Metal ion vs. log βMY values.
\\n\\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\\n\\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\nDr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\nSeeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\nOver these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\nWe are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\nThank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\nNow with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
\n\nRead, share and download for free: https://www.intechopen.com/books
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"2060",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Liver Transplantation - Technical Issues and Complications",title:"Liver Transplantation",subtitle:"Technical Issues and Complications",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book covers a wide spectrum of topics including, but not limited to, the technical issues in living and deceased donor liver transplant procedures, cell and experimental liver transplantation, and the complications of liver transplantation. Some of the very important topics, such as the arterial reconstruction in living donor liver transplantation, biliary complications, and the post-transplant-lymphoprolifrative disorders (PTLD), have been covered in more than one chapter.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0015-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-6799-0",doi:"10.5772/2469",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"liver-transplantation-technical-issues-and-complications",numberOfPages:466,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"f1a1413332fb74229afd9d4d68248cbc",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem and Naglaa Allam",publishedDate:"February 10th 2012",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2060.jpg",numberOfDownloads:78313,numberOfWosCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:28,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 23rd 2011",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 23rd 2011",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 28th 2011",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 27th 2011",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 25th 2011",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",middleName:null,surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/72383/images/system/72383.png",biography:"Professor Abdeldayem graduated from Kasr Elaini School of Medicine in 1987. He received training at Cairo University Hospitals, Menoufia University, University of Pittsburgh Medical Center and King Abdul-Aziz Medical City. He Joined the National Liver Institute in 1993. He has several publications in the fields of hepato-pancreato-biliary surgery and organ transplantation. He is a Member of InTechOpen\\'s Editorial Advisory Board, and is Associate editor in another publication. He currently holds the positions of Professor of Surgery and Dean of the National Liver Institute, Menoufia University, Egypt.",institutionString:"Menoufia University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"9",institution:{name:"Menoufia University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"108673",title:"Prof.",name:"Naglaa",middleName:null,surname:"Allam",slug:"naglaa-allam",fullName:"Naglaa Allam",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/108673/images/5228_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Naglaa Allam is a professor of hepatology at the National Liver Institute (NLI) Menoufia University in Egypt. The NLI is a leading medical institution in the Middle East dedicated for the management of liver diseases as well as advanced training and research in hepatology and liver transplantation. Dr. Naglaa Allam was trained at the Northern General Hospital, UK, and Hospital of the University of Pennsylvania in the USA. She is an editorial board member and reviewer in many medical journals and has several publications in eminent journals as well as books in the field of hepatology and liver transplantation.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1145",title:"Hepatic Surgery",slug:"hepatic-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"28278",title:"Living Donor Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/28005",slug:"living-donor-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:4410,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Hesham Abdeldayem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28278",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28278",authors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],corrections:null},{id:"28279",title:"Arterial Anastomosis in Living Donor Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/29162",slug:"arterial-anastomosis-in-living-donor-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:3558,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Mirela Patricia Sîrbu Boeți, Brasoveanu Vladislav, Sadiq Shoaib and Irinel Popescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28279",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28279",authors:[{id:"76702",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirela Patricia",surname:"Sîrbu Boeți",slug:"mirela-patricia-sirbu-boeti",fullName:"Mirela Patricia Sîrbu Boeți"},{id:"76728",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadiq",surname:"Shoaib",slug:"sadiq-shoaib",fullName:"Sadiq Shoaib"},{id:"76729",title:"Prof.",name:"Irinel",surname:"Popescu",slug:"irinel-popescu",fullName:"Irinel Popescu"},{id:"134152",title:"Dr.",name:"Brasoveanu",surname:"Vladislav",slug:"brasoveanu-vladislav",fullName:"Brasoveanu Vladislav"}],corrections:null},{id:"28280",title:"Microvascular Hepatic Artery Reconstruction in Living Donor Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/28033",slug:"microvascular-hepatic-artery-reconstruction-in-living-donor-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:2352,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Hideaki Uchiyama, Ken Shirabe, Akinobu Taketomi, Yuji Soejima, Tomoharu Yoshizumi, Toru Ikegami, Noboru Harada, Hiroto Kayashima and Yoshihiko Maehara",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28280",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28280",authors:[{id:"72500",title:"Dr.",name:"Hideaki",surname:"Uchiyama",slug:"hideaki-uchiyama",fullName:"Hideaki Uchiyama"},{id:"150579",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken",surname:"Shirabe",slug:"ken-shirabe",fullName:"Ken Shirabe"},{id:"150580",title:"Dr.",name:"Akinobu",surname:"Taketomi",slug:"akinobu-taketomi",fullName:"Akinobu Taketomi"},{id:"150581",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuji",surname:"Soejima",slug:"yuji-soejima",fullName:"Yuji Soejima"},{id:"150582",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomoharu",surname:"Yoshizumi",slug:"tomoharu-yoshizumi",fullName:"Tomoharu Yoshizumi"},{id:"150583",title:"Dr.",name:"Toru",surname:"Ikegami",slug:"toru-ikegami",fullName:"Toru Ikegami"},{id:"150584",title:"Dr.",name:"Noboru",surname:"Harada",slug:"noboru-harada",fullName:"Noboru Harada"},{id:"150585",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroto",surname:"Kayashima",slug:"hiroto-kayashima",fullName:"Hiroto Kayashima"},{id:"150586",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoshihiko",surname:"Maehara",slug:"yoshihiko-maehara",fullName:"Yoshihiko Maehara"}],corrections:null},{id:"28281",title:"Small-for-Size Syndrome After Living Donor Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/28924",slug:"small-for-size-syndrome-after-living-donor-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:3753,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Yuzo Umeda",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28281",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28281",authors:[{id:"75873",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuzo",surname:"Umeda",slug:"yuzo-umeda",fullName:"Yuzo Umeda"}],corrections:null},{id:"28282",title:"Vascular and Biliary Anastomoses in Deceased Donor Orthotopic Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/33305",slug:"vascular-and-biliary-anastomoses-in-deceased-donor-orthotopic-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:4143,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Vandad Raofi, Steven Cohn, Julie Koffron and Alan Koffron",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28282",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28282",authors:[{id:"94849",title:"Dr.",name:"Vandad",surname:"Raofi",slug:"vandad-raofi",fullName:"Vandad Raofi"},{id:"123350",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",surname:"Cohn",slug:"steven-cohn",fullName:"Steven Cohn"},{id:"150945",title:"Dr.",name:"Julie",surname:"Koffron",slug:"julie-koffron",fullName:"Julie Koffron"},{id:"150946",title:"Dr.",name:"Alan",surname:"Koffron",slug:"alan-koffron",fullName:"Alan Koffron"}],corrections:null},{id:"28283",title:"The Routinely Use of “Piggyback” Technique in Adult Orthotopic Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/29988",slug:"the-routinely-use-of-piggyback-technique-in-adult-orthotopic-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:8355,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Luis Herrera, Federico Castillo, Marcos Gomez, Gonzalo Gutierrez, Roberto F. Santiago, Juan Carlos R. Sanjuan, Elena G. Somacarrera, Antonio L. Useros, Monica G. Noriega, Fernando Casafont, Francisco Gonzalez and Manuel G. Fleitas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28283",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28283",authors:[{id:"80257",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",surname:"Herrera",slug:"luis-herrera",fullName:"Luis Herrera"},{id:"83392",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",surname:"Castillo",slug:"federico-castillo",fullName:"Federico Castillo"},{id:"83395",title:"Prof.",name:"Manuel",surname:"G. Fleitas",slug:"manuel-g.-fleitas",fullName:"Manuel G. Fleitas"},{id:"83397",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",surname:"Gomez",slug:"marcos-gomez",fullName:"Marcos Gomez"},{id:"83399",title:"Dr.",name:"Gonzalo",surname:"Gutierrez",slug:"gonzalo-gutierrez",fullName:"Gonzalo Gutierrez"},{id:"83402",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",surname:"G. Somacarrera",slug:"elena-g.-somacarrera",fullName:"Elena G. Somacarrera"},{id:"83403",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",surname:"L. Useros",slug:"antonio-l.-useros",fullName:"Antonio L. Useros"},{id:"83404",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"F. Santiago",slug:"roberto-f.-santiago",fullName:"Roberto F. Santiago"},{id:"83406",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",surname:"G. Noriega",slug:"monica-g.-noriega",fullName:"Monica G. Noriega"},{id:"122673",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"francisco-gonzalez",fullName:"Francisco Gonzalez"},{id:"122674",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Casafont",slug:"fernando-casafont",fullName:"Fernando Casafont"},{id:"123141",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",surname:"R. Sanjuan",slug:"juan-carlos-r.-sanjuan",fullName:"Juan Carlos R. Sanjuan"}],corrections:null},{id:"28284",title:"Cell Transplantation: A Possible Alternative to Orthotopic Liver Transplant (OLT)",doi:"10.5772/29903",slug:"cell-transplantation-a-possible-alternative-to-orthotopic-liver-transplant-olt-",totalDownloads:2822,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Kristen Skvorak, Roberto Gramignoli, Marc Hansel, Suleyman Uraz, Veysel Tahan, Kenneth Dorko, Fabio Marongiu and Stephen Strom",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28284",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28284",authors:[{id:"79839",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristen",surname:"Skvorak",slug:"kristen-skvorak",fullName:"Kristen Skvorak"},{id:"82942",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Marongiu",slug:"fabio-marongiu",fullName:"Fabio Marongiu"},{id:"82944",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Gramignoli",slug:"roberto-gramignoli",fullName:"Roberto Gramignoli"},{id:"82945",title:"Mr.",name:"Marc",surname:"Hansel",slug:"marc-hansel",fullName:"Marc Hansel"},{id:"82948",title:"Prof.",name:"Stephen",surname:"Strom",slug:"stephen-strom",fullName:"Stephen Strom"},{id:"121341",title:"Dr.",name:"Suleyman",surname:"Uraz",slug:"suleyman-uraz",fullName:"Suleyman Uraz"},{id:"123964",title:"Dr.",name:"Veysel",surname:"Tahan",slug:"veysel-tahan",fullName:"Veysel Tahan"},{id:"123965",title:"Mr.",name:"Kenneth",surname:"Dorko",slug:"kenneth-dorko",fullName:"Kenneth Dorko"}],corrections:null},{id:"28285",title:"Experimental Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/29158",slug:"experimental-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:2385,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Mirela Patricia Sîrbu Boeți, Sadiq Shoaib, Alaa Elshorbagy, Cătălin Iulian Efrimescu and Irinel Popescu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28285",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28285",authors:[{id:"76702",title:"Dr.",name:"Mirela Patricia",surname:"Sîrbu Boeți",slug:"mirela-patricia-sirbu-boeti",fullName:"Mirela Patricia Sîrbu Boeți"},{id:"76728",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadiq",surname:"Shoaib",slug:"sadiq-shoaib",fullName:"Sadiq Shoaib"},{id:"76715",title:"Dr.",name:"Cătălin Iulian",surname:"Efrimescu",slug:"catalin-iulian-efrimescu",fullName:"Cătălin Iulian Efrimescu"},{id:"76717",title:"Prof.",name:"Irinel",surname:"Popescu",slug:"irinel-popescu",fullName:"Irinel Popescu"},{id:"134147",title:"Dr.",name:"Alaa",surname:"Elshorbagy",slug:"alaa-elshorbagy",fullName:"Alaa Elshorbagy"}],corrections:null},{id:"28286",title:"Biliary Complications After Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/30088",slug:"biliary-complications-after-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:3860,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Julius Spicak and Renata Bartakova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28286",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28286",authors:[{id:"80778",title:"Prof.",name:"Julius",surname:"Spicak",slug:"julius-spicak",fullName:"Julius Spicak"},{id:"141743",title:"Dr.",name:"Renata",surname:"Bartakova",slug:"renata-bartakova",fullName:"Renata Bartakova"}],corrections:null},{id:"28287",title:"Biliary Complications in Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/29626",slug:"biliary-complications-in-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:2884,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ilka Boin, Fernando Romani De Araujo, Elaine Ataide, Anaisa Portes Ramos and Ciro Montes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28287",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28287",authors:[{id:"78626",title:"Prof.",name:"Ilka",surname:"Boin",slug:"ilka-boin",fullName:"Ilka Boin"},{id:"78649",title:"Dr.",name:"Elaine",surname:"Ataide",slug:"elaine-ataide",fullName:"Elaine Ataide"},{id:"78651",title:"MSc.",name:"Ciro",surname:"Montes",slug:"ciro-montes",fullName:"Ciro Montes"},{id:"127127",title:"Dr.",name:"Anaisa Portes",surname:"Ramos",slug:"anaisa-portes-ramos",fullName:"Anaisa Portes Ramos"},{id:"127128",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando Romani",surname:"De Araujo",slug:"fernando-romani-de-araujo",fullName:"Fernando Romani De Araujo"}],corrections:null},{id:"28288",title:"Ischemic Type Biliary Lesions",doi:"10.5772/28474",slug:"ischemic-type-biliary-lesions",totalDownloads:3828,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Dennis Eurich, Daniel Seehofer and Peter Neuhaus",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28288",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28288",authors:[{id:"73987",title:"Dr",name:"Dennis",surname:"Eurich",slug:"dennis-eurich",fullName:"Dennis Eurich"},{id:"80620",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Seehofer",slug:"daniel-seehofer",fullName:"Daniel Seehofer"},{id:"80621",title:"Prof.",name:"Peter",surname:"Neuhaus",slug:"peter-neuhaus",fullName:"Peter Neuhaus"}],corrections:null},{id:"28289",title:"Minimal Invasive (Endovascular and Percutaneous) Treatment of Post Liver Transplantation Complications in Pediatrics",doi:"10.5772/29346",slug:"minimal-invasive-endovascular-and-percutaneous-treatment-of-post-liver-transplantation-complications",totalDownloads:1641,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ghazwan Kroma, Jorge Lopera and Rajeev Suri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28289",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28289",authors:[{id:"77410",title:"Prof.",name:"Ghazwan",surname:"Kroma",slug:"ghazwan-kroma",fullName:"Ghazwan Kroma"},{id:"150765",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",surname:"Lopera",slug:"jorge-lopera",fullName:"Jorge Lopera"},{id:"150766",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",surname:"Suri",slug:"rajeev-suri",fullName:"Rajeev Suri"}],corrections:null},{id:"28290",title:"Renal Dysfunction and Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/36531",slug:"renal-dysfunction-and-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:4869,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Naglaa Allam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28290",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28290",authors:[{id:"108673",title:"Prof.",name:"Naglaa",surname:"Allam",slug:"naglaa-allam",fullName:"Naglaa Allam"}],corrections:null},{id:"28291",title:"Post Transplant Lymphoproliferative Disorders After Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/30144",slug:"post-transplant-lymphoproliferative-disorders-after-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:1985,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Dario Marino, Savina Aversa, Silvia Stragliotto , Fabio Canova and Caterina Boso",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28291",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28291",authors:[{id:"34968",title:"Prof.",name:"Savina",surname:"Aversa",slug:"savina-aversa",fullName:"Savina Aversa"},{id:"39599",title:"Dr.",name:"Caterina",surname:"Boso",slug:"caterina-boso",fullName:"Caterina Boso"},{id:"39600",title:"Dr.",name:"Dario",surname:"Marino",slug:"dario-marino",fullName:"Dario Marino"},{id:"150565",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Stragliotto",slug:"silvia-stragliotto",fullName:"Silvia Stragliotto"},{id:"150566",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",surname:"Canova",slug:"fabio-canova",fullName:"Fabio Canova"}],corrections:null},{id:"28292",title:"Post-Transplant Lymphoproliferative Disease – PTLD",doi:"10.5772/28891",slug:"post-transplant-lymphoproliferative-disease-ptld",totalDownloads:3457,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Julio Wiederkehr and Barbara Wiederkehr",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28292",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28292",authors:[{id:"75743",title:"Prof.",name:"Julio",surname:"Wiederkehr",slug:"julio-wiederkehr",fullName:"Julio Wiederkehr"},{id:"83516",title:"Ms.",name:"Barbara",surname:"Wiederkehr",slug:"barbara-wiederkehr",fullName:"Barbara Wiederkehr"}],corrections:null},{id:"28293",title:"Metabolic Syndrome After Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/29276",slug:"metabolic-syndrome-after-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:2256,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Rocío González-Grande, Miguel Jiménez-Pérez, Ana Belén Sáez-Gómez and Juan Miguel Rodrigo-López",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28293",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28293",authors:[{id:"74262",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Belén",surname:"Sáez-Gómez",slug:"ana-belen-saez-gomez",fullName:"Ana Belén Sáez-Gómez"},{id:"77146",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",surname:"Jiménez-Pérez",slug:"miguel-jimenez-perez",fullName:"Miguel Jiménez-Pérez"},{id:"78000",title:"Dr.",name:"Rocío",surname:"González-Grande",slug:"rocio-gonzalez-grande",fullName:"Rocío González-Grande"},{id:"82946",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Miguel",surname:"Rodrigo-López",slug:"juan-miguel-rodrigo-lopez",fullName:"Juan Miguel Rodrigo-López"}],corrections:null},{id:"28294",title:"Autoimmune Hepatitis After Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/29902",slug:"autoimmune-hepatitis-after-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:3334,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Pierpaolo Di Cocco, Giuseppe Orlando, Katia Clemente, Lauren Corona, Vinicio Rizza, Linda De Luca, Maurizio DAngelo, Federica Delreno, Francesco Pisani and Antonio Famulari",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28294",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28294",authors:[{id:"40458",title:"Dr.",name:"Pierpaolo",surname:"Di Cocco",slug:"pierpaolo-di-cocco",fullName:"Pierpaolo Di Cocco"},{id:"40459",title:"Dr.",name:"Lauren",surname:"Corona",slug:"lauren-corona",fullName:"Lauren Corona"},{id:"40461",title:"Prof.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Pisani",slug:"francesco-pisani",fullName:"Francesco Pisani"},{id:"57837",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinicio",surname:"Rizza",slug:"vinicio-rizza",fullName:"Vinicio Rizza"},{id:"84932",title:"Dr.",name:"Maurizio",surname:"DAngelo",slug:"maurizio-dangelo",fullName:"Maurizio DAngelo"},{id:"84933",title:"Dr.",name:"Katia",surname:"Clemente",slug:"katia-clemente",fullName:"Katia Clemente"},{id:"125596",title:"Prof.",name:"Antonio",surname:"Famulari",slug:"antonio-famulari",fullName:"Antonio Famulari"},{id:"125597",title:"Dr.",name:"Giuseppe",surname:"Orlando",slug:"giuseppe-orlando",fullName:"Giuseppe Orlando"},{id:"128362",title:"Dr.",name:"Linda",surname:"De Luca",slug:"linda-de-luca",fullName:"Linda De Luca"},{id:"128363",title:"Dr.",name:"Federica",surname:"Delreno",slug:"federica-delreno",fullName:"Federica Delreno"}],corrections:null},{id:"28295",title:"Bone Disease After Organ Transplantation with Special Regard of Post Transplantation-Osteoporosis After Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/28168",slug:"bone-disease-after-organ-transplantation-with-special-regard-of-post-transplantation-osteoporosis-af",totalDownloads:1636,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Daniel Kaemmerer and Gabriele Lehmann",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28295",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28295",authors:[{id:"72935",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Kaemmerer",slug:"daniel-kaemmerer",fullName:"Daniel Kaemmerer"},{id:"81922",title:"Dr.",name:"Gabriele",surname:"Lehmann",slug:"gabriele-lehmann",fullName:"Gabriele Lehmann"}],corrections:null},{id:"28296",title:"Betaherpesviruses in Adult Liver Transplant Recipients",doi:"10.5772/30175",slug:"betaherpesviruses-in-adult-liver-transplant-recipients",totalDownloads:1908,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ronaldo Thomasini, Fernanda Costa, Ana Sampaio, Sandra Bonon, Paula Andrade, Ilka Boin, Fabiana Pereira and Sandra Cecília Botelho Costa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28296",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28296",authors:[{id:"59188",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra Cecília Botelho",surname:"Costa",slug:"sandra-cecilia-botelho-costa",fullName:"Sandra Cecília Botelho Costa"},{id:"81175",title:"PhD.",name:"Ronaldo Luis",surname:"Thomasini",slug:"ronaldo-luis-thomasini",fullName:"Ronaldo Luis Thomasini"},{id:"84019",title:"MSc.",name:"Fernanda",surname:"Costa",slug:"fernanda-costa",fullName:"Fernanda Costa"},{id:"84020",title:"Dr.",name:"Sandra",surname:"Bonon",slug:"sandra-bonon",fullName:"Sandra Bonon"},{id:"84021",title:"MSc.",name:"Ana",surname:"Sampaio",slug:"ana-sampaio",fullName:"Ana Sampaio"},{id:"84022",title:"Dr.",name:"Ilka",surname:"Boin",slug:"ilka-boin",fullName:"Ilka Boin"},{id:"84023",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabiana",surname:"Pereira",slug:"fabiana-pereira",fullName:"Fabiana Pereira"},{id:"122609",title:"MSc.",name:"Paula",surname:"Andrade",slug:"paula-andrade",fullName:"Paula Andrade"}],corrections:null},{id:"28297",title:"Donor-Derived Infectious Complications and Disease Transmission",doi:"10.5772/30784",slug:"donor-derived-infectious-complications-and-disease-transmission",totalDownloads:3354,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Kun-Ming Chan and Wei-Chen Lee",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28297",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28297",authors:[{id:"52360",title:"Prof.",name:"Wei-Chen",surname:"Lee",slug:"wei-chen-lee",fullName:"Wei-Chen Lee"},{id:"118007",title:"Dr.",name:"Kun-Ming",surname:"Chan",slug:"kun-ming-chan",fullName:"Kun-Ming Chan"}],corrections:null},{id:"28298",title:"Physiotherapy in Liver Transplantation",doi:"10.5772/30249",slug:"physiotherapy-in-liver-transplantation",totalDownloads:11524,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Meric Senduran and Ufuk Yurdalan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/28298",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/28298",authors:[{id:"81588",title:"MSc.",name:"Meric",surname:"Senduran",slug:"meric-senduran",fullName:"Meric Senduran"},{id:"83844",title:"Prof.",name:"Ufuk",surname:"Yurdalan",slug:"ufuk-yurdalan",fullName:"Ufuk Yurdalan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3164",title:"Hepatic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e54bf2639e53e684ac2233e94ae53c19",slug:"hepatic-surgery",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3164.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"967",title:"Liver Transplantation",subtitle:"Basic Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d61ca05025c7154ff4579b2d6c95d7ae",slug:"liver-transplantation-basic-issues",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem and Naglaa Allam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/967.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6502",title:"Topics in the Surgery of the Biliary Tree",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6e1e8b08aab8583fc30db6351ae123d6",slug:"topics-in-the-surgery-of-the-biliary-tree",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6502.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5155",title:"Frontiers in Transplantology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f358194cd9d33671b03808b346f354dc",slug:"frontiers-in-transplantology",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem, Ahmed F. El-Kased and Ahmed El-Shaarawy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5155.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5744",title:"Updates in Gallbladder Diseases",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7b9d968408893bda6c194ebf3fea5ef6",slug:"updates-in-gallbladder-diseases",bookSignature:"Hesham Mohamed Abdeldayem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5744.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5394",title:"Updates in Liver Cancer",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a502cea22e6d113a70f609c947235665",slug:"updates-in-liver-cancer",bookSignature:"Hesham Mohamed Abdeldayem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5394.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6417",title:"The Management of Clinical Trials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e50e22f9fc899a4c438299287c506f9",slug:"the-management-of-clinical-trials",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6417.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4724",title:"Recent Advances in Liver Diseases and Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"00acb64dc687301436a332e905747071",slug:"recent-advances-in-liver-diseases-and-surgery",bookSignature:"Hesham Abdeldayem,Ahmed El-Shaarawy, Tary Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4724.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"72383",title:"Prof.",name:"Hesham",surname:"Abdeldayem",slug:"hesham-abdeldayem",fullName:"Hesham Abdeldayem"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7875",title:"Liver Disease and Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"163f3050d8d21a64401f9ef6f7230da5",slug:"liver-disease-and-surgery",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas and Luis Rodrigo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7875.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7528",title:"Surgical Challenges in the Management of Liver Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"581524c01bd3dca324da84c25aa31a48",slug:"surgical-challenges-in-the-management-of-liver-disease",bookSignature:"Georgios Tsoulfas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7528.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"57412",title:"Prof.",name:"Georgios",surname:"Tsoulfas",slug:"georgios-tsoulfas",fullName:"Georgios Tsoulfas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"68579",slug:"corrigendum-to-industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",title:"Corrigendum to: Industrial Heat Exchanger: Operation and Maintenance to Minimize Fouling and Corrosion",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/68579.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68579",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68579",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/68579",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/68579",chapter:{id:"52929",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",dateSubmitted:"March 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"52929",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",dateSubmitted:"March 23rd 2016",dateReviewed:"October 10th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"April 26th 2017",book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",email:"salimnewaz@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaya",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",email:"alex_teng1989@hotmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Liverpool John Moores University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",email:"ir_abakar@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",email:"chewbeeteng@um.edu.my",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",email:"A.Al-Shamma'a@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",email:"A.Shaw@ljmu.ac.uk",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6080",title:"Heat Exchangers",subtitle:"Advanced Features and Applications",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications",slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",publishedDate:"April 26th 2017",bookSignature:"S M Sohel Murshed and Manuel Matos Lopes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6080.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24904",title:"Prof.",name:"S. M. Sohel",middleName:null,surname:"Murshed",slug:"s.-m.-sohel-murshed",fullName:"S. M. Sohel Murshed"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"8640",leadTitle:null,title:"Cancer Chemoresistance",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tNeoplasia is considered to be the result of aberrations in the homeostatic mechanisms regulating cell turnover. This may be due to a combination of genetic, epigenetic and stochastic factors. Drug resistance is one of the major reasons for treatment failure and tumor relapse. Hence, an improved understanding of the mechanisms of neoplastic growth is possible based on systematic cataloging of the druggable targets for each of the major hallmarks of cancer. This approach can also aid in the refinement and validation of the in vitro and in vivo models, as well as provide pointers for the development of novel systems. Genomic instability and mutation, as well as tumor-promoting inflammation should be included as underlying factors influencing the process of neoplasia along with factors dysregulating energetics. The focus of this book is to update the reader on an integrated perspective including epigenetics data and corroborative mechanistic evidence from multiple model systems including humans. This will enable the reader to better comprehend the current scenario in terms of the pharmacological aspects pertaining to cancer chemoresistance. Also, the challenges for the molecular oncology will be discussed as well as probable strategies and a road-map for cancer chemotherapeutic drug development.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:null,pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:null,priceUsd:null,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a80fe34c552bb6ca76ef9cd8f21e377",bookSignature:"Dr. Suresh P.K.",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8640.jpg",keywords:"Molecular Mechanisms of Aberrations, Proliferation Mechanisms, Types of Cell Death, Signal Transduction Pathways, Angiogenesis in Cancer, Angiogenesis in Wound Healing, Molecular Mechanisms of Invasion, Molecular Mechanisms of Metastasis, Telomeres, Stem Cells, Delivery Challenges, Evasion Mechanisms",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 5th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 26th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 25th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 15th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 14th 2019",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"190244",title:"Dr.",name:"Suresh",middleName:null,surname:"P.K.",slug:"suresh-p.k.",fullName:"Suresh P.K.",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190244/images/system/190244.jpeg",biography:"P.K. Suresh is a Professor at the School of Biosciences & Technology, VIT, Vellore (2009 to date). He has approximately 18.5 years of teaching, research and administrative experience in Biotechnology & Industrial Biotechnology and allied disciplines. He had also headed Biotechnology & Industrial Biotechnology departments and has handled a wide variety of theory papers. He has 45 research publications in SCOPUS-indexed journals and has completed 3 funded projects as the Principal Investigator. He has made several presentations at International conferences. He has guided 5 doctoral students (2 as co-guide) and is currently guiding 5 students in the doctoral program. He has organized and participated actively in several Faculty Development Programs in areas as diverse as Stem Cells, Bio-inspired Design and Pharmacokinetics and was also a resource person in these events.",institutionString:"School of Biosciences & Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Vellore Institute of Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"6",title:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",slug:"biochemistry-genetics-and-molecular-biology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"177731",firstName:"Dajana",lastName:"Pemac",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177731/images/4726_n.jpg",email:"dajana@intechopen.com",biography:"As a Commissioning Editor at IntechOpen, I work closely with our collaborators in the selection of book topics for the yearly publishing plan and in preparing new book catalogues for each season. This requires extensive analysis of developing trends in scientific research in order to offer our readers relevant content. Creating the book catalogue is also based on keeping track of the most read, downloaded and highly cited chapters and books and relaunching similar topics. I am also responsible for consulting with our Scientific Advisors on which book topics to add to our catalogue and sending possible book proposal topics to them for evaluation. Once the catalogue is complete, I contact leading researchers in their respective fields and ask them to become possible Academic Editors for each book project. Once an editor is appointed, I prepare all necessary information required for them to begin their work, as well as guide them through the editorship process. I also assist editors in inviting suitable authors to contribute to a specific book project and each year, I identify and invite exceptional editors to join IntechOpen as Scientific Advisors. I am responsible for developing and maintaining strong relationships with all collaborators to ensure an effective and efficient publishing process and support other departments in developing and maintaining such relationships."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6694",title:"New Trends in Ion Exchange Studies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3de8c8b090fd8faa7c11ec5b387c486a",slug:"new-trends-in-ion-exchange-studies",bookSignature:"Selcan Karakuş",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6694.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206110",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcan",surname:"Karakuş",slug:"selcan-karakus",fullName:"Selcan Karakuş"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"22994",title:"Getting Lipids for Biodiesel Production from Oleaginous Fungi",doi:"10.5772/25864",slug:"getting-lipids-for-biodiesel-production-from-oleaginous-fungi",body:null,keywords:null,chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/22994.pdf",chapterXML:null,downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/22994",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/22994",totalDownloads:8842,totalViews:344,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:50,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"February 2nd 2011",dateReviewed:"July 19th 2011",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"November 9th 2011",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/22994",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/22994",book:{slug:"biodiesel-feedstocks-and-processing-technologies"},signatures:"Maddalena Rossi, Alberto Amaretti, Stefano Raimondi and Alan Leonardi",authors:[{id:"64804",title:"Prof.",name:"Maddalena",middleName:null,surname:"Rossi",fullName:"Maddalena Rossi",slug:"maddalena-rossi",email:"maddalena.rossi@unimore.it",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Modena and Reggio Emilia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"64811",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Amaretti",fullName:"Alberto Amaretti",slug:"alberto-amaretti",email:"alberto.amaretti@unimore.it",position:null,institution:null},{id:"64812",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Raimondi",fullName:"Stefano Raimondi",slug:"stefano-raimondi",email:"stefano.raimondi@unimore.it",position:null,institution:null},{id:"121373",title:"Dr.",name:"Alan",middleName:null,surname:"Leonardi",fullName:"Alan Leonardi",slug:"alan-leonardi",email:"alan.leonardi@unimore.it",position:null,institution:null}],sections:null,chapterReferences:null,footnotes:null,contributors:null,corrections:null},book:{id:"582",title:"Biodiesel",subtitle:"Feedstocks and Processing Technologies",fullTitle:"Biodiesel - Feedstocks and Processing Technologies",slug:"biodiesel-feedstocks-and-processing-technologies",publishedDate:"November 9th 2011",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva and Gisela Montero",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/582.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"22991",title:"Non Edible Oils: Raw Materials for Sustainable Biodiesel",slug:"non-edible-oils-raw-materials-for-sustainable-biodiesel",totalDownloads:3629,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"C.L. Bianchi, C. Pirola, D.C. Boffito, A. Di Fronzo, G. Carvoli, D. Barnabè, R. Bucchi and A. Rispoli",authors:[{id:"29523",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlo",middleName:null,surname:"Pirola",fullName:"Carlo Pirola",slug:"carlo-pirola"},{id:"45121",title:"Dr.",name:"Daria Camilla",middleName:null,surname:"Boffito",fullName:"Daria Camilla Boffito",slug:"daria-camilla-boffito"},{id:"45123",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianni",middleName:null,surname:"Carvoli",fullName:"Gianni Carvoli",slug:"gianni-carvoli"},{id:"45124",title:"Prof.",name:"Claudia Letizia",middleName:null,surname:"Bianchi",fullName:"Claudia Letizia Bianchi",slug:"claudia-letizia-bianchi"},{id:"68738",title:"BSc.",name:"Stefania",middleName:null,surname:"Vitali",fullName:"Stefania Vitali",slug:"stefania-vitali"},{id:"68739",title:"Dr.",name:"Davide",middleName:null,surname:"Barnabè",fullName:"Davide Barnabè",slug:"davide-barnabe"},{id:"68741",title:"Dr.",name:"Ada",middleName:null,surname:"Rispoli",fullName:"Ada Rispoli",slug:"ada-rispoli"},{id:"118796",title:"Dr.",name:"Renzo",middleName:null,surname:"Bucchi",fullName:"Renzo Bucchi",slug:"renzo-bucchi"}]},{id:"22992",title:"Biodiesel Production from Waste Cooking Oil",slug:"biodiesel-production-from-waste-cooking-oil",totalDownloads:15976,totalCrossrefCites:14,signatures:"Carlos A. Guerrero F., Andrés Guerrero-Romero and Fabio E. Sierra",authors:[{id:"62968",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero-Fajardo",fullName:"Carlos Alberto Guerrero-Fajardo",slug:"carlos-alberto-guerrero-fajardo"},{id:"119693",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio Emiro",middleName:null,surname:"Sierra Vargas",fullName:"Fabio Emiro Sierra Vargas",slug:"fabio-emiro-sierra-vargas"},{id:"119694",title:"Mr.",name:"Carlos Andrés",middleName:null,surname:"Guerrero Romero",fullName:"Carlos Andrés Guerrero Romero",slug:"carlos-andres-guerrero-romero"}]},{id:"22993",title:"Animal Fat Wastes for Biodiesel Production",slug:"animal-fat-wastes-for-biodiesel-production",totalDownloads:11410,totalCrossrefCites:4,signatures:"Vivian Feddern, Anildo Cunha Junior, Marina Celant De Prá, Paulo Giovanni de Abreu, Jonas Irineu dos Santos Filho, Martha Mayumi Higarashi, Mauro Sulenta and Arlei Coldebella",authors:[{id:"67578",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian",middleName:null,surname:"Feddern",fullName:"Vivian Feddern",slug:"vivian-feddern"},{id:"69256",title:"MSc.",name:"Anildo",middleName:null,surname:"Cunha Jr.",fullName:"Anildo Cunha Jr.",slug:"anildo-cunha-jr."},{id:"69267",title:"Ms.",name:"Marina",middleName:null,surname:"Prá",fullName:"Marina Prá",slug:"marina-pra"},{id:"69269",title:"Dr.",name:"Paulo",middleName:null,surname:"G. De Abreu",fullName:"Paulo G. De Abreu",slug:"paulo-g.-de-abreu"},{id:"69271",title:"Dr.",name:"Martha",middleName:null,surname:"M. Higarashi",fullName:"Martha M. Higarashi",slug:"martha-m.-higarashi"},{id:"69273",title:"Dr.",name:"Jonas",middleName:null,surname:"I. Dos Santos Filho",fullName:"Jonas I. Dos Santos Filho",slug:"jonas-i.-dos-santos-filho"},{id:"69276",title:"Dr.",name:"Arlei",middleName:null,surname:"Coldebella",fullName:"Arlei Coldebella",slug:"arlei-coldebella"},{id:"112294",title:"Mr.",name:"Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Sulenta",fullName:"Mauro Sulenta",slug:"mauro-sulenta"}]},{id:"22994",title:"Getting Lipids for Biodiesel Production from Oleaginous Fungi",slug:"getting-lipids-for-biodiesel-production-from-oleaginous-fungi",totalDownloads:8842,totalCrossrefCites:14,signatures:"Maddalena Rossi, Alberto Amaretti, Stefano Raimondi and Alan Leonardi",authors:[{id:"64804",title:"Prof.",name:"Maddalena",middleName:null,surname:"Rossi",fullName:"Maddalena Rossi",slug:"maddalena-rossi"},{id:"64811",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Amaretti",fullName:"Alberto Amaretti",slug:"alberto-amaretti"},{id:"64812",title:"Dr.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Raimondi",fullName:"Stefano Raimondi",slug:"stefano-raimondi"},{id:"121373",title:"Dr.",name:"Alan",middleName:null,surname:"Leonardi",fullName:"Alan Leonardi",slug:"alan-leonardi"}]},{id:"22995",title:"Microbial Biodiesel Production - Oil Feedstocks Produced from Microbial Cell Cultivations",slug:"microbial-biodiesel-production-oil-feedstocks-produced-from-microbial-cell-cultivations",totalDownloads:4914,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Jianguo Zhang and Bo Hu",authors:[{id:"62867",title:"Prof.",name:"Bo",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",fullName:"Bo Hu",slug:"bo-hu"}]},{id:"22996",title:"Algal Biomass and Biodiesel Production",slug:"algal-biomass-and-biodiesel-production",totalDownloads:3972,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Emad A. Shalaby",authors:[{id:"63600",title:"Prof.",name:"Emad",middleName:null,surname:"Shalaby",fullName:"Emad Shalaby",slug:"emad-shalaby"}]},{id:"22997",title:"Microalgae as Feedstocks for Biodiesel Production",slug:"microalgae-as-feedstocks-for-biodiesel-production",totalDownloads:3436,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Jin Liu, Junchao Huang and Feng Chen",authors:[{id:"63884",title:"Dr.",name:"Junchao",middleName:null,surname:"Huang",fullName:"Junchao Huang",slug:"junchao-huang"}]},{id:"22998",title:"Eco-Physiological Barriers and Technological Advances for Biodiesel Production from Microalgae",slug:"eco-physiological-barriers-and-technological-advances-for-biodiesel-production-from-microalgae",totalDownloads:2556,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Simrat Kaur, Mohan C. Kalita, Ravi B. Srivastava and Charles Spillane",authors:[{id:"62959",title:"Ms.",name:"Simrat",middleName:null,surname:"Kaur",fullName:"Simrat Kaur",slug:"simrat-kaur"},{id:"69147",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohan C.",middleName:null,surname:"Kalita",fullName:"Mohan C. Kalita",slug:"mohan-c.-kalita"},{id:"69149",title:"Dr.",name:"Ravi B.",middleName:null,surname:"Srivastava",fullName:"Ravi B. Srivastava",slug:"ravi-b.-srivastava"},{id:"69150",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Spillane",fullName:"Charles Spillane",slug:"charles-spillane"}]},{id:"22999",title:"Advantages and Challenges of Microalgae as a Source of Oil for Biodiesel",slug:"advantages-and-challenges-of-microalgae-as-a-source-of-oil-for-biodiesel",totalDownloads:7846,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Melinda J. Griffiths, Reay G. Dicks, Christine Richardson and Susan T. L. Harrison",authors:[{id:"80766",title:"Ms.",name:"Melinda",middleName:null,surname:"Griffiths",fullName:"Melinda Griffiths",slug:"melinda-griffiths"}]},{id:"23000",title:"An Integrated Waste-Free Biomass Utilization System for an Increased Productivity of Biofuel and Bioenergy",slug:"an-integrated-waste-free-biomass-utilization-system-for-an-increased-productivity-of-biofuel-and-bio",totalDownloads:2340,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"László Kótai, János Szépvölgyi, János Bozi, István Gács, Szabolcs Bálint, Ágnes Gömöry, András Angyal, János Balogh, Zhibin Li, Moutong Chen, Chen Wang and Baiquan Chen",authors:[{id:"63655",title:"Dr.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Kótai",fullName:"László Kótai",slug:"laszlo-kotai"}]},{id:"23001",title:"Production of Biodiesel via In-Situ Supercritical Methanol Transesterification",slug:"production-of-biodiesel-via-in-situ-supercritical-methanol-transesterification",totalDownloads:3956,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Asnida Yanti Ani, Mohd Azlan Mohd Ishak and Khudzir Ismail",authors:[{id:"63553",title:"Ms.",name:"Asnida Yanti",middleName:null,surname:"Ani",fullName:"Asnida Yanti Ani",slug:"asnida-yanti-ani"},{id:"66509",title:"Prof.",name:"Dr. Mohd Azlan",middleName:null,surname:"Mohd Ishak",fullName:"Dr. Mohd Azlan Mohd Ishak",slug:"dr.-mohd-azlan-mohd-ishak"},{id:"66510",title:"Prof.",name:"Khudzir",middleName:null,surname:"Ismail",fullName:"Khudzir Ismail",slug:"khudzir-ismail"}]},{id:"23002",title:"Transesterification in Supercritical Conditions",slug:"transesterification-in-supercritical-conditions",totalDownloads:5216,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Somkiat Ngamprasertsith and Ruengwit Sawangkeaw",authors:[{id:"65947",title:"Dr.",name:"Somkiat",middleName:null,surname:"Ngamprasertsith",fullName:"Somkiat Ngamprasertsith",slug:"somkiat-ngamprasertsith"},{id:"68243",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruengwit",middleName:null,surname:"Sawangkeaw",fullName:"Ruengwit Sawangkeaw",slug:"ruengwit-sawangkeaw"}]},{id:"23003",title:"Alternative Methods for Fatty Acid Alkyl-Esters Production: Microwaves, Radio-Frequency and Ultrasound",slug:"alternative-methods-for-fatty-acid-alkyl-esters-production-microwaves-radio-frequency-and-ultrasound",totalDownloads:4766,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Paula Mazo, Gloria Restrepo and Luis Rios",authors:[{id:"62880",title:"Dr.",name:"Paula",middleName:"Catalina",surname:"Mazo",fullName:"Paula Mazo",slug:"paula-mazo"},{id:"105555",title:"Dr.",name:"Gloria",middleName:null,surname:"Restrepo",fullName:"Gloria Restrepo",slug:"gloria-restrepo"},{id:"105557",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Rios",fullName:"Luis Rios",slug:"luis-rios"}]},{id:"23004",title:"Transesterification by Reactive Distillation for Synthesis and Characterization of Biodiesel",slug:"transesterification-by-reactive-distillation-for-synthesis-and-characterization-of-biodiesel",totalDownloads:5357,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"G.B.Shinde, V.S.Sapkal, R.S.Sapkal and N.B.Raut",authors:[{id:"62873",title:"Prof.",name:"Ganesh",middleName:"Bhausaheb",surname:"Shinde",fullName:"Ganesh Shinde",slug:"ganesh-shinde"},{id:"62875",title:"Prof.",name:"Vilas",middleName:null,surname:"Sapkal",fullName:"Vilas Sapkal",slug:"vilas-sapkal"},{id:"62876",title:"Prof.",name:"Rajendra",middleName:null,surname:"Sapkal",fullName:"Rajendra Sapkal",slug:"rajendra-sapkal"},{id:"62877",title:"Prof.",name:"Nitin",middleName:null,surname:"Raut",fullName:"Nitin Raut",slug:"nitin-raut"}]},{id:"23005",title:"Gas-Liquid Process, Thermodynamic Characteristics (19 Blends), Efficiency & Environmental Impacts, SEM Particulate Matter Analysis and On-Road Bus Trial of a Proven NOx Less Biodiesel",slug:"gas-liquid-process-thermodynamic-characteristics-19-blends-efficiency-environmental-impacts-sem-part",totalDownloads:1901,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Kandukalpatti Chinnaraj Velappan and Nagarajan Vedaraman",authors:[{id:"63092",title:"Prof.",name:"Kandukalpatti Chinnaraj",middleName:null,surname:"Velappan",fullName:"Kandukalpatti Chinnaraj Velappan",slug:"kandukalpatti-chinnaraj-velappan"},{id:"138256",title:"PhD.",name:"Nagarajan",middleName:null,surname:"Vedaraman",fullName:"Nagarajan Vedaraman",slug:"nagarajan-vedaraman"}]},{id:"23006",title:"Biodiesel Production with Solid Catalysts",slug:"biodiesel-production-with-solid-catalysts",totalDownloads:11363,totalCrossrefCites:11,signatures:"Feng Guo and Zhen Fang",authors:[{id:"63891",title:"Prof.",name:"Zhen",middleName:null,surname:"Fang",fullName:"Zhen Fang",slug:"zhen-fang"},{id:"63893",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Guo",fullName:"Feng Guo",slug:"feng-guo"}]},{id:"23007",title:"Heterogeneous Catalysts Based on H3PW12O40 Heteropolyacid for Free Fatty Acids Esterification",slug:"heterogeneous-catalysts-based-on-h3pw12o40-heteropolyacid-for-free-fatty-acids-esterification",totalDownloads:5365,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Marcio Jose da Silva, Abiney Lemos Cardoso, Fernanda de Lima Menezes, Aline Mendes de Andrade and Manuel Gonzalo Hernandez Terrones",authors:[{id:"68019",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcio Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Da Silva",fullName:"Marcio Jose Da Silva",slug:"marcio-jose-da-silva"}]},{id:"23008",title:"An Alternative Eco-Friendly Avenue for Castor Oil Biodiesel: Use of Solid Supported Acidic Salt Catalyst",slug:"an-alternative-eco-friendly-avenue-for-castor-oil-biodiesel-use-of-solid-supported-acidic-salt-catal",totalDownloads:3535,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Amrit Goswami",authors:[{id:"63174",title:"Dr.",name:"Amrit",middleName:null,surname:"Goswami",fullName:"Amrit Goswami",slug:"amrit-goswami"}]},{id:"23009",title:"The Immobilized Lipases in Biodiesel Production",slug:"the-immobilized-lipases-in-biodiesel-production",totalDownloads:7183,totalCrossrefCites:5,signatures:"Margarita Stoytcheva, Gisela Montero, Lydia Toscano, Velizar Gochev and Benjamin Valdez",authors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"Stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva"},{id:"65519",title:"Dr.",name:"Gisela",middleName:null,surname:"Montero",fullName:"Gisela Montero",slug:"gisela-montero"},{id:"65520",title:"Prof.",name:"Lydia",middleName:null,surname:"Toscano",fullName:"Lydia Toscano",slug:"lydia-toscano"},{id:"65521",title:"Prof.",name:"Velizar",middleName:null,surname:"Gochev",fullName:"Velizar Gochev",slug:"velizar-gochev"},{id:"65522",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamin",middleName:null,surname:"Valdez",fullName:"Benjamin Valdez",slug:"benjamin-valdez"}]},{id:"23010",title:"Progress in Vegetable Oils Enzymatic Transesterification to Biodiesel - Case Study",slug:"progress-in-vegetable-oils-enzymatic-transesterification-to-biodiesel-case-study",totalDownloads:2888,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Ana Aurelia Chirvase, Luminita Tcacenco, Nicoleta Radu and Irina Lupescu",authors:[{id:"63391",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Aurelia",middleName:null,surname:"Chirvase",fullName:"Ana Aurelia Chirvase",slug:"ana-aurelia-chirvase"},{id:"67066",title:"Dr.",name:"Luminita",middleName:null,surname:"Tcacenco",fullName:"Luminita Tcacenco",slug:"luminita-tcacenco"},{id:"139299",title:"Dr.",name:"Nicoleta",middleName:null,surname:"Radu",fullName:"Nicoleta Radu",slug:"nicoleta-radu"},{id:"139300",title:"Dr.",name:"Irina",middleName:null,surname:"Lupescu",fullName:"Irina Lupescu",slug:"irina-lupescu"}]},{id:"23011",title:"Adsorption in Biodiesel Refining - A Review",slug:"adsorption-in-biodiesel-refining-a-review",totalDownloads:5348,totalCrossrefCites:7,signatures:"Carlos Vera, Mariana Busto, Juan Yori, Gerardo Torres, Debora Manuale, Sergio Canavese and Jorge Sepúlveda",authors:[{id:"58941",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"Roman",surname:"Vera",fullName:"Carlos Vera",slug:"carlos-vera"},{id:"64649",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Yori",fullName:"Juan Carlos Yori",slug:"juan-carlos-yori"},{id:"124590",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariana",middleName:null,surname:"Busto",fullName:"Mariana Busto",slug:"mariana-busto"},{id:"124592",title:"Dr.",name:"Gerardo",middleName:null,surname:"Torres",fullName:"Gerardo Torres",slug:"gerardo-torres"},{id:"124593",title:"Dr.",name:"Debora",middleName:null,surname:"Manuale",fullName:"Debora Manuale",slug:"debora-manuale"},{id:"124594",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",middleName:null,surname:"Canavese",fullName:"Sergio Canavese",slug:"sergio-canavese"},{id:"124596",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Sepúlveda",fullName:"Jorge Sepúlveda",slug:"jorge-sepulveda"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"493",title:"Pesticides",subtitle:"Formulations, Effects, Fate",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"35f00fd282698d3ff83bd9759c5c7a9c",slug:"pesticides-formulations-effects-fate",bookSignature:"Margarita Stoytcheva",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/493.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6375",title:"Prof.",name:"Margarita",surname:"Stoytcheva",slug:"margarita-stoytcheva",fullName:"Margarita Stoytcheva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"13001",title:"Pesticides of Botanical Origin: a Promising Tool in Plant Protection",slug:"pesticides-of-botanical-origin-a-promising-tool-in-plant-protection",signatures:"Nikoletta G. Ntalli and Urania Menkissoglu-Spiroudi",authors:[{id:"15136",title:"Dr.",name:"Urania",middleName:null,surname:"Menkissoglu-Spiroudi",fullName:"Urania Menkissoglu-Spiroudi",slug:"urania-menkissoglu-spiroudi"},{id:"15906",title:"Dr.",name:"Nikoletta",middleName:null,surname:"Ntalli",fullName:"Nikoletta Ntalli",slug:"nikoletta-ntalli"}]},{id:"13002",title:"Baculovirus Biopesticides",slug:"baculovirus-biopesticides",signatures:"Boguslaw Szewczyk, Marlinda Lobo de Souza, Maria Elita Batista de Castro, Mauricio Lara Moscardi and Flavio Moscardi",authors:[{id:"14133",title:"Prof.",name:"Boguslaw",middleName:null,surname:"Szewczyk",fullName:"Boguslaw Szewczyk",slug:"boguslaw-szewczyk"}]},{id:"13003",title:"Acaricides - Biological Profiles, Effects and Uses in Modern Crop Protection",slug:"acaricides-biological-profiles-effects-and-uses-in-modern-crop-protection",signatures:"Dejan Marčić, Pantelija Perić and Slobodan Milenković",authors:[{id:"14001",title:"Dr.",name:"Dejan",middleName:null,surname:"Marčić",fullName:"Dejan Marčić",slug:"dejan-marcic"},{id:"16471",title:"Dr.",name:"Pantelija",middleName:null,surname:"Perić",fullName:"Pantelija Perić",slug:"pantelija-peric"},{id:"23873",title:"Dr.",name:"Slobodan",middleName:null,surname:"Milenković",fullName:"Slobodan Milenković",slug:"slobodan-milenkovic"}]},{id:"13004",title:"Formula Optimization Design of Pesticide Microemulsion",slug:"formula-optimization-design-of-pesticide-microemulsion",signatures:"Feng Zhao and Wu Yaqian",authors:[{id:"15081",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Zhao",fullName:"Feng Zhao",slug:"feng-zhao"}]},{id:"13005",title:"Pesticide Mixtures",slug:"pesticide-mixtures",signatures:"Raymond A. Cloyd",authors:[{id:"14208",title:"Dr.",name:"Raymond A.",middleName:null,surname:"Cloyd",fullName:"Raymond A. Cloyd",slug:"raymond-a.-cloyd"}]},{id:"13006",title:"Biodegradable Hydrogel as Delivery Vehicle for the Controlled Release of Pesticide",slug:"biodegradable-hydrogel-as-delivery-vehicle-for-the-controlled-release-of-pesticide",signatures:"Fauze Ahmad Aouada, Márcia Regina de Moura, Luiz Henrique Capparelli Mattoso",authors:[{id:"15743",title:"Dr.",name:"Fauze Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Aouada",fullName:"Fauze Ahmad Aouada",slug:"fauze-ahmad-aouada"},{id:"20240",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz Henrique",middleName:null,surname:"Capparelli Mattoso",fullName:"Luiz Henrique Capparelli Mattoso",slug:"luiz-henrique-capparelli-mattoso"},{id:"24120",title:"Dr.",name:"Márcia",middleName:null,surname:"Moura",fullName:"Márcia Moura",slug:"marcia-moura"}]},{id:"13007",title:"Efficacious Considerations for the Design of Diffusion Controlled Pesticide Release Formulations",slug:"efficacious-considerations-for-the-design-of-diffusion-controlled-pesticide-release-formulations",signatures:"Steven A. Cryer",authors:[{id:"16116",title:"Dr.",name:"Steven",middleName:null,surname:"Cryer",fullName:"Steven Cryer",slug:"steven-cryer"}]},{id:"13008",title:"A New Technique for Safe Pesticide Spraying in Greenhouses",slug:"a-new-technique-for-safe-pesticide-spraying-in-greenhouses",signatures:"Guido Belforte, Gabriella Eula and Terenziano Raparelli",authors:[{id:"14069",title:"PhD.",name:"Gabriella",middleName:null,surname:"Eula",fullName:"Gabriella Eula",slug:"gabriella-eula"},{id:"14076",title:"Prof.",name:"Guido",middleName:null,surname:"Belforte",fullName:"Guido Belforte",slug:"guido-belforte"},{id:"14077",title:"Prof.",name:"Terenziano",middleName:null,surname:"Raparelli",fullName:"Terenziano Raparelli",slug:"terenziano-raparelli"}]},{id:"13009",title:"Distribution of Chemical and Microbial Pesticides through Drip Irrigation Systems",slug:"distribution-of-chemical-and-microbial-pesticides-through-drip-irrigation-systems",signatures:"Heping Zhu, Xiaochan Wang, Michael E. Reding and James C. Locke",authors:[{id:"15972",title:"Dr.",name:"Heping",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",fullName:"Heping Zhu",slug:"heping-zhu"}]},{id:"13010",title:"International Food Safety Standards and the Use of Pesticides in Fresh Export Vegetable Production in Developing Countries: Implications for Farmer Health and the Environment",slug:"international-food-safety-standards-and-the-use-of-pesticides-in-fresh-export-vegetable-production-i",signatures:"Julius J. Okello and Scott M. Swinton",authors:[{id:"16576",title:"Dr.",name:"Julius",middleName:null,surname:"Juma Okello",fullName:"Julius Juma Okello",slug:"julius-juma-okello"},{id:"24171",title:"Prof.",name:"Scott M.",middleName:null,surname:"Swinton",fullName:"Scott M. Swinton",slug:"scott-m.-swinton"}]},{id:"13011",title:"Pesticide Residues in Agricultural Products of the Slovene Origin Found in 2001-2009",slug:"pesticide-residues-in-agricultural-products-of-the-slovene-origin-found-in-2001-2009",signatures:"Helena Baša Česnik, Špela Velikonja Bolta and Ana Gregorčič",authors:[{id:"15163",title:"Dr.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Baša Česnik",fullName:"Helena Baša Česnik",slug:"helena-basa-cesnik"},{id:"15850",title:"Dr.",name:"Špela",middleName:null,surname:"Velikonja Bolta",fullName:"Špela Velikonja Bolta",slug:"spela-velikonja-bolta"},{id:"15851",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Gregorčič",fullName:"Ana Gregorčič",slug:"ana-gregorcic"}]},{id:"13012",title:"Pesticides in Agricultural Products: Analysis, Reduction, Prevention",slug:"pesticides-in-agricultural-products-analysis-reduction-prevention",signatures:"Mohammad Shokrzadeh and Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi",authors:[{id:"14680",title:"Dr.",name:"Seyed Soheil",middleName:null,surname:"Saeedi Saravi",fullName:"Seyed Soheil Saeedi Saravi",slug:"seyed-soheil-saeedi-saravi"},{id:"16766",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad",middleName:null,surname:"Shokrzadeh",fullName:"Mohammad Shokrzadeh",slug:"mohammad-shokrzadeh"}]},{id:"13013",title:"Pesticide Residues in Fruits and Vegetables",slug:"pesticide-residues-in-fruits-and-vegetables",signatures:"B. M. Keikotlhaile, and P. Spanoghe",authors:[{id:"14717",title:"Dr.",name:"Boitshepo",middleName:null,surname:"Keikotlhaile",fullName:"Boitshepo Keikotlhaile",slug:"boitshepo-keikotlhaile"}]},{id:"13014",title:"A Risk Assessment Study of Greek Population Dietary Chronic Exposure to Pesticide Residues in Fruits, Vegetables and Olive Oil",slug:"a-risk-assessment-study-of-greek-population-dietary-chronic-exposure-to-pesticide-residues-in-fruits",signatures:"Ioannis N. Tsakiris, Maria Toutoudaki, Manos Kokkinakis, Mitlianga Paraskevi, and Aristides M. Tsatsakis",authors:[{id:"16686",title:"Dr.",name:"Aristides",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Tsatsakis",fullName:"Aristides Tsatsakis",slug:"aristides-tsatsakis"},{id:"16689",title:"Dr.",name:"Ioannis",middleName:null,surname:"Tsakiris",fullName:"Ioannis Tsakiris",slug:"ioannis-tsakiris"},{id:"16690",title:"Dr.",name:"Paraskevi",middleName:null,surname:"Mitlianga",fullName:"Paraskevi Mitlianga",slug:"paraskevi-mitlianga"}]},{id:"13015",title:"Pesticides Surveillance on Surface Waters: Developing a Method for Watersheds Prioritization",slug:"pesticides-surveillance-on-surface-waters-developing-a-method-for-watersheds-prioritization",signatures:"Carolina Menezes and Léo Heller",authors:[null]},{id:"13016",title:"Herbicide Contamination of Freshwater Ecosystems: Impact on Microbial Communities",slug:"herbicide-contamination-of-freshwater-ecosystems-impact-on-microbial-communities",signatures:"Villeneuve A., Larroudé S. and Humbert J.F.",authors:[{id:"14709",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-François",middleName:null,surname:"Humbert",fullName:"Jean-François Humbert",slug:"jean-francois-humbert"},{id:"14975",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurélie",middleName:null,surname:"Villeneuve",fullName:"Aurélie Villeneuve",slug:"aurelie-villeneuve"},{id:"14976",title:"Ms.",name:"Solène",middleName:null,surname:"Larroudé",fullName:"Solène Larroudé",slug:"solene-larroude"}]},{id:"13017",title:"Pesticides Reaching the Environment as a Consequence of Inappropriate Agricultural Practices in Argentina",slug:"pesticides-reaching-the-environment-as-a-consequence-of-inappropriate-agricultural-practices-in-arge",signatures:"Andrés H. Arias, Natalia S. Buzzi, Marcelo T. Pereira and Jorge E. Marcovecchio",authors:[{id:"14663",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",middleName:"Hugo",surname:"Arias",fullName:"Andres Arias",slug:"andres-arias"},{id:"41468",title:"Dr.",name:"Natalia",middleName:null,surname:"Buzzi",fullName:"Natalia Buzzi",slug:"natalia-buzzi"},{id:"41469",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",fullName:"Marcelo Tomas Pereira",slug:"marcelo-tomas-pereira"},{id:"41470",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:"Eduardo",surname:"Marcovecchio",fullName:"Jorge Marcovecchio",slug:"jorge-marcovecchio"}]},{id:"13018",title:"Bioconcentration of Pesticides in Fish from Rivers and Lakes",slug:"bioconcentration-of-pesticides-in-fish-from-rivers-and-lakes",signatures:"Taizo Tsuda",authors:[{id:"15361",title:"Dr.",name:"Taizo",middleName:null,surname:"Tsuda",fullName:"Taizo Tsuda",slug:"taizo-tsuda"}]},{id:"13019",title:"Organochlorine Pesticides Residues for some Aquatic Systems in Albania",slug:"organochlorine-pesticides-residues-for-some-aquatic-systems-in-albania",signatures:"Aurel Nuro and Elda Marku",authors:[{id:"14427",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurel",middleName:null,surname:"Nuro",fullName:"Aurel Nuro",slug:"aurel-nuro"},{id:"16425",title:"Prof.",name:"Elda",middleName:null,surname:"Marku",fullName:"Elda Marku",slug:"elda-marku"}]},{id:"13020",title:"Distribution Characteristics of Organochlorine Pesticides in Soil and Groundwater of Different Irrigation Areas in Southeast Suburb of Beijing",slug:"distribution-characteristics-of-organochlorine-pesticides-in-soil-and-groundwater-of-different-irrig",signatures:"He Jiang-tao, Ma Wen-jie, Jin Ai-Fang and Wei Yong-Xia",authors:[{id:"15351",title:"Dr.",name:"Jiang-Tao",middleName:null,surname:"He",fullName:"Jiang-Tao He",slug:"jiang-tao-he"},{id:"16616",title:"Prof.",name:"Wen-Jie",middleName:null,surname:"Ma",fullName:"Wen-Jie Ma",slug:"wen-jie-ma"},{id:"16617",title:"Dr.",name:"Ai-Fang",middleName:null,surname:"Jin",fullName:"Ai-Fang Jin",slug:"ai-fang-jin"},{id:"16618",title:"Dr.",name:"Yong-Xia",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",fullName:"Yong-Xia Wei",slug:"yong-xia-wei"}]},{id:"13021",title:"Efficacy of Management Practices to Mitigate the Off-Site Movement and Ecological Risk of Pesticides Transported with Runoff from Agricultural and Turf Systems",slug:"efficacy-of-management-practices-to-mitigate-the-off-site-movement-and-ecological-risk-of-pesticides",signatures:"Pamela J. Rice, Brian P. Horgan, Cathleen J. Hapeman and Laura L. McConnell",authors:[{id:"16961",title:"Dr.",name:"Pamela J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rice",fullName:"Pamela J. Rice",slug:"pamela-j.-rice"},{id:"16963",title:"Dr.",name:"Brian P.",middleName:null,surname:"Horgan",fullName:"Brian P. Horgan",slug:"brian-p.-horgan"},{id:"16964",title:"Dr.",name:"Cathleen J.",middleName:null,surname:"Hapeman",fullName:"Cathleen J. Hapeman",slug:"cathleen-j.-hapeman"},{id:"16965",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura L.",middleName:null,surname:"McConnell",fullName:"Laura L. McConnell",slug:"laura-l.-mcconnell"}]},{id:"13557",title:"Endosulfan in China: Usage, Emissions, and Residues",slug:"endosulfan-in-china-usage-emissions-and-residues",signatures:"Hongliang Jia, Liyan Liu, Yeqing Sun and Yi-Fan Li",authors:[{id:"15603",title:"Dr.",name:"Yi-Fan",middleName:null,surname:"Li",fullName:"Yi-Fan Li",slug:"yi-fan-li"},{id:"16711",title:"Dr.",name:"Hongliang",middleName:null,surname:"Jia",fullName:"Hongliang Jia",slug:"hongliang-jia"}]},{id:"13022",title:"Hexachlorocyclohexanes in Arctic and Antarctic Marine Ecosystems",slug:"hexachlorocyclohexanes-in-arctic-and-antarctic-marine-ecosystems",signatures:"Alessandra Cincinelli, Tania Martellini and Simonetta Corsolini",authors:[{id:"16767",title:"Dr.",name:"Alessandra",middleName:null,surname:"Cincinelli",fullName:"Alessandra Cincinelli",slug:"alessandra-cincinelli"}]},{id:"13023",title:"Sublethal Effects of Pyrethroids on Insect Parasitoids: What We Need to Further Know",slug:"sublethal-effects-of-pyrethroids-on-insect-parasitoids-what-we-need-to-further-know",signatures:"Patrícia Garcia",authors:[{id:"15046",title:"Dr.",name:"Patrícia",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",fullName:"Patrícia Garcia",slug:"patricia-garcia"}]},{id:"13024",title:"Pesticide Exposure and Health Related Issues in Male and Female Reproductive System",slug:"pesticide-exposure-and-health-related-issues-in-male-and-female-reproductive-system",signatures:"Stavros Sifakis, Mihalis Mparmpas, Offie P. Soldin and Aristides Tsatsakis",authors:[{id:"16686",title:"Dr.",name:"Aristides",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Tsatsakis",fullName:"Aristides Tsatsakis",slug:"aristides-tsatsakis"},{id:"22189",title:"MD",name:"Stavros",middleName:null,surname:"Sifakis",fullName:"Stavros Sifakis",slug:"stavros-sifakis"},{id:"22190",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihalis",middleName:null,surname:"Mparmpas",fullName:"Mihalis Mparmpas",slug:"mihalis-mparmpas"},{id:"22191",title:"Dr.",name:"Giannis",middleName:null,surname:"Heretis",fullName:"Giannis Heretis",slug:"giannis-heretis"}]},{id:"13025",title:"Organophosphorous Pesticides Exacerbate the Demographic Consequences of Intersexual Selection in Fish",slug:"organophosphorous-pesticides-exacerbate-the-demographic-consequences-of-intersexual-selection-in-fis",signatures:"Irene Barbosa-valero, Omar Arellano-Aguilar and Constantino Macías Garcia",authors:[{id:"17469",title:"Dr.",name:"Constantino",middleName:null,surname:"Macías Garcia",fullName:"Constantino Macías Garcia",slug:"constantino-macias-garcia"},{id:"17470",title:"Dr.",name:"Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Arellano-Aguilar",fullName:"Omar Arellano-Aguilar",slug:"omar-arellano-aguilar"},{id:"17471",title:"Prof.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Barbosa-Valero",fullName:"Irene Barbosa-Valero",slug:"irene-barbosa-valero"}]},{id:"13026",title:"Pesticides in the Environment: Impacts and its Biodegradation as a Strategy for Residues Treatment",slug:"pesticides-in-the-environment-impacts-and-its-biodegradation-as-a-strategy-for-residues-treatment",signatures:"Ma. Laura Ortiz-Hernández, Enrique Sánchez-Salinas, Angeluz Olvera-Velona and Jorge Luis Folch-Mallol",authors:[{id:"15059",title:"Dr.",name:"Ma. Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz-Hernandez",fullName:"Ma. Laura Ortiz-Hernandez",slug:"ma.-laura-ortiz-hernandez"},{id:"16717",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez-Salinas",fullName:"Enrique Sanchez-Salinas",slug:"enrique-sanchez-salinas"},{id:"16718",title:"Dr.",name:"Angeluz",middleName:null,surname:"Olvera-Velona",fullName:"Angeluz Olvera-Velona",slug:"angeluz-olvera-velona"},{id:"16719",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Folch.Mallol",fullName:"Jorge Luis Folch.Mallol",slug:"jorge-luis-folch.mallol"}]},{id:"13027",title:"Fate of Pesticide Residues on Raw Agricultural Crops after Postharvest Storage and Food Processing to Edible Portions",slug:"fate-of-pesticide-residues-on-raw-agricultural-crops-after-postharvest-storage-and-food-processing-t",signatures:"Elpiniki G. Amvrazi",authors:[{id:"14627",title:"Dr.",name:"Elpiniki",middleName:"G.",surname:"Amvrazi",fullName:"Elpiniki Amvrazi",slug:"elpiniki-amvrazi"}]},{id:"13028",title:"Analytical Methods for Performing Pesticide Degradation Studies in Environmental Samples",slug:"analytical-methods-for-performing-pesticide-degradation-studies-in-environmental-samples",signatures:"Zenilda L. Cardeal, Amauri G. Souza and Leiliane C.A. Amorim",authors:[{id:"16970",title:"Prof.",name:"Zenilda",middleName:"L.",surname:"Cardeal",fullName:"Zenilda Cardeal",slug:"zenilda-cardeal"},{id:"16984",title:"Dr.",name:"Leiliane",middleName:"C.A.",surname:"Amorim",fullName:"Leiliane Amorim",slug:"leiliane-amorim"},{id:"16985",title:"Prof.",name:"Amauri",middleName:null,surname:"Souza",fullName:"Amauri Souza",slug:"amauri-souza"}]},{id:"13029",title:"Micropollutant Degradation Mechanism",slug:"micropollutant-degradation-mechanism",signatures:"Brigita Tepuš, Irena Petrinić and Marjana Simonič",authors:[{id:"15110",title:"Dr.",name:"Irena",middleName:null,surname:"Petrinic",fullName:"Irena Petrinic",slug:"irena-petrinic"},{id:"15704",title:"Dr.",name:"Brigita",middleName:null,surname:"Tepuš",fullName:"Brigita Tepuš",slug:"brigita-tepus"},{id:"16583",title:"Dr.",name:"Marjana",middleName:null,surname:"Simonič",fullName:"Marjana Simonič",slug:"marjana-simonic"}]},{id:"13030",title:"Bacterial-Degradation of Pesticides Residue in Vegetables during Fermentation",slug:"bacterial-degradation-of-pesticides-residue-in-vegetables-during-fermentation",signatures:"Aslan Azizi",authors:[{id:"15701",title:"Dr.",name:"Aslan",middleName:null,surname:"Azizi",fullName:"Aslan Azizi",slug:"aslan-azizi"}]},{id:"13107",title:"Interpretation and Modelling of Environmental Behaviour of Diverse Pesticides by Revealing Photodecomposition Mechanisms",slug:"interpretation-and-modelling-of-environmental-behaviour-of-diverse-pesticides-by-revealing-photodeco",signatures:"Attila Kiss and Diána Virág",authors:[{id:"14950",title:"Dr.",name:"Attila",middleName:null,surname:"Kiss",fullName:"Attila Kiss",slug:"attila-kiss"},{id:"14973",title:"Dr.",name:"Diána",middleName:null,surname:"Virág",fullName:"Diána Virág",slug:"diana-virag"}]},{id:"13031",title:"Degradation of Organochlorine and Organophosphorus Pesticides by Photocatalysis: Chlorpiryfos and Endosulfan Case Study",slug:"degradation-of-organochlorine-and-organophosphorus-pesticides-by-photocatalysis-chlorpiryfos-and-end",signatures:"Rosalina González Forero",authors:[{id:"14241",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Forero",fullName:"Rosalina Gonzalez Forero",slug:"rosalina-gonzalez-forero"}]},{id:"13032",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes (AOPs) for Removal of Pesticides from Aqueous Media",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-aops-for-removal-of-pesticides-from-aqueous-media",signatures:"Marco A. Quiroz, Erick R. Bandala and Carlos A. Martínez-Huitle",authors:[{id:"15324",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Quiroz Alfaro",fullName:"Marco Antonio Quiroz Alfaro",slug:"marco-antonio-quiroz-alfaro"},{id:"16897",title:"Dr.",name:"Erick Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Bandala González",fullName:"Erick Roberto Bandala González",slug:"erick-roberto-bandala-gonzalez"},{id:"16898",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez Huitle",fullName:"Carlos Alberto Martínez Huitle",slug:"carlos-alberto-martinez-huitle"}]},{id:"13033",title:"Low-Cost Sorbent for Removing Pesticides during Water Treatment",slug:"low-cost-sorbent-for-removing-pesticides-during-water-treatment",signatures:"Katarzyna Ignatowicz",authors:[{id:"15053",title:"Prof.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Ignatowicz",fullName:"Katarzyna Ignatowicz",slug:"katarzyna-ignatowicz"}]},{id:"13034",title:"Influence of the Activated Carbon Nature and the Aqueous Matrix on the Pesticides Adsorption",slug:"influence-of-the-activated-carbon-nature-and-the-aqueous-matrix-on-the-pesticides-adsorption",signatures:"Natividad Miguel, María P. Ormad, Rosa Mosteo, Jorge Rodríguez and José L. Ovelleiro",authors:[{id:"14648",title:"Dr.",name:"Natividad",middleName:null,surname:"Miguel",fullName:"Natividad Miguel",slug:"natividad-miguel"},{id:"14649",title:"Prof.",name:"María P.",middleName:null,surname:"Ormad",fullName:"María P. Ormad",slug:"maria-p.-ormad"},{id:"14650",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa",middleName:null,surname:"Mosteo",fullName:"Rosa Mosteo",slug:"rosa-mosteo"},{id:"14651",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Rodríguez",fullName:"Jorge Rodríguez",slug:"jorge-rodriguez"},{id:"14652",title:"Dr.",name:"José L.",middleName:null,surname:"Ovelleiro",fullName:"José L. Ovelleiro",slug:"jose-l.-ovelleiro"}]},{id:"13035",title:"Adsorption Properties of Sediments for Pesticides: Investigation with Supercritical Fluid Extraction and Gas Chromatograph Mass Spectrometry",slug:"adsorption-properties-of-sediments-for-pesticides-investigation-with-supercritical-fluid-extraction-",signatures:"Hiroaki Chikushi, Natsuko Yoshida and Kei Toda",authors:[{id:"14786",title:"Dr.",name:"Kei",middleName:null,surname:"Toda",fullName:"Kei Toda",slug:"kei-toda"},{id:"16534",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Chikushi",fullName:"Hiroaki Chikushi",slug:"hiroaki-chikushi"}]},{id:"13036",title:"Sorption of Pesticides on Natural Geosorbents",slug:"sorption-of-pesticides-on-natural-geosorbents",signatures:"Jean-Pierre Gagné, Bruno Gouteux, Youssouf Djibril Soubaneh, and Jean-Rock Brindle",authors:[{id:"14741",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Pierre",middleName:null,surname:"Gagné",fullName:"Jean-Pierre Gagné",slug:"jean-pierre-gagne"},{id:"14761",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean-Rock",middleName:null,surname:"Brindle",fullName:"Jean-Rock Brindle",slug:"jean-rock-brindle"},{id:"16683",title:"Dr.",name:"Youssouf Djibril",middleName:null,surname:"Soubaneh",fullName:"Youssouf Djibril Soubaneh",slug:"youssouf-djibril-soubaneh"},{id:"16684",title:"Dr.",name:"Bruno",middleName:null,surname:"Gouteux",fullName:"Bruno Gouteux",slug:"bruno-gouteux"}]},{id:"13037",title:"Pesticides as a Waste Problem with Examples from Norway",slug:"pesticides-as-a-waste-problem-with-examples-from-norway",signatures:"Ketil Haarstad",authors:[{id:"16783",title:"Dr.",name:"Ketil",middleName:null,surname:"Haarstad",fullName:"Ketil Haarstad",slug:"ketil-haarstad"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"70192",title:"Stability Constants of Metal Complexes in Solution",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90183",slug:"stability-constants-of-metal-complexes-in-solution",body:'Stability constant of the formation of metal complexes is used to measure interaction strength of reagents. From this process, metal ion and ligand interaction formed the two types of metal complexes; one is supramolecular complexes known as host-guest complexes [1] and the other is anion-containing complexes. In the solution it provides and calculates the required information about the concentration of metal complexes.
Solubility, light, absorption conductance, partitioning behavior, conductance, and chemical reactivity are the complex characteristics which are different from their components. It is determined by various numerical and graphical methods which calculate the equilibrium constants. This is based on or related to a quantity, and this is called the complex formation function.
During the displacement process at the time of metal complex formation, some ions disappear and form a bonding between metal ions and ligands. It may be considered due to displacement of a proton from a ligand species or ions or molecules causing a drop in the pH values of the solution [2]. Irving and Rossotti developed a technique for the calculation of stability constant, and it is called potentiometric technique.
To determine the stability constant, Bjerrum has used a very simple method, and that is metal salt solubility method. For the studies of a larger different variety of polycarboxylic acid-, oxime-, phenol-containing metal complexes, Martel and Calvin used the potentiometric technique for calculating the stability constant. Those ligands [3, 4] which are uncharged are also examined, and their stability constant calculations are determined by the limitations inherent in the ligand solubility method. The limitations of the metal salt solubility method and the result of solubility methods are compared with this. M-L, MLM, and (M3) L are some types of examples of metal-ligand bonding. One thing is common, and that is these entire types metal complexes all have one ligand.
The solubility method can only usefully be applied to studies of such complexes, and it is best applied for ML; in such types of system, only ML is formed. Jacqueline Gonzalez and his co-worker propose to explore the coordination chemistry of calcium complexes. Jacqueline and et al. followed this technique for evaluate the as partial model of the manganese-calcium cluster and spectrophotometric studies of metal complexes, i.e., they were carried calcium(II)-1,4-butanediamine in acetonitrile and calcium(II)-1,2-ethylendiamine, calcium(II)-1,3-propanediamine by them.
Spectrophotometric programming of HypSpec and received data allows the determination of the formation of solubility constants. The logarithmic values, log β110 = 5.25 for calcium(II)-1,3-propanediamine, log β110 = 4.072 for calcium(II)-1,4-butanediamine, and log β110 = 4.69 for calcium(II)-1,2-ethylendiamine, are obtained for the formation constants [5]. The structure of Cimetidine and histamine H2-receptor is a chelating agent. Syed Ahmad Tirmizi has examined Ni(II) cimetidine complex spectrophotometrically and found an absorption peak maximum of 622 nm with respect to different temperatures.
Syed Ahmad Tirmizi have been used to taken 1:2 ratio of metal and cimetidine compound for the formation of metal complex and this satisfied by molar ratio data. The data, 1.40–2.4 × 108, was calculated using the continuous variation method and stability constant at room temperature, and by using the mole ratio method, this value at 40°C was 1.24–2.4 × 108. In the formation of lead(II) metal complexes with 1-(aminomethyl) cyclohexene, Thanavelan et al. found the formation of their binary and ternary complexes. Glycine,
Using the stability constant method, these ternary complexes were found out, and using the parameters such as Δ log K and log X, these ternary complex data were compared with binary complex. The potentiometric technique at room temperature (25°C) was used in the investigation of some binary complex formations by Abdelatty Mohamed Radalla. These binary complexes are formed with 3D transition metal ions like Cu2+, Ni2+, Co2+, and Zn2+ and gallic acid’s importance as a ligand and 0.10 mol dm−3 of NaNO3. Such types of aliphatic dicarboxylic acids are very important biologically. Many acid-base characters and the nature of using metal complexes have been investigated and discussed time to time by researchers [7].
The above acids (gallic and aliphatic dicarboxylic acid) were taken to determine the acidity constants. For the purpose of determining the stability constant, binary and ternary complexes were carried in the aqueous medium using the experimental conditions as stated above. The potentiometric pH-metric titration curves are inferred for the binary complexes and ternary complexes at different ratios, and formation of ternary metal complex formation was in a stepwise manner that provided an easy way to calculate stability constants for the formation of metal complexes.
The values of Δ log K, percentage of relative stabilization (% R. S.), and log X were evaluated and discussed. Now it provides the outline about the various complex species for the formation of different solvents, and using the concentration distribution, these complexes were evaluated and discussed. The conductivity measurements have ascertained for the mode of ternary chelating complexes.
A study by Kathrina and Pekar suggests that pH plays an important role in the formation of metal complexes. When epigallocatechin gallate and gallic acid combine with copper(II) to form metal complexes, the pH changes its speculation. We have been able to determine its pH in frozen and fluid state with the help of multifrequency EPR spectroscopy [8]. With the help of this spectroscopy, it is able to detect that each polyphenol exhibits the formation of three different mononuclear species. If the pH ranges 4–8 for di- or polymeric complex of Cu(II), then it conjectures such metal complexes. It is only at alkaline pH values.
The line width in fluid solutions by molecular motion exhibits an incomplete average of the parameters of anisotropy spin Hamilton. If the complexes are different, then their rotational correlation times for this also vary. The analysis of the LyCEP anisotropy of the fluid solution spectra is performed using the parameters determined by the simulation of the rigid boundary spectra. Its result suggests that pH increases its value by affecting its molecular mass. It is a polyphenol ligand complex with copper, showing the coordination of an increasing number of its molecules or increasing participation of polyphenol dimers used as ligands in the copper coordination region.
The study by Vishenkova and his co-worker [8] provides the investigation of electrochemical properties of triphenylmethane dyes using a voltammetric method with constant-current potential sweep. Malachite green (MG) and basic fuchsin (BF) have been chosen as representatives of the triphenylmethane dyes [9]. The electrochemical behavior of MG and BF on the surface of a mercury film electrode depending on pH, the nature of background electrolyte, and scan rate of potential sweep has been investigated.
Using a voltammetric method with a constant-current potential sweep examines the electrical properties of triphenylmethane dye. In order to find out the solution of MG and BF, certain registration conditions have been prescribed for it, which have proved to be quite useful. The reduction peak for the currents of MG and BF has demonstrated that it increases linearly with respect to their concentration as 9.0 × 10−5–7.0 × 10−3 mol/dm3 for MG and 6.0 × 10−5–8.0 × 10−3 mol/dm3 for BF and correlation coefficients of these values are 0.9987 for MG and 0.9961 for BF [10].
5.0 × 10−5 and 2.0 × 10−5 mol/dm3 are the values used as the detection limit of MG and BF, respectively. Stability constants are a very useful technique whose size is huge. Due to its usefulness, it has acquired an umbrella right in the fields of chemistry, biology, and medicine. No science subject is untouched by this. Stability constants of metal complexes are widely used in the various areas like pharmaceuticals as well as biological processes, separation techniques, analytical processes, etc. In the presented chapter, we have tried to explain this in detail by focusing our attention on the applications and solutions of stability of metal complexes in solution.
Stability or formation or binding constant is the type of equilibrium constant used for the formation of metal complexes in the solution. Acutely, stability constant is applicable to measure the strength of interactions between the ligands and metal ions that are involved in complex formation in the solution [11]. A generally these 1-4 equations are expressed as the following ways:
Thus
K1, K2, K3, … Kn are the equilibrium constants and these are also called stepwise stability constants. The formation of the metal-ligand-n complex may also be expressed as equilibrium constants by the following steps:
The parameters K and β are related together, and these are expressed in the following example:
Now the numerator and denominator are multiplied together with the use of [metal-ligand] [metal-ligand2], and after the rearranging we get the following equation:
Now we expressed it as the following:
From the above relation, it is clear that the overall stability constant βn is equal to the product of the successive (i.e., stepwise) stability constants, K1, K2, K3,…Kn. This in other words means that the value of stability constants for a given complex is actually made up of a number of stepwise stability constants. The term stability is used without qualification to mean that the complex exists under a suitable condition and that it is possible to store the complex for an appreciable amount of time. The term stability is commonly used because coordination compounds are stable in one reagent but dissociate or dissolve in the presence of another regent. It is also possible that the term stability can be referred as an action of heat or light or compound. The stability of complex [13] is expressed qualitatively in terms of thermodynamic stability and kinetic stability.
In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is a state in which the concentration of reactants and products does not change over time. Often this condition occurs when the speed of forward reaction becomes the same as the speed of reverse reaction. It is worth noting that the velocities of the forward and backward reaction are not zero at this stage but are equal.
If hydrogen and iodine are kept together in molecular proportions in a closed process vessel at high temperature (500°C), the following action begins:
In this activity, hydrogen iodide is formed by combining hydrogen and iodine, and the amount of hydrogen iodide increases with time. In contrast to this action, if the pure hydrogen iodide gas is heated to 500°C in the reaction, the compound is dissolved by reverse action, which causes hydrogen iodide to dissolve into hydrogen and iodine, and the ratio of these products increases over time. This is expressed in the following reaction:
For the formation of metal chelates, the thermodynamic technique provides a very significant information. Thermodynamics is a very useful technique in distinguishing between enthalpic effects and entropic effects. The bond strengths are totally effected by enthalpic effect, and this does not make any difference in the whole solution in order/disorder. Based on thermodynamics the chelate effect below can be best explained. The change of standard Gibbs free energy for equilibrium constant is response:
Where:
R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature
At 25°C,
ΔG = (− 5.708 kJ mol−1) · log β.
The enthalpy term creates free energy, i.e.,
For metal complexes, thermodynamic stability and kinetic stability are two interpretations of the stability constant in the solution. If reaction moves from reactants to products, it refers to a change in its energy as shown in the above equation. But for the reactivity, kinetic stability is responsible for this system, and this refers to ligand species [14].
Stable and unstable are thermodynamic terms, while labile and inert are kinetic terms. As a rule of thumb, those complexes which react completely within about 1 minute at 25°C are considered labile, and those complexes which take longer time than this to react are considered inert. [Ni(CN)4]2− is thermodynamically stable but kinetically inert because it rapidly exchanges ligands.
The metal complexes [Co(NH3)6]3+ and such types of other complexes are kinetically inert, but these are thermodynamically unstable. We may expect the complex to decompose in the presence of acid immediately because the complex is thermodynamically unstable. The rate is of the order of 1025 for the decomposition in acidic solution. Hence, it is thermodynamically unstable. However, nothing happens to the complex when it is kept in acidic solution for several days. While considering the stability of a complex, always the condition must be specified. Under what condition, the complex which is stable or unstable must be specified such as acidic and also basic condition, temperature, reactant, etc.
A complex may be stable with respect to a particular condition but with respect to another. In brief, a stable complex need not be inert and similarly, and an unstable complex need not be labile. It is the measure of extent of formation or transformation of complex under a given set of conditions at equilibrium [15].
Thermodynamic stability has an important role in determining the bond strength between metal ligands. Some complexes are stable, but as soon as they are introduced into aqueous solution, it is seen that these complexes have an effect on stability and fall apart. For an example, we take the [Co (SCN)4]2+ complex. The ion bond of this complex is very weak and breaks down quickly to form other compounds. But when [Fe(CN)6]3− is dissolved in water, it does not test Fe3+ by any sensitive reagent, which shows that this complex is more stable in aqueous solution. So it is indicated that thermodynamic stability deals with metal-ligand bond energy, stability constant, and other thermodynamic parameters.
This example also suggests that thermodynamic stability refers to the stability and instability of complexes. The measurement of the extent to which one type of species is converted to another species can be determined by thermodynamic stability until equilibrium is achieved. For example, tetracyanonickelate is a thermodynamically stable and kinetic labile complex. But the example of hexa-amine cobalt(III) cation is just the opposite:
Thermodynamics is used to express the difference between stability and inertia. For the stable complex, large positive free energies have been obtained from ΔG0 reaction. The ΔH0, standard enthalpy change for this reaction, is related to the equilibrium constant, βn, by the well thermodynamic equation:
For similar complexes of various ions of the same charge of a particular transition series and particular ligand, ΔS0 values would not differ substantially, and hence a change in ΔH0 value would be related to change in βn values. So the order of values of ΔH0 is also the order of the βn value.
Kinetic stability is referred to the rate of reaction between the metal ions and ligand proceeds at equilibrium or used for the formation of metal complexes. To take a decision for kinetic stability of any complexes, time is a factor which plays an important role for this. It deals between the rate of reaction and what is the mechanism of this metal complex reaction.
As we discuss above in thermodynamic stability, kinetic stability is referred for the complexes at which complex is inert or labile. The term “inert” was used by Tube for the thermally stable complex and for reactive complexes the term ‘labile’ used [16]. The naturally occurring chlorophyll is the example of polydentate ligand. This complex is extremely inert due to exchange of Mg2+ ion in the aqueous media.
The nature of central atom of metal complexes, dimension, its degree of oxidation, electronic structure of these complexes, and so many other properties of complexes are affected by the stability constant. Some of the following factors described are as follows.
In the coordination chemistry, metal complexes are formed by the interaction between metal ions and ligands. For these type of compounds, metal ions are the coordination center, and the ligand or complexing agents are oriented surrounding it. These metal ions mostly are the transition elements. For the determination of stability constant, some important characteristics of these metal complexes may be as given below.
Ligands are oriented around the central metal ions in the metal complexes. The sizes of these metal ions determine the number of ligand species that will be attached or ordinated (dative covalent) in the bond formation. If the sizes of these metal ions are increased, the stability of coordination compound defiantly decreased. Zn(II) metal ions are the central atoms in their complexes, and due to their lower size (0.74A°) as compared to Cd(II) size (0.97A°), metal ions are formed more stable.
Hence, Al3+ ion has the greatest nuclear charge, but its size is the smallest, and the ion N3− has the smallest nuclear charge, and its size is the largest [17]. Inert atoms like neon do not participate in the formation of the covalent or ionic compound, and these atoms are not included in isoelectronic series; hence, it is not easy to measure the radius of this type of atoms.
The properties of stability depend on the size of the metal ion used in the complexes and the total charge thereon. If the size of these metal ions is small and the total charge is high, then their complexes will be more stable. That is, their ratio will depend on the charge/radius. This can be demonstrated through the following reaction:
An ionic charge is the electric charge of an ion which is formed by the gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons from an atom or group of atoms. If we talk about the stability of the coordination compounds, we find that the total charge of their central metal ions affects their stability, so when we change their charge, their stability in a range of constant can be determined by propagating of error [18]. If the charge of the central metal ion is high and the size is small, the stability of the compound is high:
In general, the most stable coordination bonds can cause smaller and highly charged rations to form more stable coordination compounds.
When an electron pair attracts a central ion toward itself, a strong stability complex is formed, and this is due to electron donation from ligand → metal ion. This donation process is increasing the bond stability of metal complexes exerted the polarizing effect on certain metal ions. Li+, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Al3+, etc. are such type of metal cation which is not able to attract so strongly from a highly electronegative containing stable complexes, and these atoms are O, N, F, Au, Hg, Ag, Pd, Pt, and Pb. Such type of ligands that contains P, S, As, Br and I atom are formed stable complex because these accepts electron from M → π-bonding. Hg2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, and Bi3+ metal ions are also electronegative ions which form insoluble salts of metal sulfide which are insoluble in aqueous medium.
Volatile ligands may be lost at higher temperature. This is exemplified by the loss of water by hydrates and ammonia:
The transformation of certain coordination compounds from one to another is shown as follows:
A ligand is an ion or small molecule that binds to a metal atom (in chemistry) or to a biomolecule (in biochemistry) to form a complex, such as the iron-cyanide coordination complex Prussian blue or the iron-containing blood-protein hemoglobin. The ligands are arranged in spectrochemical series which are based on the order of their field strength. It is not possible to form the entire series by studying complexes with a single metal ion; the series has been developed by overlapping different sequences obtained from spectroscopic studies [19]. The order of common ligands according to their increasing ligand field strength is
The above spectrochemical series help us to for determination of strength of ligands. The left last ligand is as weaker ligand. These weaker ligand cannot forcible binding the 3d electron and resultant outer octahedral complexes formed. It is as-
Increasing the oxidation number the value of Δ increased.
Δ increases from top to bottom.
However, when we consider the metal ion, the following two useful trends are observed:
Δ increases with increasing oxidation number.
Δ increases down a group. For the determination of stability constant, the nature of the ligand plays an important role.
The following factors described the nature of ligands.
The size and charge are two factors that affect the production of metal complexes. The less charges and small sizes of ligands are more favorable for less stable bond formation with metal and ligand. But if this condition just opposite the product of metal and ligand will be a more stable compound. So, less nuclear charge and more size= less stable complex whereas if more nuclear charge and small in size= less stable complex. We take fluoride as an example because due to their smaller size than other halide and their highest electro negativity than the other halides formed more stable complexes. So, fluoride ion complexes are more stable than the other halides:
As compared to S2− ion, O22− ions formed more stable complexes.
It is suggested by Calvin and Wilson that the metal complexes will be more stable if the basic character or strength of ligands is higher. It means that the donating power of ligands to central metal ions is high [20].
It means that the donating power of ligands to central metal ions is high. In the case of complex formation of aliphatic diamines and aromatic diamines, the stable complex is formed by aliphatic diamines, while an unstable coordination complex is formed with aromatic diamines. So, from the above discussion, we find that the stability will be grater if the e-donation power is greater.
Thus it is clear that greater basic power of electron-donating species will form always a stable complex. NH3, CN−, and F− behaved as ligands and formed stable complexes; on the other hand, these are more basic in nature.
We know that if the concentration of coordination group is higher, these coordination compounds will exist in the water as solution. It is noted that greater coordinating tendency show the water molecules than the coordinating group which is originally present. SCN− (thiocynate) ions are present in higher concentration; with the Co2+ metal ion, it formed a blue-colored complex which is stable in state, but on dilution of water medium, a pink color is generated in place of blue, or blue color complex is destroyed by [Co(H2O)6]2+, and now if we added further SCN−, the pink color will not appear:
Now it is clear that H2O and SCN− are in competition for the formation of Co(II) metal-containing complex compound. In the case of tetra-amine cupric sulfate metal complex, ammonia acts as a donor atom or ligand. If the concentration of NH3 is lower in the reaction, copper hydroxide is formed but at higher concentration formed tetra-amine cupric sulfate as in the following reaction:
For a metal ion, chelating ligand is enhanced and affinity it and this is known as chelate effect and compared it with non-chelating and monodentate ligand or the multidentate ligand is acts as chelating agent. Ethylenediamine is a simple chelating agent (Figure 1).
Structure of ethylenediamine.
Due to the bidentate nature of ethylenediamine, it forms two bonds with metal ion or central atom. Water forms a complex with Ni(II) metal ion, but due to its monodentate nature, it is not a chelating ligand (Figures 2 and 3).
Structure of chelating configuration of ethylenediamine ligand.
Structure of chelate with three ethylenediamine ligands.
The dentate cheater of ligand provides bonding strength to the metal ion or central atom, and as the number of dentate increased, the tightness also increased. This phenomenon is known as chelating effect, whereas the formation of metal complexes with these chelating ligands is called chelation:
or
Some factors are of much importance for chelation as follows.
The sizes of the chelating ring are increased as well as the stability of metal complex decreased. According to Schwarzenbach, connecting bridges form the chelating rings. The elongated ring predominates when long bridges connect to the ligand to form a long ring. It is usually observed that an increased a chelate ring size leads to a decrease in complex stability.
He interpreted this statement. The entropy of complex will be change if the size of chelating ring is increased, i.e., second donor atom is allowed by the chelating ring. As the size of chelating ring increased, the stability should be increased with entropy effect. Four-membered ring compounds are unstable, whereas five-membered are more stable. So the chelating ring increased its size and the stability of the formed metal complexes.
The number of chelating rings also decides the stability of complexes. Non-chelating metal compounds are less stable than chelating compounds. These numbers increase the thermodynamic volume, and this is also known as an entropy term. In recent years ligands capable of occupying as many as six coordination positions on a single metal ion have been described. The studies on the formation constants of coordination compounds with these ligands have been reported. The numbers of ligand or chelating agents are affecting the stability of metal complexes so as these numbers go up and down, the stability will also vary with it.
For the Ni(II) complexes with ethylenediamine as chelating agent, its log K1 value is 7.9 and if chelating agents are trine and penten, then the log K1 values are 7.9 and 19.3, respectively. If the metal ion change Zn is used in place of Ni (II), then the values of log K1 for ethylenediamine, trine, and penten are 6.0, 12.1, and 16.2, respectively. The log βMY values of metal ions are given in Table 1.
Metal ion | log βMY (25°C, I = 0.1 M) |
---|---|
Ca2+ | 11.2 |
Cu2+ | 19.8 |
Fe3+ | 24.9 |
Metal ion vs. log βMY values.
Ni(NH3)62+ is an octahedral metal complex, and at 25 °C its log β6 value is 8.3, but Ni(ethylenediamine)32+ complex is also octahedral in geometry, with 18.4 as the value of log β6. The calculated stability value of Ni(ethylenediamine)32+ 1010 times is more stable because three rings are formed as chelating rings by ethylenediamine as compared to no such ring is formed. Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) is a hexadentate ligand that usually formed stable metal complexes due to its chelating power.
A special effect in molecules is when the atoms occupy space. This is called steric effect. Energy is needed to bring these atoms closer to each other. These electrons run away from near atoms. There can be many ways of generating it. We know the repulsion between valence electrons as the steric effect which increases the energy of the current system [21]. Favorable or unfavorable any response is created.
For example, if the static effect is greater than that of a product in a metal complex formation process, then the static increase would favor this reaction. But if the case is opposite, the skepticism will be toward retardation.
This effect will mainly depend on the conformational states, and the minimum steric interaction theory can also be considered. The effect of secondary steric is seen on receptor binding produced by an alternative such as:
Reduced access to a critical group.
Stick barrier.
Electronic resonance substitution bond by repulsion.
Population of a conformer changes due to active shielding effect.
The macrocyclic effect is exactly like the image of the chelate effect. It means the principle of both is the same. But the macrocyclic effect suggests cyclic deformation of the ligand. Macrocyclic ligands are more tainted than chelating agents. Rather, their compounds are more stable due to their cyclically constrained constriction. It requires some entropy in the body to react with the metal ion. For example, for a tetradentate cyclic ligand, we can use heme-B which forms a metal complex using Fe+2 ions in biological systems (Figure 4).
Structure of hemoglobin is the biological complex compound which contains Fe(II) metal ion.
The n-dentate chelating agents play an important role for the formation of more stable metal complexes as compared to n-unidentate ligands. But the n-dentate macrocyclic ligand gives more stable environment in the metal complexes as compared to open-chain ligands. This change is very favorable for entropy (ΔS) and enthalpy (ΔH) change.
There are so many parameters to determination of formation constants or stability constant in solution for all types of chelating agents. These numerous parameters or techniques are refractive index, conductance, temperature, distribution coefficients, refractive index, nuclear magnetic resonance volume changes, and optical activity.
Solubility products are helpful and used for the insoluble salt that metal ions formed and complexes which are also formed by metal ions and are more soluble. The formation constant is observed in presence of donor atoms by measuring increased solubility.
To determine the solubility constant, it involves the distribution of the ligands or any complex species; metal ions are present in two immiscible solvents like water and carbon tetrachloride, benzene, etc.
In this method metal ions or ligands are present in solution and on exchanger. A solid polymers containing with positive and negative ions are ion exchange resins. These are insoluble in nature. This technique is helpful to determine the metal ions in resin phase, liquid phase, or even in radioactive metal. This method is also helpful to determine the polarizing effect of metal ions on the stability of ligands like Cu(II) and Zn(II) with amino acid complex formation.
At the equilibrium free metal and ions are present in the solution, and using the different electrometric techniques as described determines its stability constant.
This method is based upon the titration method or follows its principle. A stranded acid-base solution used as titrate and which is titrated, it may be strong base or strong acid follows as potentiometrically. The concentration of solution using 103− M does not decomposed during the reaction process, and this method is useful for protonated and nonprotonated ligands.
This is the graphic method used to determine the stability constant in producing metal complex formation by plotting a polarograph between the absences of substances and the presence of substances. During the complex formation, the presence of metal ions produced a shift in the half-wave potential in the solution.
If a complex is relatively slow to form and also decomposes at measurable rate, it is possible, in favorable situations, to determine the equilibrium constant.
This involves the study of the equilibrium constant of slow complex formation reactions. The use of tracer technique is extremely useful for determining the concentrations of dissociation products of the coordination compound.
This method is based on the study of the effect of an equilibrium concentration of some ions on the function at a definite organ of a living organism. The equilibrium concentration of the ion studied may be determined by the action of this organ in systems with complex formation.
The solution of 25 ml is adopted by preparing at the 1.0 × 10−5 M ligand or 1.0 × 10−5 M concentration and 1.0 × 10−5 M for the metal ion:
The solutions containing the metal ions were considered both at a pH sufficiently high to give almost complete complexation and at a pH value selected in order to obtain an equilibrium system of ligand and complexes.
In order to avoid modification of the spectral behavior of the ligand due to pH variations, it has been verified that the range of pH considered in all cases does not affect absorbance values. Use the collected pH values adopted for the determinations as well as selected wavelengths. The ionic strengths calculated from the composition of solutions allowed activity coefficient corrections. Absorbance values were determined at wavelengths in the range 430–700 nm, every 2 nm.
For a successive metal complex formation, use this method. If ligand is protonate and the produced complex has maximum number of donate atoms of ligands, a selective light is absorbed by this complex, while for determination of stability constant, it is just known about the composition of formed species.
Bjerrum (1941) used the method stepwise addition of the ligands to coordination sphere for the formation of complex. So, complex metal–ligand-n forms as the following steps [22]. The equilibrium constants, K1, K2, K3, … Kn are called stepwise stability constants. The formation of the complex metal-ligandn may also be expressed by the following steps and equilibrium constants.
Where:
M = central metal cation
L = monodentate ligand
N = maximum coordination number for the metal ion M for the ligand
If a complex ion is slow to reach equilibrium, it is often possible to apply the method of isotopic dilution to determine the equilibrium concentration of one or more of the species. Most often radioactive isotopes are used.
This method was extensively used by Werner and others to study metal complexes. In the case of a series of complexes of Co(III) and Pt(IV), Werner assigned the correct formulae on the basis of their molar conductance values measured in freshly prepared dilute solutions. In some cases, the conductance of the solution increased with time due to a chemical change, e.g.,
It is concluded that the information presented is very important to determine the stability constant of the ligand metal complexes. Some methods like spectrophotometric method, Bjerrum’s method, distribution method, ion exchange method, electrometric techniques, and potentiometric method have a huge contribution in quantitative analysis by easily finding the stability constants of metal complexes in aqueous solutions.
All the authors thank the Library of University of Delhi for reference books, journals, etc. which helped us a lot in reviewing the chapter.
Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.
",metaTitle:"What Does It Cost?",metaDescription:"Open Access publishing helps remove barriers and allows everyone to access valuable information, but article and book processing charges also exclude talented authors and editors who can’t afford to pay. The goal of our Women in Science program is to charge zero APCs, so none of our authors or editors have to pay for publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\\n\\nWe are currently in the process of collecting sponsorship. If you have any ideas or would like to help sponsor this ambitious program, we’d love to hear from you. Contact us at info@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll of our IntechOpen sponsors are in good company! The research in past IntechOpen books and chapters have been funded by:
\n\n