Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
Worldwide, around 1.3 billion tons of MSW (municipal solid waste) are generated every year, an amount that is expected to grow to 2.2 billion tons of MSW per year by 2025 [1]. A large fraction of MSW is disposed in landfills, which may lead to groundwater contamination by leachates and atmospheric emission of biogas, a mixture of CH4 and CO2 generated by biological processes related to MSW decay. In order to avoid these environmental disturbances, governments lean toward banning landfill sites and encouraging development of alternative waste treatments.
\n
Many of the components of MSW currently sent to landfill, such as paper, cardboard, textiles, wood, and plastics, are not hazardous and have high caloric content. For example, the composition of the MSW landfilled in 2013 in the United States is given in Figure 1. Instead of being disposed in a landfill, these components could be recovered and treated to produce waste-derived fuels (WDFs) for use as an energy source.
\n
Based on financial, environmental, social, and management considerations, the waste management sector defined a “waste management hierarchy,” classifying the different waste management options, presented in Figure 2. This concept, which appeared in the early 1970s, was formalized in the 2008 European Commission Waste Framework Directive [3]. From a sustainability point of view, waste reduction, reuse, recycling, and recovering are preferred—all these options decreasing the quantity of waste to be disposed of [1]. Unfortunately, not all waste streams can be diverted to such end and final wastes are always produced. Furthermore, even though some materials can have an increased lifetime, they generally end up degraded and in a state where their reutilization is impossible. Finally, some wastes, especially if they are made of mixed materials, are so that their recycling is really costly or is associated with a quite high energy demand or pollutant production and therefore is unrealistic [4]. For these wastes, energy recovery through co-combustion is an option of great interest.
\n
Currently, coal combustion accounts for around 40% of the world\'s electricity generation [5] despite the fact that coal combustion is a major source of NOx and SO2 emissions. These emissions are precursors for acid rain, and therefore sensible environmental policy suggests that they be curtailed. Cheap retrofitting techniques are needed to permit existing infrastructure to continue to operate without contributing to the incidence of acid rain.
\n
Figure 1.
Total MSW discards (by material) in the United States in 2013 [2].
\n
Since municipal solid waste generally has negligible sulfur content and lower nitrogen content than coal, substituting part of the coal with waste-derived fuel might be beneficial to the environmental performance of coal power plants. Furthermore, since the coal power plants electric efficiency is usually 10–20% superior to that of incinerators [6], burning MSW in coal power plants can lead to higher waste utilization efficiency than in dedicated incineration plants. Also, MSW contains a renewable fraction and can therefore helps reducing the amount of fossil CO2 generated by coal power plants. This is somewhat mitigated by the higher chlorine and alkaline content of WDF compared with coal, which may contribute to corrosion and ash deposition issues. Consequently, the co-combustion of coal and WDF has to be studied before a large-scale utilization of WDF in power plants. This chapter will discuss the production of WDF as well as the effect of its cofiring in coal power plants in terms of CO2, NOx, and SO2 emissions. The ashes behavior and the fate of chlorine in the combustors will also be covered. This chapter therefore summarizes the benefits and limitations related to WDF co-combustion in existing coal power plants.
\n
Figure 2.
Waste management hierarchy.
\n
\n
\n
2. Fuels derived from waste, a large ensemble
\n
Due to their inhomogeneity, their high moisture content and fraction of incombustibles, municipal solid wastes cannot be fired in large-scale coal power plants unless they are transformed in a more homogeneous and calorific feedstock, broadly called waste derived fuels (WDFs). Unfortunately, the fuels that can be derived from MSW are almost as diversified as the MSW themselves.
\n
Depending on the characteristics and the type of wastes used for the production of the WDF, it is common to differentiate solid recovered fuel (SRF) from refuse-derived fuel (RDF). Generally, SRF is more homogeneous, less contaminated, and have a higher calorific content than RDF that is more generic. In Europe, to overcome the ambiguous situation regarding fuel quality, the European Commission has given mandate to CEN/Technical Committee (TC) 343 to prepare a document classifying solid recovered fuels [7]. Different SRF qualities based on three criteria that are the net calorific value (serving as the economic indicator), the chlorine content (as the technological indicator), and the mercury content (as the environmental key parameter) have been defined [8]. Readers are advised to refer to the CEN/TC 343 published standards for more information.
\n
On top of RDF and SRF, there has been mention of process engineered fuel (PEF), engineered fuel (EF), refuse plastic fuel (RPF), generally made of more than 60% of plastic waste [9], and packaging-derived fuel (PDF). These fuels are usually of higher quality than RDF and SRF as they are made of source-separated processed dry combustible fraction, which cannot be used for recycling [10, 11]. Also, they are of predictable and consistent quality, which is critical to ensure their market security. Finally, they are not considered as waste but as a marketable product that has to meet strict end-user requirements [12].
\n
Numerous processes have been implemented to produce WDF from MSW. These processes generally consist of sorting and mechanical separation of the waste, size reduction (shredding, chipping, and milling), separation and screening, blending as well as drying and densification [13–15]. All these steps are used to increase the homogeneity and the heating value of the final WDF, improving their in-situ handling and feeding. An example of WDF production chain is given in Figure 3.
\n
Figure 3.
Production of WDF, inspired from [16].
\n
WDF production generally involves a source-separation step where the organic fraction (food residues, yard trimmings, etc.) is removed. One of the best-established and less expensive processes is the mechanical biological treatment (MBT). In an MBT plant, the metals and inert materials are removed, the organic fraction is screened out, and the high-calorific fraction is separated. The organic fraction is further stabilized using composting processes, either with or without a digestion phase, producing compost and biogas. The high-calorific fraction, on the other hand, is further processed into waste-derived fuel, as described above [11]. Extensive mechanical treatment (MT) processes can also be used to produce WDF [7].
\n
Even though the majority of the technologies involves the removal of the organic fraction some, such as the dry stabilization process, produce WDF containing the organic fraction. In this process, the residual waste, after separating out metals and inert materials, is dried through a composting process leaving the residual mass with a higher calorific value [11]. The high-calorific output of this process, developed in Germany, has the trade name of “Trockenstabilat”. WDF containing the stabilized organic fraction are however not the norm, and will therefore not be studied in the rest of the chapter.
\n
The high-calorific fraction of the waste, used as WDF, can generally be separated into a biogenic fraction and a plastic fraction. The biogenic or fibers fraction refers to the textiles, wood pieces, papers, and cardboards found in the MSW. Papers range from newspaper to glossy magazine sheets and can contain multiple chemicals as a large variety of additives are used during their fabrication, whether it is as pigment, binder, filler, or else. As an example, some of the pigments that can be used are clay (kaolin), calcium carbonate, titan oxide, satin white (3CaO·Al2O3·3CaSO4·3H2O), barium sulfate, talc, and aluminum hydroxide [17]. Calcium carbonate can further be used as filler, and therefore may account for up to 15% of the paper content.
\n
The plastic fraction, majorly derived from oil, also regroups a wide variety of materials. The more common plastics found in MSW are polyethylene (PE), polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyvinyl chloride (PVC) [14]. While the biogenic fraction has a high ash content, the plastic fraction generally contains chlorine, both raising processing and environmental concerns [18].
\n
Finally, multimaterial pieces can also be found in the high-calorific fraction of MSW, such as cardboard drink containers or Tetrapack™, combining both paperboard and plastic, with or without aluminum foil.
\n
Once produced, the waste-derived fuels can be used for the electricity production combined with coal or natural gas in thermal power plants, for their energetic content in industrial processes (e.g., cement kilns and blast furnace) or for their material properties also in various industrial processes (e.g., asphalt production) [19]. Due to the large number and poor environmental performance of coal power plants and the importance of developing cheap retrofitting technology to improve this performance, only the utilization of WDF in coal power plant will be studied in this chapter.
\n
During co-combustion studies, proportions of each of the combustible can be expressed in terms of weight fraction or energetic (also called thermal) fraction [20]. Energetic fractions are evaluated according to:
\n
xWDFe=WWDFLHVWDFWWDFLHVWDF+WcLHVcE1
\n
with W the mass flow (kg/h) of the WDF and of the coal (c), and LHV the lower heating value (kJ/kg). The mass fractions, on the other hand, are evaluated as follows:
\n
xWDFwt=WWDFWWDF+WcE2
\n
It should be mentioned that a large number of research projects currently focus on oxycombustion of coal and waste, which facilitates CO2 sequestration from the flue gas [21–23]. However, the costs related to such technology still remain a major obstacle to any commercial application [24]. The rest of this chapter will therefore only focus on the benefits and limitations related to WDF co-combustion in existing coal power plants.
\n
\n
\n
3. Effect of WDF co-combustion on CO2 emissions
\n
Because WDF contain products derived from biogenic sources (e.g., paper), “fossil CO2” emissions are reduced when WDF is cocombusted with coal [25]. Indeed, biogenic sources capture the same amount of CO2 during their lifecycle than what is emitted during their combustion [26]. Furthermore, methane being a greenhouse gas 25 times more damageable than CO2 in terms of global warming [27], the beneficial effect of waste co-combustion in terms of greenhouse gas emission is even greater if are taken into account the avoided methane emissions associated with their disposal in landfills. Therefore, in the European Union, for example, diversion of MSW from landfilling to composting, recycling, and energy recovery could produce a reduction from 40 to over 100 Mt CO2-equivalent per year [28].
\n
In order to evaluate the fossil CO2 emissions that could be avoided through WDF cocombustion, one needs to know the carbon and water content, the calorific value, and the biogenic fraction of the fuel [9]. Characteristics of varied WDF found in the literature are given in Table 1.
\n
What can be seen from Table 1 is that WDF with a wide range of carbon content (from 34 to 69%) and of heating value (from 13 to 27 MJ/kg) can be produced. As for the biogenic content, it is rarely known, especially for RDF. Furthermore, fossil CO2 emissions avoided will depend on the coal characteristics, which also vary widely.
\n
Anyhow, for example in [10], the authors evaluated that the emission of fossil CO2 associated with lignite combustion is around 955 g/kg, whereas that of an SRF with a biogenic content of 67% is (1–0.67) × 1067 = 352 g/kg. Lignite and SRF having comparable calorific content, for a 15 wt% cofiring ratio, emission of 90.5 g of fossil CO2 are avoided per kilogram of feedstock burned. Taking, for example, REW\'s BoA 2 and 3 boilers, which are fed with lignite at a rate of 820 t/h [29], fossil CO2 savings of around 74.2 t/h could be obtained through WDF co-combustion, which sum up to 1781 t of fossil-CO2 avoided per day in one boiler.
\n
Since WDF co-utilization in existing thermal plants usually requires low additional investments and, as was described in this section, since WDF are partially renewable, co-combustion of WDF could allow the production of partly renewable electricity at low cost. Furthermore, in comparison with pure WDF combustion systems, the potential variability of the cofiring ratio allows energy producers to be adaptable toward fluctuations in WDF availability.
\n
Even though CO2 emissions are in the heart of nowadays concerns, other pollutants such as NOx and SO2 still remain critical in coal power plants. The effect of WDF co-combustion on their emissions is discussed in the following two sections.
During combustion processes, nitrogen oxides, collectively termed NOx, are formed either from fixation of N2 in the combustion air or from oxidation of nitrogen chemically bound in the fuel [30]. A schematic representation of the different NO formation paths is given in Figure 4. Thermal-NO refers to NO formed by oxidation of atmospheric nitrogen at high temperature, whereas prompt-NO is formed by reactions of atmospheric nitrogen with hydrocarbon radicals in fuel-rich regions of flames. Finally, fuel-NO refers to NO formed by oxidation of the nitrogen bound in the fuel. Due to the relatively high nitrogen content of coal, the latter is the largest source of NOx in coal-fired systems [31]. On the other hand, NO can be reduced to N2 by heterogeneous reaction with carbonaceous surfaces, and therefore can be reduced by reaction with char and soot particles [32]. The amount of NOx emitted is therefore closely dependent on the combustion environment but also on the fuel composition.
\n
Figure 4.
Schematic representation of NO formation in coal combustion system.
\n
Largely, all combustion processes lead to the formation of NOx, emitted mostly as nitric oxide (NO) with smaller amounts of nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions can be significant in fluidized bed combustion, but are negligible in most combustion systems [30].
\n
During co-combustion tests of WDF in fluidized bed combustors (FBCs), authors reported a reduction in NOx emissions [12, 33–35]. They explain these reduced emissions by the lower nitrogen content of WDF compared with coal, up to 10 times less [30], but also by the nature of the nitrogenous groups in the waste material. Indeed, the main nitrogen compounds of WDF are simple proteins known to release NH3, which is then decomposed to NH2, NH radicals forming N2 after reacting with NO [34]. However, with the increase in cofiring ratio (>30%), increases in NOx emissions have been recorded [13, 33]. The authors suggest that since less coal is fed to the FBC, availability of unburned carbon is reduced, decreasing the extent of NO reduction by char.
\n
Reductions in NOx emissions was also recorded during cofiring tests in a cyclone fired combustor [36], as well as in entrained flow reactors (EFRs) [6, 37]. In EFR, contrary to FBC, increased cofiring ratio led to increasing NOx reductions. The conversion of fuel nitrogen into NO seemed therefore to decrease with increasing share of WDF. This is likely related to the high volatile content of WDF (as can be seen in Table 1), which might generate a reduction zone with lower excess air ratio near the burner [6]. This lower oxygen concentration may inhibit the conversion of fuel nitrogen to NO resulting in reduced NO formation. In addition, since the formation of thermal NO may not be negligible in the EFR, co-combustion of coal and WDF may result in a lower flame temperature compared with coal alone, thus leading to a reduced formation of thermal-NO.
\n
Because NOx emissions are closely related to the combustion environment, it is critical to maintain a stable and homogeneous solid feed-rate. However, several studies reported difficulties in achieving a steady mass flow rate of WDF to the combustor [12, 34, 36, 37]. This could be due to its inhomogeneity or its “fluffiness”. Therefore, for large-scale utilization of WDF, attention should be brought to the optimization of the feeding system. Increasing the carrier gas flow rate, adding a dedicated burner, and working at low cofeeding ratio can help reduce these feeding fluctuations. Finally, producing a homogeneous WDF in terms of particle size and composition, with physical properties as close as possible to that of the injected coal, is advised in order to experience smooth operation of the boiler with reduced NOx emissions.
\n
\n
\n
5. Effect of WDF co-combustion on SO2 emissions
\n
Figure 5.
Expected behavior of a WDF combined with alkaline sorbent in a pulverized fuel combustion environment, inspired from [42].
\n
Whether a fluidized bed combustor, a cyclone fired combustor, or an entrained flow reactor was used, increasing the WDF cofiring ratio led to a decrease in SO2 emissions [6, 12, 33–36, 38]. Two main explanations can be found regarding the decrease in SO2 emissions. The first one is the reduced sulfur content of the WDF compared with coal. The second one, corroborated by an increased sulfate content in the bottom and fly ash, is the absorption of SO2 by alkaline oxides, and more precisely calcium. With the higher calcium content of the WDF compared with coal, a sulfur self-retention process can occur according to the following overall reaction [39]:
\n
CaO+SO2+0.5O2→CaSO4+heatE3
\n
i.e. decreasing the concentration of SO2 in the flue gas.
\n
To further take advantage of such phenomenon, Accordant Energy LLC®, formerly known as ReCommunity Inc., developed a novel WDF, called ReEF™ or ReEngineered Feedstock™, to which air-emission control sorbents (e.g., calcium-, sodium-, halide-based and DeNOx reagents) are physically bound [40, 41]. Due to the combined effect of a lower sulfur content in the solid feed, SO2 capture by the sorbents and transport of small sorbent particles by larger waste particles, SO2 emissions can be greatly reduced. A schematic representation of this novel technology\'s behavior is given in Figure 5.
\n\n
In pulverized coal boiler, the ReEF™ is designed so that as the solid feed and the reactant gas enter the bottom of the reactor, the fibers and plastics undergo endothermic pyrolysis, and protect inorganic sorbents from exposure to high temperature, thus minimizing sintering. At this level in the reactor, the coal burns and releases SO2. When ReEF™ fragments travel upward and are combusted, sorbents are released and can capture the SO2 present in the flue gas. At the same time, any remaining residues continue to combust. Finally, in the top zone, also called the convection zone, sorbents desulfurize the flue gas to the point when complete burnout and conversion are achieved. This way, optimal ReEF™ design minimizes sintering of the sorbent early in the reactor while maximizing gas absorption later at lower temperatures before exiting as gas/solid products [42].
\n
The use of this novel fuel led to SO2 emissions reduction greater than 80% in a bubbling fluidized bed [43], up to 85% in a circulating fluidized bed [42], and up to 55% in pulverized coal boiler environment [37]. This fuel and the concept behind it open a new avenue for WDF, as they could be combined with various air-emission control sorbents and tailored to react with pollutant of interest (sulfur, nitrogen, heavy metals, etc.).
\n
\n
\n
6. Effect of WDF co-combustion on ash related issues
\n
Ash-forming elements occur in solid fuels mainly as internal or external mineral grains, as simple salts (e.g., NaCl or KCl), or associated with the organic matrix of the fuel [44]. In coal, a large fraction of the inorganics is present as minerals, mainly as Si, Al, Fe, and Mn. In biomass-derived fuels, such as WDF, on the other hand, the major part of the inorganics consists of free ions and simple salts or is associated with the organic matrix, and is rich in alkali and alkali earth metals (K, Na, Ca, and Mg) [24, 44]. Therefore, while approximately 0.5–4 wt% of the inorganics in coal vaporizes during combustion, between 30 wt% and 75 wt% of the inorganics in straw, for example, is vaporized at 1200°C [44]. Alkali metals are indeed generally released to a larger extent than the other mentioned species, vaporizing at temperature under 600°C [24]. These alkali metals, once vaporize, may react with silica to form alkali silicates, sulfates, and chlorides that melt or soften at low temperature, which make the co-combustion systems candidate to deposition issues [45].
\n
It should be noted, though, that the release of volatile inorganics depends on a large extent in the presence of more conservative inorganic elements such as silicon and aluminum in the fuel. It has been found that higher aluminosilicate content in the fuel makes alkalis significantly less volatile during combustion [46]. Furthermore, alkali earth metals decrease the retention of alkali metals on silicates leading to the formation of less adhesive compounds [24]. Mechanisms behind ash deposition are therefore rather complex, which are quite challenging as they are of vital importance for the boiler operators. Indeed, careless cofiring of difficult alternative fuels could lead to a reduction of boiler reliability and availability, and to unscheduled plant shut downs [47].
\n
Three major interrelated problems associated with the inorganic content of alternative fuels such as WDF have been identified: bed agglomeration, fouling/slagging, and corrosion.
\n
\n
6.1. Bed agglomeration
\n
Bed agglomeration is caused by interaction between alkali species and silica sand (the bed material in fluidized bed combustors) at high temperature, which can create low melting point eutectics. These eutectics can then act as binder between bed particles, which can result in a partial or complete collapse of the bed leading to defluidization and resulting in costly shut downs [48, 49]. Bed agglomeration and defluidization are influenced by various parameters, including temperature, fluidization velocity, size of bed particles, and combustor size [48]. Detection methods for agglomeration have been developed, such as monitoring of local temperature and pressure fluctuations, which can help to forewarn the onset of defluidization [49]. Anyhow, while agglomeration can be a major problem in fluidized bed combustors fired with biomass-derived fuels only, cofiring of biofuels and coal largely decreases the risk for agglomeration [50].
\n
\n
\n
6.2. Slagging and fouling
\n
While only fluidized bed combustors are affected by agglomeration, all types of furnaces are subject to ash deposition. Heat exchanger surfaces, combustion chamber walls, and cyclones are typically sensitive areas where deposits may cause extensive operational problems [51, 52]. These deposits reduce the heat transfer intensity and cause corrosion that reduces the lifetime of the equipment [53]. In order to limit these issues, many coal-fired power plants conduct sootblowing every 8–12 h [54]. Generally, two main types of deposits can be found [55–57]:\n
slagging: occurs in the high-temperature radiant sections of the furnace, directly exposed to flame irradiation, usually associated with some degree of melting of the ash, forming a highly viscous liquid layer;
fouling: happens in the lower-temperature convective sections of the combustor, generally related to condensation on the low-temperature tube surfaces of volatile species that have been vaporized in previous sections and are loosely bonded, forming an adhesive film that can cause ash particles to adhere to the surface.
\n
Slagging and fouling are very complex phenomena, but they generally simply start with the adhesion of the ashes in suspension on the various boiler surfaces. Ashes will adhere on a surface if it is coated with a partially melted layer. This layer can either be composed of ashes previously vaporized which condensed on the surface [58], or be due to the fusion at really high temperature of the materials composing the surface itself. These mechanisms are schematized in Figure 6.
\n
Figure 6.
Schematic representation of the formation of deposits in the boilers.
\n
Once the ashes have been deposited on the melted surface, phenomena such as sintering and fusion can produce stronger and more lasting deposits, which are therefore more problematic. These phenomena are accelerated in presence of alkali salts [59]. Therefore, the higher the ash fusion temperature, the better, so that the deposits are not melted, but are loosely bond and easy to clean with sootblowers [20]. Fusion temperature of crystals and eutectics typically present during coal and WDF co-combustion are given in Table 2. It can be seen that the higher the alkali content, and more precisely sodium and potassium, the lower the fusion temperature and therefore the more acute the slagging and fouling [45, 57]. At present, in purely waste-fired units, corrosive deposits and ash melting have limited their steam temperature to 420–470°C, and consequently their electric efficiency to 20–24% [28].
\n
\n\n
\n
Component
\n
Fusion temperature (°C)
\n
\n\n\n
\n
K2S2O7
\n
325
\n
\n
\n
Na2S2O7
\n
401
\n
\n
\n
Na3K3 Fe2 (SO4)6
\n
552
\n
\n
\n
Na2SO4 –NaCl
\n
625
\n
\n
\n
Na2 S-FeS
\n
640
\n
\n
\n
CaSO4 –CaS
\n
850
\n
\n
\n
Na2SO4
\n
884
\n
\n
\n
K2O.Al2O3 .6SiO2
\n
1150
\n
\n
\n
CaSO4
\n
1450
\n
\n
\n
2CaO.Al2O3 .2SiO2
\n
1593
\n
\n
\n
SiO2
\n
1700
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Switch the table to have the line as column and vice versa. Separation between the column is not clear for the first line. We read K2O.Al2O3CaSO4 for example [45, 60].
\n
In order to understand and predict the ash deposition propensity of fuels, numerous research approaches have been undertaken. Among them is the development of a number of empirical indices and several laboratory methods to determine the ash fusion temperatures [47].
\n
Four temperatures are used to characterize the ash melting behavior of laboratory prepared ash [61]: (1) the shrinking temperature (ST) defined as the temperature at which shrinking of the test piece occurs, (2) the deformation temperature (DT) defined as the temperature at which the first signs of rounding of the edges due to melting of the test piece occur; (3) the hemisphere temperature (HT) defined as the temperature at which the test piece\'s height becomes equal to half the base diameter; and (4) the flow temperature (FT) defined as the temperature at which the ash is spread out over the supporting tile in a layer, the height of which is equal to half the height of the test piece at the hemisphere temperature. These temperatures are represented in Figure 7. Over the ST ashes can be strongly adhesive, which can result in slagging [60].
\n
Figure 7.
Ash characteristic temperatures.
\n
From these characteristic temperatures, a slagging propensity index is evaluated as:
\n
Fs=4DT+HT5E4
\n
with the temperatures expressed in degree Celsius. Ashes are classified as having a boiler slagging propensity medium when Fs lies between 1232 and 1342°C; high when Fs is between 1052 and 1232°C; and severe when Fs is less than 1232°C. Accordingly, MSW and paper/plastic fluff will both have a high slagging propensity [61].
\n
Other indices are based on the finding that so-called basic compounds (or fluxing oxides) lower the deformation temperature of ashes, whereas acidic ones (also called sintering oxides) increase it [60]. This general rule of thumb, developed for coal ashes, can also be applied to WDF ashes [61]. The slagging propensity of mixes of WDF and coal ashes can therefore be correlated to the B/A ratio [60]:
\n
B/A=Fe2O3+CaO+MgO+Na2O+K2O+P2O5SiO2+Al2O3+TiO2E5
\n
with Fe2O3, CaO, MgO, Na2O, K2O, P2O5, SiO2, Al2O3 and TiO2 the weight fraction of the corresponding components in the ashes.
\n
Intensive slagging has been observed when the index is in the 0.75–2 range. Moving away from this range in either direction has decreased the slagging intensity [47].
\n
Finally, thermodynamic equilibrium modeling has become another tool to better understand and predict the chemical reactions of the ash-forming matter during co-combustion of coal, and WDF. Comprehensive description of thermodynamic database and model of ash-forming elements in waste combustion can be found in [62].
\n
Such approaches can give an initial assessment of the slagging and fouling propensity of the fuels [24]. However, for a true evaluation, experimental work is greatly recommended, especially since interactions between burned coal particles and pyrolyzed WDF particles could lead to the formation of unexpected species. For example, in [47], the authors tested the co-combustion of coal and 5% RDF in a drop tube furnace and observed an unexpectedly strong effect of RDF addition, enhancing the deposition rates by a 1.5 average factor. Furthermore, they observed big molten RDF particles in the deposits. In [6], on the other hand, the authors observed in an entrained flow reactor a decrease of the ash deposition flux with the increase of the SRF share. They suggest that this decrease might be related to the relatively high calcium content of the SRF ashes, which might generate calcium components with high melting temperature. They also suggest that due to the higher char fragmentation degree of SRF particles, average ash particle size and/or density might be smaller and therefore the inertial impact efficiency decreased, resulting in reduced ash deposition rate. Another example is given in [33] where increased fouling deposits, usually composed of sulfates and chlorides, were observed in a circulating fluidized bed boiler with the increase of the RDF cofiring share. Anyhow, even when increased slagging and fouling propensity was found, authors concluded that co-combustion of coal and WDF in power plant was feasible.
\n
\n
\n
6.3. Corrosion
\n
On top of the extent of the deposits, another important characteristic is their corrosiveness. The ratio between alkalis and chlorine in the fuels has been used to evaluate if the resulting deposit will be corrosive or not. For WDF, this ratio is likely to be <1, predicting that alkalis are likely to occur bounded to chlorine with little availability for alkali silicates formation [24]. Furthermore, the presence of melt in the salt deposit increased significantly the corrosion of the steel material, especially in presence of chlorine [63]. More details about the role of chlorine will be given in the next section, but catalytic effect between the deposit and the metal oxides covering the tube could lead to the enhanced oxidation of SO2 to SO3, which could lead to the formation of sodium and potassium pyrosulfates and trisulfates [20]. In temperature exceeding 550°C, these species can react with the tube protective layer of oxides, and molten deposit can exist even at temperature as low as 398°C, Na2S2O7 existing in molten state at such low temperature [20].
\n
The oxygen content in the flue gas is of primary importance for the corrosion process—in oxidizing conditions, the damaged oxides layer may be rebuilt, giving adequate anticorrosive protection [20, 64]. Therefore, the occurrence of reduction atmosphere in the area of superheaters (which can take place by low-NOx combustion in pulverized fuel boilers) strongly increases the risk of corrosion. This can also happened when the melted deposit prevent the oxygen to reach the tube metallic surface [20].
\n
One of the major drawbacks of the utilization of WDF is the higher propensity of their ashes to deposit on the boilers surfaces. Cofiring experiments showed that even if higher slagging and fouling occur, they were of manageable magnitude. Furthermore, combining WDF to coal greatly reduces the ash-related damages, compared with the combustion of WDF alone. Cofiring is therefore doable, but caution is needed.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Chlorine behavior in WDF co-combustion
\n
The origin of chlorine in the fuels can be separated as organic and inorganic chlorine. In coal, the chlorine exists mainly as semiorganic Cl that is anion Cl− sorbed on the coal organic surface in pores, surrounded by pore moisture [65]. In WDF, inorganic chlorine (e.g., NaCl) and organic chlorine (e.g., PVC) coexist. Furthermore, their chlorine content is largely superior to that of coal, reaching up to 1.8 wt% (see Table 1). Therefore, during the combustion of WDF, their chlorine content reacts and is emitted in the furnaces as vapor of hydrochloric acid or as chlorides which can condense on the surfaces of the furnaces as salts and cause their corrosion [65]. Finally, HCl can also react with organic molecules and form dioxins and furans. These three potential fates are described in this section and are illustrated in Figure 8.
\n
Figure 8.
Illustration of the chlorine behavior in a combustion environment.
\n\n
\n
7.1. High-temperature corrosion
\n
High-temperature corrosion in boilers is defined as the chemical attack of the metallic surfaces. In combustion units, corrosion mainly occurs when the metallic surfaces are in contact with melted salts. During combustion of coal only, the component responsible for the high-temperature corrosion is typically (Na,K)3Fe(SO4)3, which may form a eutectic mixture at low melting temperature. Potassium, sodium, and sulfur originate from the coal, whereas the metallic surface provides the iron [59]. However, in the presence of chlorine, other corrosion mechanisms become dominant.
\n
Chlorine in the ash deposits accelerates the corrosion by various mechanisms. First, chlorides decrease the softening temperature of the deposits, which, once melted, can damage the protective oxide layer of the metallic surfaces. Therefore, as soon as the deposits temperature exceeds the ST, the speed of corrosion increases significantly [51]. Second, the partial pressure of gaseous chlorine under the deposits containing chlorides can be significant, even at temperature lower than the ST, making chlorine available to attack the metallic surfaces through a gas phase corrosion mechanism. The presence of gaseous chlorine is mainly attributed to the sulfation of the deposited alkaline chlorides by gaseous SO2 and to the reaction of the alkali chlorides with the metallic oxides [66]. In fact, in [63], the authors studied that when chlorine was present in the salt, corrosion could take place at temperatures clearly below any melting of the salt deposits, and only a very low amount of chlorine was needed to trigger such corrosion. These results can be explained by the presence of gaseous chlorine produced by the sulfation of the deposits.
\n
On the other hand, other studies support that the sulfation of the alkali chlorides could reduce the deposit based corrosion [58, 67, 68]. Indeed, in [69], it was shown that a pure alkali salt, whether it contained sodium or potassium, with no chlorine did not cause any corrosion of any of the tested steels while all steel\'s samples showed indications of iron being volatilized from the steel surface when the alkali salt contained chlorine. Furthermore, the corrosion by alkalis sulfates can be managed by reducing the tube surface temperature and by adequately using sootblowers [70].
\n
It has, therefore, been established that when the S/Cl molar ratio is higher than 4, the fuel can be regarded as noncorrosive, whereas by S/Cl < 2 the corrosion occurs almost inevitably [20].
\n
Based on the idea of a protective layer, one of the recent developments in the field of corrosion protection is the coating of the pipes by a dense ceramic layer of porosity under 1%. This layer avoids the contact between the chlorine species and the metal, thus avoiding its corrosion [71]. The thickness of these layers is generally around 75–90 μm.
\n
\n
\n
7.2. Hydrogen chloride (HCl)
\n
Even if in the high-temperature regions of the boiler chlorine can be found as alkali chloride, at lower temperature, and thus at the exit of the boiler, the majority of the chlorine is found in the flue gas as HCl [46, 72]. In [44], for example, it was observed that during the co-combustion of straw containing 0.55 wt% of chlorine, 98 wt% of it is found as HCl.
\n
The major problem related with HCl is the active oxidation of the tubes at high temperature [20] (this kind of corrosion is however less aggressive than that of the melted alkali chlorides) and the attack of the joints and equipment downstream from the boiler, where the temperature and concentration allow the formation of liquid chloric acid [68].
\n
However, presence of HCl could allow the oxidation of the mercury and therefore facilitates its capture and control. Indeed, it seems that the percentage of mercury leaving the furnace in its elementary form decreases drastically from 85 to 10% for coal containing more than 150–220 ppm of chlorine in dry basis, facilitating the mercury capture in the particle control devices [72].
\n
Finally, HCl can also react with calcium, sodium oxides, and carbonates [68, 73]:
\n
CaO+2HCl↔CaCl2+H2OE6
\n
Na2CO3+2HCl↔2NaCl+H2O+CO2E7
\n
and be retained in the ashes. This phenomenon was observed, for example, in [12], where the authors measured low levels of HCl in the flue gas and higher chlorine retention in the ashes during co-combustion of coal and EF compared with coal alone in a fluidized bed. Experiments of co-combustion of RDF and coal in a vortexing fluidized bed described in [13] also concluded in a decrease of HCl in the flue gas in the presence of CaCO3, as did Kim et al. [35] with their circulating fluidized bed co-combustion experiments.
\n
\n
\n
7.3. Dioxins and furans formation
\n
Another preoccupation regarding the presence of chlorine is the formation and the control of polychlorinated dioxins and furans (PCDD and PCDF). PCDD and PCDF are chemically stable components, formed at temperature around 250–400°C [35]. Present during the combustion of MSW in dedicated incinerators, they however have not been detected during the co-combustion of coal and WDF [74]. This might be explained by one of the major difference between coal power plants and waste incinerators, that is the higher sulfur level. Typical S/Cl ratio in incinerators is around 0.2, which is one order of magnitude less than what is found during coal co-combustion.
\n
The major chlorination agent in the formation of PCDD and PCDF is Cl2, HCl being relatively ineffective. Cl2 may be formed via a reaction known as the Deacon reaction, which may occur during the gas cooling process [65]:
\n
2HCl+0.5O2↔H2O+Cl2E8
\n
Cl2, however, is decomposed by homogeneous reaction with SO2:
\n
Cl2+SO2+H2O↔2HCl+SO3E9
\n
Consequently, SO2 prevents the presence of molecular chlorine and suppresses the PCDD and PCDF formation [65, 74]. Therefore, very low concentrations (<0.03 ng-TEQ/N m3) of PCDD and PCDF have been observed during WDF and coal co-combustion [33, 35, 36, 43].
\n
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusion
\n
The combustion of fuel derived from municipal solid waste is a promising cheap retrofitting technique for coal power plants, having the added benefit of reducing the volume of waste disposal in landfills. Furthermore, co-combustion of WDF and coal, rather than switching to WDF combustion alone in dedicated power plants, allows power plant operators to be flexible toward variations in the WDF supply.
\n
Experiments show that substituting part of the coal feed by processed high-calorific value waste reduces the NOx, SO2, and CO2 emissions of coal power plants. However, the alkaline content of WDF and its potentially harmful interaction with the coal ashes, as well as adverse effects from the presence of chlorine in the waste are important drawbacks to waste-derived fuel use in large-scale power plants. On the other hand, synergetic effects between the coal and the waste, such as suppression of the PCDD and PCDF formation by SO2, or oxidation of mercury by HCl facilitating its capture in the particulate control device, are promising outlooks. Furthermore, in a world looking toward green energy production, reduction of the amount of coal used to produce energy through co-combustion of cheap partly renewable material that are the waste is of critical interest. Finally, waste-derived fuels can be combined with additives dedicated to the capture of targeted pollutants, improving even further the environmental performance of coal power plants.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"waste, coal, power plant, emissions, RDF",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/51472.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/51472.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51472",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51472",totalDownloads:2405,totalViews:906,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 20th 2015",dateReviewed:"April 26th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"October 5th 2016",dateFinished:"June 30th 2016",readingETA:"0",abstract:"The combustion of fuel derived from municipal solid waste is a promising cheap retrofitting technique for coal power plants, having the added benefit of reducing the volume of waste disposal in landfills. co-combustion of waste-derived fuel (WDF) and coal, rather than switching to WDF combustion alone in dedicated power plants, allows power plant operators to be flexible toward variations in the WDF supply. Substituting part of the coal feed by processed high calorific value waste could reduce the NOx, SO2, and CO2 emissions of coal power plants. However, the alkaline content of WDF and its potentially harmful interactions with the coal ash, as well as adverse effects from the presence of chlorine in the waste, are important drawbacks to waste-derived fuel use in large-scale power plants. This chapter reviews these points and gives a centralized review of co-combustion experiments reported in the literature. Finally, this chapter underlines the importance of lab-scale experiments previous to any large-scale application and introduces the idea of combining waste and additives dedicated to the capture of targeted pollutants.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/51472",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/51472",book:{slug:"developments-in-combustion-technology"},signatures:"Odile Vekemans and Jamal Chaouki",authors:[{id:"96495",title:"Prof.",name:"Jamal",middleName:null,surname:"Chaouki",fullName:"Jamal Chaouki",slug:"jamal-chaouki",email:"jamal.chaouki@polymtl.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Montreal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"179779",title:"Dr.",name:"Odile",middleName:null,surname:"Vekemans",fullName:"Odile Vekemans",slug:"odile-vekemans",email:"odile.vekemans@polymtl.ca",position:null,institution:{name:"University of Montreal",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Canada"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fuels derived from waste, a large ensemble",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Effect of WDF co-combustion on CO2 emissions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Effect of WDF co-combustion on NOx emissions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Effect of WDF co-combustion on SO2 emissions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Effect of WDF co-combustion on ash related issues",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1. Bed agglomeration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"6.2. Slagging and fouling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.3. Corrosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"7. Chlorine behavior in WDF co-combustion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"7.1. High-temperature corrosion",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"7.2. Hydrogen chloride (HCl)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"7.3. Dioxins and furans formation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'D. Hoornweg, P. 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Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnic School of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
Department of Chemical Engineering, Polytechnic School of Montreal, Montreal, QC, Canada
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\n
1. Introduction
\n
From 2009 to 2013 I did research on the death penalty among convicted murderers in South African prisons1. The reason? There were so many South Africans who believed that the number of murders in our country would drastically decrease if the death penalty were reinstated. 467 convicted murderers in 18 prisons (urban and rural) in all 9 provinces of our country, located by the South African Department of Correctional Services (DCS), completed a questionnaire, approved by this department. 392 men and 75 women were interviewed before completing their questionnaires. The latter consisted of questions regarding general information such as age, race group, gender, and length of sentence. The first question focussed on: (1.a.1) What was your motive for committing murder (jealousy, spite, anger, thoughtlessness, money, or anything else - that had to be indicated)? (1.a.2) Were you exposed to violence shortly before committing murder (electronic media, or any other type of violence – that had to be indicated)? (1.b) Which of the following contributing factors played a role in the commitment of the murder (drugs, alcohol, or both)? (1.c) Was the murder premeditated or committed impulsively? The second question focussed on: (2.a) Do you think capital punishment would be a deterrent to committing serious crimes? (2.b) And in your specific case: Do you think capital punishment would have been a deterrent to committing murder? Question three (3) asked: Was the victim known to you? By name, sight, or not at all? Question four was interested in: (4.a) Are you currently involved in a rehabilitation program. And (4.b): If you are currently involved in a rehabilitation program, do you think this program is helpful, and if yes, in which ways? The last question (5) focussed on: Will you murder again? In gail or after you have been released?
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All the information was accurately interpreted, and the results are discussed in the next section. This is followed by a brief discussion of South Africa’s history regarding the death penalty. Thereafter relevant, supportive, and authoritative international research of why the death penalty should not be an option, is discussed. The article ends with some very brief remarks on South Africa’s criminal justice system, the importance of restorative justice, and the death penalty as an important human rights issue not only for South Africa, but globally.
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\n
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2. Research findings
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The data gained from this research met the necessary ethical standards. The respondents were well informed about the purpose of the research and their confidentiality, privacy and anonymity were guaranteed. They were fairly selected by the DCS, informed about how the research results would be disseminated, and they provided consent not only to participate, but also for the data to be used for this study.
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2.1 Men
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15 of these participating men were under the age of 15 years; 206 between 15 and 29 years; 117 between 30 and 40 years and 54 older than 40 years. 193 were black; 168 Coloured; 22 white and 9 Indian.
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Among the motives put forward for the murders committed, 5.9% of persons indicated jealousy; 4% spite; 41.7% anger; 13.4% thoughtlessness and 16.4% money. 18.6% did so for reasons other than those mentioned.
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17.9% indicated that they had been exposed to violence in the media shortly before the murder; 2.8% were exposed to serious assault; 4.3% to gang violence; 7.9% to (other) violence within the community; 2.8% to domestic violence, and 12.8% to other forms of violence. 47.2% were not exposed to any violence before the murder
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The following contributing factors played a role in the murders: 8.9% of people were under the influence of drugs; 41.6% under the influence of alcohol and 20.1% under the influence of both. 29.3% were sober.
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19.1% of men planned the murder in advance, while 80.9% committed it impulsively. Four men indicated that they would commit murder again, depending on the circumstances. Among the reasons why the rest will not commit murder again are: I have discovered how high the value of life is and that every human being has the right to life and human dignity; murder is an inhuman act; it’s bad in prison; I want to be free; it was a huge mistake; crime does not pay; it’s no solution to problems; it causes tremendous emotional pain for everyone involved; I do not want to disappoint my family again; I am not in my inner nature a murderer; children must grow up with the presence and guidance of a father; restorative justice helped me find myself as well as with reconciliation with my family and the victim; God changed my life; it is a guilt that you carry with you for the rest of your life; I will talk about my problems in the future; I learned to respect the law; one throws away ones future.
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56.4% of the victims were known by name to the murderer and 9.1% indicated that he has seen the person before. 34.5% were completely unknown to the murderer.
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315 of these men were engaged in a rehabilitation program of which 96.8% testified that it was valuable to them at that time. 5.3% of these murderers did not undergo any schooling; 80.7% did not complete their schooling; and 14% passed matric.
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\n
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2.2 Women
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Of the 75 women who were interviewed and completed the questionnaire, four were younger than 15 years; 28 between 15 and 29 years; 24 between 30 and 40 years and 19 older than 40. 43 were black; 26 Coloured; 6 white and no Indian.
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3.5% of women cited jealousy as the motive for their murder; 2.3% spite; 43% anger; 12.8% thoughtlessness; 17.4% money and 20.9% other motives.
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12.7% experienced violence in the media shortly before they committed the murder; 7.6% were exposed to serious assault; 1.3% to violence in the community; no one experienced gang-related violence; 16.5% domestic violence; 5.1% experienced other forms of violence and 55.7% did not experience any form of violence before they committed the murder.
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5.3% indicated that they committed the murder under the influence of drugs; 37.3% under the influence of alcohol and in 10.7% of women both these drugs played a role as contributing factors to the murder. 46.7% were not under the “influence” at all.
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18.3% planned the murder in advance and 81.7% committed it impulsively. None of these women indicated that they would commit murder again. Some of the reasons they gave for this are: I learned new ways to master difficult circumstances; frightening experience; I met God; I am not inherently a bad person; I never want to end up in prison again; I hurt the people closest to me terribly; I’m very sorry; no one deserves to be hurt like that; such an act follows you for the rest of your life; crime does not pay; I am much wiser now; I will contact a family member, social worker or police member to help me if I find myself in such a situation again.
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72% of the victims were known by name to the murderer and 13.3% by sight. 14.7% were completely unknown to the murderer.
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58 of these women were engaged in a rehabilitation program and it was valuable to 89.7% at that time. 7.6% of these women had no schooling; 78.8% did not complete their schooling, while 13.6% passed matric.
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2.3 Main findings (referred to only – not discussed)
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In the light of this research, which also included many personal conversations with prisoners, I am convinced that the reinstatement of the death penalty in South Africa will not reduce murders (significantly). Of course, every murder is one too many. About 70% of men and 54% of women commit murder under the influence of alcohol and/or drugs. They are therefore not liable for their actions. One of the prisoners put it this way: “The death penalty will not help, because drugs and alcohol make you lose control over your life. When you are under ‘influence’ or addicted you do not care about anything or think clearly” [1]. Furthermore, 80.9% of men and 81.7% of women committed murder on the spur of the moment, without clearly planning it ahead and thinking about the consequences.
\n
Rehabilitation programs are valuable. Many people are products of broken families and communities. The moment they are exposed to value-driven rehabilitation programs, their behaviour begins to change. People can heal. There is a saying among prisoners that goes: “Liberate yourself through education [in prison] and you will be liberated long before you are released from prison” [1].
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There must be a shift away from punitive justice to restorative justice (which does not deny punishment – see concluding remarks).
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Programs with the view to release, as well as support by the community and the DCS after release, are essential. Much more can be done in this regard.
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The further one progresses in school, the smaller the chance of getting involved in crime. Children should be encouraged and helped as much as possible to complete their schooling and further equip themselves. “The lower group of dysfunctional schools produces the highest percentage of criminals” [1] one of the murderers said.
\n
Something will have to be done about alcohol and substance abuse, (such as the National Drug Master Plan2 recently launched (26/06/2020) by Minister Lindiwe Zulu – Department of Social Development) and anger (such as the structured programmes by psychological services3 in the DCS for inmates as well as their families). The causes of violence, crime, poverty, and hopelessness will have to be addressed better in a holistic way.
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65.5% men and 85.3% women knew their victim by name or have seen him/her before. It is the so called “social fabric crimes” and has primarily to do with a lack of moral values as well as assets for healthy development.
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The fact that 99% of men and 100% of women have indicated that they will not commit murder again indicates that they have learned important lessons. Many of these murderers are inherently not bad people.
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The role of faith communities in rebuilding prisoners’ lives should not be underestimated.
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Severe psychiatric cases must be permanently removed from society. These people are dangerous.
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76.6% of the convicted murderers who participated in the abovementioned research were convinced that the death penalty would not have deterred them from committing murder. Of the remaining 23.4%, a huge number tended to think so too, but they were reluctant to indicate it with certainty.
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3. Discussion – why South Africa should not consider reinstating the death penalty
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3.1 Brief history
\n
This session begins with a brief reference to the history of the death penalty in South Africa. Until the use of the death penalty was suspended in February 1990, our country had “one of the highest records of judicial executions in the world” [4, 5]. Just over the period 1979–1989 “the annual total of executions exceeded 100 in every year except for 1983” [4]. Professor Cora Hoexter (1990) confirmed the extremely high number of people executed in South Africa by stating that “[i]n 1987, for example, hangings averaged almost one every two days” [6]. Judge Dennis Davis (1990) said that “[a]llegations of racial bias in sentencing practices in capital cases have been made, most prominently by the late Prof. Barend van Niekerk, whose research suggested that black defendants stand a greater chance than white defendants of receiving the death penalty, particularly when the victim is white” [4]. Davis continued by saying that although Prof. van Niekerk “has been criticized for being unscientific, differences in capital sentences between the races continue to exist and are difficult to explain” [4]. There was also
\n\n
\nevidence to show that there are significant differences in sentencing practices of different judges. A retired Supreme Court judge and a retired magistrate have both confirmed recently that judges do have different philosophies regarding punishment and that some judges go out of their way to find reasons which will allow them to impose a punishment other than death. [\n\n4\n\n]\n
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Davis argued that once sentenced to death “a person is imprisoned on ‘death row’. The rigid conditions on death row and the fact that all prisoners there are waiting to be executed creates a traumatic, terrifying environment which causes terrible anguish and pain” [4]. A penal system such as this “which has been described as a ‘factory which produces corpses’, is arguably one which creates conditions of inhuman punishment” [4]. Davis concluded his thoughts on capital punishment by saying that “the execution itself is a barbaric event” [4] and referred to the late South African cardiac surgeon Prof. Chris Barnard4 who described execution as follows:
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\nThe man’s spiral cord will rupture at the point where it enters the skull, electrochemical discharges will send his limbs flailing in a grotesque dance, eyes and tongues will start from the facial apertures under the assault of the rope and his bowels and bladder may simultaneously void themselves to soil the legs and drip onto the floor. [\n\n4\n\n]\n
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Davis quoted in this regard the then report on the death penalty by Amnesty International which argued “that the death penalty, like torture, constitutes an extreme physical and mental assault on a person who has already been made helpless by government authority” [4].
\n
\n
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3.2 Current debate
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Fortunately, with the dawn of democracy in South Africa (1994), the death penalty was abolished on 6 June 1995 by the Constitutional Court. “The court ruled that capital punishment, as provided for under the [then] Criminal Procedure Act, was in conflict with the country’s 1994 constitution” [5].
\n
At present, seven years after the abovementioned research has been completed, there are still serious pleas in South Africa that the death penalty must be reinstated, because the cases of so many brutal and senseless murders leave many people speechless. Anton van Niekerk, distinguished professor of philosophy at Stellenbosch University, gives three reasons why the reinstatement of the death penalty should be avoided in South Africa [8]. The first is a pragmatic argument. According to him, enough studies have been done that show that the death penalty does not deter potential murderers (and rapists). The second is a political argument. South Africa is too complex and politicised to reinstate the death penalty. We know that the Constitutional Court interprets the death penalty as a violation of the most fundamental right, namely the right to life [9]. Before the 1990s, when the death penalty was still enforced in South Africa, more than 90% of those executed were black. It does not help to argue that the latter merely reflects the population composition in South Africa. The death penalty in South Africa, especially the memories of the time before the 1990s, is political dynamite [8]. The third and (probably) strongest argument is a moral one. We cannot morally justify incorporating the worst form of retribution, namely an eye for an eye, in our already “inadequate toolbox for conflict management”. This will only make conflict management more difficult than it already is [8].
\n
Linked to this is the question how we as a South African society see ourselves and how we want to think about ourselves. According to van Niekerk, one can argue, as the philosopher Immanuel Kant, who “exemplifies a pure retributivism about capital punishment: murderers must die for their offense, social consequences are wholly irrelevant, and the basis for linking the death penalty to the crime is ‘the Law of Retribution,’ the ancient maxim”, the law of retaliation (an eye for an eye), “rooted in ‘the principle of equality’” [10]. However, this argument is not convincing. The respect we have for all people implies that we as a society must continue to refuse to descend to the level of the murderer as well as the brutality that accompanies this act. We do not owe the murderer much, according to Van Niekerk, but we owe ourselves under the worst provocation, the preservation of humanity, morality and spiritual preparedness and resilience - the freedom to never allow the insanity of the murderer to become prescriptive for how we act towards him (or her) and others [8].
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Judge Johann van der Westhuizen, former judge of the South African Constitutional Court, confirms that the death penalty does not deter potential murderers from committing murder. No statistics prove that the death penalty is an effective deterrent. He argues that, although retribution is one purpose of punishment, we do not steal from thieves, we do not rob robbers, and we do not rape rapists. Why then kill murderers? [11]. He then asks: what does the death penalty do to a community’s view of violence and death? Should the state act at the level of the criminal? Is killing an acceptable solution - almost like war for peace or sex for virginity? Blunt communities accept the death penalty as part of their life. In South Africa, on average, more than 50 murders take place per day, but fortunately our constitution prevents us from executing these people. Van der Westhuizen continues to say that murders in South Africa are not racially motivated, as some (many?) people believe. Farm and house murders are sometimes horribly cruel but according to him he has never encountered a clear racial motive in court. For him, murderers kill mostly out of greed, jealousy, passion, and during gang wars. Also because of poverty and the despondency and drunkenness that accompany it, but not because of racial hatred [11].
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Currently Amnesty International unequivocally states that “the death penalty is the ultimate cruel, inhuman and degrading punishment” [12]. Amnesty “opposes the death penalty in all cases without exception - regardless of who is accused, the nature or circumstances of the crime, guilt or innocence or method of execution” [12]. It further holds “that the death penalty breaches human rights, in particular the right to life and the right to live free from torture or cruel, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment” [12]. Both these rights are protected in the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted by the UN in 19485 [13].
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According to Amnesty International “[t]he death penalty is a symptom of a culture of violence, not a solution to it” [12]. It provides the following five reasons why the death penalty should be abolished (and which should also apply to South Africa). The first (1) has to do with the fact that it is irreversible, and mistakes happen:
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\nExecution is the ultimate, irrevocable punishment: the risk of executing an innocent person can never be eliminated. Since 1973, for example, more than 160 prisoners sent to death row in the USA have later been exonerated or released from death row on grounds of innocence. Others have been executed despite serious doubts about their guilt. [\n\n12\n\n]\n
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Secondly (2) it says that the death penalty does not deter crime: “Countries who execute commonly cite the death penalty as a way to deter people from committing crime. This claim has been repeatedly discredited, and there is no evidence that the death penalty is any more effective in reducing crime than life imprisonment” [12].
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Thirdly (3) it states that the death penalty is often used within skewed justice systems:
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\nIn many cases recorded by Amnesty International, people were executed after being convicted in grossly unfair trials, on the basis of torture-tainted evidence and with inadequate legal representation. In some countries, death sentences are imposed as the mandatory punishment for certain offences, meaning that judges are not able to consider the circumstances of the crime or of the defendant before sentencing. [\n\n12\n\n]\n
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Fourthly (4), the death penalty is discriminatory: “The weight of the death penalty is disproportionally carried by those with less advantaged socio-economic backgrounds or belonging to a racial, ethnic or religious minority. This includes having limited access to legal representation, for example, or being at greater disadvantage in their experience of the criminal justice system” [12].
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Fifthly (5), it is used as a political tool. “The authorities in some countries, for example Iran and Sudan, use the death penalty to punish political opponents” [12].
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According to Amnesty, people are executed daily and “sentenced to death by the state as punishment for a variety of crimes – sometimes for acts that should not be criminalized. In some countries, it can be for drug-related offences, in others it is reserved for terrorism-related acts and murder” [12]. In some countries people under the age of 18 are executed,6\n
\n\n
\nothers use the death penalty against people with mental and intellectual disabilities and several others apply the death penalty after unfair trials – in clear violation of international law and standards. People can spend years on death row, not knowing when their time is up, or whether they will see their families one last time. [\n\n12\n\n]\n
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When Amnesty International “started its work in 1977, only 16 countries had totally abolished the death penalty” [12]. By the end of 2019 “that number has risen to 106” [12]. Furthermore, “at least 657 executions [were recorded] in 20 countries in 2019, down by 5% from 2018 (at least 690 executions). This figure represents the lowest number of executions that Amnesty International has recorded in at least a decade” [12]. It further states that “1 000s of people were likely executed in China, but the numbers remain classified” [12]. If China is excluded, “86% of all reported executions took place in just four countries – Iran, Saudi Arabia, Iraq and Egypt” [12]. With regards to death sentences per year, “Amnesty International recorded at least 2,307 death sentences in 56 countries in 2019, a slight decrease from the total of 2,531 reported in 2018. At least 26,604 people were known to be under sentence of death globally at the end of 2019” [12]. This is morally unacceptable, and several instruments have been adopted internationally, banning the use of the death penalty. They are:
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The Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, aiming at the abolition of the death penalty [15].
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Protocol No. 6 to the European Convention on Human Rights, concerning the abolition of the death penalty [16], and Protocol No. 13 to the European Convention on Human Rights, concerning the abolition of the death penalty in all circumstances [17].
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The Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights to Abolish the Death Penalty [18].
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Back to the South African context. It is in the light of so many farm murders (as referred to earlier) and violent crime in South Africa that there is currently a strong plea from various quarters for the reinstatement of the death penalty. Amanda Gouws, distinguished professor of political science at Stellenbosch University, refers to a study by Dr. Johan Burger, senior researcher at the Institute for Security Studies (SA). From 1990 to 2017 there were 1938 murders on farms (of which 137 were farm workers). Of the victims, 88% were white and 12% black. If we look at the period 1991–2001 there were 6 122 farm attacks and 1 254 murders. Of the victims, 62% were white. 62 out of 800 000 farm dwellers are killed annually - that is 7,75 out of 100 000 while the national murder rate is 36 out of 100 000 citizens. Thus, although the incidence of farm murders is lower than murders in general, it is not an insignificant statistic. Farm attacks must be seen against the background of very high crime rates and general lawlessness in South Africa, Gouws reasons [19, 20]. But do these facts justify the reinstatement of the death penalty in order to ensure a more orderly society, as many people reason?
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If it could be shown that the death penalty serves as a deterrent, there would be a case for it. But Ronald Preston’s arguments (late professor of social and pastoral Theology - University of Manchester) are in line with Van Niekerk, Van der Westhuizen, Amnesty International and others, namely that “exhaustive investigations in Europe and North America have shown that there is no such evidence, but rather that the number of murders varies little whether there is a death penalty or not” [21]. According to the Death Penalty Information Center (DPIC, Washington DC) “a survey of the former and present presidents of [America’s] top academic criminological societies, 88% of these experts rejected the notion that the death penalty acts as a deterrent to murder” [22]. Only 5% of them said “yes”, in other words were convinced that the death penalty acts as a deterrent, while 7% had no opinion [22]. This Center furthermore refers to a
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\nreport by the National Research Council, titled Deterrence and the Death Penalty … that studies claiming that the death penalty has a deterrent effect on murder rates are ‘fundamentally flawed’ and should not be used when making policy decisions (2012). A DPIC study of 30 years of FBI Uniform Crime Report homicide data found that the South has consistently had by far the highest murder rate. The South accounts for more than 80% of executions. The Northeast, which has fewer than 0.5% of all executions, has consistently had the lowest murder rate. [\n\n22\n\n]\n
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In the South the murder rate was 6 per 100 000 (2018) while in the Northeast it was 3.4 per 100 000 – noticeably less [22].
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In fact, according to Stassen and Gushee, the death penalty has a paradoxical “imitative effect” on potential murderers: “It sets an official governmental example that killing someone is a proper way to resolve feelings of resentment and to slake the desire for revenge” [18]. The imitative effect according to them implies that after the government had executed someone in America, the number of murders in that area of the execution tends to increase, and the murder rates, as already indicated, are higher in states where the death penalty is still legal. When a nation goes to war, that government inevitably sends out the message that killing one’s enemies is acceptable. Murders within such a nation usually increase during these times. Among returning war veterans, there is a higher murder rate [18].
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To impose the death penalty on someone is to say that such a person’s image as a human being has become so obscured that nothing can be done about his (or her) “salvation”, and that he therefore has no right to exist anymore. Is it ethical to impose such a judgement on someone? May one allow such a destructive verdict to be made about another person’s life? Of course, strict action must be taken against people who commit murder, especially where it took place premeditatedly and without extenuating circumstances, but, should one not place a much higher value on every human being’s life and try to protect it at all costs? Should we not overcome evil with good (to use a biblical metaphor)? Is rehabilitation and restorative justice, despite the costs involved, not more important and less costly than the eradication of life by the execution of the death penalty?
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The Death Penalty Information Center provides the following facts to illustrate how costly the death penalty actually is:
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\nOklahoma capital cases cost, on average, 3.2 times more than non-capital cases (Study prepared by Peter A. Collins, Matthew J. Hickman, and Robert C. Boruchowitz, with research support by Alexa D. O’Brien, for the Oklahoma Death Penalty Review Commission, 2017.) Defence costs for death penalty trials in Kansas averaged about $400,000 per case, compared to $100,000 per case when the death penalty was not sought (Kansas Judicial Council, 2014). A study in California revealed that the cost of the death penalty in the state has been over $4 billion since 1978. The study considered pre-trial and trial costs, costs of automatic appeals and state habeas corpus petitions, costs of federal habeas corpus appeals, and costs of incarceration on death row (Alarcon & Mitchell, 2011). Enforcing the death penalty costs Florida $51 million a year above what it would cost to punish all first-degree murderers with life in prison without parole. Based on the 44 executions Florida had carried out since 1976, that amounts to a cost of $24 million for each execution (Palm Beach Post, January 4, 2000). The most comprehensive study in the country found that the death penalty costs North Carolina $2.16 million per execution over the costs of sentencing murderers to life imprisonment. The majority of those costs occur at the trial level (Duke University, May 1993). In Texas, a death penalty case costs an average of $2.3 million, about three times the cost of imprisoning someone in a single cell at the highest security level for 40 years (Dallas Morning News, March 8, 1992). [\n\n18\n\n]\n
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In South Africa, not only because of its current devastating poverty, huge unemployment, and income inequality – but also with its inhumane past of racial discrimination and how it has affected our judicial system including death sentencing, the death penalty should not be reconsidered. From the practice of slavery, when black people were considered the property of others, to this day, racial discrimination undoubtedly plays a role in the application of the death penalty. According to Stassen and Gushee “[r]ace is more likely to affect death sentencing than smoking affects the likelihood of dying from heart disease” [23]. This is also confirmed by the following statistics from the Death Penalty Information Center [22]:
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\nJurors in Washington state are three times more likely to recommend a death sentence for a black defendant than for a white defendant in a similar case (Prof. K. Beckett, Univ. of Washington, 2014). In Louisiana, the odds of a death sentence were 97% higher for those whose victim was white than for those whose victim was black (Pierce & Radelet, Louisiana Law Review, 2011). A study in California found that those convicted of killing whites were more than 3 times as likely to be sentenced to death as those convicted of killing blacks and more than 4 times more likely as those convicted of killing Latinos (Pierce & Radelet, Santa Clara Law Review, 2005). A comprehensive study of the death penalty in North Carolina found that the odds of receiving a death sentence rose by 3.5 times among those defendants whose victims were white (Prof. Jack Boger and Dr. Isaac Unah, University of North Carolina, 2001). In 96% of states where there have been reviews of race and the death penalty, there was a pattern of either race-of-victim or race-of-defendant discrimination, or both (Prof. Baldus report to the ABA, 1998).\n
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Another important reason why a country should stay away from the death penalty has to do with the fact, as already referred to, that too many people are sentenced to death innocently [22].
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\nSince 1973, more than 170 people [in the USA] have been released from death row with evidence of their innocence (Staff Report, House Judiciary Subcommittee on Civil & Constitutional Rights, 1993, with updates by DPIC). An average of 3.5 wrongly convicted death-row prisoners have been exonerated each year since 1973, peaking at 7.6 per year between 1999 and 2004.\n
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According to American researchers Liebman et al. [24]
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\n[n]ationally, the overall rate of serious reversible error in capital cases is 68% - nearly seven out of every ten cases … The most common errors, prompting the most reversals at the state post-convictions stage, are (a) egregiously incompetent defence lawyers, mostly court appointed, who did not even look for – and demonstrably missed – important evidence that the defendant was innocent or did not deserve to die. 82% of those convictions overturned at the state level were found to deserve less than death when errors were corrected on re-trial; 7% were found innocent of the capital crime. Only 11% of those capital convictions reversed on state review were still found to deserve death on retrial … These high error rates exist all over the nation. 24 states with the death penalty have overall error rates of 52% or higher. 22 of the states have overall error rates of 60% or higher. 15 states have error rates of 70% or higher …\n
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This study concludes by stating that “the capital trial process is so error-ridden as to be not only unfair but also irrational” [24].
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“To err is human, to forgive is divine” (this saying is from “An Essay on Criticism,” by Alexander Pope) [25]. We need more forgiveness, not only in South Africa, but across the world. I know that the pain associated with murder for the nearest relatives (on both sides) is unbearable, but forgiveness is an important component if we want to progress in our thinking beyond the death penalty. If you cannot forgive, you are killing your own spirit. Then you remain a victim. Forgiveness, on the other hand, brings liberation and healing. In South Africa there are many gripping stories of forgiveness. One such story is about Ginn Fourie’s 23-year-old daughter, Lindi, who died on New Year’s Eve 1993 in the Helderberg Tavern (Western Cape, South Africa) bomb blast – still a turmoil political time in South Africa. She and some friends went for a drink when the bomb exploded, and Lindi lost her life. Lethlapa, PAC (Pan Africanist Congress of Azania) leader at that time, was responsible for these blasts. Long after this tragic happening, Ginn was driving in her car when she heard on the radio that Lethlapa (who received amnesty) was going to launch his book. She decided to attend the event. She met him and they began a journey together because of her forgiveness and his acceptance of her forgiveness. Since then, for many years, they have hosted seminars on forgiveness and reconciliation worldwide. Both were liberated by forgiveness [26].
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We will have to transform the vicious cycles of murder, revenge and resentment with initiatives and actions that combat and cure its causes. “Forgiveness, depending on individual tolerance and level of wrong-doing, comes easier for some than it does for others. However, it is difficult to find a more selfless, modern-day message of forgiveness” [23] than that of former South African president, Nelson Mandela, who said: “Forgiveness liberates the soul, it removes fear. That’s why it’s such a powerful weapon” [27].
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\n
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4. Concluding remarks
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For a criminal justice system to effectively deter criminals, competence, credibility, and effective communication are crucial. Such a system must be able to identify, arrest, prosecute, sentence, and rehabilitate most criminals. There is a certain chain of activities in a criminal justice system and the fight against crime. The whole system is just as strong as the weakest link in it. The fact that a criminal justice system warns potential offenders that they will be punished must be credible. The political will, especially among the country’s leading politicians, must proclaim and achieve this in an urgent manner. These two important aspects need to be communicated effectively to all potential criminals. They need to know that the vast majority of offenders are not going to get away. South Africa is currently failing in all three these aspects. An effective criminal justice system, furthermore, must be coupled with restorative justice to effectively curb crime and murder. This can be done without the death penalty. The latter is based on revenge, but justice cannot be based on revenge. It must restore.
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Punishment (excluding the death penalty) is important and needed for offences, but on its own it “is not effective in changing behaviour and is disruptive to community harmony and good relationships” [28].
\n\n
\nExploring traditional African models of justice, one finds the Sotho practices of the ‘lekhota’. If an offence is reported to a traditional leader, he may call a lekhota to session. The lekhota is normally attended by the victim, the offender, family members and support people … of both the offender and the victim and community members. Anyone may however attend. Everyone attending enjoys full participation and all decisions are taken by consensus. The aim is to restore what has been lost through the offence. [\n\n28\n\n]\n
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This age-old African system with its restorative roots provides a stark contrast to our current criminal justice system which inter alia controls crime, while restorative justice places crime control largely in the hands of the community and Ubuntu. The current criminal justice system defines offender accountability as taking punishment, while restorative justice defines it as assuming responsibility and taking action to repair harm. With restorative justice the offender is not defined by deficits as in the current criminal justice system, but by his/her capacity to make reparation. This process focusses on problem solving, emphasising dialogue and negotiation, as well as restitution as a means of restoring both parties (victim and offender) and to bring about reconciliation [28].
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The death penalty is not only in total contrast to restorative justice, but also to the South African Bill of Rights, enshrined in our Constitution, which says: “Everyone has the right to life” (Chapter 2, Article 11) [9]. “Because of its basic importance, the right to life appears in virtually every international and regional human rights instrument …” [6]. According to Hoexter, “the right to life” has an abstract character and is a very general concept. Therefore, it is “difficult to translate it into concrete terms or to give it specific meaning” [6]. Although important, it would be more realistic “to speak of a right not to be deprived of one’s life, and of corresponding duties on the government to take all the necessary steps to prevent untimely death” [6]. Interpreted, it means that the state should abolish the death penalty (where applicable) and never consider its reinstatement. We have seen that the death penalty does not help to uphold the right to life or serves as “an effective deterrent to other would-be murderers” [6].
\n
Our Bill of Rights (Chapter 2, Article 12) further states that everyone has the right “not to be tortured in any way and not to be treated or punished in a cruel, inhuman or degrading way” [9]. According to Davis “a number of organisations and legal authorities have argued that the death penalty is a cruel and inhuman punishment” [4]. Amnesty International “argue that the death penalty, like torture, constitutes an extreme physical and mental assault on a person who has already been made helpless by government authority” [4]. The African Charter on Human and People’s Rights (Article 5) also contains a specific provision prohibiting “Torture and Cruel, Inhuman and Degrading Treatment” [29].
\n
We must work hard in South Africa and globally to uphold a political climate in which politicians and courts maximise the protection of human rights, among others, these referred to above.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"death penalty, (effective) deterrence, convicted murderers, restorative justice, South Africa",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/74995.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/74995.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74995",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74995",totalDownloads:32,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"October 14th 2020",dateReviewed:"January 14th 2021",datePrePublished:"March 2nd 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"January 30th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"In South Africa, the death penalty has been repealed just after the arrival of democracy in 1994. At present, due to numerous daily murders, especially farm murders, this issue is being debated once again seriously – by ordinary citizens, politicians, theologians, and others. In the media, in particular, it gets a lot of attention and in view of the extent of violent crime in our country, the reinstatement of the death penalty is again supported by many. The death penalty as such will always be contentious because it is about the reasoned termination of someone’s life – which is a radical act. Between 2009 and 2013 I did research on the death penalty in South African prisons (the first of its kind as far as we could determine), in all 9 our country’s provinces. The content of this study, gathered from 467 convicted murderers, and several other core aspects of why the reinstatement of the death penalty particularly in South Africa, should not be an option, will be discussed with reference to supporting international and authoritative research.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/74995",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/74995",signatures:"Chris Jones",book:{id:"9537",title:"Human Rights Matters",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Human Rights Matters",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Trudy Corrigan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9537.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"197557",title:"Dr.",name:"Trudy",middleName:null,surname:"Corrigan",slug:"trudy-corrigan",fullName:"Trudy Corrigan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"274281",title:"Dr.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Jones",fullName:"Chris Jones",slug:"chris-jones",email:"chrisjones@sun.ac.za",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Research findings",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Men",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Women",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Main findings (referred to only – not discussed)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6",title:"3. Discussion – why South Africa should not consider reinstating the death penalty",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.1 Brief history",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.2 Current debate",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Concluding remarks",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nJones, C. 2013. Capital Punishment: Convicted murderers’ views in 18 South African prisons, 2009-2013. Unpublished research document. Stellenbosch University. Stellenbosch.\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\n\nhttps://www.dsd.gov.za/index.php/latest-news/21-latest-news/217-minister-lindiwe-zulu-launches-the-national-drug-master-plan-on-international-day-against-drug-abuse-and-illicit-trafficking-26-june-2020 [06/01/2021].\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\n\nhttp://www.dcs.gov.za/?page_id=319 [06/01/2021].\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nDavis, D. 1990. Freedom from torture and ill-treatment in: Human Rights for South Africans (edited by Mike Robertson). Oxford University Press: Oxford. pp. 42; 45-46.\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nThe SA Constitutional Court abolishes the death penalty. 6 June 1995. South African History Online: Towards a people’s history: https://www.sahistory.org.za/dated-event/sa-constitutional-court-abolishes-death-penalty [19/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nHoexter, C. 1990. The right to life, liberty, and security in: Human Rights for South Africans (edited by Mike Robertson). Oxford University Press: Oxford. p. 35, 31, 32.\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\n\nhttps://www.sahistory.org.za/people/christiaan-neethling-barnard/ [19/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nVan Niekerk, A. 2020. Moet doodstraf ingestel word? 15 September 2020. Netwerk24: https://www.netwerk24.com/Stemme/Menings/moet-doodstraf-ingestel-word-20200914 [16/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\n\nThe Constitution of the Republic of South Africa, 1996. Act 108 of 1996. As adopted on 8 May 1996 and amended on 11 October 1996 by the Constitutional Assembly. p.7.\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nCapital Punishment. IEP. https://iep.utm.edu/cap-puni/#:~:text=Kant%20exemplifies%20a%20pure%20retributivism,%E2%80%9Cthe%20principle%20of%20equality.%E2%80%9D [21/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nVan der Westhuizen, J. 2019. Dien doodstraf ‘n doel? 18 Augustus 2019. Netwerk24:\nhttps://www.netwerk24.com/Stemme/Aktueel/dien-doodstraf-n-doel-20190818 [19/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nAmnesty International. Death Penalty: https://www.amnesty.org/en/what-we-do/death-penalty/ [19/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nUnited Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights: https://www.un.org/en/universal-declaration-human-rights/ [19/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\n\nhttps://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/news/2015/08/iran-juvenile-offender-due-to-be-executed/ [19/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nUnited Nations. Human Rights. Office of the High Commissioner. Second Optional Protocol to the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, aiming at the abolition of the death penalty. Adopted and proclaimed by General Assembly resolution 44/128 of 15 December 1989: https://www.ohchr.org/en/professionalinterest/pages/2ndopccpr.aspx [19/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nProtocol No. 6 to the European Convention on Human Rights, concerning the abolition of the death penalty, as amended by Protocol No.11. Strasbourg, 28.iv.1983. Council of Europe. European Treaty Series – No. 114. https://www.echr.coe.int/Documents/Library_Collection_P6_ETS114E_ENG.pdf [19/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nProtocol No. 13 to the Convention for the protection of human rights and fundamental freedoms, concerning the abolition of the death penalty in all circumstances. Vilnius, 3.V.2002. Council of Europe. European Treaty Series - No. 187. https://www.refworld.org/pdfid/3ddd0e4c4.pdf [19/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nThe Protocol to the American Convention on Human Rights to Abolish the Death Penalty. Department of Internal Law: https://www.oas.org/juridico/english/treaties/a-53.html [19/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nGouws, A. 2020. Dié ‘manlikheid’ lei tot geweld. Netwerk24. 20 Oktober 2020: https://www.netwerk24.com/Stemme/Menings/die-manlikheid-lei-tot-geweld-20201019 [20/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nBurger, J. 2018. Violent crime on farms and smallholdings in South Africa. Policy Brief. Institute for Security Studies. September 2018. p.3. https://issafrica.s3.amazonaws.com/site/uploads/pb115-4.pdf [20/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nPreston, R. 1990. Capital Punishment in: A New Dictionary of Christian Ethics (edited by John Macquarrie and James Childress). SCM Press: London. p. 76.\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nDeath Penalty Information Center. Facts about the Death Penalty. 2 October 2020: https://files.deathpenaltyinfo.org/documents/pdf/FactSheet.f1601652961.pdf [20/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nStassen, G.H. & Gushee, D.P. 2003. Kingdom Ethics. Inter Varsity Press: Downers Grove.\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nLiebman, J.S., Fagan, J. & West, V. September 12, 2000. “A Broken System: Error Rates in Capital Cases, 1973-1995”. University of Columbia School of Law.\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nTo err is human, to forgive divine. Dictionary.Com. https://www.dictionary.com/browse/to-err-is-human--to-forgive-divine/ [20/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nJones, C. 2013. Herstellende geregtigheid in plaas van die doodstraf in: Etiek – vanuit God se koninkryk bedink. Volume 3: Die waarde van lewe. Bybelgefundeerde kursus per korrespondensie in samewerking met die Sentrum vir Kontekstuele Bediening, Fakulteit Teologie, Universiteit Pretoria en Hugenote Kollege. HBI-BM: Wellington. pp. 45-62.\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\n9 Inspiring Nelson Mandela quotes on forgiveness. The Borgen Project: https://borgenproject.org/nelson-mandela-quotes-on-forgiveness/ [20/10/2020].\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\n\nUkuphula Iketanga, Ukuphula Iketanga Foundation. Cramerview, Johannesburg. pp. 270-271.\n'},{id:"B29",body:'\nAfrican Charter on Human and People’s Rights, https://www.achpr.org/legalinstruments/detail?id=49/ [08/01/2021].\n'}],footnotes:[{id:"fn1",explanation:"Jones, C. 2013. Capital Punishment: Convicted murderers’ views in 18 South African prisons, 2009–2013. Unpublished research document. Stellenbosch University. Stellenbosch [1]."},{id:"fn2",explanation:"For more information see [2]."},{id:"fn3",explanation:"For more information see [3]."},{id:"fn4",explanation:"He performed the world’s first human-to-human heart transplant operation and the first one in which the patient regained consciousness. For more information see [7]."},{id:"fn5",explanation:"See: United Nations. Universal Declaration of Human Rights, in particular articles 3 and 5 [13]."},{id:"fn6",explanation:"To read more about juvenile execution, see [14]."}],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Chris Jones",address:"chrisjones@sun.ac.za",affiliation:'
Faculty of Theology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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