Planned versus actual coverage of the survey.
\r\n\tA number of advanced combustion technologies have been introduced to improve performance, fuel economy and emissions levels. Research in combustion technology has highlighted the importance of new fuels in reducing the petroleum dependence and achieving high efficiency with low pollutant formation.
\r\n\tThe purpose of this book is to collect interesting and original studies on combustion methods, advanced combustion strategies and new fuels able to achieve efficiency improvements and environment compliance.
\r\n\tContributions in which experimental, theoretical and computation approaches are applied to explore how fuel properties and composition affect advanced combustion systems and how advanced combustion technology can maximize engine efficiency and be environment-friendly are invited and appreciated.
Many European governments have advocated both privatisation and outsourcing to further boost their companies and economies. This has motivated public and private organisations to enhance their core competencies by focussing on these first, whilst giving their other competencies to outside organisations, third-party providers, who in turn can provide focus and use their expertise in these areas. Due to this shift in how these organisations operate, a significant market has developed for companies who focus in the provision of enhanced support activities for other organisations [1].
\nSince the 1990s, service outsourcing became very popular [2]. Such a move has become prevalent in the service sector, notably in the financial services sector, where, for example, the back office operations can be outsourced relatively easily. This in turn allows process efficiencies to be improved [3]. According to the technical committee of the International Organisation of Securities Commissions [4], outsourcing is defined as ‘an event in which a regulated outsourcing firm contracts with a service provider for the performance of any aspect of the outsourcing firm’s regulated or unregulated functions that could otherwise be undertaken by the entity itself’.
\nAccording to the survey published in 2017, the financial sector has been the main driver of UK outsourcing to date. The survey, according to Arvato, suggests that the UK market achieved the strongest half-year performance since 2012. This included outsourcing deals worth £5.2Bn from January to June 2017, up 23%, of which the private sector accounted for the majority, worth £4.5Bn. Of this, the financial services sector was 64%.
\nAs with many new trends, there have been a number of outsourcing projects which have either not met their expectations, or have failed in their entirety. A German management consultancy, Steria Mummert, conducted an exercise in 2008, which confirmed this. Steria Mummert asked 512 managers about their experiences; 30% of the managers said that the implementation of their business process outsourcing has not met their expectations [5]. This raises the question of why some outsourcing projects fail quite spectacularly, whilst some do succeed. Post-outsourcing supplier management has been cited by many researchers regarding poor outcomes in contracting-out [6], especially with regards to ensuring ongoing sustainability of projects in the financial services industry.
\nThis chapter considers different forms of supplier outsourcing, including the notion of the flexible firm. The chapter further considers different forms of managing them to help managers ensure they have a sustainable, successful outsourcing project. This includes the implications of performance management on the outsourcing process and the outsourcing contract. To ensure this, the key success factors are identified, together with alternative frameworks from literature which have been considered and developed by different authors to provide an approach to be adopted to ensure best practise for management of outsourcing.
\nCoase [7] defines the concept of an organisation: ‘in modern economic theory as an organisation which transforms inputs into outputs’.
\nBeardwell and Holden (1995) suggest that in order for an organisation to achieve its objectives, there is a need for the completion of a number of tasks. The complexity of the task determines the need for the availability of appropriate technology together with sufficient skills, of the human resources employed, to carry them out. As a result of this Beardwell and Holden (1995) explain ‘this division of labour constitutes the lateral dimension of the structure of the organisation’, and move on to explain the hierachial relationships of power and authority between the owners and the employees who take on the responsibility for completion of the task(s). As a result of this, Beardwell and Holden (1995) suggest ‘some of the basic elements of an organisation, then, are its ownership and source of authority’. Another basic element of an organisation is to help its employees to succeed.
\nOne of the most important challenges an organisation faces is to make sure that there is a good match between an employee’s skills and commitment and the tasks they are being asked to perform. In current rapidly moving work environments, the availability of time for new employees to adapt and develop is lessening. The organisational expectations are for the employees to become productive almost immediately, to perform the task(s) and move on.
\nAs the quality and quantity of output is becoming more demanding, coupled with the unstable nature of work in recent years, more and more organisations are shifting to outsourcing. To this end, outsourcing can be seen as both a strategic and a pragmatic response to the demands and constraints of an organisation.
\nThe selection of strategically relevant resources and capabilities is critical in determining an organisation’s core competencies in order to promote ownership and employee success. A core competence is what an organisation prides itself in, what it is especially proficient at, and it is often invisible to the external customer.
\nThis core competence has become more valuable over time and through continued use because, as is mostly the case, core competencies are primarily knowledge based and they become embedded into the culture of the organisation through the passage of time. As a result of this, organisations must continuously invest in their strategically chosen core competence to be able to adapt to the rapid changes in the global economy, if this is not the case, the organisation is clearly at a competitive disadvantage. According to Hitt et al. [8]) ‘a sustainable competitive advantage is achieved when organisations implement a value-creating strategy that is grounded in their own resources, capabilities and core competencies’. This viewpoint is based on the assumption that resources and capabilities are of primary importance to profitability and the emphasis is placed upon adapting the external environment to the organisation. The rationale for the resource-based approach to strategy states that the external environment in which an organisation operates is constantly subjected to uncertainty and rapid change. However, an internal focus upon resources and capabilities offer a more secure basis for strategy than a market focus. Thus, it is how the organisation, and not where the organisation, competes. The task of organisational management, therefore, is to decide which resources and capabilities are strategically relevant, and how best to improve them in order for the organisation to exploit all the opportunities in the external environment.
\nAs stated by Hitt et al. [8] organisational resources can be defined as: ‘inputs into an organisation’s production process, such as capital equipment, the skills of individual employees, patents, finance, and talented managers’. Resources can be divided into tangible and intangible assets and their integration and combination is crucial to ensure an organisation’s long-term competitiveness. Tangible resources can not only be easily identified and evaluated, but also imitated by an organisation’s competitors. Perhaps the most important and strategically relevant intangible resource is the organisations knowledge, together with the organisations reputation for its products and service quality in being able to create value for its targeted customer.
\nDay [9] suggests that capabilities are: ‘complex bundles of skills and collective learning, exercised through organisational processes, which ensure superior co-ordination of functional activities’. The strategic integration of an organisation’s tangible and intangible resources are its capabilities which must be developed and built upon over time for an organisation to compete in today’s global economy.
\nHowever, organisations must be aware that core competencies should never be so rigid, so as not to allow the organisation to grow and develop in accordance with the demands both from the internal and external environment.
\nAn organisation’s resources, capabilities and core competencies provide the foundation for success; nevertheless they represent one piece of the organisational jigsaw. Resources alone are relatively unimportant; it is the ability of the organisation to use those resources effectively to create opportunities in the external environment which ensures an organisational success.
\nIn addition to our earlier definition of outsourcing, the concept is often quoted in literature is that of Elfing and Baven [10], where the outsourcing concept is seen as, ‘a contractual agreement between the customer and one or more suppliers to provide services or processes that the customer is currently producing internally’. Prior to starting the process of outsourcing its paramount to consider the key determining success factors and also the limitations of such direction. As suggested by the Technical Committee of the International Organisation of Securities Commissions [11], there is a need to be mindful of ‘the potential that the inappropriate consequences for the outsourcing firm’s customers and in certain instances, the potential for systemic risk to the market as a whole’.
\nResource-based theory [12] identifies processes and services to be outsourced. Wernerfelt found that when analysing a firm for a future strategy, resources are more important rather than the products it sells or services it performs. He defined resources as tangible and intangible assets, which are tied semi-permanently to the firm. Research by Prahalad and Hamel in [13] found out that organisations’ resources are the key in building competitive advantage; these in turn are noted as their core competencies. Core competencies are a starting point when deciding which parts of an organisation can potentially be outsourced. Outsourcing can be carried out both internally in the organisation and, more commonly, carried out externally. Internal outsourcing is noted as ‘quasi-outsourcing’ ([14], p. 533), where an organisation outsources a process to an entity which acts like an external vendor, but is still owned by the organisation. When an organisation uses external outsourcing, the business process is operated entirely independently by a third-party provider [15]. Further, there are other categories relating to where the outsourcing is located; service performance onsite, onshore-outsourcing, offshoring and nearshoring [16]. Why such alternatives are considered in the majority of cases, is due to costs of undertaking the process in-house against those to be incurred if the process is undertaken by a third-party. Lower costs by a third-party will give reason to consider outsourcing, although other significant issues need to be taken into account [17], including the use of clear performance metrics if the approach is to be used.
\nThe concept provides the organisation with the facility to be flexible enough to focus on the core business and sub-contract or alternatively outsource the remaining parts of the organisation. For an organisation to be able to respond to such a business model it must be dynamic, flexible and efficient enough to cope with the demands of such an organisational form.
\nThe first objective is to establish what is meant by the term flexible firm and how the concept can be applied to traditional organisations today.
\nAtkinson’s model of flexibility which was developed during the 1980s, identifies four different forms of flexibility within an organisation and defines the ways they can be achieved. As a result of this Atkinson (1986) developed the model of ‘The flexible firm’, based on numerical, functional, distancing and pay flexibility.
\nNumerical Flexibility: According to Atkinson (1986), numerical flexibility can be achieved to meet the demands of human resources inputs by increasing or decreasing the number of working hours, or alternatively increasing or decreasing the number of human resources employed by the organisation.
\nFunctional Flexibility: Functional flexibility can be achieved through multiskilling of employees, and the organisation’s ability to alternate and utilise the skills of employees to meet the requirements of different tasks at various levels by changing the methods of production and workload.
\nDistancing: An organisation’s numerical flexibility can be improved by replacing the organisation’s employees by subcontractors, consultants, self-employed and agency temporaries. These services can be utilised as and when required by the organisation.
\nPay Flexibility: Pay flexibility focuses on providing financial support for various functional and numerical flexibilities.
\nAtkinson’s (1986) flexible firm’s workers are divided into core and peripheral working groups, where the core group, i.e., ‘the primary labour markets’ is focused on running the organisation and securing contracts, whilst the remaining groups’, i.e., ‘secondary labour markets, stay flexible through quantitative adjustment’ according to the organisational needs, followed by self-employed contract workers, subcontractors, outsourcing and agency temporaries all pooled together to complete the task (Atkinson and Gregory 1986) Figure 1.
\nAtkinson’s flexible firm.
In the financial services sector, Tas and Sunder [3] identified major drivers for outsourcing as well as offshoring, where improvements in communications have made it possible for financial institutions to outsource processes with little loss of control. Globally accredited ISO systems have made it possible to outsource business processes utilising skilled labour.
\nAccording to Neely et al. [18], performance measurement is defined as ‘the process of quantifying the efficiency and effectiveness of action’. In other words, it helps an organisation assess the performance of its processes regarding effectiveness and efficiency.
\nPerformance management has developed from performance measurement [19] in recent years. Literature on measurement has mostly focused on producing data, whereas performance management converts such information into means to improve performance. Folan and Browne [20] saw performance management as using information relating to performance measurement information provide enhanced organisational culture, systems and processes. This is done by using performance goals and prioritising resources, whilst ensuring managers effect and control policy bring about change and meet pre-defined goals by using performance management [20]. Performance management itself has been developed in the field of human resources with a special focus on human performance [19] as well as for managing corporate performance as well.
\nNotably, the literature exclusively reviews intra-organisational performance. However, performance management of suppliers requires an external view of performance to be adopted. This area has not been extensively investigated, and some authors [20] have suggested further research on performance management systems outside the organisation, including how to effectively assess the supplier. Little work has been done of developing frameworks, which include factors relating to the industry, economy, etc., which can affect the operation of the supplier significantly.
\nWeimer [17] outlined three major steps in the performance management process; engaging with objective setting, incorporating a performance measurement system able to assess the status of objectives and converting the gathered data into action to ensure performance improvement. To do this, account needs taken of the outsourcing lifecycle. During the different stages of the outsourcing process, account needs taken of the outsourcing lifecycle, which can in turn be sub-divided into phases. The number of the phases depends on what is being outsourced and its complexity, but usually noted as between two and four [17, 21, 22]. Usually, this includes an assessment phase, including a transition plan for when the process moves to the supplier organisation, to ensure the correct outsourcing strategy, the setting of clear objectives to the eventual signing of an outsourcing contract [23]. After selecting the most appropriate outsourcing organisations, a document outlining the service level agreements (SLA) will be required, from which a clear business case for the finally selected supplier organisation will emerge. The final document will be an outsourcing contract for the selected organisation. Outsourcing, for the majority of processes, is not always quick to bring to effect and needs careful planning, requiring a transition plan as processes are transferred to the selected outsourcing organisation. A prime objective at this stage is to move processes with no detrimental effect on the service previously provided by the organisation There will be a transition phase, where processes or services are moved from the organisation to the supplier; according to the transition plan established in the assessment phase [23], the aim being to shift the outsourced operations efficiently to the service provider so that the agreed service levels are met after a short period of time [17].
\nOnce service levels are met, through to when the contract terminates, it is expected that both parties work together to continually enhance the process in order to both reduce costs and to further the benefit of having the process outsourced, using measurement tools [24] as appropriate.
\nThis is best attempted, where possible, as a partnership, although experience and research has pointed to this actually not being the case and often a reason for failure. This highlights the importance of the outsourcing contract [25], which needs to set out in unambiguous terms the scope of the work within the outsourcing being carried out, together with roles, responsibilities, liabilities and expectations of the parties managed by the contract ([15], p. 134).
\nFrameworks such as that of Platz and Temponi [26] identify the most important elements of the outsourcing contract, covering performance, financial, HR and legal functions to ensure the contract is fully covered and can be managed to the expectations of both parties. Oher authors see the most important elements being specifications for service levels and quality to encourage vendor performance and discourage underperformance [26], whilst others include guidelines to ensure measures are taken where there are cases of poor performance by the supplier [15] as well as for over-performance [27].
\nAron and Singh [28] stress the importance of using internal measurement before the outsourcing decision as a key factor in contributing to success. This is useful where a comparison is later made to ensure, or otherwise, that the outsourcing service provider is providing a better service/process than would have been the case if this were still provided in-house better than this own organisation did when the process or service was still performed in-house. Further, noted that benchmarking of the service/process should also be carried out to ensure the appropriate levels of performance and cost expectations are realistic and likely to be met.
\nAfter the selection of the service/process to be outsourced, Gottschalk and Solli-Saether [29] describe stakeholder management as significant and a further important factor in ensuring that outsourcing is a success. They see the relationship between buyer and vendor needing effective and defined management to ensure success; these required efficient and effective approaches to ensure success. Weimer [17] contributed to this in pointing out that success of an outsourcing project solely depends on the professionalism in managing the outsourcing supplier’s performance.
\nDuring the operations phase, performance management is critical to success. Measures used need mutual agreement at the start, but there must be the flexibility in contractual agreements to allow measures to be changed due to enhancements to the process or where factors impinge on the process provided. Amendments to pre-agreed contractual measures need to be considered, as many outsourcing projects fail where there is inflexibility in coping with changes to the changing environment [30]. There is agreement among research that changes to contracts needs careful regulation to cope with changing business conditions [31].
\nBasu [32] also points to the need for careful selection of the performance measurements to be utilised; too often there is failure in taking time to consider what is appropriate to the process being outsourced; taking time at this stage can save considerable discussion at later stages in the work. Dittrich and Braun [23] stress the need to consider both hard and soft measures at this stage. Later work by Pai and Basu [25] reviewed performance metrics and placed them into four categories; volume of work, quality of work, responsiveness and efficiency.
\nThe most commonly used tool in outsourcing projects is the Balanced Scorecard approach [31]. Devised by Kaplan and Norton [33], the Balanced Scorecard is a tool used by many organisations to provide a tool to translate objectives to performance measures and is appropriate to outsourcing projects.
\nPerformance management of outsourcing is also only of relevance if the reasons for failure to meet measures is given careful consideration and the reasons for this poor performance [30]. Prior to suggesting improvements, the cause needs to be found and reviewed to find if the cause is temporary or a change to the work is required.
\nIt is essential to find out the causes of poor service levels first before designing an improvement programme. It is also important to review what will be done where levels are exceeded; sharing the rewards of enhanced performance can be excellent for both parties and needs careful consideration as well as considerable encouragement. On the contrary, how to deal with poor performance needs careful consideration and managed in a way that ensures the contractor is encouraged and motivated to meet or exceed targets [34]. Pai and Basu [25] introduced the concept of a service credit system; payments to the outsourcing service buyer, when the supplier does not meet the service levels. The main purpose of this is to provide the organisation providing the service with incentives to meet target performance and has proven to be very effective for supplier performance improvement [25]. Throughout the above approaches, the means of communication needs careful consideration, together with how this is managed, as part of the drive to improve the outsourcing relationship [35]. By building trust through communication, the post-contract transaction costs can be reduced [31]. Authors, such as Dzierzon [30] and Schoeninger, have recommended teams of staff dedicated to this task, where the scale of the project is large.
\nThe preceding paragraphs provide generic factors to be considered in ensuring success. For the financial Services industry, two further factors have been added. Authors writing about outsourcing in financial services point to the need to consider risk management. This requires [36] a risk analysis of the outsourced process. First, the process requires evaluation with regard to the internal business risk should the outsourcing process fail. Gewald und Dibbern [37] put forward four classifications for this; Performance risk, where the supplier does not deliver according to expectations leading to potential damage to reputation of the financial services institution; Financial risk, where the financial institution will be obliged to pay more for a service than initially planned; Strategic risk, where the organisation may lose resources that could contribute to competitive advantage; and finally, Psychological risk where managers’ departments are outsourced. A second issue is where there may be legal restrictions imposed on financial services institutions with regard to them outsourcing distinct areas of their business. Governmental institutions, including the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision, the Committee of European Securities Regulators and in the UK, the Financial Services Authority (FSA), have stressed the necessity of legal regulations relating to the outsourcing of financial organisations. These relate to supplier dependence, legal risks, IT risks, to only name a few [36]. The UK Financial Services Authority’ regulations were analysed by Evans [38], who found that the identification of potential risks and necessity of systems for management and control of these risks are a major issue within these regulations. This demands a secure supplier contract, employed within a relationship management system. There is a need for internal and external due diligence and the introduction of a well-managed performance measurement system are claimed by this legal body as well. Outsourcing within the financial sector in general, is seen [39] as increasing risks where outsourcing is used.
\nA further area of interest that is quoted in literature about performance management in financial services outsourcing is the statement of auditing standards (SAS) 70, originally developed by the American Institute of Certified Public Accountants as a communication tool for auditors to discuss the functionality of audit processes between outsourcing parties. This is an international standard for the evaluation of supplier’s performance control systems [36]. This gives the outsourcing organisation an independent view on the processes and performance of the supplier. Reports are prepared by audit companies on a continuous basis to ensure that the outsourcing company can assure the supplier’s capability for the delivery of the outsourced services [40]. This provides a valuable supplement for the supplier’s performance assessment.
\nFigure 2 is an example of a Framework for managing outsourcing, developed by [41]. This provides an organisation with a guideline of how to implement performance management both prior to, and during an outsourcing project. McIvor split this into four stages:
\nProcess importance analysis, identifies the process’s contribution to corporate success. Core competencies contributing to competitive advantage should remain in-house. Non-core competencies should be considered for outsourcing. This area of McIvor’s study uses the so called critical success factor (CSF)—method to identify critical and non-critical processes.
Process capability analysis, is used to determine whether the outsourcing organisation is capable of performing the process to the same or a higher level when it is compared to potential external suppliers. This stage will use both cost analysis and benchmarking.
Choosing the sourcing strategy based on the analysis results is then carried out by the organisation. There is then the decision of whether the organisation carries on, or whether it decides to outsource.
Finally in McIvor’s framework, the further step relates to the implementation and management of the outsourcing arrangement if this is the chosen path, following the third stage. Here, a sub-classification into contract management, managing and evaluating the relationship is made. Although the study gives some indication on how to manage and evaluate the supplier, a clear tool or guideline for design and implementation that could be adapted to the majority of outsourcing projects is not given.
McIvor’s performance management framework [41].
Further to the above, Weimer [17] has put forward an approach to transform the Balanced Scorecard, normally used for internal use, into a performance measurement tool for outsourcing projects. The work of Weimer concentrated on the need to identify the relevant information necessary for an organisation to effectively manage the outsourcing project (Hodel et al. [24]; Basu [32]; Würz and Blankenhorn [31]), are also noted authors relating to using the balanced Scorecard.
\nIn identifying relevant information for performance management in outsourcing, Weimer used the Delphi technique to organise and share opinion through feedback. Service reporting and performance management were the two areas, where he found a distinctive need for good information, together with measurement and reporting tools that produce information regarding service levels, quality and customer satisfaction to ensure success of the outsourcing contract. Weimer found the balanced scorecard to be of benefit in undertaking this task.
\nLimited work has been undertaken in the development and use of effective performance management in outsourcing projects, beyond the work of McIvor and Weimer. However, the frameworks shown, do provide a model for organisations to follow to ensure they consider appropriate stages, which if done in detail and managed appropriately, should lead to success.
\nIn addition to the main areas addressed in this chapter, there is a requirement for further research into the relationship between performance management and the notion of outsourcing, using data from organisations who have undertaken such a move in recent years. There are many real, potential challenges to outsourcing as has been the case in recent, turbulent international markets. There has been a notable amount of literature on successful outsourcing within the financial services sector, but there further research work is required to ensure organisations use carefully selected KPI’s relevant to their particular situation, whilst ensuring they are aware of the use of these.
\nFurther recommendations relating to the above [42] are that organisations, in order to reduce the risk of failure when outsourcing, they need to consider a number of key factors prior to embarking such a strategic move. Bateman suggested that they also take account of ‘realistic expectations; sufficient in-house expertise to enable effective contract management and have a contingency plan so that you can, if necessary, take the service back in-house’.
\nResearch methodology is the path through which researchers need to conduct their research. It shows the path through which these researchers formulate their problem and objective and present their result from the data obtained during the study period. This research design and methodology chapter also shows how the research outcome at the end will be obtained in line with meeting the objective of the study. This chapter hence discusses the research methods that were used during the research process. It includes the research methodology of the study from the research strategy to the result dissemination. For emphasis, in this chapter, the author outlines the research strategy, research design, research methodology, the study area, data sources such as primary data sources and secondary data, population consideration and sample size determination such as questionnaires sample size determination and workplace site exposure measurement sample determination, data collection methods like primary data collection methods including workplace site observation data collection and data collection through desk review, data collection through questionnaires, data obtained from experts opinion, workplace site exposure measurement, data collection tools pretest, secondary data collection methods, methods of data analysis used such as quantitative data analysis and qualitative data analysis, data analysis software, the reliability and validity analysis of the quantitative data, reliability of data, reliability analysis, validity, data quality management, inclusion criteria, ethical consideration and dissemination of result and its utilization approaches. In order to satisfy the objectives of the study, a qualitative and quantitative research method is apprehended in general. The study used these mixed strategies because the data were obtained from all aspects of the data source during the study time. Therefore, the purpose of this methodology is to satisfy the research plan and target devised by the researcher.
The research design is intended to provide an appropriate framework for a study. A very significant decision in research design process is the choice to be made regarding research approach since it determines how relevant information for a study will be obtained; however, the research design process involves many interrelated decisions [1].
This study employed a mixed type of methods. The first part of the study consisted of a series of well-structured questionnaires (for management, employee’s representatives, and technician of industries) and semi-structured interviews with key stakeholders (government bodies, ministries, and industries) in participating organizations. The other design used is an interview of employees to know how they feel about safety and health of their workplace, and field observation at the selected industrial sites was undertaken.
Hence, this study employs a descriptive research design to agree on the effects of occupational safety and health management system on employee health, safety, and property damage for selected manufacturing industries. Saunders et al. [2] and Miller [3] say that descriptive research portrays an accurate profile of persons, events, or situations. This design offers to the researchers a profile of described relevant aspects of the phenomena of interest from an individual, organizational, and industry-oriented perspective. Therefore, this research design enabled the researchers to gather data from a wide range of respondents on the impact of safety and health on manufacturing industries in Ethiopia. And this helped in analyzing the response obtained on how it affects the manufacturing industries’ workplace safety and health. The research overall design and flow process are depicted in Figure 1.
Research methods and processes (author design).
To address the key research objectives, this research used both qualitative and quantitative methods and combination of primary and secondary sources. The qualitative data supports the quantitative data analysis and results. The result obtained is triangulated since the researcher utilized the qualitative and quantitative data types in the data analysis. The study area, data sources, and sampling techniques were discussed under this section.
According to Fraenkel and Warren [4] studies, population refers to the complete set of individuals (subjects or events) having common characteristics in which the researcher is interested. The population of the study was determined based on random sampling system. This data collection was conducted from March 07, 2015 to December 10, 2016, from selected manufacturing industries found in Addis Ababa city and around. The manufacturing companies were selected based on their employee number, established year, and the potential accidents prevailing and the manufacturing industry type even though all criterions were difficult to satisfy.
It was obtained from the original source of information. The primary data were more reliable and have more confidence level of decision-making with the trusted analysis having direct intact with occurrence of the events. The primary data sources are industries’ working environment (through observation, pictures, and photograph) and industry employees (management and bottom workers) (interview, questionnaires and discussions).
Desk review has been conducted to collect data from various secondary sources. This includes reports and project documents at each manufacturing sectors (more on medium and large level). Secondary data sources have been obtained from literatures regarding OSH, and the remaining data were from the companies’ manuals, reports, and some management documents which were included under the desk review. Reputable journals, books, different articles, periodicals, proceedings, magazines, newsletters, newspapers, websites, and other sources were considered on the manufacturing industrial sectors. The data also obtained from the existing working documents, manuals, procedures, reports, statistical data, policies, regulations, and standards were taken into account for the review.
In general, for this research study, the desk review has been completed to this end, and it had been polished and modified upon manuals and documents obtained from the selected companies.
The study population consisted of manufacturing industries’ employees in Addis Ababa city and around as there are more representative manufacturing industrial clusters found. To select representative manufacturing industrial sector population, the types of the industries expected were more potential to accidents based on random and purposive sampling considered. The population of data was from textile, leather, metal, chemicals, and food manufacturing industries. A total of 189 sample sizes of industries responded to the questionnaire survey from the priority areas of the government. Random sample sizes and disproportionate methods were used, and 80 from wood, metal, and iron works; 30 from food, beverage, and tobacco products; 50 from leather, textile, and garments; 20 from chemical and chemical products; and 9 from other remaining 9 clusters of manufacturing industries responded.
A simple random sampling and purposive sampling methods were used to select the representative manufacturing industries and respondents for the study. The simple random sampling ensures that each member of the population has an equal chance for the selection or the chance of getting a response which can be more than equal to the chance depending on the data analysis justification. Sample size determination procedure was used to get optimum and reasonable information. In this study, both probability (simple random sampling) and nonprobability (convenience, quota, purposive, and judgmental) sampling methods were used as the nature of the industries are varied. This is because of the characteristics of data sources which permitted the researchers to follow the multi-methods. This helps the analysis to triangulate the data obtained and increase the reliability of the research outcome and its decision. The companies’ establishment time and its engagement in operation, the number of employees and the proportion it has, the owner types (government and private), type of manufacturing industry/production, types of resource used at work, and the location it is found in the city and around were some of the criteria for the selections.
The determination of the sample size was adopted from Daniel [5] and Cochran [6] formula. The formula used was for unknown population size Eq. (1) and is given as
where n = sample size, Z = statistic for a level of confidence, P = expected prevalence or proportion (in proportion of one; if 50%, P = 0.5), and d = precision (in proportion of one; if 6%, d = 0.06). Z statistic (Z): for the level of confidence of 95%, which is conventional, Z value is 1.96. In this study, investigators present their results with 95% confidence intervals (CI).
The expected sample number was 267 at the marginal error of 6% for 95% confidence interval of manufacturing industries. However, the collected data indicated that only 189 populations were used for the analysis after rejecting some data having more missing values in the responses from the industries. Hence, the actual data collection resulted in 71% response rate. The 267 population were assumed to be satisfactory and representative for the data analysis.
The sample size for the experimental exposure measurements of physical work environment has been considered based on the physical data prepared for questionnaires and respondents. The response of positive were considered for exposure measurement factors to be considered for the physical environment health and disease causing such as noise intensity, light intensity, pressure/stress, vibration, temperature/coldness, or hotness and dust particles on 20 workplace sites. The selection method was using random sampling in line with purposive method. The measurement of the exposure factors was done in collaboration with Addis Ababa city Administration and Oromia Bureau of Labour and Social Affair (AACBOLSA). Some measuring instruments were obtained from the Addis Ababa city and Oromia Bureau of Labour and Social Affair.
Data collection methods were focused on the followings basic techniques. These included secondary and primary data collections focusing on both qualitative and quantitative data as defined in the previous section. The data collection mechanisms are devised and prepared with their proper procedures.
Primary data sources are qualitative and quantitative. The qualitative sources are field observation, interview, and informal discussions, while that of quantitative data sources are survey questionnaires and interview questions. The next sections elaborate how the data were obtained from the primary sources.
Observation is an important aspect of science. Observation is tightly connected to data collection, and there are different sources for this: documentation, archival records, interviews, direct observations, and participant observations. Observational research findings are considered strong in validity because the researcher is able to collect a depth of information about a particular behavior. In this dissertation, the researchers used observation method as one tool for collecting information and data before questionnaire design and after the start of research too. The researcher made more than 20 specific observations of manufacturing industries in the study areas. During the observations, it found a deeper understanding of the working environment and the different sections in the production system and OSH practices.
Interview is a loosely structured qualitative in-depth interview with people who are considered to be particularly knowledgeable about the topic of interest. The semi-structured interview is usually conducted in a face-to-face setting which permits the researcher to seek new insights, ask questions, and assess phenomena in different perspectives. It let the researcher to know the in-depth of the present working environment influential factors and consequences. It has provided opportunities for refining data collection efforts and examining specialized systems or processes. It was used when the researcher faces written records or published document limitation or wanted to triangulate the data obtained from other primary and secondary data sources.
This dissertation is also conducted with a qualitative approach and conducting interviews. The advantage of using interviews as a method is that it allows respondents to raise issues that the interviewer may not have expected. All interviews with employees, management, and technicians were conducted by the corresponding researcher, on a face-to-face basis at workplace. All interviews were recorded and transcribed.
The main tool for gaining primary information in practical research is questionnaires, due to the fact that the researcher can decide on the sample and the types of questions to be asked [2].
In this dissertation, each respondent is requested to reply to an identical list of questions mixed so that biasness was prevented. Initially the questionnaire design was coded and mixed up from specific topic based on uniform structures. Consequently, the questionnaire produced valuable data which was required to achieve the dissertation objectives.
The questionnaires developed were based on a five-item Likert scale. Responses were given to each statement using a five-point Likert-type scale, for which 1 = “strongly disagree” to 5 = “strongly agree.” The responses were summed up to produce a score for the measures.
The data was also obtained from the expert’s opinion related to the comparison of the knowledge, management, collaboration, and technology utilization including their sub-factors. The data obtained in this way was used for prioritization and decision-making of OSH, improving factor priority. The prioritization of the factors was using Saaty scales (1–9) and then converting to Fuzzy set values obtained from previous researches using triangular fuzzy set [7].
The researcher has measured the workplace environment for dust, vibration, heat, pressure, light, and noise to know how much is the level of each variable. The primary data sources planned and an actual coverage has been compared as shown in Table 1.
Planned versus actual coverage of the survey.
The response rate for the proposed data source was good, and the pilot test also proved the reliability of questionnaires. Interview/discussion resulted in 87% of responses among the respondents; the survey questionnaire response rate obtained was 71%, and the field observation response rate was 90% for the whole data analysis process. Hence, the data organization quality level has not been compromised.
This response rate is considered to be representative of studies of organizations. As the study agrees on the response rate to be 30%, it is considered acceptable [8]. Saunders et al. [2] argued that the questionnaire with a scale response of 20% response rate is acceptable. Low response rate should not discourage the researchers, because a great deal of published research work also achieves low response rate. Hence, the response rate of this study is acceptable and very good for the purpose of meeting the study objectives.
The pretest for questionnaires, interviews, and tools were conducted to validate that the tool content is valid or not in the sense of the respondents’ understanding. Hence, content validity (in which the questions are answered to the target without excluding important points), internal validity (in which the questions raised answer the outcomes of researchers’ target), and external validity (in which the result can generalize to all the population from the survey sample population) were reflected. It has been proved with this pilot test prior to the start of the basic data collections. Following feedback process, a few minor changes were made to the originally designed data collect tools. The pilot test made for the questionnaire test was on 10 sample sizes selected randomly from the target sectors and experts.
The secondary data refers to data that was collected by someone other than the user. This data source gives insights of the research area of the current state-of-the-art method. It also makes some sort of research gap that needs to be filled by the researcher. This secondary data sources could be internal and external data sources of information that may cover a wide range of areas.
Literature/desk review and industry documents and reports: To achieve the dissertation’s objectives, the researcher has conducted excessive document review and reports of the companies in both online and offline modes. From a methodological point of view, literature reviews can be comprehended as content analysis, where quantitative and qualitative aspects are mixed to assess structural (descriptive) as well as content criteria.
A literature search was conducted using the database sources like MEDLINE; Emerald; Taylor and Francis publications; EMBASE (medical literature); PsycINFO (psychological literature); Sociological Abstracts (sociological literature); accident prevention journals; US Statistics of Labor, European Safety and Health database; ABI Inform; Business Source Premier (business/management literature); EconLit (economic literature); Social Service Abstracts (social work and social service literature); and other related materials. The search strategy was focused on articles or reports that measure one or more of the dimensions within the research OSH model framework. This search strategy was based on a framework and measurement filter strategy developed by the Consensus-Based Standards for the Selection of Health Measurement Instruments (COSMIN) group. Based on screening, unrelated articles to the research model and objectives were excluded. Prior to screening, researcher (principal investigator) reviewed a sample of more than 2000 articles, websites, reports, and guidelines to determine whether they should be included for further review or reject. Discrepancies were thoroughly identified and resolved before the review of the main group of more than 300 articles commenced. After excluding the articles based on the title, keywords, and abstract, the remaining articles were reviewed in detail, and the information was extracted on the instrument that was used to assess the dimension of research interest. A complete list of items was then collated within each research targets or objectives and reviewed to identify any missing elements.
Data analysis method follows the procedures listed under the following sections. The data analysis part answered the basic questions raised in the problem statement. The detailed analysis of the developed and developing countries’ experiences on OSH regarding manufacturing industries was analyzed, discussed, compared and contrasted, and synthesized.
Quantitative data were obtained from primary and secondary data discussed above in this chapter. This data analysis was based on their data type using Excel, SPSS 20.0, Office Word format, and other tools. This data analysis focuses on numerical/quantitative data analysis.
Before analysis, data coding of responses and analysis were made. In order to analyze the data obtained easily, the data were coded to SPSS 20.0 software as the data obtained from questionnaires. This task involved identifying, classifying, and assigning a numeric or character symbol to data, which was done in only one way pre-coded [9, 10]. In this study, all of the responses were pre-coded. They were taken from the list of responses, a number of corresponding to a particular selection was given. This process was applied to every earlier question that needed this treatment. Upon completion, the data were then entered to a statistical analysis software package, SPSS version 20.0 on Windows 10 for the next steps.
Under the data analysis, exploration of data has been made with descriptive statistics and graphical analysis. The analysis included exploring the relationship between variables and comparing groups how they affect each other. This has been done using cross tabulation/chi square, correlation, and factor analysis and using nonparametric statistic.
Qualitative data analysis used for triangulation of the quantitative data analysis. The interview, observation, and report records were used to support the findings. The analysis has been incorporated with the quantitative discussion results in the data analysis parts.
The data were entered using SPSS 20.0 on Windows 10 and analyzed. The analysis supported with SPSS software much contributed to the finding. It had contributed to the data validation and correctness of the SPSS results. The software analyzed and compared the results of different variables used in the research questionnaires. Excel is also used to draw the pictures and calculate some analytical solutions.
The reliability of measurements specifies the amount to which it is without bias (error free) and hence ensures consistent measurement across time and across the various items in the instrument [8]. In reliability analysis, it has been checked for the stability and consistency of the data. In the case of reliability analysis, the researcher checked the accuracy and precision of the procedure of measurement. Reliability has numerous definitions and approaches, but in several environments, the concept comes to be consistent [8]. The measurement fulfills the requirements of reliability when it produces consistent results during data analysis procedure. The reliability is determined through Cranach’s alpha as shown in Table 2.
Internal consistency and reliability test of questionnaires items.
K stands for knowledge; M, management; T, technology; C, collaboration; P, policy, standards, and regulation; H, hazards and accident conditions; PPE, personal protective equipment.
Cronbach’s alpha is a measure of internal consistency, i.e., how closely related a set of items are as a group [11]. It is considered to be a measure of scale reliability. The reliability of internal consistency most of the time is measured based on the Cronbach’s alpha value. Reliability coefficient of 0.70 and above is considered “acceptable” in most research situations [12]. In this study, reliability analysis for internal consistency of Likert-scale measurement after deleting 13 items was found similar; the reliability coefficients were found for 76 items were 0.964 and for the individual groupings made shown in Table 2. It was also found internally consistent using the Cronbach’s alpha test. Table 2 shows the internal consistency of the seven major instruments in which their reliability falls in the acceptable range for this research.
Face validity used as defined by Babbie [13] is an indicator that makes it seem a reasonable measure of some variables, and it is the subjective judgment that the instrument measures what it intends to measure in terms of relevance [14]. Thus, the researcher ensured, in this study, when developing the instruments that uncertainties were eliminated by using appropriate words and concepts in order to enhance clarity and general suitability [14]. Furthermore, the researcher submitted the instruments to the research supervisor and the joint supervisor who are both occupational health experts, to ensure validity of the measuring instruments and determine whether the instruments could be considered valid on face value.
In this study, the researcher was guided by reviewed literature related to compliance with the occupational health and safety conditions and data collection methods before he could develop the measuring instruments. In addition, the pretest study that was conducted prior to the main study assisted the researcher to avoid uncertainties of the contents in the data collection measuring instruments. A thorough inspection of the measuring instruments by the statistician and the researcher’s supervisor and joint experts, to ensure that all concepts pertaining to the study were included, ensured that the instruments were enriched.
Insight has been given to the data collectors on how to approach companies, and many of the questionnaires were distributed through MSc students at Addis Ababa Institute of Technology (AAiT) and manufacturing industries’ experience experts. This made the data quality reliable as it has been continually discussed with them. Pretesting for questionnaire was done on 10 workers to assure the quality of the data and for improvement of data collection tools. Supervision during data collection was done to understand how the data collectors are handling the questionnaire, and each filled questionnaires was checked for its completeness, accuracy, clarity, and consistency on a daily basis either face-to-face or by phone/email. The data expected in poor quality were rejected out of the acting during the screening time. Among planned 267 questionnaires, 189 were responded back. Finally, it was analyzed by the principal investigator.
The data were collected from the company representative with the knowledge of OSH. Articles written in English and Amharic were included in this study. Database information obtained in relation to articles and those who have OSH area such as interventions method, method of accident identification, impact of occupational accidents, types of occupational injuries/disease, and impact of occupational accidents, and disease on productivity and costs of company and have used at least one form of feedback mechanism. No specific time period was chosen in order to access all available published papers. The questionnaire statements which are similar in the questionnaire have been rejected from the data analysis.
Ethical clearance was obtained from the School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, Institute of Technology, Addis Ababa University. Official letters were written from the School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering to the respective manufacturing industries. The purpose of the study was explained to the study subjects. The study subjects were told that the information they provided was kept confidential and that their identities would not be revealed in association with the information they provided. Informed consent was secured from each participant. For bad working environment assessment findings, feedback will be given to all manufacturing industries involved in the study. There is a plan to give a copy of the result to the respective study manufacturing industries’ and ministries’ offices. The respondents’ privacy and their responses were not individually analyzed and included in the report.
The result of this study will be presented to the Addis Ababa University, AAiT, School of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering. It will also be communicated to the Ethiopian manufacturing industries, Ministry of Labor and Social Affair, Ministry of Industry, and Ministry of Health from where the data was collected. The result will also be availed by publication and online presentation in Google Scholars. To this end, about five articles were published and disseminated to the whole world.
The research methodology and design indicated overall process of the flow of the research for the given study. The data sources and data collection methods were used. The overall research strategies and framework are indicated in this research process from problem formulation to problem validation including all the parameters. It has laid some foundation and how research methodology is devised and framed for researchers. This means, it helps researchers to consider it as one of the samples and models for the research data collection and process from the beginning of the problem statement to the research finding. Especially, this research flow helps new researchers to the research environment and methodology in particular.
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