Selection of transgenic plants by cocultivation of immature sorghum embryos of Zheltozernoe 10 with the A. tumefaciens GV3101/pNRKAFSIL.
\r\n\tIn this book, the different factors of liquefaction, the field methods and laboratory tests to identify a potentially liquefiable soil aim to be reviewed; in addition with history cases (ground behavior during the occurrence of an earthquake, state of stress, deformation, shear strength, flow, etc.).
\r\n\tA very important aspect of this topic is the presentation of the different constructive techniques used to ground improvement (vibrocompaction, dynamic compaction, jet grouting, chemical injection, replacement, etc.), placing special emphasis on those constructive methods used to solve problems on structures already located in areas of low relative density with liquefaction potential, where the installation of monitoring and control equipment is also required (tiltmeters, piezometers, topographic points, seismographs, pressure cells, etc.).
Development of plant varieties and hybrids that possess the necessary traits and properties is the main goal of plant breeding. With the accumulation of knowledge in the field of genetics, physiology and molecular biology of plants, the ability of breeders and geneticists to create valuable varieties and hybrids has significantly expanded. Development of genetic engineering approaches have allowed creating a significant number of cultivars and lines, resistant to biotic and abiotic stresses, with improved quality of final products, increased photosynthetic rate and nutrient‐use efficiency [1].
Creation of transgenic plants with the changed composition of proteins and improved nutritional value is one of the most promising areas of genetic engineering. These investigations are particularly relevant for cereals being the main source of food and feed protein. It is known that humans receive from cereals up to 50% of proteins (or up to 70% in developing countries) and up to 65% of calories, in which the storage proteins account for up to 80% of the total protein content in the mature seed [2]. To solve this problem, various genetic engineering technologies had been developed. These technologies allow the introduction of new genes and thereby modulate the synthesis of new proteins with higher nutritional value or in a highly specific way downregulate genes that control the synthesis of proteins with a low nutritional value or reducing the digestibility or assimilation of other proteins [3–5]. Genetic engineering techniques are quite promising for enrichment of cereal grain with essential amino acids, i.e., lysine, tryptophan and methionine [6]. To date, transgenic lines with a modified composition of seed storage proteins, with increased lysine content and with improved baking properties have already been obtained in all most important species of cereals—maize, rice and wheat [7–9].
These studies are extremely important for sorghum—a unique drought‐tolerant cereal crop having special importance for sustainable grain production in the arid regions. Today, sorghum is one of the five most widely cultivated cereal crops, and with the increase of climate aridity, observed in many regions of the globe, demand for sorghum will increasingly grow. However, the majority of sorghum cultivars and hybrids have relatively poor nutritive value in comparison with other cereals [10, 11]. One of the reasons of relatively low nutritive value of sorghum grain is resistance of its seed storage proteins (kafirins) to protease digestion [12]. The causes of the poor sorghum protein digestibility were studied extensively [10, 13, 14]. Among the factors that cause or may affect this phenomenon, there are chemical structures of kafirin molecules, some of which (α‐ and β‐kafirins) are abundant with sulfur‐containing amino acids capable to form S–S bonds, resistant to protease digestion; interactions of kafirins with non‐kafirin proteins and non‐protein components such as polyphenols and polysaccharides; spatial organization of different kafirins in the protein bodies of endosperm cells; endosperm structure (vitreous or floury).
It is generally accepted that the peripheral disposition of γ‐kafirin in protein bodies reduces digestibility of α‐kafirin—the major sorghum seed storage protein located central position in protein bodies and comprising up to 80% of total endosperm kafirins [13, 14]. This hypothesis is supported by studies of protein bodies of the mutant with improved protein digestibility. In this mutant, protein bodies shape has been changed from spherical to invaginate; the γ‐kafirin was located at the bottom of invaginations where it should not interfere with the digestion of the α‐kafirin [15]. Recent study also showed that a sorghum mutant with high digestibility of kafirins has a point mutation in the signal sequence of the α‐kafirin gene, which apparently disrupts its deposition in protein bodies [16]. One of the main characteristic features of kafirin proteins is their ability to form oligomers or polymers of high molecular weight. These oligomers comprise α‐ and γ‐kafirins that are linked together by disulfide (S–S) bonds [17, 18]. They are resistant to protease digestion and occur more in the vitreous endosperm fraction [14, 19].
Improving of sorghum genetic transformation technology [20, 21] makes it possible to solve this problem by using RNA interference (RNAi) that allows targeted downregulation of individual genes. In recent years, RNAi technology has become widely used for changing the composition of the storage proteins and starch in different cereal species [3–5].
In maize, with using of genetic constructs harboring inverted repeats of genes of α‐zeins (19 and 22 kDa), transgenic lines with suppressed synthesis of these proteins were obtained [22, 23]. It was found that repression of the synthesis of zeins possessing a relatively low nutritional value leads to accumulation of other proteins with a higher nutritional value. Maize plants with gene silencing of α‐zeins were characterized by doubled content of essential amino acids tryptophan and lysine in the kernels. These experiments showed that gene silencing of 22 kDa α‐zein resulted in the formation of the floury endosperm. Such a modification in the type of endosperm was associated with abnormalities in the formation of the structure of protein bodies, namely the violation of deposition of 19 kDa α‐zein into the center of a protein body, or a modification of its interaction with β‐ and γ‐zeins [22].
In sorghum, transgenic lines with genetic constructs capable of RNAi silencing of different kafirin classes were obtained [24–27]. Transgenic plants harboring these constructs were characterized by improved in vitro protein digestibility (IVPD) that was accompanied by opaque floury endosperm. Unfortunately, the floury endosperm reduces the practical value of these lines, because the reduction of the vitreous layer increases the fragility of kernels and increases the susceptibility to fungal infection.
In our experiments, we obtained transgenic sorghum plants with genetic construct for silencing of the gamma‐kafirin gene [28]. These plants retained sectors of vitreous endosperm in their kernels and were characterized by high level of in vitro kafirins digestibility. In this chapter, we review these experiments and present new data, confirming inheritance of the genetic construct and its effect on endosperm protein spectrum and endosperm texture.
To obtain transgenic plants with silencing of gamma‐kafirin gene, the binary silencing vector, pNRKAFSIL, has been designed. This vector contained a hairpin insert that consisted of an inverted repeat of the fragment of the γ‐kafirin gene and ubi1 intron as the spacer between the arms of the inverted repeat (Figure 1). The 307‐bp fragment of the γ‐kafirin gene was isolated by PCR from genomic DNA of sorghum. The sequence corresponded to bases 280–588 of GeneBank accession number M73688 [29]. This construct was driven by the CaMV 35S‐promoter. The T‐DNA region of this vector contained selectable marker bar gene driven by nos‐promoter. The binary vector pNRKAFSIL was introduced in Agrobacterium tumefaciens GV3101.
Map of the pNRKAFSIL vector containing hairpin insert consisted from inverted repeat of the fragment of the γ‐kafirin gene (“INVKAF” and “DIRKAF”) and ubi1 intron as the spacer between the arms of the inverted repeat (published with the permission of the publishing house “Nauka”).
To obtain transgenic plants with genetic construct for RNA silencing of the γ‐kafirin gene, cocultivation of immature embryos of sorghum cv. Zheltozernoe 10 (Zh10) (15–17 days after pollination) with cell suspension of the A. tumefaciens strain GV3101/pNRKAFSIL was performed.
Activation of vir‐genes was made according to the published protocol [30] with some modifications. A. tumefaciens strain GV3101/pNRKAFSIL vector was grown on an Agrobacterium (AB) minimal medium [31] with the antibiotics for 3 days at 28°C. After that a loop of the Agrobacterium cells were transferred into the flask with 20 ml of liquid yeast extract peptone (YEP) medium with the antibiotics and grown for 9 h under continuous shaking (220 rpm) at 28°C. Then, the cells were collected by centrifugation and suspended in a small volume (5–6 ml) of modified AB medium without phosphates with the addition of 200 μM acetosyringone (Sigma‐Aldrich, USA) and were incubated for 18 h under gentle shaking (60–70 rpm) at 22–23°C. After incubation, the cells were collected by centrifugation and suspended in inoculating medium PHI‐I [32] with the addition of 200 μM acetosyringone to a final OD600=0.6. This suspension was used for inoculation of immature embryos.
Agrobacterial transformation was based on previously published protocols [20, 32] with some modifications. Immature embryos after pre‐cultivation for 3 days on the agar M11 medium [33] were placed onto sterile filter paper wetted with inoculating medium and were inoculated with an agrobacterial cell suspension in PHI‐I medium for 10 min at room temperature. The Agrobacterium inoculum was then removed, and the filter with embryos was transferred into another Petri dish on a dry filter and was wetted with cocultivation medium (M11 medium supplemented with 200 μM acetosyringone). The cocultivation step was performed for 3 days at 23 ± 1°C in the dark. After cocultivation, the embryos were transferred to the M11 medium with the addition of 200 mg/l timentin solidified with 2.5 g/l phytagel and were cultured at 27 ± 1°C in the dark for 7 days. Then, the embryos with developing embryogenic calli were subcultured to the fresh medium of the same composition with the addition of 2.5 mg/l glufosinate ammonium (GA) and were cultivated at 28°C in the dark for 3–4 weeks.
From two experiments on cocultivation of immature sorghum embryos of Zh10 with A. tumefaciens strain GV3101/pNRKAFSIL 35 embryogenic calli survived after selection on the medium with 2.5 mg/l GA (Table 1; Figure 2A). For plant regeneration, the herbicide‐tolerant calli were transferred onto regeneration medium (murashige and skoog (MS), 1.0 mg/l kinetin, 1.0 mg/l Indole-3-Acetic Acid (IAA)) and maintained at 25°C under a photoperiod of 16 h light and 8 h dark. Initiation of shoot development was observed in 13 calli transferred to the regeneration medium, but in the majority of the cultures, shoot development was arrested at early stages. Nevertheless, few regenerants were obtained (Figure 2B), one of which turned out to be PCR‐positive in the experiment with primers to the bar gene (Figure 3A).
Embryogenic callus developing on M11 medium with 2.5 mg/l glufosinate ammonium (A) and regenerated plants (B) obtained in experiment on Agrobacterium‐mediated genetic transformation of immature sorghum embryos with A. tumefaciens strain GV3101/pNRKAFSIL.
PCR analysis of genomic DNA of plants from T0 (A) and T1 (B) generations obtained by genetic transformation with A. tumefaciens GV3101/pNRKAFSIL with primers to bar gene. (A) 1—original non‐transgenic line, Zheltozernoe 10; 2—negative control without template DNA; 3—T0 plant (#94); 4—pNRKAFSIL; M—100‐bp ladder. (B) 1–6—individual plants from T1 generation; 7—pNRKAFSIL; 8—negative control without template DNA; M—100‐bp ladder. Amplified fragment of the bar gene (444 bp) is marked by arrow (published with the permission of the publishing house “Nauka”).
Experiment | Number of embryos | Number of EC resistant to 2.5 mg/l GA | Number of cultures with regenerants | Number of T0 plants (PCR‐positive)1 | Number of plants in T1 generation | Number of plants in T2 generation2 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Total | Resistant to 2.5 mg/l GA (PCR‐positive) | Total | Resistant to 2.5 mg/l GA (PCR‐positive) | |||||
#1 | 49 | 21 | 11 | 3 (1) | 40 | 10 (6 out of 6 studied) | 141 | 103 (10 out of 19 studied) |
#2 | 31 | 14 | 2 | 1 (0) | – | – | – | – |
Selection of transgenic plants by cocultivation of immature sorghum embryos of Zheltozernoe 10 with the A. tumefaciens GV3101/pNRKAFSIL.
PCR with primers to bar gene.
Combined progeny from PCR‐positive plants from T1 generation.
Notes: EC = embryogenic cultures; GA = glufosinate ammonium.
Self‐pollinated progeny (T1) of this plant (#94) was tested for herbicide tolerance by germination on a medium containing 2.5 mg/l of the selective agent (Figure 4). This concentration causes browning and death of sensitive non‐transgenic plants. Herbicide‐tolerant plants were found, and the sensitive plants predominated over tolerant ones (Table 1). Some of herbicide‐tolerant plants that were tested with the primers to the bar gene were proved to be PCR‐positive (Figure 3B). In the progeny of PCR‐positive T1 plants (i.e., in the T2 generation) that were grown on the medium with 2.5 mg/l GA, the frequency of herbicide tolerant plants was significantly higher (Table 1) and some of these plants were also PCR‐positive (data not shown).
Segregation for tolerance to 2.5 mg/l glufosinate ammonium in the progeny of PCR‐positive plant #94 obtained by genetic transformation with A. tumefaciens GV3101/pNRKAFSIL. Note green tolerant plants and necrosis in sensitive plants (tolerant plants survived selection, have been transferred from the agar medium to tap water to improve their survival in soil).
These data testify that the progeny of plant #94 inherited the transgenic construct. A low frequency of tolerant plants in the T1 generation might be explained by silencing of the bar gene driven by nos‐promotor because silencing of transgene is a common phenomenon in sorghum genetic transformation [34]. In the T2 generation, segregation of GA‐tolerant vs. GA‐sensitive plants corresponds to a monogenic ratio 3:1 (χ2 = 0.286; 0.50 < P < 0.75) (Table 1).
The inheritance of T‐DNA in subsequent generations, including T4, was confirmed by PCR analysis using primers to the marker gene bar, with each of the three T2 families studied contained PCR‐positive plants (Figure 5A).
PCR analysis of genomic DNA of sorghum plants from T3 and T4generations obtained by genetic transformation with A. tumefaciens GV3101/pNRKAFSIL with primers to bar gene (A) and Ubi‐intron (B). (A) 1—Т3 94‐2‐04‐1; 2—Т3 94‐2‐04‐3; 3—Т4 94‐2‐11‐2‐4; 4—Т3 94‐3‐04‐3; 5—Т4 94‐3‐08‐2‐1; 6—Т4 94‐3‐08‐2‐3; 7—Т4 94‐2‐11‐2‐1; 8—pNRKAFSIL; M—100‐bp ladder and 9—negative control (without DNA template). Amplified fragment of the bar gene (444 bp) is marked by arrow. (B) 1—Zh10, original non‐transgenic line; 2—Т3 94‐2‐04‐1; 3—Т4 94‐2‐11‐2‐1; 4—Т0 Ogonek; 5—Т3 94‐2‐04‐2; 6—Т4 94‐3‐08‐3‐3; 7—pNRKAFSIL; M—100‐bp ladder and 8—negative control (without DNA template). Amplified fragment of Ubi‐intron (584 bp) is marked by arrow.
To verify the presence of the genetic construct for RNA silencing of the γ‐kafirin gene in the transgenic plants, we performed a PCR analysis of a number of plants from T3 and T4 generations for the presence of ubiquitin intron. In the studied plants, amplification of a fragment of this gene was observed, which confirmed the presence of a genetic construction for γ‐kafirin silencing in the genome of the obtained transgenic plants (Figure 5B).
To identify the expression of the introduced genetic construct, the experiments on SDS‐PAGE of endosperm proteins were performed. The samples (20 mg of flour) were incubated with a sample buffer (0.0625 M Tris·HCl, pH 6.8) under reducing conditions (2% SDS, 5% β‐mercaptoethanol, destroying the S–S bonds of kafirin polymers) or in native, non‐reducing conditions (without β‐mercaptoethanol) at 100°C for 90 s. The samples were centrifuged, and supernatant was used for SDS‐PAGE in 13.0% (w/v) polyacrylamide gel (PAG) according to modified Laemmli method [35]. The gels were stained with Coomassie Brilliant Blue R‐250. The electrophoretic spectra were carefully studied, and particular attention was paid to the γ‐kafirin content, the suppression of which was to be expected, and to content of kafirin oligomers (≈47 and ≈66 kDa), which consist from α‐ and γ‐kafirins [14, 17, 18].
It was found that in kernels of original non‐transgenic line Zh10 content of polypeptides with Mr ≈47 and ≈66 kDa was markedly higher than in transgenic plants. These differences were observed both in SDS‐PAGE performed in non‐reducing conditions (Figure 6) and in reducing conditions (see Section 5).
SDS‐PAGE of endosperm proteins of transgenic sorghum plants with genetic construct for silencing of the γ‐kafirin gene in non‐reducing conditions. γ‐kafirin is marked by arrow; the proteins, the amount of which varies in the original line and in transgenic plants, are marked by asterisks.
Notably, electrophoresis in non‐reducing conditions revealed that the level of polypeptide corresponding to γ‐kafirin (28 kDa, marked by an arrow) in transgenic plants was significantly lowered compared to the original non‐transgenic line, which was to be expected with the silencing of the γ‐kafirin gene. In addition, as we found previously in experiments on SDS‐PAGE in reducing conditions, content of α‐kafirin monomers (25 and 23 kDa) was also reduced in transgenic plants ([28], see Section 5). Perhaps the suppression of the synthesis of γ‐kafirin caused also effect on synthesis or accumulation of α‐kafirins.
Noteworthy, lowered amount of protein in the lanes of transgenic plants (Figure 6) is not an artifact, since in each sample the same amount of flour was taken in the study; all samples were subjected to the same treatment, and the same amount of extract was taken when carrying out SDS‐PAGE. Therefore, such reduced protein content is due to the genetic characteristics of the samples. A similar decrease in protein content was observed in transgenic maize plants carrying constructs for RNA silencing of γ‐zein [36].
It is known that one of the consequences of silencing of γ‐prolamins in maize and sorghum is a disruption of the formation of the vitreous layer of the endosperm. In previously obtained transgenic sorghum lines with genetic constructs for γ‐kafirin silencing [24, 26, 27], as well as in the mutant with high digestibility [37], the kernels had a floury endosperm type. In transgenic maize plants, silencing of γ‐zein also resulted in reduction of the vitreous layer and the formation of floury endosperm that suggests its role in interaction with starch granules and in the formation of the vitreous endosperm [36]. In this connection, we paid special attention to the endosperm texture in the kernels of our transgenic plants.
Careful examination of the kernels developed on panicles of T1 plants obtained in our experiments revealed three plants, #94‐3, #94‐4 and #94‐6, in which the kernels with almost floury endosperm were found (Figure 7A) [28]. Such kernels clearly differed from those of the original non‐transgenic line, which have a thick vitreous layer (Figure 7B). The amount of such kernels varied in different panicles of one and the same T1 plants. For example, in T1 plant, #94‐2, all kernels developed on its first panicle did not express floury phenotype, although kernels on its second panicle had either almost floury or modified structure of endosperm. In such kernels, the vitreous layer was significantly reduced and developed as sectors or blurs surrounded by floury endosperm (Figure 7C–E). Remarkably, these kernels resemble the kernels of recombinant sorghum lines obtained by hybridization of highly digestible mutant with floury endosperm (hdhl) with ordinary sorghum lines with low protein digestibility and vitreous endosperm [38]. Formation of this endosperm type in our transgenic plants apparently reflects peculiarities of expression of inserted genetic construct during kernel development.
Cross sections of kernels with different types of endosperm of transgenic sorghum plants with genetic construct for silencing of the γ‐kafirin gene. (A) Kernel with floury endosperm (Т3 94‐2‐05‐1); (B) kernel of original non‐transgenic line Zheltozernoe 10 with thick vitreous endosperm (marked by arrows); (C–E) modified endosperm type with blurs and sectors of vitreous endosperm (T2 94‐2‐05, T2 94‐2‐04, T1 94‐6, respectively); (F–H) irregularly developed vitreous endosperm (T2 94‐3‐08; T3 94‐2‐05‐2; T3 94‐2‐11‐2, respectively). Bar = 1 mm.
Modified endosperm type of plant #94‐2 inherited for three generations and was observed in Т2and T3 families (94‐2‐04; 94‐2‐05 and 94‐2‐11) characterized by high in vitro protein digestibility (see Section 5), although kernels with thin or irregularly developed vitreous endosperm (Figure 7F–H) also formed in panicles of plants from these families. The plants from T2 and T3 families from the progeny #94‐3 (94‐3‐04; 94‐3‐08) had both modified, irregularly developed and normal vitreous endosperm types.
No variation of endosperm type was observed in the kernels developed in other PCR‐positive T1 plants, #94‐1 and #94‐5.
To study in vitro protein digestibility, the method of whole‐grain flour pepsin treatment, widely practiced in the past few years, was used [37–42]. The flour (20 mg) of transgenic samples (kernels of transgenic plants from T1–T3 generations) and of original non‐transgenic line Zh10 was treated with 5 ml of 0.15% pepsin solution (Sigma‐Aldrich, activity: 806 units/mg of protein) in a 0.1 M potassium phosphate buffer (pH 2.0) for 120 min at 37°C with repeated shaking. The control samples were incubated in potassium phosphate buffer without pepsin addition under the same conditions. For quantitative estimation of protein digestibility, the digested and control samples were centrifuged and the pellet was incubated with a sample buffer (0.0625 M Tris·HCl, pH 6.8) under reducing conditions (see above). The samples were subjected to SDS‐PAGE (see above). After electrophoresis, the gels were scanned. The amount of protein, expressed as volume (intensity × area) of kafirin bands or of total protein bands in the lane, was quantified with the Scangel program (Dr. A.F. Ravich, Agricultural Research Institute of the South‐East Region, Saratov, Russian Federation) [41]. The digestibility value was counted as the percent ratio of the difference between protein volume in the control sample and in digested sample to the protein volume in the control sample. All experiments were performed in two replications.
It was found that transgenic plants obtained in our experiments significantly differed in digestibility of endosperm storage proteins from the original non‐transgenic line Zh10 [28]. Comparison of electrophoretic spectra before and after pepsin digestion of proteins of T1 plant #94‐2 (almost floury endosperm; Figure 8A, lanes 1, 2) with Zh‐10 kernels (Figure 8A, lanes 5, 6) revealed that in transgenic plant the amount of undigested α‐kafirin monomers and total undigested protein was significantly fewer (in 1.7–1.9 times) than in original non‐transgenic line (Table 2). The digestibility value reached 85.4%, whereas in original line this value was about 60%, usual index for sorghum flour (Table 3). Remarkably, in kernels of transgenic plant #94‐3‐08 (T2 generation) with thick irregularly developed vitreous endosperm (Figure 8A, lanes 3, 4), the differences in kafirin digestion, in comparison with original line Zh‐10 (Figure 8A, lanes 5, 6), were more pronounced: the amount of undigested monomers was 17.5 times fewer, and the amount of total undigested protein was 4.7 times fewer than in original line (Table 2). The digestibility value reached 92% (Table 3).
SDS‐PAGE of endosperm proteins of kernels developed on transgenic sorghum plants with genetic construct for silencing of the γ‐kafirin gene in reducing conditions. (A) 1, 2—#94‐2 (T1 generation) with almost floury endosperm; 3, 4—#94‐3‐8 (T2 generation) with thick vitreous endosperm; 5, 6—original non‐transgenic line Zheltozernoe 10 (Zh10) with normal vitreous endosperm; M—molecular weight markers (kDa; Thermo Scientific). 1, 3, 5—before, and 2, 4, 6—after pepsin digestion. Dashed arrows indicate probable kafirin oligomers. α‐kafirin monomers are indicated by brace. (B) 1, 2—#94‐2‐04; 3, 4—#94‐2‐05, both with modified endosperm, in which vitreous layer is covered by thin floury layer (Figure 4C); 5, 6—#94‐2‐11 with floury endosperm; 7, 8—original non‐transgenic line Zh10. 40 and 42 kDa appeared in digested samples are marked by arrows. 1, 3, 5, 7—before and 2, 4, 6, 8—after pepsin digestion (Figure 8A is published with the permission of the publishing house “Nauka”).
Plant | Lane1 | Estimated protein quantity2 | Percent of undigested protein3 | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
α‐kafirin monomers | total | α‐kafirin monomers | total | ||
Figure 8A | |||||
Т1 94‐2 | 1 (c) | 4.887·106 | 15.083·106 | 23.8 | 15.15 |
2 (p) | 1.163·106 | 2.285·106 | |||
T2 94‐3‐08 | 3 (c) | 8.166·106 | 19.077·106 | 2.6 | 5.45 |
4 (p) | 0.340·106 | 1.925·106 | |||
Zheltozernoe 10 (original line) | 5 (c) | 5.124·106 | 11.899·106 | 45.4 | 25.9 |
6 (p) | 2.328·106 | 3.079·106 | |||
Figure 8B | |||||
T2 94‐2‐04 | 1 (c) | 6.782 | 10.658 | 9.3 | 28.9 |
2 (p) | 0.633 | 3.085 | |||
T2 94‐2‐05 | 3 (c) | 6.667·106 | 12.917·106 | 6.7 | 23.0 |
4 (p) | 0.448·106 | 1.949·106 | |||
T2 94‐2‐11 | 5 (c) | 1.277·106 | 4.495·106 | 6.1 | 9.4 |
6 (p) | 0.078·106 | 0.421·106 | |||
Zheltozernoe 10 (original line) | 7 (c) | 3.802·106 | 12.034·106 | 48.7 | 37.2 |
8 (p) | 1.853·106 | 4.481·106 | |||
Figure 9A | |||||
Т3 94‐2‐11‐2 | 1 (c) | 4.601·106 | 7.055·106 | 13.9 | 11.6 |
2 (p) | 0.638·106 | 0.816·106 | |||
T2 94‐2‐11‐3 | 3 (c) | 4.249·106 | 6.829·106 | 7.9 | 10.4 |
4 (p) | 0.336·106 | 0.710·106 | |||
Zheltozernoe 10 (original line) | 5 (c) | 7.248·106 | 21.939·106 | 47.8 | 33.4 |
6 (p) | 3.464·106 | 7.329·106 | |||
Figure 9B | |||||
Т3 94‐3‐08‐2 | 1 (c) | 4.900·106 | 8.845·106 | 6.8 | 13.9 |
2 (p) | 0.331·106 | 1.191·106 | |||
Т3 94‐3‐08‐3 | 3 (c) | 5.630·106 | 10.256·106 | 4.3 | 8.7 |
4 (p) | 0.243·106 | 0.896·106 | |||
Т3 94‐3‐08‐1 | 5 (c) | 5.793·106 | 8.656·106 | 13.5 | 12.6 |
6 (p) | 0.782·106 | 1.091·106 | |||
Zheltozernoe 10 (original line) | 7 (c) | 10.090·106 | 19.495·106 | 56.4 | 38.8 |
8 (p) | 5.692·106 | 7.570·106 |
Quantitative analysis of SDS‐PAGE of total flour proteins from kernels of transgenic sorghum plants obtained by genetic transformation with A. tumefaciens GV3101/pNRKAFSIL.
c—control sample; p—pepsin treatment.
Values are expressed as amount of dots (intensity × mm2).
Percentage from estimated protein quantity in undigested sample.
Plant | Endosperm type | Protein digestibility (%) |
---|---|---|
Plants from T1 and T2 families | ||
Т1 94‐2 | Floury | 85.4 c |
Т1 94‐6 | Floury | 85.2 c |
T2 94‐2‐05 | Modified | 74.1 b |
T2 94‐2‐11 | Floury | 90.7 cd |
T2 94‐3‐08 | Vitreous, irregular | 92.0 d |
Zheltozernoe 10 (original non‐transgenic line) | Vitreous | 60.4 a |
F | 71.52** | |
Plants from T3 families | ||
Т3 94‐2‐11‐2 | Modified | 87.8 b |
Т3 94‐2‐11‐3 | Modified | 85.5 b |
Т3 94‐2‐04‐2 | Modified | 85.2 b |
Т3 94‐3‐04‐1 | Floury | 83.1 b |
Т3 94‐3‐04‐1 | Modified | 90.3 c |
Т3 94‐3‐08‐2 | Vitreous, irregular | 86.2 b |
Т3 94‐3‐08‐3 | Vitreous, irregular | 88.3 b |
Zheltozernoe 10 (original non‐transgenic line) | Vitreous | 59.3 a |
F | 68.311** |
In vitro protein digestibility of sorghum flour from kernels of transgenic plants obtained by genetic transformation with A. tumefaciens GV3101/pNRKAFSIL.
Significant at P < 0.01.
Notes: Each value is a mean from two replications. Data followed by the same letter did not differ significantly (P < 0.05) from plant from the same group of families according to Duncan Multiple Range Test. Protein digestibility was calculated as percent ratio of difference between total estimated protein quantity in the control and digested sample to total estimated protein quantity in the control sample.
One should note considerable differences in content of kafirin oligomers between original non‐transgenic line Zh10 and transgenic plants (Figure 8). Decreased content of kafirin oligomers, which apparently was caused by reduction of γ‐kafirin synthesis, might be the reason of higher protein digestibility in transgenic plants.
Another examples of significantly improved kafirin digestibility in transgenic plants obtained in our experiments are presented in Figure 8B, where almost complete disappearance of kafirin monomers after pepsin digestion was observed in plants from T2 generation with both floury (#94‐2‐11, lanes 5, 6) and modified endosperm (#94‐2‐04, lanes 1, 2, and #94‐2‐05, lanes 3, 4). Total protein digestibility indices in 94‐2‐05 and 94‐2‐11 plants reached 74.1% and 90.7%, respectively, that significantly differed from original non‐transgenic line (Table 3). Remarkably, in electrophoretic spectra of digested samples of transgenic plants, one should note the polypeptides with molecular weights approx. 40 and 42 kDa. Previously, we found that these polypeptides were more prominent in electrophoretic spectra of more digestible lines than in spectra of poorly digestible ones [41]. In this study, appearance of these polypeptides in transgenic samples coincides with almost complete digestion of kafirin monomers and slightly reduces total protein digestibility values (Table 3).
Plants from T3 generation inherited improved digestibility of kafirins. Comparison of electrophoretic spectra of proteins obtained from plants #94‐2‐11‐2 and # 94‐2‐11‐3 (Figure 9A, lanes 1–4), which were characterized by almost floury or modified endosperm, with the spectrum of the original line (Figure 9A, lanes 5, 6) before and after pepsin digestion showed that in transgenic plants, the amount of undigested α‐kafirin monomers was significantly fewer (3.4–6.0 times, respectively) (Table 2). Likewise, the total sum of undigested proteins was also reduced (2.9–3.2 times). The digestibility value reached 85.5–87.8%, whereas in the original line this value was 59.3%, the usual index for sorghum flour (Table 3).
SDS‐PAGE of endosperm proteins of kernels of transgenic sorghum plants from T3 families #94‐2‐11 (with modified endosperm) and (with irregular vitreous endosperm) in reducing conditions. (A) 1, 2—#94‐2‐11‐2; 3, 4—#94‐2‐11‐3; 5, 6—original non‐transgenic line Zh10; M—molecular weight markers (kDa). Dashed arrows indicate fraction of kafirin oligomers; brace—α‐kafirin monomers. 1, 3, 5—control samples; 2, 4, 6—samples after pepsin digestion. (B) 1–6—Three individual plants from #94‐3‐08 family; 7, 8—original non‐transgenic line Zh10. 1, 3, 5, 7—before and 2, 4, 6, 8—after pepsin digestion (published with the permission of the publishing house “Nauka”).
Improved in vitro protein digestibility was observed also in plants from other T3 families: #94‐2‐04, #94‐3‐04 and #94‐3‐08 (Table 3). In these plants, kernels had either floury or modified endosperm (#94‐2‐04‐2; #94‐3‐04‐1) or endosperm with irregularly developed vitreous layer (#94‐3‐08). Quantitative analysis showed that the level of digestibility of endosperm proteins in these plants was 83–90%, significantly differing from the digestibility of proteins in the original non‐transgenic line.
Thus, the comparison of electrophoretic spectra of endosperm proteins before and after pepsin treatment showed a high level of kafirin digestibility in transgenic sorghum plants, harboring genetic construct for silencing of the γ‐kafirin gene. Such electrophoretic spectra of digested endosperm proteins are not characteristic of ordinary sorghum cultivars obtained by classical breeding [40–42] except highly digestible sorghum mutant (hdhl) and its hybrids [37–39]. Apparently, a decrease in the level of γ‐kafirin increases the digestibility of α‐kafirins. This increase may be due to chemical reasons (reduction of polymerization) and/or physical reasons (change in the spatial arrangement of α‐kafirins in the protein bodies that increase their availability to pepsin digestion).
Earlier it was reported on obtaining of transgenic sorghum plants carrying genetic constructs for silencing of γ‐ and α‐kafirins, which were characterized by increased in vitro protein digestibility [25–27]. However, electrophoretic spectra of endosperm proteins after pepsin treatment were not shown in these studies. It should be noted also that in these studies improvement of kafirin digestibility was induced by complex genetic constructs that contained inverted repeats of several kafirin genes (δ2, γ1, γ2; or α1, δ2, γ1, γ2). These repeats were separated by the sequence of ADH1 intron, and the constructs were driven by the maize 19‐kDa α‐zein promoter [24–26]. In another work [27], the genetic construct included the complete sequence of the γ‐kafirin gene, which was terminated by a nucleotide sequence of the self‐cleaving ribozyme of tobacco ringspot virus that should destroy γ‐kafirin mRNA. In our study [28], the effect was achieved by using a simpler genetic construct, containing inverted repeats of a short segment of the gene γ‐kafirin (307 bp) separated by ubi1‐intron gene, under the control of the constitutive 35S‐promoter, which allowed us to reach apparently rather high level of silencing of a target gene.
An important feature of transgenic plants of sorghum and maize with silencing of prolamin genes is an increased proportion of essential amino acids in kernels, in particular the lysine proportion. Previously, this effect was observed in the silencing of genes of the main prolamin fractions: α‐zein [22, 23] and α‐kafirin [24, 27]. It was assumed that the suppression of the synthesis of these proteins, characterized by a low content of lysine, results in upregulating non‐storage protein genes and appearance of lysine‐rich proteins [23, 27].
In our experiments, the total amino acid content in the kernels of three transgenic plants from the T2 generation with high in vitro protein digestibility: #94‐2‐11, #94‐2‐04 (both with modified endosperm) and #94‐3‐08 (with vitreous endosperm) was studied by using HPLC [28]. As can be seen from Table 4, content of a number of amino acids (leucine, proline, serine, isoleucine, histidine, tyrosine) and total amino acid content were significantly reduced in transgenic plants #94‐2‐04 (−40.2%, in comparison with the original non‐transgenic line) and #94‐3‐08 (−22.8%). At the same time, the relative content of two major essential amino acids, lysine and threonine, significantly increased. Lysine proportion is increased by 1.6–1.7 times: from 1.54% of total amino acid content in the flour of original non‐transgenic line Zh10 to 2.41–2.63% in transgenic plants #94‐3‐08 and #94‐2‐04, respectively, with vitreous and modified endosperms.
Amino acid | Control (Zh10) | T2 94‐2‐11 | T2 94‐2‐04 | T2 94‐3‐08 |
---|---|---|---|---|
Glu | 2.84 ± 0.28 | 2.63 ± 0.15 | 1.62 ± 0.07* (−43.0%) | 2.17 ± 0.08 |
Leu | 1.72 ± 0.12 | 1.54 ± 0.08 | 0.97 ± 0.04**(−43.6%) | 1.27 ± 0.03* (−26.2%) |
Ala | 1.10 ± 0.11 | 1.02 ± 0.06 | 0.65 ± 0.02* (−40.9%) | 0.85 ± 0,04 |
Pro | 0.98 ± 0.07 | 0.85 ± 0.02 | 0.58 ± 0.02** (−40.8%) | 0.76 ± 0.02* (−22.4%) |
Asp | 0.76 ± 0.03 | 0.74 ± 0.05 | 0.44 ± 0.01** (−42.1%) | 0.57 ± 0.04 |
Phe | 0.73 ± 0.01 | 0.59 ± 0.01 | 0.39 ± 0.01* (−46.6%) | 0.49 ± 0.01 |
Ser | 0.58 ± 0.03 | 0.52 ± 0.02 | 0.35 ± 0.01** (−39.7%) | 0.45 ± 0.01* (−22.4%) |
Val | 0.57 ± 0.05 | 0.53 ± 0.02 | 0.35 ± 0.01* (−38.6%) | 0.45 ± 0.01 |
Ile | 0.48 ± 0.03 | 0.44 ± 0.02 | 0.29 ± 0.01** (−39.6%) | 0.36 ± 0.02* (−25.0%) |
Thr | 0.40 ± 0.03 | 0.39 ± 0.01 | 0.27 ± 0.00* (−32.5%) | 0.31 ± 0.08 |
Tyr | 0.40 ± 0.02 | 0.38 ± 0.03 | 0.24 ± 0.01** (−40.0%) | 0.30 ± 0.02** (−25.0%) |
Arg | 0.38 ± 0.02 | 0.33 ± 0.02 | 0.25 ± 0.02 | 0.32 ± 0,01 |
Gly | 0.35 ± 0.03 | 0.34 ± 0.01 | 0.25 ± 0.00* (−28.6%) | 0.31 ± 0.00 |
His | 0.26 ± 0.01 | 0.23 ± 0.01 | 0.15 ± 0.01** (−42.3%) | 0.19 ± 0.01** (−26.9%) |
Lys | 0.19 ± 0.04 | 0.23 ± 0.02 | 0.19 ± 0.00 | 0.22 ± 0.00 |
Cys/2 | 0.04 ± 0.00 | 0.04 ± 0.01 | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 0.04 ± 0.01 |
Met | 0.03 ± 0.01 | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 0.02 ± 0.00 | 0.02 ± 0.00 |
Total | 11.85 ± 0.86 c | 10.86 ± 0.50 c | 7.09 ± 0.24 a (−40.2%) | 9.15 ± 0.23 b (−22.8%) |
Lys (%) | 1.54 a | 2.14 b | 2.63 c | 2.41 bc |
Thr (%) | 3.37 a | 3.59 a | 3.86 b | 3.42 a |
Total amino acid content in kernels of transgenic sorghum plants obtained by genetic transformation with A. tumefaciens GV3101/pNRKAFSIL (g/100 g flour) (published with the permission of the publishing house “Nauka”).
Notes: Values are mean ± standard error from three replications. Data marked in bold differ significantly from the original non‐transgenic (control) line Zh10 at P < 0.05 (*) and P < 0.01 (**) according to Student’s T‐test. Percentage of reduction is indicated in parenthesis.
Data for total amount of amino acid content and for percentage of lysine and threonine from the total amino acid content followed by the same letter did not differ significantly (P < 0.05) according to Duncan Multiple Range Test.
Such increase of the relative content of lysine and threonine in transgenic sorghum plants, coupled with a significant reduction of the total level of amino acids (Table 4), presumably was caused by decrease in the content of α‐kafirins poor in lysine and threonine, whereas the synthesis of other proteins remained undisturbed. Accordingly, the relative proportions of lysine and threonine increased. The lower α‐kafirins content in transgenic plants relative to the original non‐transgenic line is clearly evident in the above electrophoresis photographs (Figures 8 and 9). Perhaps the suppression of the synthesis of γ‐kafirin disrupts the formation of protein bodies and prevents the accumulation of α‐kafirins, but does not affect the synthesis of other proteins richer in lysine and threonine.
Summarizing, using Agrobacterium‐mediated genetic transformation with the strain carrying the genetic construct for silencing of γ‐kafirin gene, we have obtained transgenic sorghum plants with significantly improved in vitro protein digestibility. The basis of such improved digestibility may be a reduction in the level of γ‐kafirin, which causes formation of poorly digestible kafirin oligomers and development of vitreous endosperm. Further studies of these plants, including analysis of the expression of the genetic construct at the molecular level, will contribute to the understanding of regularities of endosperm development and possible use of these plants in sorghum breeding.
Obstacles along this path have both scientific reasons (instability of transgene expression, effects of transgenes on agronomically important traits) and social basis (public opposition to genetically modified plants). In future, to overcome public fears on “danger” of genetically modified organisms, sorghum plants with a modified synthesis of kafirins should be obtained by using marker‐free technologies of genetic engineering or technologies of genome editing. With obtaining objective data from biosafety experiments, genetically modified sorghum plants with improved kafirin digestibility will be in demand on the market because they will combine favorable traits of sorghum (high grain productivity, resistance to drought stress) with a high nutritive value.
The work has been partially supported by Russian Foundation for Basic Researches, grants 10-04-00475, 13-04-01404, 16-04-01131.
Essential oils have been used in the folk medicines throughout the history. Essential oils are called the ethereal or volatile oils, which are fragrant oily liquid that are extracted from the various parts of the plants and mostly used as the food flavors. An essential oil is “essential” in sense that it contains the essence of the different fragrance, and the properties of the plants from which they are derived. These volatile oils showed the different kinds of biological activities including the antibacterial, antioxidant, antiviral, insecticidal, etc. [1]. These oils are also used for cancer treatment, while some other has been used for the food preservations, aromatherapy, and in the perfumery industries [2]. The antimicrobial and antioxidant screening of essential oil acts as the root of numerous applications including the processed and fresh food preservations, natural therapies, pharmaceuticals, and alternative medicines [3]. Essential oils are used in aromatherapy as an alternative source of wound healing because of the aromatic compounds that are present in the essential oils. It is also used as a relaxation process, but this evidence is not under consideration [4].
Numerous efforts are made to explore the essential oils usage as the treatment of various infectious diseases that supernumerary to the pharmaceutical’s remedies. Medicinal and aromatic plants are extensively used as natural organic compounds and as medicines [5]. Previously, essential oils have been used for the treatment of various sorts of infectious diseases in the whole world. Now, in this era, the importance of essential oils is increasing day by day, because they are mostly used in the beverage and food industries, cosmetics and fragrance industries for making valuable perfumes, and with lot of biological activities [6].
Various essential oils have been used for the insecticidal activities against the different pests, but in detail, studies showed that they do not show the repellence, avicidal, phytochemistry, antifungal, and oviposition. The essential oils do not show the abovementioned characteristics, but there is still urgent need to work on this side of research and study the in vivo and in vitro studies to control the pests, and most of the oils have shown good antioxidant activities [7]. Essential oils that showed good antioxidant activates and acts as the defensive role for the unsaturation of lipids in the tissue of the animal and they also act as hepatoprotective negotiators in mammals. The antioxidant substances are most important for human being because of the oxygen which is a toxic element and has the ability to change the metabolic activities into the most reactive form of oxygen just like the super oxide, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl free radicals, and the singlet oxygen which are collectively called as active oxygen [8]. Essential oils are best known for their action as the antispasmodic, antiviral negotiators, antimicrobial, and carminative, and the essential oil composition is variable; they also show different sorts of activities and mostly depend upon the chemo types [9].
Essential oils were extracted from different aromatic plants. These plants are distributed in the tropical countries and Mediterranean. These plants got importance because local people use them for the treatment of diseases. The essential oil is produced in every part of the plant including the leaves, seeds, buds, stem, flowers, leaves etc as shown in Figure 1. Essential oil is accumulated from the epidermic cell, cavities, secretary cells, and channels [10]. The odor that is produced in plants is because of essential oils. The essential oils were extracted from the dried, fresh, or partially dehydrated materials of plant. The extraction rate depends upon the diffusion via plant tissues that directly involve the surface from which the essential oil was removed by different processes. The extraction of essential oil depends upon the stability of the essential oil. The two most important method that are used for the extraction of essential oil was used are steam distillation method and the hydro distillation process as shown in Figure 2. These are the most suitable and effective techniques for the extraction processes [11]. Some other methods were also used for extraction but they are not too much suitable for this process these are the microwave or liquid carbon dioxide, high- or low-pressure distillation with the help hot water or steam water (Figures 1 and 2) [12].
Plants and their parts used for the isolation of essential oils.
Hydrodistillation apparatus used for the extraction of essential oils.
The essential oil extracted from the steam distillation method is mostly used in pharmacological activities and food items, while the essential oil that are used in the fragrance industry or perfume industry are extracted from the lipophilic solvents and sometime with the supercritical carbon dioxide going more attractive [13]. The quality of the essential oil depended on the basis of the age of plants, parts that are used for extraction, vegetative cycle stage, effect of climate, etc. The chromatographic and the spectroscopic techniques fully changed the chemical analysis of the essential oils. The chemical composition of the essential oils was studied with the help of IR-spectroscopy, UV-Vis spectroscopy, gas chromatography, NMR spectroscopy [14]. The enhanced demand for the essential oil in various fields of life provoked us to access the reliable methods for the essential oil analysis, and the techniques used are the GC-MS and GC analyses [15]. The characterization of the essential oil was carried out by using the gas chromatography. The compounds that are present in the essential oil was confirmed by using the GC and GC-MS analysis [16]. The storage and handling of the essential oil also affect its yield and quality, ad essential oil was deposited in the oil glands that are present in the organization of the plant material [16].
The worldwide essential oil market demand was 226.8 kilotons in year 2018. It is expected to expand at a CAGR of 8.6% from the 2019 to 2025. Usage of essential oils in industries are increases day by including the beverage, food, personal care, aromatherapy, and cosmetics. Various sorts of the health-related benefits are offered by essential oils and they are reported as the anticipated fuel and their demand is increasing in the medical and pharmaceuticals applications. Most of the conventional drugs have no side effects. The growing inclination of the consumers toward the organic and natural products is leading to increase the use of essential oils in the beverage, food, and cosmetics industries. Worldwide essential oil market will cross USD 13 billion in the year of 2024 the latest report of the Global Market Insights, Inc. The increase in the World population are suffering from the different kinds of health-related issues and essential oils are used in aromatherapy products and due to this reason, the Worldwide market of essential oils are increasing day by day [17].
The period when essential oils were utilized first on a commercial scale is hard to recognize. The nineteenth century is for the most part viewed as the beginning of the cutting-edge period of commercial utilization of essential oils. Notwithstanding, the extensive scale use of essential oils goes back to antiquated Egypt. In 1480 BC, Queen Hatshepsut of Egypt sent a campaign to the nation of Punt (presently Somalia) to gather fragrant plants, tars, and oils, as elements for medicaments, scents, and flavors and for the preservation of bodies. Valuable scents have been found in numerous Egyptian archeological unearthing, as an image of riches and social position. The huge global exchange of fundamental oil-based items is the standard for modern use; “Ruler of Hungary Water” was the primary alcoholic scent ever. This aroma, in view of rosemary basic oil distillate, was made in the mid-fourteenth century for the Polish-conceived Queen Elisabeth of Hungary. Following an uncommon introduction to King Charles V, The Wise of France in 1350, it ended up prevalent in all medieval European courts. The start of the eighteenth century saw the presentation of “Eau de Cologne,” in light of bergamot and different citrus oils, which remains broadly used right up ‘til the present time. This crisp citrus aroma was the making of Jean Maria Farina, a relative of Italian perfumers who came to France with Catherine de Medici and settled in Grasse in the sixteenth century. As indicated by the city of Cologne files, Jean Maria Farina and Karl Hieronymus Farina, in 1749, built up a processing plant (Fabriek) of this water, which sounds exceptionally “mechanical.” The “Kolnisch Wasser” turned into the main unisex aroma as opposed to one basically for men, known and utilized all over Europe, and it has been rehashed in this manner in incalculable countertypes as a scent for men. The essential oil market was extended day by day because of increase in demand for the essential oil products including the soap, cosmetics, and food industries. The international companies are the major contributors of the development of the essential oil industries in the mid-nineteenth century [18].
Changing the standards of the living led to the occurrence of different sorts of mental issues including the depression, anxiety, insomnia, and stress that led to grow the market of essential oils because they are used for the treatment of such kinds of diseases. There are more than 300 industries in the Pakistan which industrialized various human resources. These industries used unprocessed material especially essential oils that are imported from the western countries. Pakistan imports more than Rs. 1526.8 million to buy essential oils and perfumes and isolates [19]. Pakistan is an agricultural country that is rich in aromatic sorts of plants, which are used as natural medicines and are used in local areas to cure common diseases. The environment of Pakistan is much more suitable for the growth of essential oils crops. And from these plants the essential oils obtained, and they are used in essential oil industries, but this industry is not much more attractive in Pakistan.
The essential oil has been large number of usages in worldwide products including the ice creams perfumes, backed food stuff, beverage, and cosmetics as shown in Figure 3. Newly, at least 300 kinds of essential oils out of 3000 are commercially important in various kinds of industries including the perfume and sanitary industries, cosmetics, food, beverage, agronomics, and pharmaceuticals [20]. Some of the bioactive components that are present in essential oils are the limonene, geranyl acetate, carvone, etc., and these are the important components of the hygienic products and tooth pastes. Essential oils are used for the preservation of the food additives; for the treatment of common diseases and folk medicines; and used by aromatherapist. Essential oils are used as the natural antioxidant. The usage of natural antioxidant is prominent in the defensive medicines and food items, and because of this reason, essential oils are getting popular day by day. Recently, the growth explores the applications of the volatile essential oils for remedial usage and in the treatment of some infectious diseases [21].
Essential oils are widely used in perfumes, personal hygiene products, and in aromatherapy including the inhalation, massage, masking agent to avoid the unpleasant odor in the textile industries, paint and plastic industries, and pharmaceuticals formulations. Essential oils are also used as the natural antifungal and antibacterial agents in the food safety items; essential oil also used in the various kinds of cereals, antimicrobial packing of the food items, edible thin film, nanoemulsion, preservation of the fruits and vegetables, soft drinks, as the flavoring agents in the carbonated drinks, as the major ingredients in soda/citrus concentrates, seafood preservations, fish, etc. (Figure 3) [22].
Modern trends of essential oils.
The essential oils are the products that are obtained from the plant extracts and have been used for large-scale industrial and homemade products. The major usages of essential oils are pest control products, cleaning actions, and counter medications among the other products and personal care products. Essential oils have various advantages in wound healing, rejuvenation, and relaxation. Alongside their applications in the betterment of the health issues, the most common health issues such as migraines and nausea are cured from the essential oils. It is also used in the food industries because of their preservative potential in contrast to the foodborne pathogens, antibacterial, antimicrobial, and antifungal characteristics. The use of aromatherapy as the harmonizing care is speedup due to their unique characteristics which include the coping with some of side effects of cancer and to promote the wound healing [23].
The essential oils that are used in the perfume industries are classified according to their diffusion rate in air and volatility:
Base note: these are the least volatile essential oils and last for a longtime period. These remain for longtime duration including several hours. Some essential oils that are used as the base notes are the Myrrh, vanilla, sandalwood, and frankincense.
Middle note: these sorts of essential oils are tending to be spicy or floral and give body to blends; their time duration is less and remain up-to 1 hour. These include Ylang-ylang, jasmine, geranium, clove, and lavender.
Top note: these are the most volatile and the first perceptible odors from the perfume. Their time duration is too much less and remains maximum for 30 minutes. These include berry, bergamot, cinnamon, juniper, and gardenia.
Perfumes are formulated mostly using alcohol, though these may contain the cloudy solutions. Eau de types of perfumes are mostly formulated using the essential oils generally amber color because of their natural oils color but normally they are clear.
Eau de perfume usually contains 8–15% amount of essential oils or sometimes their fragrance, and 80–90% alcohol.
Splash cologens usually contain 1–3% fragrance or essential oil, and 80% alcohol.
Eau de cologne usually contains 3–5% of fragrance or essential oil, and up to 70% alcohol.
Eau de toilette usually contains the essential oil between 4 and 8% or its fragrance, and 80–90% alcohol [24].
All over the world, people are shifting toward the herbal products for the treatment of skin diseases compared to medicines and synthetic drugs. The essential oil is pure and does not have any side effects. The demand for essential oil is increasing because of their usage in daily life and it is mostly used for the relaxation purpose and people prefer it because of its no side effects. Aura Cacia that is manufacturer of Iowa-based care products said that the essential oil sale was increased 90% between the 2009 and 2012, and the sale of household items that contains the essential oil was increased from 6 to 12%.
Essential oils play a key role in treating the dermatological issues including the rashes, acne, hives, eczema, and psoriasis which made the essential oil suitable for the skin treatment care products that enhance the growth of skin industry. The market of essential oils is growing because it has no side effects, and other synthetic chemicals have side effects, so they are less preferred. Essential oils market of home care products and cleaning products will be increased to 550 million USD by 2024. The growth in essential oil market along with the companies that are introducing the products with supplementary benefits such as better cleaning, easy fragrance, and germ fighting.
The essential oils market of France will be increased up to 8.5% by 2024. Major cosmetics industries used essential oils in cosmetics and imported these oil products worldwide. Companies used the marketing strategies to spread the awareness to the people regarding the usage and benefits of essential oils, and the aromatherapy markets gets more enhanced customers to buy these products. The essential oil market of India will be exceeding up to 790 million USD by 2024. Since being a large country, India used the large-scale agricultural techniques to grow crops of essential oil plants including lemon, mint, and spices, and its aromatherapy market are growing day by day.
Lavender oil market will be reached up to 20 kilotons by 2024. It is used in fighting the serious health conditions, including the chronic anxiety, relieves pain, cancer, stress with reverse sign of the ageing, headache, cosmetics applications, pharmaceuticals applications, aromatherapy etc. as shown in (Figure 4). The major companies that share large market size of essential oil-based products are Firmenich, Frutarom, Flaex, Rock Mountain Moksha Lifestyle, and Florihana Falcon Young living (Figure 4) [25].
Applications of essential oils in daily life.
The essential oil of bergamot obtained from the peel of the fruits of the Citrus bergamia is known as the bitter orange tree. The extract of the bergamot is used in flavoring in Earl Grey tea and essential oil of this is used also for the same purpose. It is applicable for the treatment of skin diseases, and it improves the mood, relieves pain, reduces fever, treats the digestive system problems, and breaks up chest congestion [26].
It is extracted from the aromatic flower buds of Syzygium aromaticum tree that is native to Maluku, Indonesia. The essential oil of Clove provides the strong fragrance, used in cooking spice foods; medically, it is used as pain relief, used for the treatment of dental disorders, for nausea treatment, to reduce inflammation, for the treatment of the digestive ailment, and to clear up acne [26].
It is extracted from the different species of genus Eucalyptus. Every type of species contains different and unique usage in every field. The most familiar essential oil obtained from the Eucalyptus globulus has a mint-like fragrance. It is used for decongestant chest rub, as pain relievers, as an antimicrobial agent, immunostimulant, and for the treatment of the flu and cold cough. It is used in aromatherapy and it provides mental clarity; it also boosts up energy and used as a natural insect repellent [26].
The earliest known and the most useful essential oil is Frankincense and it is obtained from the resin of the four species of the generous Bowwellia and the most known from this genus is the Bowsellia carterii hard tree which grow in the arid land of Arabian Peninsula and north eastern. The old African people used the essential oil of Frankincense in the religious and spiritual ceremonies. The Frankincense essential oil is unique from all other obtained essential oils because of the perfect combination of wood, balsam, earth, and citrus. It is used as the mood enhancer, antimicrobial, stress reducer, for faster wound healing, aid in digestion, anti-inflammatory, fades scars, reduces swelling of insect bites, for the treatment of skin diseases, and eases itching [26].
The most effective essential oil obtained from the Lavandula angustifolia is the most popular garden herb English lavender. Its odor is same as the flowers from which they are obtained having the sweet smell, floral, and green, and the health benefits are greater as compared to their fragrance. The best purpose of essential oil of lavender is their sleep-inducing properties and calmness. It showed good antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antifungal properties, and it is also used for the treatment of various sorts of skin diseases including eczema or ringworm and acne. Lavender essential oil is used to enhance the digestive system, to reduce the swelling of sore muscles, and to relieve pain. Due to its attractive smell, it attracts butterflies, bees, and some pollinators, and it also acts as a natural repellent for many flying six-legged pests [26].
Essential oils obtained from the lemon are mostly used. The essential oil obtained from the Citrus limon is used worldwide. The essential oil of lemon is used as antimicrobial agents, in household items including soaps, polishes, furniture, fresheners, and in most of the cleaning products. Some other uses of these essential oils are that they are the pain relievers, show antifungal activity, help for the loss of weight, and alleviate the severe nausea; the essential oil of lemon is used in aromatherapy to reduce the anxiety and stress and simultaneously enhances the concentration and mood. It is also used for cleaning the hair and enhancing the natural growth of hairs [26].
The essential oil of Oregano was obtained from the kitchen spice Origanum vulgare. It is the perfect combination of the earth, spice, and warmth. When the bottle of essential oil is opened, their fragrance has an effect on the senses. The usage of the essential oil of Oregano is increasing day by day and it is mostly used for the skin care treatment like eczema, rosacea, and psoriasis. It is used to alleviate the menstrual problems or painful menstrual cramp, used to cure stomach problems, and helps to control the flu and cold infections [26].
The essential oil of peppermint is used worldwide and it is obtained from the Mentha piperita. This mint hybrid is the most favorite between the essential oil and gardeners. It is the most famous type of essential oil because of its unique applications, and it is mostly used in preventing flu and cold, alleviating headache, relieving pain in muscles and joints, clearing the skin conditions, relieving nausea, and improving the digestive system processes [26].
The essential oil of rosemary is obtained from the evergreen shrub of Rosmarinus officinalis and is famous albeit common kitchen herb has the extraordinary healing potential in its natural oil. Just like the rosemary, the essential oil of this herb has the crisp woody, herbal, and somewhat balsamic odor just like the camphor. Due to its unique fragrance of rosemary oil, it is used for cleaning the inside and outside of the body. It is further used for the treatment of various diseases, especially skin care, dandruff treatment, to improve the scalp health, to boost up the immune system, flu infections, and ward off cold. Although this oil is used to alleviate the pain, swelling in joints and muscles, for treatment of the digestive tissues, soothe tension headaches, to promote the mental clarity, to enhance the memory, and improve mood, it is also the best natural insecticide and the bug repellent [26].
The essential oil of the tea tree is obtained from the leaves and stem of Melaleuca alternifolia and shrub of Camellia sinensis. The oil is toxic if ingested directly and it is used mostly for the external purposes and has the herbal, fresh, and slightly camphorates aroma. Melaleuca claims that essential oil of tea tree act as an antimicrobial agent, treating antifungal infections, and cleansing wounds. It is used in cosmetics products including the shampoo to clear some scalp conditions and dandruff and used for the treatment of insect bite to reduce itching and inflammation [26].
Some plant species essential oils and their usage are shown in Table 1.
S. no. | Plant species | Essential oil | Uses |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Pimenta racemosa | Bay oil | Aches, muscle circulation, improve dandruff [27] |
2 | Callitris intratropica | Blue cypress oil | Asthma [27] |
3 | Daucus carota | Carrot seed oil | Detoxification, eczema [27] |
4 | Apium graveolens | Celery seed oil | Treat of gout, antifungal diuretic, blood pressure, antiseptic reduces sedative, urinary antirheumatic [27] |
5 | Stellaria species | Chickweed infusion | Wound healing, antirheumatic, astringent [27] |
6 | Cinnamon species | Cinnamon oil | Antifungal, uterine stimulant, antibacterial [27] |
7 | Artemisia pallens | Davana oil | Coughs, including menstruation, anxiety, healing of wounds, antiseptic [27] |
8 | Canarium luzonicum | Elemi oil | Coughs, healing wounds, stress [27] |
9 | Eucalyptus citriodora | Eucalyptus citriodora oil | Fever and flu, to improve blood circulation and sinusitis, arthritis, bronchitis, catarrh, cold stores, colds and coughs [27] |
10 | Eucalyptus globulus | Eucalyptus oil | Antiseptic, antispasmodic, treatment of scarlet fever, influenza, measles and typhoid, infusion reduces blood sugar levels [27] |
11 | Alpinia galanga | Galanga oil | Aphrodisiac, easing heart pain and angina, dizziness and fatigue. Stomach, spleen, relief of pain, treatment of flu and colds, travel sickness [27] |
12 | Pelargonium graveolens | Geranium oil | Acne, cellulites, lice treatment, menopause [27] |
13 | Zingiber officinalis | Ginger oil | Promotes sweating, expectorant, prevents vomiting, antiseptic, anti-spasmodic, carminative, antibacterial, circulatory stimulant, nausea, relaxes peripheral blood vessels, promotes sweating [27] |
14 | Hyssopus officinalis | Hyssop oil | Nervous exhaustion, anxiety, used topically as an anti-inflammatory, bruises and anti-viral, increases alertness, uplifting and relaxing nerves [27] |
15 | Ammi visnaga | Khella oil | Antiasthmatic, diuretic, antispasmodic, relaxant [27] |
16 | Citrus Limon | Lemon oil | Blemishes, varicose veins, warts, chilibains, colds, corns, flu, skin, athletes foot [27] |
17 | Backhousia citriodora | Lemon myrtle oil | Insect repellent, stress, athletes foot, colds, flu, skin blemishes [27] |
18 | Citrus reticulata | Mandarin oil | Blemishes, stress and wrinkles, acne, insomnia, scars, skin [27] |
19 | Mentha species | Mint oil | Analgesic, calming, cooling for migraines, anti-bacterial, clear nasal congestion, prevents vomiting, relaxes peripheral blood vessels, promotes bile flow [27] |
20 | Myrtus communis | Myrtle oil | Sore throat, asthma, coughs [27] |
21 | Piper nigrum and other species | Pepper oil | Aches and pains, coughs, chills, cramps, digestion, antiseptic, anti-bacterial, topical use increases blood flow around area [27] |
22 | Zingiber cassumunar | Plai oil | Uterine relaxant, inflammatory [27] |
23 | Rosa species | Rose oil | Astringent, sedative, digestive stimulant, increase bile production, expectorant, anti-bacterial, antiseptic, kidney tonic, blood tonic, anti-depressant, anti-spasmodic, aphrodisiac [27] |
24 | Mentha spicata | Spearmint oil | Flu and fever, nausea, vertigo, asthma, exhaustion [27] |
25 | Citrus sinensis | Sweet orange oil | Constipation, cough relief, flu, gum treatment, calms nerves, digestive stimulant, aids energy |
26 | Tagetes glandulifera and patula | Tagetes oil | Warts and corns [27] |
27 | Vetiveria zizanoides | Vetivert oil | Insomnia, muscle aches, sores and stress, acne, cuts, anti-depressant, exhaustion [27] |
28 | Viola odorata | Violet leaf absolute | Poor blood circulation, sore throat, bronchitis, head ache, insomnia, rheumatism [27] |
29 | Melaleuca alternifolia | Tea tree oil | Fungal, antiseptic, anti-viral, candida, cold sores, corns, cuts, flu, anti-bacterial [27] |
30 | Cananga odorata | Ylang oil | Hypertension, palpitations, stress, anxiety, anti-depression, frigidity, hypertension [27] |
31 | Zanthoxylum alatum | Leaf, stem, root oil | Antioxidant, antifungal, antibacterial [28] |
32 | Skimmea laureola | Leaf oil | Antioxidant, antifungal, antibacterial and perfumery [29] |
33 | Angelica glauca | Root oil | Antioxidant, antifungal, antibacterial, and phytotoxicity [30] |
34 | Thymus serpyllum | Whole plant oil | Antioxidant, antifungal, antibacterial, and phytotoxicity [31] |
35 | Plectranthus rugosus | Leaf oil | Antifungal, antioxidant, antibacterial [32] |
Some plant species essential oils and their uses.
Essential oils are the natural volatile compounds having loveable odor. The essential oils are isolated mostly from the hydrodistillation method which is more suitable for this process and easy to carry. Whole parts of the plants are used for the extraction of plants. Steam distillation method is expensive than the hydrodistillation, so it is less preferred. Essential oils have good medicinal applications and used in the treatment of different diseases including the infectious diseases, depression, anxiety, act as the antifungal, antimicrobial, anticancer, and wound healing; they are also used in cosmetics and perfume industries. In the field of heath, essential oils are used more frequently and are mostly applied to the external body parts to relieve the pain. In the field of fragrance, essential oils are used in the perfume industry and due to attractive odor, the essential oils are used mostly in this industry. It is used worldwide and due to their better usage, the world essential oil market is growing rapidly and getting more importance day by day.
The author wishes to thank University of Kotli for providing the facilities to write this chapter.
Author has no conflict of interest.
You have been successfully unsubscribed.
",metaTitle:"Unsubscribe Successful",metaDescription:"You have been successfully unsubscribed.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/unsubscribe-successful",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":""}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:""}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5775},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5238},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10409},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15805}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118374},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"0",sort:"ebgfFaeGuveeFgfcChcyvfu"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:20},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:26},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5247},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"1152",title:"Reconstructive Surgery",slug:"reconstructive-surgery",parent:{title:"Surgery",slug:"surgery"},numberOfBooks:7,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:219,numberOfWosCitations:79,numberOfCrossrefCitations:47,numberOfDimensionsCitations:113,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"reconstructive-surgery",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8853",title:"Breast Cancer and Breast Reconstruction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5947d4ba7ac1e9c39c9083e89201275c",slug:"breast-cancer-and-breast-reconstruction",bookSignature:"Luis Tejedor, Susana Gómez Modet, Lachezar Manchev and Arli Aditya Parikesit",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8853.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"81170",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Tejedor",slug:"luis-tejedor",fullName:"Luis Tejedor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5428",title:"Designing Strategies for Cleft Lip and Palate Care",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"20bcf2aa877c04447d31d6e0db2e437e",slug:"designing-strategies-for-cleft-lip-and-palate-care",bookSignature:"Mazen Ahmad Almasri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5428.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"150413",title:"Dr.",name:"Mazen Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Almasri",slug:"mazen-ahmad-almasri",fullName:"Mazen Ahmad Almasri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3283",title:"Skin Grafts",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"51201608d5c5d7ff6f47e5afd2abdb9f",slug:"skin-grafts",bookSignature:"Madhuri Gore",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3283.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"157243",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhuri",middleName:null,surname:"Gore",slug:"madhuri-gore",fullName:"Madhuri Gore"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"984",title:"Current Concepts in Plastic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"46fb663adfdfb9ceeb2df2013b08038f",slug:"current-concepts-in-plastic-surgery",bookSignature:"Francisco J. Agullo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/984.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"49319",title:"Dr.",name:"Frank",middleName:null,surname:"Agullo",slug:"frank-agullo",fullName:"Frank Agullo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"943",title:"Bone Grafting",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9afab8beeb4879b2751907783a3de842",slug:"bone-grafting",bookSignature:"Alessandro Zorzi and Joao Batista de Miranda",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/943.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"80871",title:"M.D.",name:"Alessandro Rozim",middleName:null,surname:"Zorzi",slug:"alessandro-rozim-zorzi",fullName:"Alessandro Rozim Zorzi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1007",title:"Xenotransplantation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"45fde91777f91583197a5b5dfecb207a",slug:"xenotransplantation",bookSignature:"Shuji Miyagawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1007.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"73965",title:"Prof.",name:"Shuji",middleName:null,surname:"Miyagawa",slug:"shuji-miyagawa",fullName:"Shuji Miyagawa"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1305",title:"Advances in Endoscopic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"84236c28c671a83f6cd1cd8bb84d873f",slug:"advances-in-endoscopic-surgery",bookSignature:"Cornel Iancu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1305.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33183",title:"Prof.",name:"Cornel",middleName:null,surname:"Iancu",slug:"cornel-iancu",fullName:"Cornel Iancu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:7,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"33456",doi:"10.5772/30442",title:"Basic Knowledge of Bone Grafting",slug:"basic-knowledge-of-bone-grafting",totalDownloads:27429,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"bone-grafting",title:"Bone Grafting",fullTitle:"Bone Grafting"},signatures:"Nguyen Ngoc Hung",authors:[{id:"82591",title:"Prof.",name:"Nguyen",middleName:null,surname:"Ngoc Hung",slug:"nguyen-ngoc-hung",fullName:"Nguyen Ngoc Hung"}]},{id:"33460",doi:"10.5772/31149",title:"Congenital Pseudarthrosis of the Tibia: Combined Pharmacologic and Surgical Treatment Using Biphosphonate Intravenous Infusion and Bone Morphogenic Protein with Periosteal and Cancellous Autogenous Bone Grafting, Tibio-Fibular Cross Union, Intramedullary",slug:"treatment-of-congenital-pseudarthrosis-with-periosteal-and-cancellous-bone-grafting-",totalDownloads:3003,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"bone-grafting",title:"Bone Grafting",fullTitle:"Bone Grafting"},signatures:"Dror Paley",authors:[{id:"85789",title:"Dr.",name:"Dror",middleName:null,surname:"Paley",slug:"dror-paley",fullName:"Dror Paley"}]},{id:"39014",doi:"10.5772/51852",title:"Treatment of Leg Chronic Wounds with Dermal Substitutes and Thin Skin Grafts",slug:"treatment-of-leg-chronic-wounds-with-dermal-substitutes-and-thin-skin-grafts",totalDownloads:3144,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"skin-grafts",title:"Skin Grafts",fullTitle:"Skin Grafts"},signatures:"Silvestro Canonico, Ferdinando Campitiello, Angela Della Corte, Vincenzo Padovano and Gianluca Pellino",authors:[{id:"68551",title:"Dr.",name:"Gianluca",middleName:null,surname:"Pellino",slug:"gianluca-pellino",fullName:"Gianluca Pellino"},{id:"157129",title:"Prof.",name:"Silvestro",middleName:null,surname:"Canonico",slug:"silvestro-canonico",fullName:"Silvestro Canonico"},{id:"157133",title:"Dr.",name:"Ferdinando",middleName:null,surname:"Campitiello",slug:"ferdinando-campitiello",fullName:"Ferdinando Campitiello"},{id:"165428",title:"Dr.",name:"Angela",middleName:null,surname:"Della Corte",slug:"angela-della-corte",fullName:"Angela Della Corte"},{id:"165429",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Padovano",slug:"vincenzo-padovano",fullName:"Vincenzo Padovano"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"53788",title:"Surgical Techniques for Treatment of Unilateral Cleft Lip",slug:"surgical-techniques-for-treatment-of-unilateral-cleft-lip",totalDownloads:3042,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"designing-strategies-for-cleft-lip-and-palate-care",title:"Designing Strategies for Cleft Lip and Palate Care",fullTitle:"Designing Strategies for Cleft Lip and Palate Care"},signatures:"Mustafa Chopan, Lohrasb Sayadi and Donald R. Laub",authors:[{id:"67264",title:"Dr.",name:"Donald",middleName:"R",surname:"Laub Jr.",slug:"donald-laub-jr.",fullName:"Donald Laub Jr."},{id:"189368",title:"Mr.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Chopan",slug:"mustafa-chopan",fullName:"Mustafa Chopan"},{id:"189370",title:"Mr.",name:"Lorasb",middleName:null,surname:"Sayadi",slug:"lorasb-sayadi",fullName:"Lorasb Sayadi"}]},{id:"53858",title:"Surgical Strategy of Cleft Palate Repair and Nasometric Results",slug:"surgical-strategy-of-cleft-palate-repair-and-nasometric-results",totalDownloads:1249,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"designing-strategies-for-cleft-lip-and-palate-care",title:"Designing Strategies for Cleft Lip and Palate Care",fullTitle:"Designing Strategies for Cleft Lip and Palate Care"},signatures:"Norifumi Nakamura and Masahiro Tezuka",authors:[{id:"72560",title:"Prof.",name:"Norifumi",middleName:null,surname:"Nakamura",slug:"norifumi-nakamura",fullName:"Norifumi Nakamura"},{id:"189479",title:"Dr.",name:"Masahiro",middleName:null,surname:"Tezuka",slug:"masahiro-tezuka",fullName:"Masahiro Tezuka"}]},{id:"67059",title:"Oncoplastic Surgery in Breast Cancer",slug:"oncoplastic-surgery-in-breast-cancer",totalDownloads:392,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"breast-cancer-and-breast-reconstruction",title:"Breast Cancer and Breast Reconstruction",fullTitle:"Breast Cancer and Breast Reconstruction"},signatures:"Atallah David, Moubarak Malak and Abdallah Abdallah",authors:[{id:"219535",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"David",middleName:null,surname:"Atallah",slug:"david-atallah",fullName:"David Atallah"},{id:"221488",title:"Dr.",name:"Malak",middleName:null,surname:"Moubarak",slug:"malak-moubarak",fullName:"Malak Moubarak"},{id:"299454",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdallah",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"abdallah-abdallah",fullName:"Abdallah Abdallah"}]},{id:"54055",title:"Cleft Lip and Palate Patients: Diagnosis and Treatment",slug:"cleft-lip-and-palate-patients-diagnosis-and-treatment",totalDownloads:1864,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"designing-strategies-for-cleft-lip-and-palate-care",title:"Designing Strategies for Cleft Lip and Palate Care",fullTitle:"Designing Strategies for Cleft Lip and Palate Care"},signatures:"Letizia Perillo, Fabrizia d’Apuzzo, Sara Eslami and Abdolreza\nJamilian",authors:[{id:"171777",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdolreza",middleName:null,surname:"Jamilian",slug:"abdolreza-jamilian",fullName:"Abdolreza Jamilian"},{id:"173044",title:"Prof.",name:"Letizia",middleName:null,surname:"Perillo",slug:"letizia-perillo",fullName:"Letizia Perillo"},{id:"197679",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Eslami",slug:"sara-eslami",fullName:"Sara Eslami"},{id:"198961",title:"MSc.",name:"Fabrizia",middleName:null,surname:"D'Apuzzo",slug:"fabrizia-d'apuzzo",fullName:"Fabrizia D'Apuzzo"}]},{id:"33481",title:"Tuberous Breast: Clinical Evaluation and Surgical Treatment",slug:"tuberous-breast-clinical-evaluation-and-surgical-treatment",totalDownloads:13769,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"current-concepts-in-plastic-surgery",title:"Current Concepts in Plastic Surgery",fullTitle:"Current Concepts in Plastic Surgery"},signatures:"Giovanni Zoccali and Maurizio Giuliani",authors:[{id:"75465",title:"Prof.",name:"Maurizio",middleName:null,surname:"Giuliani",slug:"maurizio-giuliani",fullName:"Maurizio Giuliani"},{id:"76973",title:"Dr.",name:"Giovanni",middleName:null,surname:"Zoccali",slug:"giovanni-zoccali",fullName:"Giovanni Zoccali"}]},{id:"33456",title:"Basic Knowledge of Bone Grafting",slug:"basic-knowledge-of-bone-grafting",totalDownloads:27425,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"bone-grafting",title:"Bone Grafting",fullTitle:"Bone Grafting"},signatures:"Nguyen Ngoc Hung",authors:[{id:"82591",title:"Prof.",name:"Nguyen",middleName:null,surname:"Ngoc Hung",slug:"nguyen-ngoc-hung",fullName:"Nguyen Ngoc Hung"}]},{id:"33455",title:"Introduction",slug:"introduction1",totalDownloads:1630,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"bone-grafting",title:"Bone Grafting",fullTitle:"Bone Grafting"},signatures:"Alessandro Rozim Zorzi and João Batista de Miranda",authors:[{id:"80871",title:"M.D.",name:"Alessandro Rozim",middleName:null,surname:"Zorzi",slug:"alessandro-rozim-zorzi",fullName:"Alessandro Rozim Zorzi"},{id:"84386",title:"Prof.",name:"João",middleName:null,surname:"Batista de Miranda",slug:"joao-batista-de-miranda",fullName:"João Batista de Miranda"}]},{id:"53715",title:"Cleft Lip and Palate in the Dog: Medical and Genetic Aspects",slug:"cleft-lip-and-palate-in-the-dog-medical-and-genetic-aspects",totalDownloads:6438,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"designing-strategies-for-cleft-lip-and-palate-care",title:"Designing Strategies for Cleft Lip and Palate Care",fullTitle:"Designing Strategies for Cleft Lip and Palate Care"},signatures:"Enio Moura and Cláudia Turra Pimpão",authors:[{id:"91097",title:"Prof.",name:"Enio",middleName:null,surname:"Moura",slug:"enio-moura",fullName:"Enio Moura"},{id:"194711",title:"Dr.",name:"Cláudia",middleName:null,surname:"Pimpão",slug:"claudia-pimpao",fullName:"Cláudia Pimpão"}]},{id:"42570",title:"Polyethylene Surgical Drape Dressing for Split Thickness Skin Graft Donor Areas",slug:"polyethylene-surgical-drape-dressing-for-split-thickness-skin-graft-donor-areas",totalDownloads:1564,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"skin-grafts",title:"Skin Grafts",fullTitle:"Skin Grafts"},signatures:"Madhuri A. Gore, Kabeer Umakumar and Sandhya P. Iyer",authors:[{id:"157243",title:"Dr.",name:"Madhuri",middleName:null,surname:"Gore",slug:"madhuri-gore",fullName:"Madhuri Gore"}]},{id:"53918",title:"Epidemiology of Cleft Lip and Palate",slug:"epidemiology-of-cleft-lip-and-palate",totalDownloads:2032,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"designing-strategies-for-cleft-lip-and-palate-care",title:"Designing Strategies for Cleft Lip and Palate Care",fullTitle:"Designing Strategies for Cleft Lip and Palate Care"},signatures:"Mairaj K. Ahmed, Anthony H. Bui and Emanuela Taioli",authors:[{id:"188212",title:"Dr.",name:"Mairaj K.",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"mairaj-k.-ahmed",fullName:"Mairaj K. Ahmed"},{id:"194367",title:"Dr.",name:"Emanuela",middleName:null,surname:"Taioli",slug:"emanuela-taioli",fullName:"Emanuela Taioli"},{id:"203416",title:"Dr.",name:"Anthony",middleName:null,surname:"Bui",slug:"anthony-bui",fullName:"Anthony Bui"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"reconstructive-surgery",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/119815/hiroshi-hirano",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"119815",slug:"hiroshi-hirano"},fullPath:"/profiles/119815/hiroshi-hirano",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()