic place in which a post was published is not necessarily associated to the descriptive information of a tweet’s text [29].
\nAn effective way to cope with this is to detect geographic entities that appear within each tweet’s text. Even if there are various issues in this approach as well though, mostly regarding the presence of more than one geo-locations and more than one flood-related observations in a single text, the quantity of geo-referenced information extracted is significantly higher. Various geo-validation rules based on filtering the observation according to its distance from the flood event occurrence may solve the problem partially, while applied artificial intelligence for clearing ambiguity is also an interesting approach [65].
\nThere are various algorithms, published in the international literature, that manipulate text corpuses from social media in order to detect geo-locations. One of those is the TAGG algorithm [66] which is based on detecting geo-locations in a text, using a database of known locations. The author has also presented techniques that aspire to contribute to effective geo-referencing of DM-related information [67]. Particularly, regarding the latter, a precision score level is indicated for each geo-reference (Table 6).
\nGeographic precision score values | \nDescription | \n
---|---|
I | \nStreet name and number or specific POIS | \n
II | \nStreet name | \n
III | \nNeighborhood or hamlet | \n
IV | \nMunicipality | \n
V | \nPrefecture and above | \n
Geographic precision score values of geo-located posts.
According to the precision level of each geo-reference, the output of the processed information can be used from authorities (precision at a city level) or from rescue teams and locals (precision at a street level). Effective geo-referencing for DM related to floods needs is still quite a challenging sub-topic, especially towards the goal of high precision.
\nThe third cluster of challenges is linked to generating appropriate visualization results. In specific, the generated maps and graphs must be readable to people that could potentially be stakeholders of the DM cycle but with zero knowledge regarding geography and science in general. The production of complicated schemas, as an output of a bright methodology, is often the reason of not widening a methodology to all DM levels, as the complexity through which the information is delivered to the recipients limits the capability of having a crucial message understood. Even if we are living in an age that the literacy levels are higher than ever, geographical literacy is still a challenge for a plethora of people globally. Within this framework, some visualization suggestions can be found in Figures 1,2.
\nFlood consequences in Mandra, West Attica, Greece [52].
Volume of produced rain-related information during the devastating floods of West Attica, 2017 [52].
\nFigure 1 displays information related to the consequences of a flood event, occurring in West Attica, Greece. Each bullet located on the maps represents a consequence score value (Table 2). Since both flood events caused human losses, there are many bullets in red.
\nFurthermore, Figure 2 visualizes the frequency of posted tweets that are related to identification of rain. With those maps an initial assumption may be provided to the DM stakeholders, regarding the potentials of flood occurrence, especially in the areas in which the frequency of tweets, indicating a rain, is comparatively significantly higher than in other areas.
\nFinally, the fourth cluster of challenges is related to automation. As many researchers agree, VGI data analysis is a time-consuming process [46, 61, 68, 69]. Especially when dealing with unconventional sources, the volume of produced information may consist of hundred thousands or even millions of data-rows. Techniques, like natural language processing (NLP), designated for handling large amount of information provide effective solutions. Moreover, the use of artificial intelligence applications, for classifying the related content, such as support vector machines, can radically reduce the time needed for classifying the information and for coping with ambiguities. Published research that employs classifiers provides really promising results [53, 70].
\nThe main aim of this chapter was to inform the reader about the fundamentals regarding VGI and its applications to DM of flood events. In previous sections, the author described the general notion of VGI and the similar terms that can be found in the international literature and provided awareness of its basic characteristics and properties. Sequentially, significant research related to VGI and flood event management was presented. Considering the above, it can be safely assumed that VGI can effectively be used for identifying flood events and for documenting various phases of the unfoldness along with the tracking of the negative consequences and tasks crucial for the preparedness against similar flood events that may potentially occur. Moreover, the use of VGI provides significant assistance in calibrating and validating flood and inundation models, by providing specific spatiotemporal information. Furthermore, participatory activities can provide significant contribution regarding preparedness by identifying vulnerable spots and performing adjustments in the urban environment, making thus an area more resilient to floods. Similar activities consisting of subject matter experts can provide valuable support in the decision-making processes of the DM related to flood management.
\nRegarding data availability, the unconventional VGI data sources provide an enormous volume of information related to floods; information though with anarchic characteristics surely is not compliant to specifications, while the conventional VGI data sources, which are usually purpose-driven, may provide data more compatible to the DM needs; the data production though is limited.
\nThe open challenges of VGI data, when those are manipulated for DM purposes, are accumulated in a set of four clusters. The first cluster is related to classification. The more complete and detailed classification structure, the more specialized the processed information will become. Precise geo-referencing; effective and simplified visualization of the processed information, easily readable by all the DM stakeholders; and finally adaptation of automation techniques complete the set of the challenges.
\nAssuming that the social networks will continue to be evolved and enlarged, it is expected that methodologies that will be able to assimilate all the potentials of VGI in the DM mechanisms will be more and more dominant.
\nThe author declares no conflict of interest.
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\n\nWe have adopted the Protocol to increase the number of readers of our publications. All our Works are more widely accessible, with resulting benefits for scholars, researchers, students, libraries, universities and other academic institutions. Through this method of exposing metadata, IntechOpen enables citation indexes, scientific search engines, scholarly databases, and scientific literature collections to gather metadata from our repository and make our publications available to a broader academic audience.
\n\nAs a Data Provider, metadata for published Chapters and Journal Articles are available via our interface at the base URL:http://www.intechopen.com/oai/?.
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She performed (inter)national tasks as vice-president of the Concilium Anaesthesia and related committees. \nShe performed research in several fields, with over 100 publications in (inter)national journals and numerous papers on scientific conferences. \nShe received several awards and is a member of Honour of the Dutch Society of Anaesthesia.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Albert Schweitzer Hospital",country:{name:"Gabon"}}},{id:"83089",title:"Prof.",name:"Aaron",middleName:null,surname:"Ojule",slug:"aaron-ojule",fullName:"Aaron Ojule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"295748",title:"Mr.",name:"Abayomi",middleName:null,surname:"Modupe",slug:"abayomi-modupe",fullName:"Abayomi Modupe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Landmark University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"94191",title:"Prof.",name:"Abbas",middleName:null,surname:"Moustafa",slug:"abbas-moustafa",fullName:"Abbas Moustafa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94191/images/96_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Moustafa got his doctoral degree in earthquake engineering and structural safety from Indian Institute of Science in 2002. 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His research interest includes earthquake engineering, seismic design, nonlinear dynamics, random vibration, structural reliability, structural health monitoring and uncertainty modeling.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Minia University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"84562",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbyssinia",middleName:null,surname:"Mushunje",slug:"abbyssinia-mushunje",fullName:"Abbyssinia Mushunje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Fort Hare",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"202206",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Abd Elmoniem",middleName:"Ahmed",surname:"Elzain",slug:"abd-elmoniem-elzain",fullName:"Abd Elmoniem Elzain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kassala University",country:{name:"Sudan"}}},{id:"98127",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Handoura",slug:"abdallah-handoura",fullName:"Abdallah Handoura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Supérieure des Télécommunications",country:{name:"Morocco"}}},{id:"91404",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdecharif",middleName:null,surname:"Boumaza",slug:"abdecharif-boumaza",fullName:"Abdecharif Boumaza",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Abbès Laghrour University of Khenchela",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"105795",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Ghani",middleName:null,surname:"Aissaoui",slug:"abdel-ghani-aissaoui",fullName:"Abdel Ghani Aissaoui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/105795/images/system/105795.jpeg",biography:"Abdel Ghani AISSAOUI is a Full Professor of electrical engineering at University of Bechar (ALGERIA). He was born in 1969 in Naama, Algeria. He received his BS degree in 1993, the MS degree in 1997, the PhD degree in 2007 from the Electrical Engineering Institute of Djilali Liabes University of Sidi Bel Abbes (ALGERIA). He is an active member of IRECOM (Interaction Réseaux Electriques - COnvertisseurs Machines) Laboratory and IEEE senior member. He is an editor member for many international journals (IJET, RSE, MER, IJECE, etc.), he serves as a reviewer in international journals (IJAC, ECPS, COMPEL, etc.). He serves as member in technical committee (TPC) and reviewer in international conferences (CHUSER 2011, SHUSER 2012, PECON 2012, SAI 2013, SCSE2013, SDM2014, SEB2014, PEMC2014, PEAM2014, SEB (2014, 2015), ICRERA (2015, 2016, 2017, 2018,-2019), etc.). His current research interest includes power electronics, control of electrical machines, artificial intelligence and Renewable energies.",institutionString:"University of Béchar",institution:{name:"University of Béchar",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"99749",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdel Hafid",middleName:null,surname:"Essadki",slug:"abdel-hafid-essadki",fullName:"Abdel Hafid Essadki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"École Nationale Supérieure de Technologie",country:{name:"Algeria"}}},{id:"101208",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdel Karim",middleName:"Mohamad",surname:"El Hemaly",slug:"abdel-karim-el-hemaly",fullName:"Abdel Karim El Hemaly",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/101208/images/733_n.jpg",biography:"OBGYN.net Editorial Advisor Urogynecology.\nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly, MRCOG, FRCS � Egypt.\n \nAbdel Karim M. A. El-Hemaly\nProfessor OB/GYN & Urogynecology\nFaculty of medicine, Al-Azhar University \nPersonal Information: \nMarried with two children\nWife: Professor Laila A. Moussa MD.\nSons: Mohamad A. M. El-Hemaly Jr. MD. Died March 25-2007\nMostafa A. M. El-Hemaly, Computer Scientist working at Microsoft Seatle, USA. \nQualifications: \n1.\tM.B.-Bch Cairo Univ. June 1963. \n2.\tDiploma Ob./Gyn. Cairo Univ. April 1966. \n3.\tDiploma Surgery Cairo Univ. Oct. 1966. \n4.\tMRCOG London Feb. 1975. \n5.\tF.R.C.S. Glasgow June 1976. \n6.\tPopulation Study Johns Hopkins 1981. \n7.\tGyn. Oncology Johns Hopkins 1983. \n8.\tAdvanced Laparoscopic Surgery, with Prof. Paulson, Alexandria, Virginia USA 1993. \nSocieties & Associations: \n1.\t Member of the Royal College of Ob./Gyn. London. \n2.\tFellow of the Royal College of Surgeons Glasgow UK. \n3.\tMember of the advisory board on urogyn. FIGO. \n4.\tMember of the New York Academy of Sciences. \n5.\tMember of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. \n6.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in the World� from the 16th edition to the 20th edition. \n7.\tFeatured in �Who is Who in Science and Engineering� in the 7th edition. \n8.\tMember of the Egyptian Fertility & Sterility Society. \n9.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Ob./Gyn. \n10.\tMember of the Egyptian Society of Urogyn. \n\nScientific Publications & Communications:\n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asim Kurjak, Ahmad G. Serour, Laila A. S. Mousa, Amr M. Zaied, Khalid Z. El Sheikha. \nImaging the Internal Urethral Sphincter and the Vagina in Normal Women and Women Suffering from Stress Urinary Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol18, No 4; 169-286 October-December 2009.\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nFecal Incontinence, A Novel Concept: The Role of the internal Anal sphincter (IAS) in defecation and fecal incontinence. Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 2; 79-85 April -June 2010.\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Laila A. S. Mousa Ibrahim M. Kandil, Fatma S. El Sokkary, Ahmad G. Serour, Hossam Hussein.\nSurgical Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, Fecal Incontinence and Vaginal Prolapse By A Novel Operation \n"Urethro-Ano-Vaginoplasty"\n Gynaecologia Et Perinatologia, Vol19, No 3; 129-188 July-September 2010.\n4- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n5- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n6- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n7-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n9-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n10-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n11-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n12- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n13-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n15-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n\n16-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n17- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: An Update on the pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecology/?page=/ENHLIDH/PUBD/FEATURES/\nPresentations/ Nocturnal_Enuresis/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n18-Maternal Mortality in Egypt, a cry for help and attention. The Second International Conference of the African Society of Organization & Gestosis, 1998, 3rd Annual International Conference of Ob/Gyn Department � Sohag Faculty of Medicine University. Feb. 11-13. Luxor, Egypt. \n19-Postmenopausal Osteprosis. The 2nd annual conference of Health Insurance Organization on Family Planning and its role in primary health care. Zagaziz, Egypt, February 26-27, 1997, Center of Complementary Services for Maternity and childhood care. \n20-Laparoscopic Assisted vaginal hysterectomy. 10th International Annual Congress Modern Trends in Reproductive Techniques 23-24 March 1995. Alexandria, Egypt. \n21-Immunological Studies in Pre-eclamptic Toxaemia. Proceedings of 10th Annual Ain Shams Medical Congress. Cairo, Egypt, March 6-10, 1987. \n22-Socio-demographic factorse affecting acceptability of the long-acting contraceptive injections in a rural Egyptian community. Journal of Biosocial Science 29:305, 1987. \n23-Plasma fibronectin levels hypertension during pregnancy. The Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 13:1, 17-21, Jan. 1987. \n24-Effect of smoking on pregnancy. Journal of Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 111-121, Sept 1986. \n25-Socio-demographic aspects of nausea and vomiting in early pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 35-42, Sept. 1986. \n26-Effect of intrapartum oxygen inhalation on maternofetal blood gases and pH. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:3, 57-64, Sept. 1986. \n27-The effect of severe pre-eclampsia on serum transaminases. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 479-485, 1986. \n28-A study of placental immunoreceptors in pre-eclampsia. The Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 7(2): 211-216, 1986. \n29-Serum human placental lactogen (hpl) in normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women, during pregnancy and its relation to the outcome of pregnancy. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:2, 11-23, May 1986. \n30-Pregnancy specific B1 Glycoprotein and free estriol in the serum of normal, toxaemic and diabetic pregnant women during pregnancy and after delivery. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 12:1, 63-70, Jan. 1986. Also was accepted and presented at Xith World Congress of Gynecology and Obstetrics, Berlin (West), September 15-20, 1985. \n31-Pregnancy and labor in women over the age of forty years. Accepted and presented at Al-Azhar International Medical Conference, Cairo 28-31 Dec. 1985. \n32-Effect of Copper T intra-uterine device on cervico-vaginal flora. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet. 23:2, 153-156, April 1985. \n33-Factors affecting the occurrence of post-Caesarean section febrile morbidity. Population Sciences, 6, 139-149, 1985. \n34-Pre-eclamptic toxaemia and its relation to H.L.A. system. Population Sciences, 6, 131-139, 1985. \n35-The menstrual pattern and occurrence of pregnancy one year after discontinuation of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as a postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 105-111, 1985. \n36-The menstrual pattern and side effects of Depo-medroxy progesterone acetate as postpartum contraceptive. Population Sciences, 6, 97-105, 1985. \n37-Actinomyces in the vaginas of women with and without intrauterine contraceptive devices. Population Sciences, 6, 77-85, 1985. \n38-Comparative efficacy of ibuprofen and etamsylate in the treatment of I.U.D. menorrhagia. Population Sciences, 6, 63-77, 1985. \n39-Changes in cervical mucus copper and zinc in women using I.U.D.�s. Population Sciences, 6, 35-41, 1985. \n40-Histochemical study of the endometrium of infertile women. Egypt. J. Histol. 8(1) 63-66, 1985. \n41-Genital flora in pre- and post-menopausal women. Egypt. J. Med. Sci. 4(2), 165-172, 1983. \n42-Evaluation of the vaginal rugae and thickness in 8 different groups. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 9:2, 101-114, May 1983. \n43-The effect of menopausal status and conjugated oestrogen therapy on serum cholesterol, triglycerides and electrophoretic lipoprotein patterns. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 12:2, 113-119, April 1983. \n44-Laparoscopic ventrosuspension: A New Technique. Int. J. Gynaecol. Obstet., 20, 129-31, 1982. \n45-The laparoscope: A useful diagnostic tool in general surgery. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:4, 397-401, Oct. 1982. \n46-The value of the laparoscope in the diagnosis of polycystic ovary. Al-Azhar Medical Journal, 11:2, 153-159, April 1982. \n47-An anaesthetic approach to the management of eclampsia. Ain Shams Medical Journal, accepted for publication 1981. \n48-Laparoscopy on patients with previous lower abdominal surgery. Fertility management edited by E. Osman and M. Wahba 1981. \n49-Heart diseases with pregnancy. Population Sciences, 11, 121-130, 1981. \n50-A study of the biosocial factors affecting perinatal mortality in an Egyptian maternity hospital. Population Sciences, 6, 71-90, 1981. \n51-Pregnancy Wastage. Journal of the Egypt. Soc. of Ob./Gyn. 11:3, 57-67, Sept. 1980. \n52-Analysis of maternal deaths in Egyptian maternity hospitals. Population Sciences, 1, 59-65, 1979. \nArticles published on OBGYN.net: \n1- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Laila A. S. Mousa and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\nUrethro-vaginoplasty, an innovated operation for the treatment of: Stress Urinary Incontinence (SUI), Detursor Overactivity (DO), Mixed Urinary Incontinence and Anterior Vaginal Wall Descent. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/ urethro-vaginoplasty_01\n\n2- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamed M. Radwan.\n Urethro-raphy a new technique for surgical management of Stress Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/\nnew-tech-urethro\n\n3- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk, Nabil Abdel Maksoud H., Mohamad M. Radwan, Khalid Z. El Shieka, Mohamad A. K. M. El Hemaly, and Ahmad T. El Saban.\nUrethro-raphy The New Operation for the treatment of stress urinary incontinence, SUI, detrusor instability, DI, and mixed-type of urinary incontinence; short and long term results. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=urogyn/articles/\nurethroraphy-09280\n\n4-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Ibrahim M Kandil, and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. Menopause, and Voiding troubles. \nhttp://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly03/el-hemaly03-ss\n\n5-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A. Micturition and Urinary\tContinence. Int J Gynecol Obstet 1996; 42: 291-2. \n\n6-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly.\n Urinary incontinence in gynecology, a review article.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/abs-urinary_incotinence_gyn_ehemaly \n\n7-El Hemaly AKMA. Nocturnal Enuresis: Pathogenesis and Treatment. \nInt Urogynecol J Pelvic Floor Dysfunct 1998;9: 129-31.\n \n8-El Hemaly AKMA, Mousa L.A.E. Stress Urinary Incontinence, a New Concept. Eur J Obstet Gynecol Reprod Biol 1996; 68: 129-35. \n\n9- El Hemaly AKMA, Kandil I. M. Stress Urinary Incontinence SUI facts and fiction. Is SUI a puzzle?! http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly/el-hemaly-ss\n\n10-Abdel Karim El Hemaly, Nabil Abdel Maksoud, Laila A. Mousa, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Asem Anwar, M.A.K El Hemaly and Bahaa E. El Mohamady. \nEvidence based Facts on the Pathogenesis and Management of SUI. http://www.obgyn.net/displayppt.asp?page=/English/pubs/features/presentations/El-Hemaly02/el-hemaly02-ss\n\n11- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly*, Ibrahim M. Kandil, Mohamad A. Rizk and Mohamad A.K.M.El Hemaly.\n Urethro-plasty, a Novel Operation based on a New Concept, for the Treatment of Stress Urinary Incontinence, S.U.I., Detrusor Instability, D.I., and Mixed-type of Urinary Incontinence.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogyn/urogyn.asp?page=/urogyn/articles/urethro-plasty_01\n\n12-Ibrahim M. Kandil, Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly, Mohamad M. Radwan: Ultrasonic Assessment of the Internal Urethral Sphincter in Stress Urinary Incontinence. The Internet Journal of Gynecology and Obstetrics. 2003. Volume 2 Number 1. \n\n13-Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. Nocturnal Enureses: A Novel Concept on its pathogenesis and Treatment.\nhttp://www.obgyn.net/urogynecolgy/?page=articles/nocturnal_enuresis\n\n14- Abdel Karim M. El Hemaly. 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