Sample characteristics and maximal trapped field values in liquid nitrogen.
- Transmission of information or data, when it is essential for an amount of energy to reach the receiver to restore the transmitted information;\n
- Transmission of electric energy in the form of electromagnetic field, when the energy transfer efficiency is essential, the power being used to energize the receiving equipment.\n
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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"40027",title:"Improvement of Critical Current Density and Flux Trapping in Bulk High-Tc Superconductors",doi:"10.5772/46197",slug:"improvement-of-critical-current-density-and-flux-trapping-in-bulk-high-tc-superconductors",body:'The present chapter describes an overview of flux trapping with enhancement of the critical current density (Jc) of a melt-growth large domain (RE)Ba2Cu3O7-d, where RE is a light rare earth ions such as Y, Gd or Sm. These high-Tc superconductor bulks have attracted much interest for a variety of magnet applications, since high density and large volume materials potentially provide an intensified magnetic flux trapping, thanks to the optimized distribution of pinning centres. The melt growth process and material processing to introduce well-defined flux pinning properties are overviewed. As a first step, we summarize an effort to achieve a growth of homogeneous large grains with the second phase RE211 in the RE123/Ag matrix. RE-Ba-Cu-O material has a short coherence length and a large anisotropy, and thus any high-angle grain boundary acts as a weak link and seriously reduces the critical current density [1, 2]. In engineering applications, high texture and c-axis-orientated single grains/domains are required. Large-sized, high-performance RE-Ba-Cu-O single grains are now commercially available. The trapped flux density (Btrap) due to flux pinning or associated superconducting currents flowing persistently in a RE-Ba-Cu-O grain is expressed in a simple model, such as:
Btrap = Aµ0Jcr,
where A is a geometrical constant, µ0 is the permeability of the vacuum and r is the radius of the grain [1]. There are two approaches to enhancing the trapped flux of the grain. One is to enhance the critical current density and the other is to increase the radial dimension of the crystals. Increasing the dimension requires the formation of homogeneous grain growth, and the enhancement of the critical current density is encouraged with the improvement of flux pinning properties.
The top-seeded melt-growth (TSMG) method has been widely used to fabricate large, single-grain RE-Ba-Cu-O superconducting bulks that show a considerable ability in magnetic flux trapping and great potential for large-scale applications [1]. Hot seeding and cold seeding procedures have been studied. For hot-seeding processes, Nd-Ba-Cu-O or Sm-Ba-Cu-O crystals with a high decomposition temperature are put on the matrix during the growth of the bulk, around a peritectic temperature (Tp), which is not convenient for the batch process and often brings problems for reproducibility. Cardwell et al. have introduced a cold-seeding process with Mg-doped Nd-Ba-Cu-O crystals as generic seeds whose decomposition temperature is higher than the pure substance [3, 4]. Nd-Ba-Cu-O and Sm-Ba-Cu-O thin films grown on MgO substrates have been examined as cold seeds [5, 6]. Thanks to the superheating phenomenon of Nd-Ba-Cu-O thin films, the maximum temperature (Tmax) is increased up to even 1090 ˚C [7, 8]. Muralidhar et al. have reported a batch process of Gd-Ba-Cu-O bulks [9, 10]. Recently, it has been reported that a buffer pellet inserted between the seed and the matrix effectively suppresses the chemical contamination caused by the dissolution of the seed, without affecting the texture growth, and the Tmax is increased to 1096 ˚C [8, 11].
An idea for the novel cold-seeding of a top-seeded melt-growth with a RE-Ba-Cu-O bulk has been worked on by employing an MgO crystal seed and a buffer pellet [12]. The growth process is composed of two stages. The MgO seed was for the texture-growth of the small RE-Ba-Cu-O pellet with a high melting point (Tp), and the textured pellet induced the texture growth of the bulk at a lower temperature. Undercooling and the RE211 content of the pellet were adjusted to avoid the misorientation caused by lattice mismatch between MgO and the RE-Ba-Cu-O matrix. Bulk samples prepared with this method show good growth sections and superconducting performance. One of the promising advantages of this method is in the processing of high Tp RE-Ba-Cu-O bulks with a cold seeding method, for example Nd-Ba-Cu-O bulks.
Detailed information for the preparation of the samples is described elsewhere [12]. GdBa2Cu3O7-δ (3N, Gd123), Gd2BaCuO5 (3N, Gd211) powders were employed with 40 mol% of Gd211 for Gd123. 10 wt.% Ag2O and 0.5 wt.% Pt were added. A small buffer pellet of Gd123 contained a certain amount of Gd211. A single (100)-oriented MgO seed was placed onto the small pellet.
According to the results of the differential thermal analysis (DTA) measurements [12], we used the heat treatment profile shown in Fig. 1. The sample was heated within 10 hours to Tmax, 90 ˚C higher than the Tp-matrix (for the matrix with the addition of Ag2O). After one hour, the temperature was reduced to Tp-buffer – ΔT within 30 minutes so as to begin the growth of the buffer pellet. ΔT stands for the undercooling. After that the temperature was reduced over 30 minutes to Tp-matrix and further slowly decreased by 30 ˚C with a cooling rate of 0.3 ˚C/h. Eventually, the temperature was decreased to room temperature within 10 hours. The following post-annealing process has been reported in our previous studies [13, 14].
Fig. 2 shows the appearance of the bulk samples prepared by conventional hot-seeding (a), cold-seeding using a Nd123 thin film (b), and cold-seeding in association with a MgO-buffer pellet (c). The c-axis oriented single-grain growth for the buffer pellet is of importance. Cardwell et al. and Babu et al. have reported that the geometry of Nd-Ba-Cu-O single grains, texture-processed by MgO seeds, will vary from rectangular (ΔT < 10 ˚C) to rhombohedral (high values of ΔT) under different growth temperatures [15, 16] Cima et al. have demonstrated that the so called “faced plane growth front” type of solidification interface morphologies is largely dependent on the growth rate [17]. The undercooling is directly related to the growth rate. Meanwhile, the RE211 content affects the growth rate. A slow cooling between 1030 ˚C and 1025 ˚C with 10 mol % Gd211 content is suitable for the buffer pellet’s texture growth.
Schematic illustration of thermal profile for the cold-seeding growth of Gd-Ba-Cu-O bulk superconductors [12].
The present cold-seeding method can be used for growth with a high Tp bulk in the air, for example in a Nd-Ba-Cu-O bulk. The same progress for detecting a suitable undercooling and Nd422 content has been carried out in the Nd-Ba-Cu-O system. A slow cooling between 1067 ˚C and 1062 ˚C with rate of 0.5 ˚C/h and 10 mol% Nd422 content have been proven to offer the best growth conditions for the Nd-Ba-Cu-O buffer pellet [12].
The growth can be transferred from a high-Tp pellet to a low-Tp pellet. As illustrated in Fig. 1, during the growth of the high-Tp part, the low-Tp part is kept at a relatively high temperature, which means that a high RE concentration may exist. It is promising for extending the growth window and benefits of a larger scale bulk superconductor from the viewpoint of homogeneity. The addition of silver as well as the mixture of two or three kinds of RE123 powders may change Tp. Recently, we have found that by doping 30 mol% Nd123 into the Gd123 precursor powders, the Tp is increased by 6 ˚C while keeping texture growth.
Fig. 3 shows the microstructure of the portion at the buffer/matrix interface. The boundary is denoted by the broken line. A different contrast of Gd211 density was observed below and above the boundary. Because of the push effect of Gd211, a high Gd211 density area is formed at the interface. The composition of the matrix was measured by EPMA for points indicated by green closed circles in Fig. 3 (a). There is Gd1+0.02Ba2-0.02Cu2.72 in the composition of the buffer side and it is approximately close to Gd1+0.09Ba2-0.09Cu2.64 in the matrix side. We suspect that because of the large undercooling and growth rate, the Gd/Ba substitution is inhibited at the buffer side.
Gd-Ba-Cu-O single-grain bulk of 16 mm in diameter prepared by (a) a hot-seeding process, (b) a cold-seeding process using a Nd123 thin film seed, (c) a cold-seeding growth with a MgO crystal seed and a buffer pellet [12].
Secondly, we emphasize how to launch additional pinning centres into the RE123/Ag matrix. There are several strategies which are partly analogue to the implantation of pinning centres in thin film forms. Partial atomic substitutions of the Ba2+ site with RE3+ in RE123 induce a so-called “peak effect” around 1.5-2.0 T in the Jc-B curves. The substitution of 1D Cu site in the RE123 structure with other ions results in an enhanced peak effect [18]. Many kinds of additions of non-superconducting metal oxides have been studied in the Gd123 /Ag
The microstructure of Gd-Ba-Cu-O bulk sample processed by a cold-seeding method using a MgO-buffer pellet observed by SEM. (a) Buffer/matrix interface, (b) C1: under the seed, (c) B1: periphery in the growth sector, (d) C4 position [12], (e) B4 position [12].
matrix with Gd211. Gd211 tends to form domains of a large size inside Gd123. Various kinds of oxides and RE2Ba4MCuO11 (RE2411 particles, M = Zr, U, Mo, W, Ta, Hf, Nb) are introduced into the RE-Ba-Cu-O matrix as second phase particles so as to enhance flux pinning [19-20]. Up to now, the record of Jc reaches 640 kA/cm2 and 400 kA/cm2 at 77 K in the self field and 2 T, respectively. This record was achieved in the (Nd,Eu,Gd)-Ba-Cu-O bulk combining the benefits of dense regular arrays of a RE-rich RE123 solid solution, the initial Gd211 particles that were 70 nm in diameter and the formed small (< 10 nm) Nb (or Mo, Ti)-based nanoparticles [21]. Systematic research of the doping effect has been also carried out in our laboratory. Jc of 100 kA/cm2, 68 kA/cm2 and 80 kA/cm2 were obtained at 77 K in a self field by doping with ZrO2, ZnO and SnO2 particles, respectively [22, 23]. It is interesting that the addition of nano-sized metal oxides - such as SnO and/or ZrO2, for example - provides not only the simple in situ formation of BaSnO3 and BaZrO3 but also the fining of the size of Gd211 distributed inside the matrix, as shown in Fig. 4. These effects are classified with the in situ formation of the nano-sized flux pinning centres during the growth process. To make for strong flux pinning, the introduction of nano-sized inclusions in textured bulk HTSs constitutes an effective means. Apart from making a fine second phase particle, dilute impurity doping is even more important for improving flux pinning. The increased Jc in such a dilute doping bulk is even several times larger than that in the reference sample. Therefore, at present, we focus on the chemical approach of dilute impurity doping. Different additives such as BaO2, ZrO2, ZnO, NiO, SnO2, Co3O4, Fe3O4, Ga2O3 and Fe-B alloy [20, 22,23, 24-30], which lead to a slight decrease of Tc in the bulk RE-123, except for a few kinds of additives like Gd2411 and titanium oxide.
The microstructure of Gd-Ba-Cu-O bulk sample processed by the hot-seeding method observed by SEM. (a) ZrO2 addition [22] and (b) SnO2 addition [23].
Cardwell et al. [4] and Muralidhar et al. [10] have developed general process routes to grow batches of RE-Ba-Cu-O single domain superconductors with good pinning performance. The flux pinning and Jc performance of a RE-Ba-Cu-O bulk yield remarkable improvements by dispersing the non-superconducting secondary pinning phase into the RE-123 matrix. Successful attempts have been made to add nano-sized impurities [22, 23, 31], the fined RE-211s [32, 33] and Pt, Ce additives to prevent the Ostwald ripening of RE-211 inclusions into the precursors and to enhance flux pinning. On the other hand, compared with core pinning by normal non-superconducting particles, the use of ferromagnetic pinning centres results in interactions between a magnetic dipole moment and flux lines, which yields a potential Upin proportional to –mb, where m is the moment of magnetic dipole and b is the field of the vortex at the distance of the dipole [34]. The deeper potential wells may reduce the Lorentz force on the vortices [35-37].
Xu Yan et al. have found that Fe-B quenched amorphous magnetic alloy particles with small amounts of Cu-Nb-Si-Cr may be a useful additive for flux trapping properties [25, 26]. The results show that the Jc was enhanced under both low- and high-magnetic fields with the addition of 0.4 mol% of Fe-B particles [25, 26, 38].
SEM observations were also carried out to confirm the information of the Fe-rich region obtained from TEM. The representative back scattered electron image is shown in Fig. 5 (a), where the larger particles represent silver, and the homogeneous distributed small particles are Gd-211 embedded in the Gd-123 matrix, according to the EDX analysis. Consistent with the results from TEM, the Fe element was only found in the vicinity of silver, as shown in Fig. 5(b). This may be attributed to the following three reasons:
First, silver and Fe3O4 possess a cubic structure with a lattice mismatch: a = 8.397 A for Fe3O4 and a = 4.090 A for silver. Two unit cells of silver may be nearly equi-length with that of one unit cell of Fe3O4, giving a small lattice mismatch of 2.65%. Second, the oxidization temperature of Fe-B additives obtained in our DTA results is identified at around 960 C, very close to the melting point of silver 961.9 C. Meanwhile, the Fe-B additives were oxidized into Fe-containing components with porous structures, as confirmed by our experiment of annealing Fe-B alloy separately. As a result, the melted silver may fill these voids at high temperatures. Third, this oxidation process is an exothermal reaction, which accelerates the melting of adjacent silver particles. Fourth, the released oxygen from Ag2O would be the source of the oxidization of Fe-B additives. The release of oxygen might provide a potential channel for the flowing of melted silver to Fe3O4. The advantage of the present materials process is in eliminating the proximity effect between magnetic Fe3O4 and the Gd-123 superconducting matrix by the silver as a buffer layer.
Besides this, in the growth process, the added Pt may exist around the boundary between Gd123 and Ag, for example. Fe is known to be with Ag. The addition of magnetic oxide, such as Fe2O3 or other kinds of Fe alloys, has been investigated from the viewpoint of the magnetic pinning effect. Tsuzuki et al. have reported that Fe2O3 was introduced into the Gd123 matrix [39]. The maximum trapped flux increased by over 30 %. In the case of Fe-B particles addition, Jc is increased in both center and edge of the samples. However, no enhancement of Jc was observed at the edge with the Fe2O3 addition. Here, there is the difference of the integrated flux between Fe-B addition and Fe2O3 addition from the spatial distribution of Jc. The origin of homogeneous Jc and the effect of in-situ formation of Fe2O3 in the Fe-B added Gd123 bulks are the keys to improve the performance of the magnetic field trapping [40].
Separately, the optimal addition of these magnetic particles induces an increase of the number of Gd211 particles while decreasing the size. We emphasize the current issues concerning the homogeneity of the distribution of these particles together with TEM observations [38].
a) Low magnification of an SEM image of a 1.4 mol% Fe-B doped Gd-Ba-Cu-O C1 specimen. (b) SEM image of a Fe-rich region [26].
Another unique aspect concerning flux trapping is to distribute holes drilled within the bulk pack. The recently reported [41-45] hole-patterned YBa2Cu3Oy (Y123) bulks with improved superconducting properties are highly interesting from the points of view of material quality and their variety of application. It is well known that the core of plain bulk superconductors needs to be fully oxygenated, and some defects like cracks, pores and voids [46, 47] must be suppressed in order that the material can trap a high magnetic field or else carry a high current density. Some previous studies [48-51] demonstrated that, by filling the cracks, enhancing thermal conductivity or by reinforcing the YBCO bulk material, the properties can be improved and a trap field of up to 17 T at 29 K can be reached. One of the interests of this new sample geometry is in increasing specific areas for thermal exchange, shortening the oxygen diffusion path, and offering the possibility of reinforcing the superconductor materials. To minimize the above defects, we propose the improvement of the superconducting material with an innovative approach - “material by design” based on the concept of a YBa2Cu3Oy (Y123) bulk with multiple holes.
a) The Jc-B curves of specimens cut from different positions of MP doped and un-doped bulk samples. (b) The trapped magnetic field of 46-mm MP-doped and un-doped bulks [25].
The details of the multiple holes process of YBa2Cu3Oy (Y123) are reported elsewhere [41, 42]. Basically, the holes in the pre-sintered bulk were realized by drilling cylindrical cavities with different diameters, 0.5-2 mm through the circular or square shaped sample. The holes are arranged in a regular network on the plane of the samples. A SmBa2Cu3Ox (Sm123) seed used as a nucleation centre was placed (between the holes close to the centre) on the top so as to obtain the single domain of the samples. The seed orientation was chosen to induce a growth with the c-axis parallel to the pellet axis. The elaboration of single domains through the drilled pellets is then conducted in a manner similar to the plain pellets. But how to claim a single domain on the drilled sample? The demonstration of the growth of single domains from the perforated structure is shown by Fig. 7(a). The growth lines of faceted growth on the surface of the drilled single domain half are not clearly observed, but they exist when compared to the plain half. This shows that the pre-formed holes do not seem to disturb the growth of the single domain, which is confirmed by the top seed melt growth process of other perforated samples prepared by Chaud et al. [42]. Basically, the ability of a growth front to proceed through an array of holes or a complex geometry is not evident a priori. In situ video monitoring of the surface growth confirms that it proceeds as for a plain pellet. The growth starts from the seed. A square pattern typical of the growth front of the tetragonal Y123 phase in the a- and b- directions appears below the seed and increases homothetically until it reaches the edges of the sample. Intermediate pictures of the growth are shown in Fig. 7(b) for a drilled pellet (left) and for a plain pellet (right). The square pattern is distinguishable in both cases with the seed at its centre. Note that the seeds were cut with edges parallel to the a- or b- directions, which is why they coincide with the growing domain borders.
a). Macrograph of the single domain pellet sample where only half has been drilled [44]. (b). Pictures of the surfaces of a drilled (left) and a plain (right) pellet taken at an intermediate stage of the growth process. The bright square is the growing domain with a seed at its centre. The steps and streaks result from the interaction of the holes with the growth front (left) [44].
The various square or circular-shaped Y123 were grown into a single domain including an interconnected structure. Optical macrographs of as-grown samples with holes are shown in Fig. 8. Fig. 9 (a and b) illustrate the cross sections of plain and perforated samples. The porosity is drastically reduced for the drilled sample. For the plain sample, a large porosity and crack zones are noticeable. Scanning Electron Microscopy between two holes shows (i) the compact, crack–free microstructure and (ii) a uniform distribution of fine Y211 particles into the Y123 matrix [41].
Fig. 10 presents the flux trapping obtained on plain and perforated samples (36 mm in diameter and 15 mm in height) after conventional oxygenation at 450 C for 150 hours. The samples (Fig. 4c) were previously magnetized at 1 T, 77 K, using an Oxford Inc. superconducting coil. The 3D representation of the magnetic flux shows the single dome in the both cases corresponding to the signature of a single-domain. The network of the holes has not affected the current loops at the large scale. This result was confirmed by the neutron diffraction measurements (D1B line at ILL, France) showing [52] only one single domain bulk orientation with mean c-axes parallel to the pellet axis. The trapped field value is higher in the perforated pellet (583 mT) than in the plain one (443 mT). This represents an increase of 32% for the drilled sample compared with the plain one, in agreement with our previous report [42]. This increasing of the trapped field value is probably due to: (i) better oxygenation and/or less cracks and porosities for the drilled pellet, as illustrated by Fig. 3b, (ii) strong pinning, because the hole could be favourable to the vortices’ penetration, (iii) enhancement of the cooling, because the sample with holes offers a large and favourable surface exchange into the liquid nitrogen bath.
On the other hand, pulse magnetization was used on the drilled and plain pellets. Both samples (16 mm diameter samples, 8 mm thick) were tested with a series of pulse magnetization experiments. A Helmholtz coil was used to generate a homogeneous magnetic field. The maximum amplitude of the magnetic field is 1 T and the raising time of the pulse was 1 ms while the decay time was 10 ms. After the pulse, the trapped field was mapped with a hall sensor probe at 0.5 mm above the sample. The result shows that for the application of a 1 T pulse the trapped field increases by up to 60% for a drilled pellet [44] as compared with to the plain one. This is an interesting result for such a form of new geometry, demonstrating the ability of the textured Y123 with multiple holes to trap a high field.
A batch of different as-grown drilled bulk samples (a) pellets, (b) square form and (c) interconnected samples.
Microstructures of the (a) thin-wall and (b) plain samples, respectively.
a and b) Flux trapped measurements on (c) plain and multiple hole single domain pellets.
According to their thin wall geometry, the drilled bulk should be well oxygenated in comparison with the plain samples. The oxygen diffuses easily through the tube channels. The thermogravimetry technique was selected to compare the oxygenation quality of different pellets. The oxygen uptake was related to the increase of the sample weight. In this study, pellets of 16 and 24 mm diameter were used and a network of 30 holes was perforated. For each diameter, five drilled and five plain pellets were processed with the same heat treatment. All of the samples were weighted before and after the oxygenation, and the percentage of the weight gain was evaluated according to the following relation:
m (%) = 100 (mfinal-minitial)/minitial
The measurements were realized twice to check reproducibility. For that, the samples after the first measurement were de-oxygenated at 900 C, after half an hour, and followed by the quench step and then re-oxygenated. After the second measurement, the average values of the weight were estimated and plotted in Fig. 11. It was difficult to oxygenate the bulk sample with a big diameter and in this case the oxygen should diffuse into the core of the bulk. Generally, the big samples are annealed under oxygen at 400-450 C between 150 to 600 hours [42, 46, 53, 54]. These annealing dwell times are so long in order to allow for oxygen diffusion until the core of the monolith bulk materials. The drilled samples seem to offer an advantage (a saving of time) for annealing under oxygen of the superconductor bulk. This advantage is clearly shown in Fig. 11 where 25 hours is sufficient to obtain the full oxygenated sample; in the other word, maximum weight gain is quickly achieved. In addition, thin-wall geometry was introduced to reduce the diffusion paths and to enable a progressive oxygenation strategy [54]. As a consequence, cracks are drastically reduced. In addition, the use of a high oxygen pressure (16 MPa) further speeds up the process by displacing the oxygen–temperature equilibrium towards the higher temperature of the phase diagram. The advantage of thin-wall geometry is that such an annealing can be applied directly to a much larger sample during a shorter time (72 hrs compared with 150 hrs for the plain sample). Remarkable results have been obtained by the combination of thin walls and high oxygen pressure. Fig. 13 shows the 3D distribution of the trapped flux mapping measured at 77 K on the perforated thin wall pellet. The maximum trapped field value of 0.8 T is almost twice that obtained on the plain sample (0.33 T).
The influence of oxygen annealing on the oxygen uptake in the drilled and plain samples [44].
On the other hand, the effect of the number of the holes has been investigated and reported [56]. Table 1 summarizes the sample characteristics and the maximal trapped field values. We can clearly note that, for the samples having the same diameter and the same size of hole, the trapped field increases with the increase of the number of holes. An explanation could be that the better oxygenation is due to the large surface exchange with the density of the thin wall.
The Y123 domain with open holes could be reinforced, e.g. by infiltration with a low temperature melting alloy, so as to improve the mechanical properties that are useful for levitation applications or trapped field magnets. The perforated Y123 bulks with 1 or 2 mm diameter holes were dipped into the molten Sn/In alloy or an epoxy wax at 70 C for 30 minutes in a vessel after evacuating it with a rotary pump and venting air to enable the molten alloy or liquid resin to fill up the holes. After cooling, the impregnated bulk materials were polished. Some samples were impregnated with a BiPbSnCd-alloy using the process described elsewhere [49]. Fig. 12 shows the top surface and the cross-sectional view of the impregnated Y123 bulk samples. We can see the dense and homogeneous infiltration of the wax epoxy and the Sn/In alloy. The magnetic flux mapping of the sample filled with a BiPbSnCd-alloy has been investigated. The same trapped field of 250 mT before and after impregnation has been measured. Presently, it is important to develop the specific shapes of bulk superconductors with mechanical reinforcement [52] for any practical application.
Flux-trapped measurements of the high pressure oxygenated thin wall sample.
sample (mm) | 20.8 | 20.7 | 20.7 | 20.6 |
sample thickness (mm) | 7.6 | 7.6 | 7.8 | 7.5 |
number of holes | 20 | 37 | 21 | 85 |
hole (mm) | 0.7 | 0.7 | 1.1 | 1.0 |
Bmax (T) | 0.33 | 0.34 | 0.30 | 0.48 |
Sample characteristics and maximal trapped field values in liquid nitrogen.
Multiple holes or porous ceramic materials, such as alumina and zirconia, are established components in a number of industrial applications such as inkjet printers, fuel injection systems, filters, structures for catalysts, elements for thermal insulation and flame barriers. The combination of a high specific surface with the ability to be reinforced in order to improve mechanical and thermal properties makes the perforated YBCO superconductors interesting candidates both for a variety of novel applications and for fundamental studies. As an example, the artificial drilled Y123 in a desired structure [43, 57] is a good candidate for resistive elements in superconducting fault current limiters (FCL) [58, 59]. In this application, the thin wall between the holes allows more efficient heat transfer between a perforated superconductor and cryogenic coolant during an over-current fault compared with conventional bulk materials. The high surface area of the perforated materials, which may be adjusted by varying the hole diameter, makes them interesting candidates for studying fundamental aspects of flux pinning, since the extent of surface pinning, and hence Jc, are expected to differ significantly from bulk YBCO grains of a similar microstructure. This new structure has great potential for many applications with improved performance in place of Y123 hole-free bulks, since it should be easier to oxygenate and to maintain at liquid nitrogen temperature during application, avoiding the occurrence of hot spot. For meandering FCL elements, cutting is a crucial step as cracks appear during this stage. This can be solved by the in situ zigzag shape processing of holes, as we demonstrated the feasibility of elsewhere [43].
Reinforcement of the drilled samples. (a) The top view of the samples filled with a BiPbSnCd-alloy, (b) with wax resin and (c) a cross-section impregnated with wax resin.
Finally, we highlight the examples among recent progress of HTS bulk applications, flywheel, power devices as motors and generators, magnetic drug delivery systems and magnetic resonance devices as well.. As shown in Fig. 14, a variety of Gd123 bulks have been tested for the employment of field pole magnets as a way of intensifying flux trapping applications. The bulk magnets are cooled down to 30 K with step-by-step pulsed-field magnetization using a homemade large dc current source. A large pulsed current is momentary applied to armature copper windings by which a pulsed magnetic field is formed and applied to the bulk field poles [60-63].
a) A prototype bulk HTS motor designed for a specification of 30 kW 720 rpm and (b) a homemade pulsed-field magnetization system (TUMSAT-OLCR). This is an axial-type machine with a thermosyphon cooling system using Ne.
In summary, for the application of bulk HTS rotating machines, the enhancement of the trapped flux is a crucial task for achieving practical applications with high torque density. The increase of critical current density using artificial pinning centres marks an efficient technique for the enhancement of the properties of flux trapping. We attempted to enhance both the Jc and the trapped flux in bulk HTS with the addition of magnetic/ferromagnetic particles. An Fe-B-Si-Nb-Cr-Cu amorphous alloy was introduced into the Gd123 matrix. The melt growth of single-domain bulks with different magnetic particles was performed in air. The enhancement of the critical current density Jc at 77 K was derived in those bulks with the addition of Fe-B-Si-Nb-Cr-Cu, while the superconducting transition temperature of 93 K was not degraded significantly. The experiment of magnetic flux trapping was then conducted under static magnetic field magnetization with liquid nitrogen cooling. In the bulk with 0.4 mol% of Fe-B-Si-Nb-Cr-Cu, the integrated trapped flux exceeds over 35% compared with the one without the addition of magnetic particles. On the other hand, the addition of CoO particles resulted in a reduction of both Jc and trapped magnetic flux. The recent results indicate that the introduction of magnetic particles gives significant effect to the flux pinning’s performance.
By inserting a buffer pellet with a higher Tp when compared with the matrix between the MgO seed and the bulk precursor, the lattice mismatch and low reactivity between the RE-Ba-Cu-O matrix and the MgO seed have been overcome. The undercooling and Gd211(Nd422) content for buffer pellet processing have systematically proven that the Gd-Ba-Cu-O and Nd-Ba-Cu-O bulks (16 mm in diameter) are successfully grown by this cold-seeding method. Cold-seeding melt-growth, not limited by the maximum temperature, is realized by the present new method. It was demonstrated that the texture growth can be transferred from a high-Tp pellet to a low-Tp pellet, which may be promising for extending the growth window and processing large bulk superconductors.
The single domain of Y123 bulks with multiple holes has been processed and characterized. SEM investigations have shown that the holes’ presence does not hinder the domain growth. The perforated samples exhibit a single domain character evidenced by a single dome trapped-field distribution and neutron diffraction studies. This new structure has great potential for many applications, with improved performances in place of Y123 hole free bulks, since it should be easier to maintain at liquid nitrogen temperature and/or to improve thermal conductivity during application, avoiding the appearance of hot spot. It is clear that the Y123 bulks with an artificial pattern of holes are useful for evacuating porosity from the bulk and assisting the uptake the oxygen. The ability of the Y123 material with multiple holes to trap a high field has been demonstrated. Using high pressure oxygenation, the trapped field increases up to 0.8 T at 77 K for the thin wall pellet, corresponding to 50% more than the bulk material without holes. Using pulse magnetization, the trapped fields increases by up to 60% for the drilled pellet with respect to the plain one. Superconducting bulks with an artificial array of holes can be filled with metal alloys or high strength resins to improve their thermal properties without any important decrease of the hardness [50], so as to overcome the built-in stresses in levitation and quasi-permanent magnet applications. The thin wall bulks superconducting on extruded shapes for portative permanent magnets are under development for the introduction at the large scale of this innovative approach of “material by design”.
The present work was supported by KAKENHI (21360425), Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (B) and the "Conseil Régional de Basse Normandie, France". This work was partly performed using the facilities of the Materials Design and Characterization Laboratory, Institute for Solid State Physics, University of Tokyo. The authors would like to thank Caixuan Xu, Yan Xu, Xu Kun, Keita Tsuzuki, Difan Zhou, Shogo Hara, Yufeng Zhang, Motohiro Miki, Brice Felder and Beizhan Li.
According to Tannahill [1], health promotion is an umbrella term covering overlapping fields of health education, prevention and attempts to protect public health through social engineering, legislations, fiscal measures and institutional policies which entail the combination of the best in terms of both theory and practice from a wide range of expert groups (educationists, behavioral scientists, medical practitioners) and non-professionals including the communities involved. For him, health promotion stems largely from a new focus for health services that recognize some basic facts: many contemporary health problems are preventable or avoidable through lifestyle change; modern technology is a bundle of mixed blessings bringing both benefits and risks to health; medical technology is at the phase of diminishing returns (losing efficacy and connection to ordinary people); such non-medical factors as better nutrition, improved living conditions and public health measures have contributed to both health and longevity even more than medical measures; that doctors can cause as well as cure disease; and increasing public desire to attain better or improved quality of life and at the same time demystifying and demedicalising the attainment (achievement) of good health [1].
For the World Health Organization (WHO), health promotion is essentially about engendering a context in which the health and well-being of whole populations or groups are owned mainly by the people concerned, i.e., enabling citizens of local communities to achieve political control and determination of their health [2, 3]. Therefore, health promotion goes beyond mere healthcare but puts health on the policymaking agenda in all sectors and at all levels, directing policymakers to be cognisant or conscious of the health consequences of their decisions and accept responsibilities for health.
Health promotion can be seen as the whole process of enabling or empowering people to increase control over and improve their overall health. It focuses on creating awareness of health issues, engendering behaviour modification consistent with prevention and attitudes to ill health and motivating increased usage of available health facilities. In the pursuit of good health (physical, mental and social well-being), individuals and groups through health promotion are enabled to identify and realize aspirations, satisfy needs and change or cope with the environment in manners consistent with complete good health.
Health promotion is expected to contribute to programme impact by enabling prevention of disease, reduction of the risk factors or behaviors associated with given diseases, promoting and fostering lifestyles and conditions that are conducive to good health and enabling increasing use of available health facilities. Therefore, health promotion creates both the awareness and conscientisation that leads to disease prevention, control of health situations and usage of health services and facilities. It implies individual and collective control and participation in health focusing on behavioral change, socio-economic lifestyles and the physical environment.
Without doubt the WHO’s Ottawa Charter definition of health promotion is very comprehensive and encompasses the core values and guiding objectives of health promotions [3]. It summarily sees health promotion as the process of enabling people to increase control over and improve their health. In line with the above definition, Macdonald and Davies [4] contend that it calls attention to the critical role of the concepts of process and control as the real essence of health promotion. For them, “the key concepts in this definition are ‘process’ and ‘control’, and therefore effectiveness and quality assurance in health promotion must focus on enablement and empowerment. If the activity under consideration is not enabling and empowering it is not health promotion” [4], p. 6.
As the burgeoning literature on health promotion over the years indicate it is a community-driven (inspired), multifaceted and multidisciplinary area of concern that also involves critical sociopolitical, economic and environmental elements and dynamics (see [4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10]).
It is important to also understand that even though one can make a distinction between public health and health promotion, in reality both are interconnected and hardly practically separable. In other words, public health is built on health promotion and health promotion is imperative for public health delivery. As has been argued, public health “is synonymous with health promotion in that it aims to implement co-ordinated community action to produce a healthier society” [11], p. 315.
There is no gainsaying the fact that health promotion nowadays has an overwhelming sociopolitical component that is really definitive. In fact, as has been posited, “health promotion activities are by their nature inherently politically based and driven, thus making it impossible to divorce them from the political arena” [11], p. 314. Health promotion becomes a dynamic area of interface between public policy institutions (the state and its agencies), the public (community/people) and the professionals (ranging from the media professionals, public health advocates, social workers to medical practitioners).
The chapter depended on the desk review of extant literature and documents for its information. The main exclusionary criteria in this regard were materials not related to health promotion and materials published before 1984, which were considered extreme-dated. The inclusive criteria were determined by such concepts as public health, public health in Africa, health promotion, health education and awareness and theories and models in health promotion. Such prominent Internet information sites like the WHO, American Public Health Association (APHA), Health Resources and Services Administration (HRSA) and the Universitats Bibliothek Leipzig (UBL) Online Resources were utilized in gathering materials for the chapter.
There is no gainsaying the fact that effective and result-oriented health promotion practice depends on sound theory [12]. In other words, theory becomes very informative of health promotion practice and activities. In recognition of the above, one would examine briefly the main theories that have implicated health promotion globally. It is important, however, to state here that the choice of a theory or model to guide health promotion should be determined largely by the specific nature of the health issue being addressed, the community or population in view and the sociopolitical context in question. This is because theories and models are simply used in practice in order to plan health programmes, explain and understand health behaviour as well as underpin the identification of appropriate intervention and implement such intervention in ways that are both effective and sustainable.
Despite a plethora of theories and models utilized in health promotion, I will only focus on five of the most popular and commonly used. These are ecological models of health promotion, the Health Belief Model (HBM), Stages of Change Model or the Trans-theoretical Model, Theory of Reasoned Action or Planned Behaviour and the Social Cognitive Theory.
As the name implies, these models focus on the interaction of people with their physical and sociocultural environments. The approach thus recognizes that there are multiple levels of influence on health and health behaviour especially the health seeking behaviour and choices that people make. The ecological models are anchored on five overriding influences which determine and guide health behaviour and response to health issues [13, 14, 15, 16]. These influences are intrapersonal or individual factors (these impact on individual behaviour, e.g., beliefs, knowledge, attitude, etc.); interpersonal factors (these are produced through living with and interacting with other people, e.g., family, friends and social groups/networks; these other people can function as both the source of solidarity and support as well as sources of barriers and constraints to health-promoting behaviour of the individual, e.g., dwelling among chronic smokers or having intense interaction with them may expose one to the dangers of either smoking or the influence of second-hand smoke); community factors (these make reference to social norms that are shared by groups or communities, and such norms whether formal or informal can influence health behaviour and health seeking behaviour of the individual and group members, e.g., relationship between institutions, groups and organizations); institutional factors (policies, rules, regulations and institutional structures that may constrain or even promote healthy behaviour in a given society, e.g., the workplace and voluntary organizations to which the individual belongs are prime examples); public policy factors (policies at different level of governance that regulate, structure or support actions and practices targeted at health outcomes like disease prevention policies and structures enabling early detection, control or response and management of health crisis in the society; these stem from the position of the government and are critical in achieving the goals of public health delivery) (Figure 1).
Ecological models of health promotion (simplified).
As the above pyramid, suggests the individual, interpersonal and community factors are at the base. These factors therefore exert more influence and pressure over the individual’s health behaviour than the institutional and public policy factors as these are more important. In other words, the institutional and public policy factors are literally far from the individual and do not exert as much pressure on his behaviour as those factors that are very close to him both spatially and otherwise. In an age of increasing pessimism in government, people are much driven by interpersonal and community factors than what comes from a typical further off entity.
Given the above, it is obvious that the ecological approach is very pertinent in the understanding of the range of factors that influence people’s health. Its main strength is that it can provide what is called a complete perspective on factors that affect health behaviour and response to health issues especially the role of social and cultural factors or normative patterns on health in the society. It is perhaps very well suited to health intervention and practice in developing societies with an overbearing influence of sociocultural factors on behaviour, attitudes and practice of the people.
This is a theoretical model that has been found useful in guiding both health promotion and strategies for disease prevention. As the name suggests, it focuses on individual beliefs about specific health conditions which predict or direct individual health behaviour [17, 18]. The specific components of this belief that influence health behaviour include perceived susceptibility to the disease; perceived severity of the disease in question; perceived benefits of action (positive benefits of such action) as well as cues to action (awareness of factors that engender action); self-efficacy (belief that action would lead to success); and perceived barriers or obstacles to action (especially if such obstacles are seen as daunting or insurmountable or otherwise).
In the utilization of the HBM in health promotion, there are five main action-related segments that would help in identifying key decision-making points and thus facilitate the utilization of knowledge in guiding health intervention. These are: collection of information (through needs assessments; rapid rural appraisal, etc. in order to determine those at risk of the disease or affliction and specify which population or component of the population to be targeted in the intervention); conveying in unambiguous and clear terms the likely consequences of the health issue in question and its associated risk behaviors in order to facilitate a clear apprehension of its severity; communication (getting information to the target population on the recommended steps to take and the perceived or likely benefits of the recommended action); provision of needed assistance (help the people in both the identification of and reduction of barriers or constraints to action); and demonstration (actions and activities that enable skill development and support aimed at enhancing self-efficacy and increased chances of successful behaviour modification targeted at the health issue in question) (Figure 2).
Health belief model (HBM).
In Africa, the HBM has been very useful in understanding people’s response and behaviour to HIV/AIDS and other chronic diseases. Being a society very flushed with beliefs, the degree of responsiveness to a health situation is often the direct product of a set of beliefs held by the individual and/or by his immediate community.
This model is focused on examining and explaining the individual’s readiness to change his behaviour and sees such change as occurring or happening in successive stages. It therefore adopts a quasi-evolutionary framing of behaviour change in which behaviour change, sustenance and termination are encompassed in six stages. These stages are pre-contemplation (existence of no intention to take any action by the individual); contemplation (thinking about taking action and ruminating on plans to do this soon); preparation (signifies intention to take action and includes the possibility that some steps or preliminary steps to action have been taken already); action (discernible change in behaviour for a brief period of time); maintenance (sustenance of the action taken; behaviour change that is maintained in the long run or long-term behaviour change); and termination (the expressed and discernible desire never to return to prior negative behaviour by the individual concerned).
The above stages are very important in planning behaviour change or modification and recognize that behaviour change is both gradual and takes time. What is needed from the health promoter is that at each of these stages specific interventions or programmes are devised to help the individual progress to the next stage. Also, the recognition that the model may in reality be cyclical rather than lineal, i.e., individuals may progress to the next stage or even regress to previous or lower stages, is important in planning health promotion interventions utilizing this model. It also calls attention to understanding that there are individual differences in the adoption of change, i.e., some people may be swift in behaviour modification, while others may take longer time; but each needs support in order to pull through.
The main contention of this theory is that an individual’s health behaviour is usually determined by his intention to exhibit or display a given behaviour. Therefore, the intention to exhibit a given behaviour (or behaviour intention) is predicated upon or predicted by two main factors, viz. personal attitude to the behaviour in question and subjective or personal norms (an individual’s social and environmental context and the perception the individual has over that behaviour) related to that behaviour.
The basic assumption here is that both positive attitudes and positive subjective norms will generate greater perceived control of behaviour and increase the chances of intentions towards changes in behaviour. The theory generally provides information that can be used in predicting people’s health behaviour and thus in planning and driving through health interventions. It anchors in recognizing the predictors of behaviour-oriented action and the need for supportive social and environmental contexts that facilitate and sustain desirable health behaviour.
This theory combines both the cognition of the individual and the social context of the individual in offering explanation and understanding of health behaviour and response. It seeks to describe the influence of the experience of the individual, his perception of the actions of other people near him and the factors in the person’s immediate environment on health behaviour of the individual. It moves from this general perspective to provide opportunities for social support (defined as conducive to healthy behaviour) and reinforcements that generate behaviour change or modification. In this sense, the SCT depends on the idea of reciprocal determinism which denotes the continuing or uninterrupted interaction among the person’s characteristics, his behaviour and the social context or environment in which the behaviour takes place.
However, the best way to appreciate the SCT is to examine the main components the theory isolates as related to behaviour change at the individual level. These are self-efficacy (belief in one’s ability to control and execute behaviour within a given context); behaviour capability (thorough comprehension of behaviour and the ability to exhibit or perform it); expectations (outcomes or outputs of the behaviour change in question); expectancies (the assignation of value to the above outcome of behaviour and which is important in sustaining the behaviour); self- control (the regulation and monitoring of behaviour of the individual); observational learning (the act of watching others performing the desired behaviour and the outcomes therein as well as modeling that behaviour in question); and reinforcements (incentives and rewards seen as eliciting, encouraging and sustaining behaviour change in the individual) [19].
The three components as the above diagram shows reinforce each other and in the process condition and determine behaviour of the individual even in the context of health as well as choices made therein (Figure 3). The SCT is very pertinent in contexts where desirable health outcomes can be achieved by behaviour modification or change. For instance, certain chronic diseases or health conditions can be tackled through healthy lifestyles and dieting that reduce risk factors and chances of individuals succumbing to such conditions. Therefore, the theory can help frame intervention programmes in this area that focus on changing people’s behaviour and in the process achieve desirable health outcomes.
Illustration of the social cognitive theory (SCT).
Theories and perspectives or models as already indicated are critical in providing explanations of a problem or issue (broadening our understanding and perspective as it were) and also very important in the effort to tackle a given problem or issue in the society especially by way of developing and implementing programmes and interventions. Perhaps, the above underscores why some scholars [20, 21, 22] would highlight the difference between the so-called theories of the problem and theories of action, meaning that while the former aids our apprehension of a given issue or social reality, the latter is important in terms of taking actions or evolving activities to tackle the issue in question.
Health promotion generally implicates a huge element of politics and power dynamics in the sense that only political will and cognition can build discernible changes in health. Lobbying and advocacy are critical tools of health promotion and function within the political arena. The sociopolitical contexts and influences are especially recognizable in the public health sector in the developing world where political will and doggedness are often necessary to drive through even the most salutary change or innovation in the health sector. Also, political forces are equally dominant in the provision of crucial health infrastructure and facilities as well as the reasonable funding demanded by any effective public health system. As Harrison opines health promotion “requires concerted, sophisticated and integrated political action to bring about change and requires professionals concerned with public health to engage with the politics of systems and organizations” [5], 165.
Therefore, health promotion seeks to empower and transform communities by getting them involved in activities that influence public health especially through agenda setting, lobbying and advocacy, consciousness raising and social education [11, 22]. All these are accomplished on terms that are either defined or strictly affected by the socio-economic realities of the people themselves. By its emphasis on the community, health promotion has a heavy sociological frame that prioritizes the values of society as well as mobilization and solidarity in the quest for good and sustainable health. It thus makes assumption that individual members of the society would give equal weight to their own health and the health of their neighbors. In other words, it is often anchored on the uncanny assumption that the health of the individual member of a given society is intertwined with the health of the community as a collective. This means the reference point of health promotion is that one’s health is as good as the health of the members of the community or society as a whole, i.e., common health destiny. Therefore, such things as community empowerment, community competence and overwhelming sense of community are all apprehended as contributing to the health of the communities [23].
Traditionally there are five approaches utilized in health promotion. These are medical (the focus here is to make people free from medically defined diseases and afflictions; it is mainly anchored on prevention strategies and the role of the medical practitioner or expert in ensuring that the patients comply with recommendations); behavioural change (behaviour modification approach that recognizes that people’s behaviour and lifestyles can be changed in order to enable them attain good health, i.e., facilitate adoption of healthy lifestyle); educational (provision of information and knowledge that enable understanding of health issues and build awareness for informed decision-making and choice among people); client-centred (in this situation health practitioners work with clients in order to identify what they know about a given disease and take appropriate action; emphasis on perceiving the client as equal and building the clients self-empowerment that enable them make good choices and control their health outcomes); and societal change (the focus here is on the society or community rather than the individual and seeks to change or modify both the physical and social environments in order to make them consistent with or conducive to good health).
The conventional health promotion methods (modes of operationalizing health promotion and achieving its goals) include health education (the conscious and systematic effort at providing education or knowledge to people on particular and general aspects of health; it is about enabling people through proper and right knowledge on what to do and how to do it; it is empowering and improving people’s capacity to act with regard to their health issues and conditions), information, communication (the above three are often captured in the popular acronym IEC), social mobilization, mediation, community theater and advocacy and lobbying. However, while these methods are okay in differing contexts, a decision on the specific medium to use should be guided by both environment (community conditions) and the nature of the health issue involved. The use of more than one method in any given case is highly recommended especially in Africa where there are broad inequalities in access to social goods and the media. The increasing use of social media especially among young Africans calls attention to their deployment equally in core health promotion. Social media platforms like WhatsApp and blogs can be very potent in this regard.
There is an undeniable need to give high priority to health promotion research in Africa. Such research should aim at enabling a realistic and focused achievement of the goals of health promotion. Broadly, health promotion aims inter alia at:
The prevention of communicable and non-communicable diseases
The reduction of risk factors associated with diseases
The fostering of lifestyles and conditions in the general population that are consistent with overall well-being or good health
The effective/maximal utilization of existing health services and stimulating demand for others where/when necessary
According to the WHO [24] Health Promotion Strategy for the African Region, the contributions of health promotion to the achievement of health objectives include increasing individual knowledge and skills especially through IEC; strengthening community action through the use of social mobilization; enabling the emergence of environments supportive and protective of health by making optimal use of mediation and negotiation; enabling the development of public policies, legislation and fiscal controls which enhance and support health and overall development using advocacy and lobbying; and making prevention and consumer needs the core focus of health services delivery. All these can be positively influenced by research and studies which evaluate the effectiveness of what has been done as well as explore new strategies suitable to the socio-environmental context in question.
However, while research is very critical to achieving the goals of health promotion, it should be concise and focus essentially on the priority health programmes which have been identified by the WHO for the continent. Some of such programmes include the Global Fund for Malaria, HIV/AIDS and Tuberculosis, Immunization, Mental Health, the Tobacco Free Initiative and Reproductive Health as well as the fight against recurrent scourge of Ebola, etc. Such research should focus on identifying effective health promotion approaches and communication media to embody and convey the outcomes to communities through community participation; the extent or effectiveness of these means and seeking to still improve overall programme effectiveness and sustainability. Therefore, health promotion research should focus on ascertaining goals/outcomes of health promotion (to guide policy), provide reliable conditions associated with these outcomes or goals, precisely define the changes intended and delineate reliable mechanisms and indicators of M and E of health promotion strategies in specific country/community contexts.
The importance of research is essentially derived from the fact that it calls attention to the need for verification and evidence-based activities in health promotion. These are without doubt the ways of knowing if real empowerment and enabling has been achieved in the process. Thus,
Health promotion is about enabling people to improve their health; and secondly, evidence relevant to health promotion should bear directly on factors that support or prevent enablement and empowerment (determinants of health) activities that support enablement and empowerment (health promotion) and assessing whether these activities have been successful (evaluation of health promotion). [25], p. 357
The above clearly suggest that health promotion should be anchored on evidence or should rest on experience and reality regarding what works or what is possible and effective in any context. In this manner, “evidence-based health promotion involves explicit application of quality research evidence when making decisions” [26], p. 126. Research is even more foundational in health promotion since health promotion efforts need to be anchored on agreed definitions and values of health promotion. As Seedhouse contends the failure to be explicit about definitions and values generates conceptual confusion in research as well as sloppy practice [27].
The evaluation of health promotion which should be a core research activity may be based on the three main forms of evidence/knowledge associated with health promotion [28]: instrumental (controlling social and physical environments), interactive (understanding of diseases/health issues; lived experiences; solidarity) and critical (reflection and action; raising consciousness regarding causes and means of overcoming them). These three evidences are anchored on the given scientific/philosophical traditions, viz. instrumental (positivism, quantitative, experimental, scientific knowledge), interactive (constructivist, naturalistic, ethnographic/qualitative knowledge) and critical (materialist, structural and feminist theory).
There is also an overwhelming need for health promotion research to be aware of the difference between health promotion outcomes and health outcomes. Health outcomes crudely imply the consequences or benefits of healthcare delivery (e.g., reduction of mortality rate) related to a disease (which may be the case in spite of an increment in number of those affected by the disease). But health promotion outcomes signify the form of control and attitudinal re-orientation groups and individuals adopt in facing a given disease which may impact on the number of people affected by the disease and improve attitudes and behaviour towards those affected by the disease. Health promotion outcomes can be seen directly through community members’ perception and interpretations of a given health issue which makes the achievement of control possible.
Health promotion research should utilize both quantitative and qualitative methods. In addition to complementing quantitative methods in health promotion research, qualitative research enables the researcher reach the heart of issues in engagement with community members. In Africa, where a good percentage of the population are still domiciled in the rural areas, qualitative approach offers the possibility of profound insights into the why and how of health behaviors which may not be possible or easily achieved with the quantitative or traditional biomedical approaches. As a result, “the increasing popularity of qualitative methods is as a result of perceived failure of traditional methods to provide insights into the determinants – both structural and personal – of whether people pursue or do not pursue health-promoting actions” [25], p. 359.
It is important to recognize that in spite of apparent good intentions, health promotion can actually generate negative or counterproductive effects when not well managed. Thus, “negative outcomes occur where professionally paternalistic and disempowering health policy decisions force health-related outcomes that are irrelevant to sustained community development and are not based on or resourced according to the social reality of the community” [11], p. 315. The above sentiments caution one against embarking on health promotion activities and initiatives that are not anchored on the health realities of the community concerned. Often, overzealous health professionals unintentionally betray the health priorities of communities by assuming knowledge of all there is to know about the health situations and needs of the people.
Perhaps a critical shortfall of some health promotion activities and processes is the adoption of what can be termed the pathogenic paradigm which over-relies on risk instead of emphasizing protective mechanisms. This essentially entails a focus on the failure of communities and individuals to avoid disease or their apparent susceptibility to diseases instead of seeking to unleash their potential and capacity to engender and sustain good health and development. It is an approach that relies too much on health practitioners and experts and hardly gives voice to the people and their own knowledge cum realities.
Generally health promotion in Africa suffers from some of the debilitating challenges which confront the practice of health promotion broadly in many countries in the continent. These challenges, among others, include:
Poor definition and rudimentary elaboration of expected health outcomes
Ambiguous elaboration of factors and conditions to be targeted in health promotions
Ambiguity of health promotion policies and guidelines
Lack of capacity (or inadequate capacity) to develop, implement and evaluate health promotion programmes
A general context of inadequate investment in health promotion
Underdeveloped sectoral collaboration
Low political will and commitment to health promotion programmes as well as institutional corruption and resource mismanagement
The above challenges have implications for research in health promotions in the continent. There is no gainsaying the need for health promotion to be evidence based because essentially it is the only way to make it responsive to the health needs and interests of the people.
Health promotion combines varied but complementary indicators like legislation, health finance including fiscal measures and taxation, gender inclusiveness, mapping of priorities and organizational change. In spite of their differences, these issues are in reality intertwined or systematically connected in the sense that, for the public health system to function well and optimally, there should be a synergy between these indicators. Briefly:
This revolves around having the political will to make and drive through policies and laws that improve and sustain healthcare delivery. It also involves public health sector governance and leadership which aim at ensuring that only competent and qualified people lead the sector and that activities are governed by a democratic and free process which place emphasis on human rights, dignity and self-worth of all stakeholders.
Without doubt efficient health promotion and by implication the entire health delivery system cannot function without finance. In fact, the extent and impact of health promotion depend to a significant extent on the availability of funds. The problem of finance is especially critical in developing nations in Africa where political corruption and competing needs whittle down whatever gets to health from the yearly appropriation of government. However, there is a need to understand that a lot needs to be done in terms of the fiscal policies in these nations in order to achieve the desire for good health and improved life expectancy. In other words, the process of fiscal policymaking and budgetary allocation should prioritize health promotion and health delivery in these countries.
There is no gainsaying the fact that the health system as a whole is dynamic especially so in Africa where apart from battling known ailments new ones (or novel presentation of the old ailments) spring up now and then. The above entails that the health system calls for dynamic organizational setting that is robust enough to deal with changes while making improvements in the system. There is apparently no denying the fact that health promotion as a critical component of health delivery would benefit from organizational change. This is particularly so in the face of the reality that health promotion in most of the continent is still below the expectation. This is not to deny that health promotion has worked well in specific instances like the HIV/AID scourge and maternal health. However, such grab and slash system which focuses on only one of such delimited issues in the system cannot be seen as either robust or effective in the long run.
There is an obvious need to ‘en-gender’ health promotion as a very critical issue in Africa. This would entail ensuring that those involved in health promotion ensure that in all key phases of health promotion (planning, implementation and evaluation) women and men should be equal partners and collaborators. Gender, in this case, while calling attention to the needs of women, should also ensure that the men are not left behind even in approaching health issues traditionally seen as the concerns of women. Typical example here is in the area of family planning or reproductive health which demands the active collaboration or participation of both men and women to achieve desired results.
For the WHO [24], the priority interventions in Africa in respect of health promotions include capacity building, development of plans, incorporation of health promotion components in non-health sectors and strengthening of priority programmes using health promotion interventions. These essentially mean pursuing health promotion through capacity building, action planning, advocacy and multisectoral orientation. They are also in tune with relating to the determinants of health promotion in the continent. These include socio-economic conditions and physical (environment), biological, and behavioral lifestyles which impact on health in Africa. Countries can be encouraged to map out their priorities taking into consideration such factors as disease and financial burdens, threats, intervention tools and agencies, acuity, management capabilities, persistent challenges, etc.
Generally, there is a need for stepping up health promotion research in Africa in the areas of family and reproductive health targeting such issues as VVF, antenatal care, diabetes, cardiovascular issues, new disease forms/resurgence of old diseases (including Ebola), etc. especially in terms of communicating with those who are marginal to the formal sector of the society or who are less privileged by virtue of education, economic opportunities or physical/mental challenges, etc. in both urban and rural contexts. Health promotion can profit from an acute awareness of the fact that what works in one socio-geographical setting may not work in another since no two societies are exactly the same. This would entail designing programmes that even where the general principles or goals remain the same embody recognition of the socio-geographical peculiarities of the society/community concerned.
Given the usual paucity of funds in the continent, it makes sense that to minimize cost and save time, there should be incorporation of both needs assessment and evaluation into ongoing health promotion activities. This approach offers a smart way of pursuing health promotion goals without elaborate budget.
In spite of country differences and specific structural challenges, there is a need to build a culture of sharing and documenting outcomes and evidences of health promotion between different countries and organizations. This is a step towards achieving the desirable goal of multinational coordination especially for infectious diseases and epidemics. Equally, African nations need to invest more in capacity building for media and theater practitioners in both private and public sectors on health promotion. There is no gainsaying the media’s crucial role in health information dissemination. Actually, health promotion is largely media driven and should be programmed as such.
In addition to media practitioners, there should be health programme or intervention specific to health promotion capacity building for different cadres of public sector workers. Such capacity building or training should be anchored on acute awareness of current research trends and best practices globally. There should also be increased attention to the need for specific health promotion for under-represented health issues and priority to non-communicable diseases should be targeted. It should also improve capacity on how to incorporate methods of targeting members of the society marginal or vulnerable within each country context.
Edited by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, ISBN 978-953-51-3020-8, Print ISBN 978-953-51-3019-2, 336 pages,
\nPublisher: IntechOpen
\nChapters published March 22, 2017 under CC BY 3.0 license
\nDOI: 10.5772/61430
\nEdited Volume
This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\\n\\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\\n\\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\\n\\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\\n\\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\\n\\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\\n\\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\\n\\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\\n\\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\\n\\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'This book serves as a comprehensive survey of the impact of vitamin K2 on cellular functions and organ systems, indicating that vitamin K2 plays an important role in the differentiation/preservation of various cell phenotypes and as a stimulator and/or mediator of interorgan cross talk. Vitamin K2 binds to the transcription factor SXR/PXR, thus acting like a hormone (very much in the same manner as vitamin A and vitamin D). Therefore, vitamin K2 affects a multitude of organ systems, and it is reckoned to be one positive factor in bringing about "longevity" to the human body, e.g., supporting the functions/health of different organ systems, as well as correcting the functioning or even "curing" ailments striking several organs in our body.
\n\nChapter 1 Introductory Chapter: Vitamin K2 by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 2 Vitamin K, SXR, and GGCX by Kotaro Azuma and Satoshi Inoue
\n\nChapter 3 Vitamin K2 Rich Food Products by Muhammad Yasin, Masood Sadiq Butt and Aurang Zeb
\n\nChapter 4 Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet by Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet
\n\nChapter 5 The Impact of Vitamin K2 on Energy Metabolism by Mona Møller, Serena Tonstad, Tone Bathen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 6 Vitamin K2 and Bone Health by Niels Erik Frandsen and Jan Oxholm Gordeladze
\n\nChapter 7 Vitamin K2 and its Impact on Tooth Epigenetics by Jan Oxholm Gordeladze, Maria A. Landin, Gaute Floer Johnsen, Håvard Jostein Haugen and Harald Osmundsen
\n\nChapter 8 Anti-Inflammatory Actions of Vitamin K by Stephen J. Hodges, Andrew A. Pitsillides, Lars M. Ytrebø and Robin Soper
\n\nChapter 9 Vitamin K2: Implications for Cardiovascular Health in the Context of Plant-Based Diets, with Applications for Prostate Health by Michael S. Donaldson
\n\nChapter 11 Vitamin K2 Facilitating Inter-Organ Cross-Talk by Jan O. Gordeladze, Håvard J. Haugen, Gaute Floer Johnsen and Mona Møller
\n\nChapter 13 Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites by Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika
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