Victim’s sex.
\r\n\tThis publication will aim to collect those projects and research that seek to make buildings, including urban environments, self-sufficient in terms of energy, focusing here on the solutions for HVAC and the energy systems they require and doing so from a double point of view:
\r\n\t- Complexity. As is the case with the automobile and aeronautics industries, buildings have become human-inhabited spaces with an ever-increasing technological load, which will presumably also be used in other ways, as the pandemic associated with COVID-19 has shown. In these scenarios, will HVAC systems be considered as before, or will new solutions have to be considered for new challenges?
\r\n\t- Disruptive technologies. In the coming years, the implementation of technologies such as hydrogen fuel cells, polygeneration of energy, the use of second-use electric batteries in buildings to accumulate energy from renewable energies, or the resolution of constructive solutions with 3D printing will become widespread in buildings. In this scenario, what will be the answers given by those responsible for HVAC systems?
\r\n\tIn addition, concepts such as artificial intelligence, technology transfer, biomimicry, or stigmergy will undoubtedly provide high-value solutions to new and refurbished buildings that society demands.
The identity of the Dalit community as oppressed or untouchable was identified in the early Vedic Period (c. 1500 – c. 500 BCE). Manu1 in his Varna system (Manusmriti) categorises the Hindu community in ‘Chaturvarnya’ that divided the society into four distinct classes—Brahmins (priests), Kshatriyas (soldiers), Vaishyas (traders) and Shudras (menials).2 The division of the society in India evaluated the principle of inequality that was legal and penal. The bottom position of the Shudras community identified as innumerable ignominies in the society, until the fifth division ‘Varna’ of the Untouchables came to the fore. The existence of the division of these classes in contemporary India is continuing due to abomination towards the Dalits community. The identity of an individual in rural India is still classified based on their caste. Due to all these factors, Dalit in India is considered as an oppressed or discriminated class and untouchable. Discrimination maintained by the upper caste in the society-outcast the Dalit community from the mainstream. Even in the rural villages, the Dalit community were not allowed to settle with other class. From ancient times they are not allowed to do equal work which other people do. Due to economically and socially vulnerable they follow the order whatever upper caste people assign to them. Division of discrimination created based on work and caste in ancient India is still surviving in Indian society. Consequently, Dalits are committing suicide in contemporary times due to long history of caste discrimination in social and political institutions.
Dalit suicide as a social problem is a relatively new phenomenon in contemporary Indian society. Many studies [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7] have been conducted over the years on student suicides that are associated with the Dalit community. According to the findings of these studies, Dalit students commit suicide as a result of social discrimination and a lack of opportunities in various institutions. We can think of a few students such as Rohith Vemula (2016), Muthukrishnan, (2017), Anitha (2017) and Payal Tadvi (2019) who have committed suicide as a result of social discrimination. These suicide cases have brought to light the worst form of Indian caste system that is still prevalent in democratic Indian society today. The number of Dalit suicides reported here is not representative of the overall trend of Dalit suicide. Dalits are being harassed everywhere in Indian society today, and this is a growing problem. They are sometimes harassed because of their social standing, and they are sometimes denied opportunities because of their social standing. They are so traumatised by all of the tortures and helpless take their own lives as suicide.
Dalits from Indian society are being increasingly committing suicide in a variety of settings, including educational institutions, the medical profession, and other occupations. Women from the Dalit community have also committed suicide in large numbers as a result of sexual harassment, as has been documented in numerous cases. Some of these Dalit suicide cases have been reported in leading Indian newspapers and can be described in detail. A Dalit doctor committed suicide in a well-known Delhi hospital as a result of his social status being overlooked by the people in his department, according to reports [8]. In a similar vein, in a district of Uttar Pradesh, a village-level officer was humiliated in the name of his caste, and after being insulted, he committed suicide [9]. In addition to this, in another instance, a Dalit girl who had been raped was not reported to the police station, and as a result, she committed suicide as a result of the mental trauma she had experienced [10].
The term “social identity theory, “coined in the 1970s by social psychologists Henry Tajfel [11], refers to the conditions in which the social identity of an individual takes precedence over one’s personal identity. The concept of social identity was introduced through ‘social identity theory as a behaviour that can be used to understand the behaviour of various groups living within a society. Social identity theory [12] explains minimal intergroup bias as well as a broader statement of how social identity is related to relationships between real-world groups. Tajfel [13] suggested that it was the groups that people were associated with (e.g. social class and family) that significantly contributed to people’s self-esteem and pride. Groups form the concept of social identity, provide us importance and feeling of the social world. Additionally, he asserted that in-group (Upper Caste) of society (i.e. those of higher socioeconomic status) can persecute the out-group (i.e. those of lower socioeconomic status or Dalits) to maintain their social standing. A process of social categorization, social identification, and social comparison can differentiate groups from each other, creating what is known as an “out-group.“ The other group known as “in-group,” individuals can create similarities between themselves and members of their group. The central hypothesis of social identity is that “group members of an in-group will seek to find negative aspects of an out-group, thus enhancing their social status.” This theory states that there are three different processes, namely social categorisation, social comparison, and social identification, that act to promote the formation of a person or a group towards negative social identity when considering others within the out-group. This is an example of someone belonging to upper caste people who discriminate against lower caste people based on their poor social, economic, and political status. Dalits due to their low status in society are defined and identified as marginalised, socially excluded, or untouchable. Due to all these social statuses, they are distinguished from other groups.
As an out-group, Dalits (a derogatory term for India’s low caste Hindu people) experience various forms of discrimination from within society by upper caste people. Due to this discrimination, negative emotions, feelings of hatred and resentment, fuel their despair, leading to many cases of suicides among Dalits in India. Based on the social identity theory this paper further laid the discussion within the three theoretical division explained by Tajfel [11] why and how the social identity processes of the Dalits lead to their segregation from the rest of society under social categorisation, social comparison, and social identification. We can understand about Dalit suicide based on theoretical framework of social identity theory and status frustration theory through following diagram (Figure 1).
Dalit suicide theoretical framework of social identity theory and status frustration theory.
To know why the society was stratified because upper-caste already decided about who will get what, and how. From the sociological point of view, the division is made in the society according to rank, caste and class to explain what they deserve. Social stratification is interconnected with a form of inequality, that endure after-effects on the people who live in the society and can experience it. The division is based on what power, status or economic resources they are availing in the society. Based on the division they also limit individual choice including freedom and equality. The analysis of the social Categorisation of Dalit in Indian society is to trace how social inequalities are continuing and surviving, over lifetimes and continuing for generations.
Social Categorisation is defined as the tendency to perceive individuals and groups as socially distinct. Dalit is designated as the lowest caste group within the Indian caste system. The caste system divides people into social groups (castes) where assignments of rights are determined by birth (born in which class), are fixed, and are hereditary. This leads to the categorisation in the employment-based on the job assigned to them. To prevent anyone from breaking away from the caste system, we have an inflexible system of social ostracism (a series of social and economic penalties) in place Kumar [14] argues that Dalits have been classified in various ways, including as people who are distinctive in the Hindu social order. Historical background of social exclusion through Varna hierarchy made by the upper caste in the Indian society. They divided the social group based on their birth and status to lower caste and that is unchangeable.
Dalit community due to social Categorisation facing various kinds of discrimination which leads to committing suicide. The suicides cases were more noticed due to violations and discrimination in Employment, Education, Health sector. However, few individuals who were with their optimistic approaches overcome all the obstacle to claiming social equality. But the obstacle increased once they want to claim better opportunity in employment, education, or health facilities.
The dividing line of ‘haves’ and ‘have not’s in Indian society is not just based on economic but as well as for social factors. The congruence of deprivations only increases the disparity between the privileged class and the others. There is a real challenge in India for the Dalit community to the pursuit of equity in India. There are several suicides cases have been registered among Dalit participants as even after having good qualification and academic records they were not being selected for an academic post. For instance, a survey indicated that faculty belong to the lower caste/group (SC/ST) comprise only 3 percent of all the faculty at the Indian Institutes of Technology. There are 23 Indian Institutes of Technology in India in which 6,043 faculty are working but the contribution of the lower cast to the institution is only 149 faculty member [15]. This means merely 2.8 per cent of the faculty members come from the reserved categories. However, the employment reservation policy stipulates 7.5 per cent reservation for SC and it should be followed in all government appointments. In response to one RTI it revealed that in 2018 for the appointment in IIT and IIM3, 682 people applied from the SC and ST category of which just 16 were called for interview. An almost all the interview-based selection process are often under the control of upper-caste people, those still believe that how lower caste people will seat equally to them. Due to that most of the time in the appointment process, they make Dalit applicants ineligible.
Similarly, within the employment area, the Media sector is hugely affected with worse than the academic sector as Oxfam study reveals that “print and electronic are totally in the hands of upper-caste Hindus. Newslaundry, a media watchdog, revealed that of 121 newsroom leadership positions across newspapers, digital media, magazines and TV channels, 106 are occupied by journalists from the upper castes”, and no one is from Scheduled Caste (Dalits) or scheduled tribe (Tribals) [16]. A similar study conducted by the Centre for the Study of Developing Societies in Delhi with surveying 315 editors, found that not one of them belonged to a Scheduled Caste (SC) or scheduled tribe (ST) [17]. It is a very clear message from the media sector that “Indian media wants Dalit news but not Dalit reporters” [18]. Apart from the media sector, there are other public and private sector which also maintain same. The employment sector in India has also noticed discrimination with Dalits and lower caste people. Inequalities with Dalits people have contained several factors such as illiteracy, unemployment, and health issue, social and economic status. The rich are getting richer, and the poor getting poorer is highly visible in India. Oxfam in his report mentioned that Income inequality gets worse as India’s top 1 percent bag 73% percent of the country’s wealth [18].4 Report on economic inequality stated that between 2006 and 2015, workers incomes merely rise by 2 percent a year while billionaire wealth rose almost six times faster [19]. Most of the labour class or workers class belongs to SC/ST or other backward communities, and they still lack basic adequate facilities such as; food, shelter, clothing, sanitation, health care, and schools for their children are major such issues. In the year 2019 itself reported 1,39,123 suicides in India, the suicide ratio increased by 3.4 percent compared to the year 2018. In which 23.4 percent of suicides contribute to the daily wages workers, mostly from the Dalit community.
In 2019 the National Commission for Scheduled Castes Member Ms. Swaraj5 stated that even after appointment lower caste people and Scheduled Tribes and even Other Backwards Class people “faced discrimination and mental harassment” at IIT and IIM. Similar activity was noticed in the admission process of Dalit students as data provided by the Ministry of Human Resource and Development (MHRD) to the Rajya Sabha mentioned that “more than 2,400 students have dropped out from the Indian Institute of Technology (IITs) in just two years”, out of these, 371 were from the Scheduled Caste (Dalits) [20]. Socialist thinker Rammanohar Lohia, who even argued that “high-caste, wealth, and knowledge of English are the three requisites, with anyone possessing two of these belonging to the ruling class” [21]. To analyse this statement we can see that upper-caste monopoly is still clearly visible in of educational sector. Recently, a protest in Jawaharlal Nehru University was made against the fees hike because in recent years several fold fee hikes implemented in all education sectors which mostly affected the lower-income Dalits community, people such as farmer, a rickshaw puller, vegetable vendor, daily wages workers, contract labourer, etc. It observed that education will eradicate inequality in Indian society but due to unaffordable education, but it is not an easy task for the economically weaker Dalits community to achieve it.
In the survey conducted by the National Family Health Survey (NFHS) on the status of Dalit women, which indicates that 70.4% had problems accessing health care. NFHS report in 2018 mentioned that “the average age when Dalit women die is 39.5, as against 54.1 for an upper-caste woman. In the continuity, it also stated that one in four Dalit women aged from 15 to 49 is undernourished, as per their Body Mass Index. Amongst upper-caste women, the ratio is one undernourished woman for every six” [22]. She also expressed that women from the Dalit community are lingering from most of the health policies and health care and due to that, they are dying at a younger age [22]. The fact is that the ‘untouchable’ word is labelled with Dalit people means that they have to face discrimination. A survey conducted on the Dalits community found that around 21.3 percent of the lower caste were denied to get entry to health centres. The survey also revealed that healthcare workers also denied to facilitates health services to 65 percent of Dalit communities. Due to that most of the Dalits are not having a choice but to go without healthcare [23].
As per Dalit Bahujan Resource Centre around “22 percent of sanitation workers, manual scavengers and waste pickers did not have the 12-digit, biometric national identification number and 33% did not possess ration cards to get subsidized food through the public distribution system” [22]. Due to that their social and economic status continues degrading in the Indian society they were outcasted. For instance, a 13-year-old Dalit girl committed suicide after starving for two days in Lakhimpur Kheri district of Uttar Pradesh [24]. A Similar case of starving to commit suicide was noticed in Bundelkahnd District of Madhya Pradesh in which 75 Year Sukhya hang himself due to not getting food and a Dalit farmer 62-year-old Samaydin Paswan hang himself due to poverty [25]. Locals told that he was not eaten anything for two-three days due to his financial condition gone very bad. However, it was not officially confirmed [26].
Social identification relates to the concept that people generally do not see the social status in the society and detached from it. In that situation, they compare their situation from the other upper caste and asked the question to himself “who am I”, “what are my status in the society” and they also relate or compare their status to other individuals and groups around them. In its most extreme form, the caste system manifests itself as untouchability, which is a pejorative for Dalits, who are referred to as “oppressed” “broken” or “crushed” in the extreme to the point of losing their original identity [3, 27]. Those who fall outside the caste system are considered as “impure”, “polluted” and “untouchable”, considered being inferior human beings. These labelled statuses on the lower group isolated them from the other upper caste group. Mahatma Gandhi renamed the untouchable Dalit as ‘Harijans” means children of God. However, it did not provide equal status in Indian society.
The term “untouchables” is often used to refer to people who are forcibly assigned to do the most undesirable and unpleasant jobs, such as manual scavenging, clean human excreta, cleaning carcass of animals from the city. Due to the continuity of their engagement in all these dirty and polluted work, neither their economic conditions improved nor their social status. In addition, the polluted work forced to bear additional stigma in the society [3]. Data collected based on a survey conducted in India by the Gates Foundation found that “sanitation and cleaning work together contributes the employment of 5 million people, of which 90% belong to the lower Dalit sub-castes, on sanitation workers across India in 2017 [28].
Dalits since ancient India was economically marginalised as they were not allowed to go to school, temple, festival, and clinics. Bros have stated that “those who have long suffered from discrimination, may also suffer from a diminished self-image” [29]. Similarly, she also supported that the continuity of discrimination can reshape their self-perception, expectations, behaviour, and preferences within their arena. Due to self-discrimination and diminished self-image within social identity, they react to any collective action against the oppressor. Some individual, due to their self-dignity and self-image cannot tolerate the discrimination and commit suicide. For instance, an incident was reported in the Gaya District of Bihar where the upper caste youth abducted the Dalit girl who was coming from a birthday party. After the incident, the girl hangs herself to protect self-esteem [30].
Dalit suicides case is increasing among educated individuals. Discrimination towards Dalit people is inherent in every sector, school, colleges, University, Institution, Business, etc. Dr. Payal Tadvi a Dalit student was pursuing MD Gynaecology from BYL Nair Hospital in Mumbai. She committed suicide in 2019 due to their upper-caste senior colleagues allegedly harass with her casteist remarks. In a similar case, a 26-year-old Dalit student Rohith Vemula hanged himself in 2016 in the Hydrabad University, due to caste-based discrimination was alleged by the University administration [31]. All these practices banned by law in India, but it is not hidden that the practice is still rampant in every States. To abolish caste-based discrimination, Indian is having several laws such as the Protection of Civil Rights Act 1955, the Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955 and the Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes (Prevention of Atrocities) Act 1989, Prohibition of Employment as Manual Scavengers and their Rehabilitation Act, 2013. However, these laws were still not implemented successfully in India. Even India is having National Human Rights Commission, National Commission for SC & ST but these institutions are vulnerable to take actions against all cases of Dalits.
Neither the society nor the State is believing in the protection of the rights of Dalit people. Most of the violations against Dalit people are not considered a violation of human rights. Untouchability is restricted in The Untouchability (Offences) Act, 1955 [32] adopted in India. Under this it is mentioned that untouchability is strictly prohibited if Dalit eats with other members of the society, not to be maintained separate seating arrangements in schools and other places, not to be denied entering temples, tourist places, shops, or using common village paths, for accessing resources such as common wells, ponds. Society cannot boycott them to perform their belief and purchasing properties.
In the world of social comparison, the way “people define the relative value or social standing of a particular group, and its members through the process of social comparison” [33]. Dalits in modern India are still facing constant social comparison from the upper caste because of social stratification. The various socio-economic, cultural, and structural discriminations and disempowerments, influence the identification of Dalits in Indian society to expand the notion of caste under lower castes [33]. The Dalits, who have suffered discrimination for generations and whose socioeconomic status is perpetually marginalised [34]. The socio-economic conditions of the people who are excluded (those with low levels of education, poor health, and a lower income) have not changed, despite some improvement [34]. People are unable to work up to par, so they are labelled Dalits (also known as the “oppressed” or “the disinherited”) [3].
We can understand the elements of the process of social identity theory mentioned above that the Dalit community have always been excluded from the mainstream of society. On one hand, in the changing times, our constitution talks about the social justice of the Dalit community and also brings them to the mainstream of society. On the other hand, the Dalit community still boycott by society and compelled to live an inhuman life. The majority of people who belong to the upper caste society see the Dalit community with very disgraced eyes and abuse them in common public places.
The upper-class society maintained all the higher post in every social and statutory institution in which they humiliate Dalit candidates if they appear for the selection process. Whenever they find an opportunity insult them in the name of their caste. Such inappropriate and discriminatory behaviour of upper caste people creates the negative identity of the Dalit community in society. When the Dalit community see that the upper caste people have a negative and discriminative attitude towards them, then they consider themselves outside of the mainstream of society. Albert Cohen in the social frustration theory stated that seeing inhuman behaviour from the society, individual feel frustrated which creates negative thought (1955). The same is happening within the Dalit community.
Cohen is concerned with “class values such as achievement, individuality, ambition, and delayed gratification”, which applies to both the upper and middle classes (1955). Cohen postulated that “the values expressed here stem directly from middle- and upper-class socialization, thus they dominate the American value system” [35]. Unfortunately, these values are difficult to obtain by working-class people, because of the socio-economic environments that working-class people are socialised in [36]. Society’s standards of expectation and its resulting standards of outcome have left the working class disappointed and disgruntled. From there, a variety of mental illnesses appear, ranging from the most basic types of neuroses and psychoses to more sophisticated conditions such as psychopathy and various mental illnesses [36, 37].
This paper brings the discussion what steps are taken by the Dalits who feel frustrated due to discrimination and negative identity created by the upper caste for them in the society under the status frustration theory of Albert Cohen. The social discrimination and negative identity imposed on the Dalit community by the upper caste divided into two ways, (1) optimistic views (2) pessimistic views. Dalit individuals with optimistic views continue to struggle and fight to get their social honour by changing their discrimination and negative identity with time and circumstances. They believe that their struggle will reform the society will gain their equal status in the mainstream of society. However, the pessimistic views create negative thought in their mind, and they get frustrated due to social discrimination and negative identity. Such people are not able to struggle with time and circumstances and they find their future is dark in the current social system. These Dalit people are so mentally hurt that their desire to live ends and they commit suicide.
The present study has applied the document analysis method (which is a kind of content analysis) for the study of Dalit suicide in India. It aims to a systematic examination of printed and electronic document material such as books, newspapers, journal, article, and magazines [38]. “Document analysis necessitates the examination and interpretation of data to elicit meaning, gain comprehension, and develop scientific knowledge” ([39] cited by [38]). Researchers use a combination of quantitative and qualitative analysis to identify the various words and concepts in a text, along with their meaning and relationships, and then make inferences about the text, the author(s), the audience, and even the time and culture in which the words were created [40, 41]. The author has decided to use this technique because the newspapers, magazines and other literature in India are the biggest and the best source of reporting on the problems of Dalits. The authors were able to easily gather data on Dalit suicide that occurred within a certain time using the method of document analysis. In nearly every instance, when there has been a Dalit suicide, the newspapers have not only reported on the possible reasons but also how Dalits are discriminated against because of their caste. The researchers used secondary data acquired from newspapers (both print and electronic) and magazines in India as the major source for this study. Secondary data for document analysis is gathered from Hindi language newspapers including Amar Ujala, Dainik Bhaskar, Dainik Jagran, and Jansatta, as well as English language publications like Hindustan Times, The Hindu and The Times of India.
Data has been collected from various states of India such as Bihar, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, and Uttar Pradesh, and so on. Suicide cases of Dalit castes are widely publicised and highlighted in these regions, therefore it was imperative to study the current topic in these areas. According to the authors, the majority of the 50 reported cases of Dalit suicide were found in these regions. Each of these incidents of Dalit suicide has been divided into several groups, such as victims’ age group (11–20 years, 21–30 years, 31–40 years, 41–50 years, and age unknown), gender (male and female), causes of Dalit suicide (social humiliation, fake cases of theft, sexual harassment, lack of basic needs and not available), and the occupation of the victim (doctor, student, farmer, officer, journalist, labour and not available). This paper has collected all the information from various sources such as both print and electronic media, the author has applied the document analysis method for better understanding to explain the reason for Dalit suicide in India.
The data for this study was collected between 2015 and June 2021. The sample cases for the current study were gathered manually by reading each and every news section that was published on Dalit suicide and discrimination in the various newspapers and magazines that were referenced in the introduction. The researchers have identified the frequent terms used by Indian journalists to report such cases from offline publications, and these terms have been utilised to search for information on online platforms using the terms they have discovered. When looking for Dalit exploitation on the internet, look for terms such as barred, threat, entry, abuse, denial, stigma, attack, and discrimination [40]. The researchers then went through all of the search results and chose the cases where Dalits committed suicide as a result of social discrimination, which they then documented. The fundamental goal of employing this method in the current study is to gain an empirical understanding of the nature and pattern of Dalit suicide in Indian culture. Specifically, the researchers were interested in learning more about the effects of societal discrimination on the well-being of Dalit people and their communities. During the research period (from 2015 to June 2021), there were no alternative sources of empirical data available in India that could be used in the investigations, and collecting data through field visits was not feasible due to logistical constraints. This method of data collection was therefore deemed to be the most effective approach for collecting empirical data on the issue under investigation within the time period under consideration. This strategy enables the authors to conduct a scientific investigation on the Dalit suicide (observation, scientific view and fact examine) [40].
Table 1 shows that a total of 51 (63.75%) Dalit male has committed suicide as compared to 29 (36.25%) Dalit female has committed suicide. The study finds that most Dalit women have committed suicide due to sexual victimisation. There are few cases in which Dalit women have committed because of other reasons.
Sex | Number of cases | Percentage |
---|---|---|
Male | 51 | 63.75 |
Female | 29 | 36.25 |
Total | 80 |
Victim’s sex.
Figure 2 shows that the number of Dalit suicide cases has steadily increased over the last seven years, with an increase in the number of cases occurring every year. So far, the number of reported Dalit suicides has decreased only in the year 2018, with the highest number of 19 reported Dalit suicide cases occurring in the year 2020. Till May 2021, 9 Dalit suicide cases have been published in the print media. Based on the number of Dalit suicides reported in the year 2020, it can be predicted that by the end of the year 2021, the number of Dalit suicides will have surpassed the number reported in the year 2020. These Dalit suicide cases have been collected from print media in 15 districts of 10 states across the country over the last seven years, and they represent a significant increase from the previous year.
Cases of Dalit suicide in last seven years.
Figure 3 shows that a maximum of 35.00% (28) Dalit people who belong to the age group of 21–30 years have committed suicide in India. While 27.50% (22) incidents of suicide belong to 31–40 year age group, 20.00% (16) incidents of suicide have been committed by age group of 11–20 years and 17.50% (14) individuals have committed suicide, who belong to the age group of 41–50 years or above age group.
Age group of Dalits during committing suicide.
If we add up the cases of Dalit suicide by age group of 21–30 years and 31–40 years, the number obtained is 50 (62.50%). This is a substantial percentage that reveals that the rate of Dalit suicide is more between the age group of 21–40 years. It should be noted that a Dalit person between the ages of 21 and 40 years is the one who struggles to come into the mainstream of society and who makes an effort to do so. This is the age group of the Dalit community who keeps some hope in his mind and thinks that when he gets his success then he will do some work for the upliftment of his family and community. But everywhere in the society whether they are social institutions, educational institutions or political institutions, he has to face social discrimination everywhere. This results in his hopes being dashed and him being bound to commit suicide out of desperation and frustration.
According to Figure 4, the majority of suicides among Dalit students are the result of discrimination and humiliation in educational institutions. There have been 25 such cases discovered, representing 31.25% of the total. Dalits who are in the medical profession, have been involved in approximately 15.00% (12) of the suicides committed, while Dalit labours have been involved in approximately 16.25% (13) of the suicides committed. Furthermore, according to the findings of the study, 12.50% (10) of Dalits who are engaged in the public/private sector and 11.25% (9) Dalit labourers committed suicide as a result of social discrimination and other causes. Furthermore, the study has indicated that in 13.75% (11) cases of Dalit suicide, the profession of Dalits is not available.
Profession of Dalits during committing suicide.
Figure 5 reveals that most of the Dalit suicide cases (42.50%) have been due to social humiliation, which is followed by several other factors that contribute to committing suicide, such as sexual harassment (23.75%), a lack of basic needs (12.50%), fake theft cases (6.25%), and no information on the causes of suicide in the remaining 15% of Dalit suicide cases.
Causes of Dalit suicide.
It has been found from the analysis of newspapers that the people of the Dalit community face social humiliation daily. Sometimes they have to bear this humiliation in the name of their caste, and sometimes they have to suffer because of being ostracised from society. The people of the Dalit community have been facing this stigma of social humiliation for centuries. This stigma is prevalent in Indian society even after so many years of independence. The Government of India has made a provision for the right to equality in the fundamental rights of the Constitution to eradicate caste discrimination and the Constitution has also made a provision in the fundamental rights to eradicate social evils like untouchability. As a result of this, the Government of India did important work for the upliftment of the Dalit community by making a law to prevent untouchability in 1955 and 1989 made SC/ST Act to stop the atrocities against the Dalit community. But even after all these provisions, social discrimination is done against the people of the Dalit community. When the people of the Dalit community think that despite having these laws, social discrimination and atrocities are done against us and our community. Thinking of this they become sad and commit suicide. The study also found that there are many cases of sexual harassment with women from the Dalit community. When the women of the Dalit community raise their voice about the incident of sexual harassment with them, then their voice is not heard anywhere. Due to which they become so mentally weak due to sexual harassment and no hearing anywhere that became the to commit suicide.
National Crime Records Bureau (NCRB) yearly report mentioned that every year more than 1,00,000 people commit suicide in India. The causes of suicides mentioned in the report includes professional/career problems, isolation/distress, abuse, violence, family issues, mental disorders, alcohol addiction, financial loss, chronic pain, etc. However, there are several other causes are not included in the NCRB record which are still increasing in India such as Dalit Suicides, Migrant Workers suicides, etc. In the year of 2019, the rate was 10.4 percent with total number of 1,39,123 reported suicides cases in India. The ratio in the year of 2019 suicides was increased by 3.4 percent compare to the last year 2018 (1,34,516). The Figure 6 illustrate that the various causes of suicides in the year 2019. The reason for the Dalit suicides is still not included in the NCRB data as the Dalit Suicides in India is not only happening with one reason but several.
Percentage share of various causes of suicides during 2019.
The authors have analyses that the NCRB is not maintaining separate data of Dalit suicides in the yearly report due to several causes is the reason behind that. The author strongly believed that data on Other Causes and the Causes Not Know mentioned in the Figure 6 comprise 21.4 percent of total suicides which includes the suicides cases against the Dalits people. Similarly, the causes of Dalits suicides also include Unemployment, Professional and Career Problem, Poverty, and Fall in Social Reputation which comprise 4.4 percent of total percentage. We cannot say that the all the reported cases include Dalit suicides only, but most of the suicides cases is with Dalit community only. The Dalit suicides is becoming an emerging issue in India. However, it is not getting attention due to government do not want highlight that still they are committing suicides due to discrimination and deprivation. The ratio with Students (7.4), Unemployed persons (10.1) and Daily wages earner (23.4) comprise 40.9 percent of suicides which can includes the economically poor Dalit community. A Survey conducted by the Centre for Study of Social Exclusion and Inclusive Policy (CSEIP) sponsored by the Indian Council of Social Science Research (ICSSR) in the State of Karnataka found that only 5.8 percent of rural Dalit households have government employees and about 7.7 percent families work in private sector ([42] October 28). The suicides cases with reason to the economic status includes 66.2 percent (92,083) those who are having annual income less than Rupees 1 Lakh. According to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford Poverty and Human Development Initiative (OPHI)‘s global multidimensional poverty index (MPI), 2018, every third (33 percent) Dalits in India are poor. If we compare the Dalit among upper caste in terms of poverty, only 15 percent of ‘upper caste’ people in India are poor [43]. United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) and the Oxford Poverty mentioned in 2010 report that two thirds of Dalits population in India are poor [44]. While the suicide rates among the educational status includes 23.3 percent (32,427) victims with illiterate people 12.6 percent (17,588) and with graduate degree 3.7 percent (5,185) out of 1,39,123 victims. The literacy rate among the Dalits shows that 80 percent of man and 64 percent of female are literate in India. However, there is no definition of literacy in India, those can write their name they are considered as literate. Most of the literate elder Dalit poor people never went to school. The other such reason for highest illiteracy rate among Dalits is increasing dropout rate from school due to their poor economic status, discrimination in school, not allowed to enter in school etc., and due to socially outcast by the upper caste. In 2019 Dalit children dropout from school was 81 percent for 6–14 years age group and 60 percent in 15–19 age group and it increased among 20–24-year age group in higher education [45].
There are around 160 million Untouchables in India, numbers are uncertain, but are from reliable sources [46]. Due to the lack of social and economic opportunity provided by the Upper community to the Dalits community they are deprived of literacy, health, education, and equal status in Indian Society. Violation against Dalits rarely come in the news as they believe that Dalits, get what they deserve. The stigma of untouchability entails a distinctive form of suffering that pervades all aspects of everyday’s life and encompasses the present, past and future. Many laws were implemented to uplift the status of the Dalit community but still failed to ensure social equality. Even though social reforms hardly able to change the perception/behaviour/mindset of the upper castes society to recognise the rights of the Dalit community. Several time violence against Dalit peopled gained international media attention but till date, there is no such international conventions or treaties has been introduced those specifically covered problems of Untouchability or Dalit community. Some individual Dalit people are changing their surname or converting to other religion to protect themselves from the atrocities. But even upper caste people targeted Dalits for changing their names and religion.
However, sometimes optimistic thought led to violent incidents with the Dalit individual. Many such incidents were noticed in which Dalits being targeted when they tried to act like a normal individual in society. Several beaten to death incidents were reported in India when Dalit individual wear sandals, ride a bike, climb on a horse during a wedding, doing inter-caste marriages, for entering in temples, for cooking and serving in school, or to sit on a chair in the presence of upper castes. Now, the Dalit beaten to death news is common in every news headlines. After being beaten for plucking leaves for goat, due to disappointment over the act 26-year-old Dharampal Diwakar Dalit youth committed suicide in Fatehpur District of Uttar Pradesh [47, 48]. Beaten for taking upper-caste surname, The Dalit youth Bharat Jadhav was beaten due to having a similar surname like upper caste, he said that “Due to the lockdown all the colleges are closed, and I had come to Sanand from Saurashtra to earn some money. But I didn’t know that my habit of keeping my surname and shirt buttons open would get me in trouble and I would have to quit my job” [49].
Sometimes those who survived to continue face humiliation from society which lead to committing suicide. Dalits face various types of humiliation and subjugation if they want to register their cases against the upper caste people in a police station or want to claim social equality. In many such cases when Dalit people have filled any complaints against the upper caste was not entertained by the police. Rather than taking their cases, they threaten Dalit people for their action, in many cases due to lack of support from the administration incident of suicides has occurred. There are several examples is there in which rape victims committed suicides due to their cases were not taken by the police officials or society neglected them. For instance, gang-raped victim 32-year Dalit woman commits suicide in Narsinghpur district of Madhya Pradesh due to the police did not register a case against the economically pool Dalit women for the last 3 days [43]. In a similar case gang-raped victim beg to police to register her case in Chitrakut district of Uttar Pradesh. But due to not file the case against the culprit, a 15-year-old girl hangs herself in the home. After those police started the investigation. Most of the cases happened due to upper caste police official has captured the higher post in the police station and they hardly bother about the lower caste cases due to pressure from the upper caste society [50]. Such as a case in Guna District of Madhya Pradesh, a Dalit farmer couple committed suicide due to police brutality. The police official was destroying the standing crops of the farmer to clear land during an anti-encroachment drive, when couple requested to stop them, police brutally beaten the couple with sticks and both Rajkumar Ahirwar (38) and his wife Savitri (35) in front of the police and their six children drank insecticide [51].
The status of Dalit women is worse in India, the Devdasi system6 is still carried out in many southern states in India. In many places if any women will be stood for their rights they will be stripped, naked paraded in front of the public or gang-raped. Indu Agnihotri from the Centre for Women Development Studies stated that “the NCRB data also suggests that more than four Dalit women are raped every day”. Ranjana Kumari of the Centre for Social Studies expressed that “If you are a woman in India and poor and a Dalit—then there is no position worse than that.”. The National Campaign on Dalit Human Rights, an NGO, mentioned that “more than 23 percent of Dalit women report being raped, and several have reported multiple instances of rape”. “Many perpetrators commit sexual crimes with a sense of impunity”, said Mariam Dhawale, general secretary of the All-India Democratic Women’s Association [52]. An example can be taken with the case in the Hathras where not only police ignorance can be seen but also shows that how they treat Dalit related case. A 19-year-old Dalit woman was raped and brutally murdered by the upper caste people in the Hathras district of Uttar Pradesh. Their family immediately rushed to the nearby Chandpa police station. However, rather than registering the case, the police official misbehaves with the family members. Including that without informing the family members the police officers forcefully cremated the victim at night. Due to pressure from the upper caste people police officer also compromised with all medical test and forensic evidence. Over the countrywide protest on the Hathras case, the UP government washed their hand saying that the cremation was done at night “to avoid large-scale violence”. But, the fact is that in India Dalit community always compromised with all these cases as the upper caste people still suppressing them at all levels.
In contemporary India, Dalit Suicides has increased their ratio compared to the earlier times. The reason behind the Dalit suicides cases was earlier mostly due to Social Categorisation in the Society based on employment, education, health etc. However, the present paper has found that in recent suicides cases has been more increased due to the Social identification of Dalits and Social comparison. The Indian constitution provided reservation for the marginalised Dalits to attaining education and get better jobs opportunities. However, getting education and jobs by the Dalits community through reservation was not welcomed/promoted by the upper-caste society as they equally standing with them. This paper also found that society has to play a major role rather than the executive, legislative and judiciary system. Until unless the behaviour of the society will not change their perspective towards the Dalit community we cannot expect that they will claim equal opportunity through education and employment. The state, media, police administration, and society all are equally responsible for discrimination against the Dalit community in the society, which became the reason for an increasing number of Dalit suicides cases.
Mushrooms have long been regarded as a delicacy item, particularly for their distinct flavor, and have been regarded as a culinary marvel by humans. There are about 2000 types of mushrooms in the environment, but only about 25 are commonly acknowledged as edible and just a few are economically grown. Mushrooms are a delight with excellent nutritious significance, as well as a naturopathic food; they are of significant interest due to their overall acceptability worth, therapeutic characteristics, and financial relevance [1, 2]. Mushrooms are macrofungi that have unique and apparent fruiting entities that may grow above and below ground [1]. Fungi miss the fundamental property of plants, namely the capacity to effectively consume power from the sun via chlorophyll. They depend on some other beings seeking food, and to get nourishment from the organic matter in which they exist. Mycelium is the fungus’s live body, and it is made up of hyphae, which are small webs of threads (or filaments). Digestive products are absorbed by hyphae and can permeate the substrate. Interbreeding hyphae will join and begin to form spores under certain environments. Mushrooms are gigantic entities that produce spores. Since antiquity, many civilizations have utilized mushrooms as a foodstuff and medicinal. The industry has now clearly divided farmed and wild culinary mushrooms, which are utilized direct or indirect as food or ingredients, from medicinal mushrooms [2]. Beneficial mushrooms are commonly used as a meal in many nations. Edible mushrooms are precious constituents of the eating plan due to their appealing flavors, fragrance, and nutritive benefits. Their culinary and advertising value stems mostly from organoleptic qualities like texture and flavor, with edible mushroom species distinguishable based on their strong smell or aroma [3, 4]. Their nutritional benefit arises from their protein content, fiber, vitamin, and mineral composition, as well as their reduced fat content [5, 6, 7, 8]. Mushroom peptides have the same amino acid composition as animal protein [9, 10], which is particularly important in light of the large intake of protein from animal dietary sources, particularly in industrialized nations. Furthermore, edible mushrooms encompass a wide variety of beneficial chemicals, eritadenine, and polyphenols, for example [7, 8, 11]. In this frame of reference, the International Life Sciences Institute (ILSI Europe) made available a widely accepted definition of functional food, stating that Food functional” has been shown to have a positive effect on the body, Aside from healthy dietary considerations, in a way that contributes to improved health and well-being and/or a reduced risk of developing the disease [12, 13]. Substantial research has indicated that several mushroom kinds are effective in the therapy of a wide range of diseases [14, 15, 16]. That is why edible mushrooms are categorized as a functional food. Mushrooms may be a novel source of antimicrobial chemicals, mostly secondary metabolites for example benzoic acid derivatives, asterpenes, anthraquinones, steroids, and quinolones, as well as oxalic acid, peptides, and proteins. The most researched genus, Lentinus edodesis, appears to exhibit microorganisms killing both gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria [17].
Vegetable Mushroom cultivation entails a number of various activities, each of which should be properly carried out. The substrate making, inoculation, incubation, and production needs are governed by the mushroom species to be grown. The initial step is to get pure mycelium mushroom strain. Mycelium can be derived via spores, which are part of a specific fungus, or through a variety of germplasm suppliers. Mycelium is cultivated on cereal grains such as wheat, rye, or millet to get inoculum and is referred to as “spawn” [18, 19]. The goal of the mycelium-coated grain is to colonize the selected bulk growth substrate fast. The sustainability of the “spawn,” which must be produced in a clean environment in order to prevent contamination of the substrate, is critical to the success of mushroom cultivation. Several research has been conducted in order to enhance the quality and create new production procedures. P. Ostreatus spawn, for example, has indeed been produced in several ways: on grain, wheat, rice, and sorghum are a [20, 21, 22], and on grain strewn with grain are few examples [23, 24, 25]. The growth in mushroom output has resulted from more specialized research conducted by a number of international institutes in various areas of mushroom growing. The adoption of DNA-based technologies has sped up breeding processes and will benefit mushroom breeding initiatives [26]. The discovery and identification of genetic markers have resulted in significant advancements in the development of breeding procedures [27]. The study of the biological component of mating-type DNA in strain creation cannot be overstated with excellent yield and tolerance to bacterial illnesses [28, 29], infectious infections [29, 30], and pathogenic organisms [31, 32]. To enhance mushroom cultivation production, it’s critical to provide ideal conditions and, if feasible, provide automated monitoring of growth rooms, handling machines, hydroblending, and pre-wet equipment, or other current technology, as well as novel sterile procedures, to continue cultivating mushrooms on a non-composted substrate [33]. A computerized integrated environmental system is a major asset in mushroom cultivation. Environmental characteristics such as temperature, moisture, ventilation, elevation, and co2 and oxygen levels are monitored by the software. However, automatic ammonia concentration and moisture regulation in casing soil still seem to be uncommon. Dutch mushrooms were the first to use climate computer farming more than two decades ago, and they are now widely employed in the sector [34]. Climate control in industrial facilities enables monitoring and administration of numerous mushroom growth rooms with a little touch. A computerized environmental control method allows farmers to monitor and change the plant variables’ ambient conditions electronically [35]. Placement, size, choices, and plucking of mushrooms are all part of the harvesting process. Compression investigations with cylindrical mushroom sample parts yielded the mechanical characteristics needed for automated harvesting analysis [36, 37], spawning generation is a barrier to mushroom growth because creating high-quality spawn demands a permanent facility, specific skills, and an autoclave, a sort of high-pressure cooker, expansion in low-resource locations is difficult, the facilities commonly seen in research labs and universities [38]. Producers in low-income countries must choose between producing their own spawn and purchasing it fully prepared. Producing spawn takes at least one year of competence as well as the capacity to maintain a sterile environment, which may be costly and energy-consuming. If growers are unable to produce viable spawn, most of the mushroom growth process will be halted. Because they lack the means to spawn high-yielding quality cultures, mushroom enterprises in low- and middle-income countries obtain seeds regularly from other developed countries like United State and Europe. Because locally produced cultures do not have high biological efficiency, the majority of commercial mushroom cultivation in Latin America is currently done with imported spawn. As a result, fruiting yields are less than half of those of foreign spawns [39]. Outdoor cultivation takes place periodically beneath the forest canopy, with mushroom beds built on a high platform made from bricks and bamboo poles. Hand or motorized cutters are used to cut the top leafy piece and a section of the sturdy stalk towards the roots to make straw bundles 45 cm long and 10 cm wide. After arranging the bundles side by side, the mushroom spawn is put in six to eight regions and coated with red gram dal powder. The spawn cycle needs at least 39 degrees Celsius and will take 6–7 days to complete. The mushrooms start to emerge after 12–13 days of spawning [40]. Internal gardening may be completed using a substrate/compost composed of cotton ginning mill refuse and paddy straw. Steam is brought into the cropping chamber in order to heat condition the compost. For 4–5 hours, the temperature is kept at 62 degrees Celsius. The plastic sheet will be used to cover the mattresses. During the spawn run, the room temperature is kept at 32–34 degrees Celsius. Within up to five days, the compost colonizes, and the beds are watered once the plastic covering is removed. The pinhead appears on the fifth-sixth day of spawning. The initial flush of mushrooms is available for picking after another 4–5 days. The paddy straw mushroom should not be refrigerated and should be used shortly after collecting or for a few hours, it was maintained at cellar temperature [40].
The mushroom industry’s development is hampered by a number of concerns and obstacles across the globe. The mushroom business is gradually establishing itself in many emerging regions, but progress is slow due to a lack of scientific study and dialog. Mushroom farming might possibly play a role in long-term agriculture and forestry [41]. Several difficulties and obstacles that might hinder effective mushroom cultivation among small-scale farmers have been highlighted, necessitating attention and ways to boost mushroom productivity and market access [42]. Personal efforts are necessary to face adversity such as a shortage of substrate, community commitments, and the creation of ideal mushroom homes, while government intervention is required for others (Table 1).
Challenge | Action required |
---|---|
Absence of up-to-date technologies | Based on local demands and agro-climatic circumstances, develop or acquire relevant technologies. |
Inadequate funding and scientific investigation into mushrooms. | Invest more money |
Deficiency of a suitable substrate | Look to expand the raw material and consider other options depending on what’s easily obtainable. |
Spawn of low quality | Construct a mushroom cultivation center, as well as spawn production facilities that are technologically advanced. Ensure a steady supply of high-quality spawn at a minimal expense. |
Pest assault and poor agricultural management systems | Enhancing producers’ experience and abilities in the areas of agricultural hygiene and integrated pest and diseases control. |
Inadequate harvesting management | Enhancing skills and experience in the fields of selecting, assessing, and preservation, refrigerated storage, refrigerated transportation, adequate treatment, packaging design, and labeling at the appropriate stage. |
Extreme environmental conditions | When the temperature is high, moisten the mushroom house’s floor, roof, and walls often. |
There aren’t enough mushroom policies and rules in place. | Create and aggressively implement mushroom-related regulations and legislation. Increasing fresh investment in order to become more competitive. Establish special rules for mushroom commodities in terms of trade, marketing, and food safety. |
Mushrooms fall short of market expectations. | Gather the mushroom in a reasonable timeframe to get a decent market price. |
These Mushrooms have long been used in traditional medicine in China, Africa, the Middle East, and Japan particular. Edible mushrooms could only be found in nature and were hard to farm and sustain Wild forest collection is still popular across the world, especially in southern Asia [43, 44] and in developing nations [45]. Auricularia, Flammulina, and Lentinula are examples of mushrooms. Have been most probably initially farmed in China and other Emerging nations around the year 600–800 AD [46]. Pure mushroom cultures were first created from spores and tissue towards the turn of the twentieth century when they were first grown on a wide scale. The quantity of wild mushrooms is decreasing as a result of both degraded surroundings and natural resources, as well as more expensive labor, produced mushrooms provide more food items which decrease food insecurities, they also provide more affordable and healthier meals [47]. With the global population expanding and acreage per capita shrinking, fast industrial development, global warming, and a desire for excellent and functional foods, secondary agriculture and novel crops like mushrooms will be necessary. Mushroom farming might potentially play a significant role in sustainable agriculture and forestry. Agriculture, forestry, and food processing create massive amounts of a diverse range of organic waste. The mushroom industry has a major and extensive influence on livelihoods and reducing poverty. There have been hundreds of discovered fungus species that have made major contributions to human diet and medicine. Mushroom Young mushroom mycelium hypha total amount Figure 1: The basic mushroom life cycle 4 According to S. Gupta et al., there are now 110,000 species of fungus [48], 16,000 (15%) of which are mushrooms [48, 49]. There are around 3000 types of edible mushrooms from 231 genera [14, 49, 50], with only approximately 200 experimentally grown, In various countries, 100 are economically farmed, 60 are commercially cultivated, and more than ten are produced industrially. Around 700 of the known 16,000 mushroom species are regarded harmless and have medicinal properties [49]. The inclusion of fresh varieties of mushroom farming for commercial purposes has resulted in a fast expansion of the worldwide mushroom business during the last two decades. Furthermore, mushroom cultivation and development have had a favorable influence in terms of economic growth worldwide, the influence of mushroom farming, mushroom derivatives, and mushroom foodstuffs on human well-being in the twenty-first decade may be termed as a “nongreen revolution.”
Worldwide mushroom production.
Mushrooms are frequently high in protein and necessary amino acids, but low in fat [7]. Furthermore, these fungi have a substantial quantity of carbs and fiber, as well as vitamins (such as thiamin, riboflavin, cobalamin, vitamin C and D) and minerals (Se, Cu, Mg, Na, K, P, Fe, Ca, and Mn) [7]. The edible mushrooms had moisture percentage (81.8–94.8%), which depends on the mushroom species and other parameters like harvesting, growing, preparing, and storing conditions (Figure 2) [5, 6].
Nutritional content of some edible mushroom.
Crude protein contents in edible mushrooms L. edodes had a dry weight (DW) of 15.2 g/100 g, while A had a DW of 80.93 g/100 g. [6, 8]. They are high in glutamate, arginine, and aspartic acid, but low in methionine and cysteine, according to the FAO/WHO [6]. The limiting amino acids in L. edodes, P. ostreatus, and P. eryngii are leucine and lysine. Surprisingly, two new amino acids have been discovered: GABA (aminobutyric acid) and ornithine have been shown to have important physiological functions [6]. As a result, the nutritional significance of mushrooms is expected to grow in the next years as a result of the world’s rising protein need and a desire to avoid the risks connected with the usage of animal foods sources. Mushrooms that are edible have a low-fat content. Unsaturated fatty acids, notably palmitic acid (C16:0), oleic acid (C18:1), and linoleic acid, prevail over saturated fatty acids in general (C18:2) [51, 52, 53]. While the other FA was only found in trace levels, with the exception of Lactarius deliciosus, which possesses a high concentration of stearic acid (C18:0) [51].
Phenolic compounds are aromatic hydroxylated compounds that include one or even more aromatic rings and hydroxyl groups. Many mushrooms have anti-inflammatory characteristics due to the prevalence of phenolic substances examples include flavonoids, hydroxycinnamic acids, oxidized polyphenols, lignans, phenolic acids, Stilbenes, hydroxybenzoic acids, and tannins (Table 2).
Edible Mushroom | Bioactive Compounds | References |
---|---|---|
Agaricus campestris | Vitamin C, D, B12, folates, and polyphenols | [54] |
Agaricus bisporus | Fibers, Oligopeptide | [55] |
Agaricus brasiliensis | Polyphenols and flavonoids, Oligopeptide | [56] |
Boletus bicolor, Leucopaxillus tricolor G. lucidum, Tricholoma giganteum Tricholoma matsutake, Tuber micheli, Hypsizygus marmoreus, Grifola frondosa | Oligopeptide | [57, 58, 59, 60] |
Catathelasma ventricosum | Heteropolysaccharide | [57] |
Lactarius deterrimus | Polyphenols and flavonoids | [61] |
Catathelasma ventricosum | Heteropolysaccharide | [62] |
Lentinula edodes | Lentinan KS-2 | [63] |
Hericium erinaceus | Flavonoids | [64] |
Lentinus lepideus | Lentinan KS-2, flavonoids | [65] |
Pholiota nameko SW-02 | Mycelia zinc polysaccharide | [66] |
Pleurotus djamor | Mycelium zinc polysaccharides | [67] |
Heterobasidion linzhiense, Ganoderma australe, Collybia peronata, Ganoderma lingzhi, Inonotus andersonii,Heterobasidion linzhiense, Inocybe sp. Phellinus gilvus, Lactarius hatsudake, Phellinus conchatus, Phellinus gilvus, Betulina Lenzites, Panellus sp., Phlebia tremellosa, Trametes versicolor, Phellinus gilvus, Phellinus gilvus, Phellinus gilvus, Ph stiptica postia, Tricholoma caligatum, and Rigidoporus sp. | Polyphenol | [68] |
Hericium erinaceus | Exo-polymer | [69] |
Edible mushroom and some bioactive substance.
[70, 71]. These chemicals have been observed to behave as peroxide decomposers, antioxidants, and metal inactivators [72]. One of the most significant classes of secondary metabolites identified in fungal fruiting bodies is phenolic chemicals, and they have been shown to have antioxidative and anti-inflammatory properties [73]. Imleria badia was the initial examined organisms, with phenolic chemicals discovered in the fruiting bodies, procatechuic, cinnamic, p-hydroxybenzoic, and p-coumaric acids, in particular. The phenolic content in total was 48.3 mg/kg dry weight. Additionally, the phenolic compounds of I. badia have unusually great antioxidant activity, reaching 99.2% in linoleic acid oxidation assays [74]. The cultivated species A. bisporus, on the other hand, includes gallic, caffeic, ferulic, p-coumaric, and protocatechuic phenolic acids [75].
The hunt for medical compounds derived from fungus has piqued the public’s curiosity. Higher basidiomycetes have been shown to contain bioactive compounds with anticancer, immunomodulatory, anti-inflammatory, hypoglycemic, antiatherogenic, antimutagenic, and other health-promoting properties [76]. Mushrooms may reduce the risk of disorders including Parkinson’s, Alzheimer’s, hypertension, stroke, and cancer, as well as work as an antimicrobial, immune system booster, and cholesterol-lowering agent [77]. Mushrooms include other metabolites (terpenoids, acids, sesquiterpenes, polyphenols, lactones, sterols, alkaloids, nucleotide analogs, metal chelating agents, and vitamins), as well as polysaccharides and glycoprotein, particularly –glucans. Additional proteins having bioactivity have also been found, including lectins, lignocellulose-degrading enzymes, protease inhibitors and proteases, hydrophobins, and ribosome-inactivating proteins, which can be used in biotechnological procedures to create new drugs [78]. Biologically active polysaccharides and protein complexes produced from mushrooms have anticancer effects both in animals and humans. Several of these mushroom polymers have been demonstrated to have immunotherapeutic effects by inhibiting and killing tumor cells in the past. Several mushroom polysaccharide components have been clinically studied and are widely and efficiently used to treat cancer and other illnesses in Asia. Certain mushrooms are estimated to generate a total of 126 therapeutic activities [79]. Anticancer polysaccharides generated from mushrooms are either acidic or neutral, have a powerful anticancer effect, and have a wide range of chemical structures. Antitumor activity has been identified in a broad variety of glycans, ranging from homopolymers to extremely complex heteropolymers. Mushroom polysaccharides have anticancer effect through stimulating the immune system of the host body; in other words, mushroom polysaccharides do not directly destroy cancer cells. Several substances help to reduce stress in the organism’s systems and may result in a 50% reduction in tumor progression as well as a 50% improvement in tumor-bearing organism survival time [80, 81]. Glucans are the most often detected polysaccharides in mushrooms, accounting for about half of the fungal cell wall. Many edible mushrooms contain glucans, which are responsible for their anticancer, immunomodulatory, anticholesterolemic, anti-oxidant, and neuroprotective characteristics. They are also known as effective immune stimulators in humans, and their ability to treat a variety of disorders has been established. These biological reactions are induced when glucans bind to a membrane receptor.
Indole compounds are another class that has been shown to have radical scavenging and anti-inflammatory substance designated in mushrooms [82, 83]. These chemicals have a particularly powerful impact on animal immunological and neurological systems. Indole compounds identified in mushrooms comprise psychoactive compounds such as psilocybin and also non-hallucinogenic compounds such as 5-hydroxy-L-tryptophan, L-tryptophan, serotonin, or tryptamine [82, 83]. Mushrooms have a great capacity to digest elements from the soil, making them a useful source of these compounds. Mushrooms collect bio elements with free radical scavenger and anti-inflammatory properties such as zinc, copper, iron, and selenium [84].
The therapeutic qualities of mushrooms, as well as the existence of bioactive substances, are their most notable characteristics. Mushrooms’ pharmacological qualities include immune boosting, homeostasis maintenance, biorhythm modulation, and, most critically, the treatment and prevention of a wide range of life-threatening diseases such as uncontrolled cell division, cerebral disorders, and cardiovascular disease Mushrooms offer, antifungal, antioxidant, immunomodulatory, anti-angiogenic, anticarcinogenic, antiviral, antibacterial, hepatoprotective, hypoglycemia, antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory and other therapeutic properties [85]. Some mushroom polysaccharides or complexes with protein to form polysaccharides-protein which can enhance the host’s defense system, it enhances non-specific immune response, and anticancer action [86]. Mushrooms are high in natural antibiotics. The molecule responsible for the antimicrobial action has been identified as oxalic acid. Eating Tricholoma populinum resulted in the resolution of severe allergy symptoms in two patients, one with thromboangiitis obliterans and the other with urticarial [87].
Cardiovascular disease is one of the leading causes of death in both the developed and the developing world [88]. Food has been found to notably modify etiological risk factors associated with blood pressure alterations, homocysteine metabolism, hemostasis, lipid and lipoprotein digestion, and oxidative damage [89]. Triacylglycerol, blood pressure, homocysteine, LDL, and HDL cholesterol are all well-established measurements and commonly recognized markers. Only LDL and blood pressure, however, are considered diet-related indicators [89]. The hypocholesterolemic characteristics of edible mushrooms have long been employed in medicine [90]. Consuming edible mushrooms, in general, reduces the risk of heart disease attributed to the prevalence of certain compounds and other bioactive molecules. Figure 3 depicts the processes of cholesterol metabolism involved in the hypocholesterolemic action of edible mushrooms.
Cholesterol metabolism and edible mushrooms.
The FA content of edible mushrooms proves to help in lowering blood cholesterol [51, 91]. When the Fatty acid proximate analysis of many edible mushrooms was studied, significant amounts of PUFA were identified. The presence of Tran’s isomers of unsaturated fatty acids has the greatest impact on raising the blood cholesterol to high-density lipoprotein ratio, which raises the risk of cardiovascular disease [91, 92, 93]. Mushrooms did not contain Tran’s isomers of unsaturated fatty acids [51]. Dietary fiber ingestion may have an effect on plasma lipid levels and lower the risk of heart problems [94]. Soluble dietary fiber has been demonstrated to have effects on serum lipid, decreasing total cholesterol and LDL [95]. Their vicious qualities are connected to an increase in bile acid and Short-chain FA excretion inhibits acetate uptake into serum lipids [9, 96]. Auricularia auricula and Tremella fuciformis are two mushrooms with significant dietary fiber, that have been shown to reduce LDL levels and total cholesterol [97]. Mushrooms are especially interesting because they contain a high concentration of -glucan polysaccharides, which have hypocholesterolemic and anticoagulant properties (Table 3) [106, 107].
Edible mushroom | Hypocholesterolemia properties | References |
---|---|---|
Agaricus bisporus | ↓Triglycerides in liver. ↓ Serum total cholesterol. ↓ Adipocytokine. ↓LDL. ↑Hepatic LDL receptor mRNA. ↓The fat deposition. | [98, 99] |
Auricularia auricular Lentinus edodes | ↓LDL. ↓cholesterol levels. ↓phospholipids of plasma. Modification of hepatic phospholipids metabolism. | [100] |
Pleurotus citrinopiletus | ↓Triglycerides in liver and blood. ↓Total lipids. ↑Bile acid excretion. ↓Total cholesterol. Inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase. | [101] |
Pleurotus florida | ↓Total lipids. ↓Total cholesterol. ↑Bile acid excretion. ↓Triglycerides in liver and blood. Inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase. | [102] |
Pleurotus ostreatus | ↓Plasma triglycerides, maintain normal Blood pressure ↓VLDL. ↓LDL. ↓Total cholesterol. Inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase. | [103, 104] |
Tremella fuciformis | ↓LDL. ↓ Plasma triglycerides. ↓Total cholesterol. ↓Hepatic total cholesterol. | [105] |
Edible mushrooms with hypocholesterolemia properties.
Some fungal species have been shown to have anti-inflammatory effects [108], and edible mushrooms have been used to obtain natural anti-inflammatory chemicals. P. florida’s anti-inflammatory action has been indicated as a possible therapeutic application against cardiovascular illnesses [108]. Help to prevent cardiovascular disease, and there is evidence that proves that oxidative alteration of LDL (lipids or protein components) contributes to atherogenesis [109]. Mushrooms include a variety of antioxidant chemicals, including polysaccharides, nicotinic acid, triterpenes, ergosterol, and polyphenols [98]. Two extracts of P. citrinopileatus were shown to exhibit strong antioxidant activity, which may be related to antihyperlipidemic effects [110]. Oyster mushrooms decreased the frequency and size of lesions of atherosclerotic in coronary arteries [108]. High blood pressure. In terms of blood pressure effects, the mushroom’s low salt concentration and high potassium content (182–395 mg/100 g) encourage its inclusion in the meal plan. In fact, from fruits and vegetable potassium has been shown to reduce blood pressure [6]. Several research has been conducted to study the antihypertensive activity of edible mushroom species such as Ganoderma lucidum, pleurotus narbonensis, G. frondosa, and L. edodes (Figure 4).
Effect of edible mushrooms on cholesterol metabolism.
The potassium, vitamin C, and fiber found in mushrooms help to improve cardiovascular health. Potassium, like salt, aids in blood pressure regulation. Consuming shiitake can help reduce the risk of health problems and coronary heart disease since they are high in nutrients and low in salt. Mushrooms are especially interesting since they contain a lot of -glucan polysaccharides, which have anticoagulant and hypocholesterolemic properties [107]. Chitin (N-acetyl-D-glucosamine polymer) or Chitosan (D-glucosamine polymer) are two more fascinating fungal polysaccharides that have comparable properties to dietary fiber and lower triglyceride levels in the body [99]. Eritadenine, also known as lentinacin (or lentysine), is a purine alkaloid or an adenosine analog with hypocholesterolemic properties [109].
The angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) regulates the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system’s (RAAS) action and lowers blood pressure, which is inhibited by the majority of mushroom bio-components [110]. Polysaccharides and Triterpenoids, such as ganoderic alcohols, ganoderic aldehydes (ganoderals), and ganoderic acids are bioactive in Ganoderma (ganoderol). Ansor and colleagues recently reported that ACE inhibitory peptides from Ganoderma lucidum can help to reduce blood pressure [111]. 3,3,5,5-tetramethyl 4-piperidone (TMP) from Marasmius androsaceus, l-pipecolic acid from Sarcodona spratus, d-mannitol from Pleurotus cornucopiae, Lentinan, chitin, and K+ from Lentinula edodes, are all anti-hypertensive mushroom bioactive elements [110].
Since time immemorial, mushrooms have been widely utilized as meals, nutraceuticals, and medications [112]. Mushrooms have low energy properties in it, which is very crucial in weight loss. Mushrooms also contain a high vitamin-D and B-complex content, as well as high mineral content and a considerable amount of numerous trace elements, including selenium, which is a strong antioxidant [113]. Aside from their nutritional importance, mushrooms have unique qualities in terms of taste color, flavor, texture, and odor that are more fascinating for mankind’s utilization. Many studies have advised that particular mushrooms be consumed on a regular basis, in food, or as an extracted substance. Some of these polysaccharides have antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties [114]. The beneficial benefits of mushroom and polysaccharides on the gut microbiome, which has been related to diabetes and obesity, are currently being studied in a vibrant niche research field [115]. Because mushrooms have a high concentration of bioactive chemicals, they help to reduce obesity [63]. Numerous research has been carried out to study the polysaccharides produced from different mushrooms that have anti-obesity effects. Polysaccharides derived from Coriolus Versicolor stimulated splenocytes in mice via the MAPK-NF-B signaling pathway, resulting in an immunomodulatory result [116]. A polysaccharide from Tremella fuciformis decreased 3 T3-L1 adipocyte variation by reducing mRNA expression, indicating the carbohydrate’s potential usefulness as an anti-obesity prebiotic [54]. G. lucidum consumption decreased adipogenic transcription factor expression, which enhances glucose and lipid transport and storage, and enables AMPK signaling pathways, demonstrating the polysaccharide’s potential as an anti-obesity and antidiabetic drug [117]. Eating white mushroom (Agaricus bisporus) may have anti-diabetic and anti-obesity properties. Similarly, this research has been broadened to include more mushroom species that are extremely useful such as Lentinus edodes (shiitake) and Hericium erinaceus (Lion’s mane) [118, 119].
The cell cycle was arrested at the G0/G1 phase, according to flow cytometry data. Methanol extract inhibited cell proliferation and growth in breast cancer patients by upregulating p21, p19, p53, and p27genes and downregulating E2f transcription factor 1, PCNA, CDK4, CDK6, and Transcription factor DP-1 expression. Polysaccharides from Pleurotus ostreatus suppressed angiogenesis in MCF-7 cells by downregulating VEGF factor expression. Polysaccharides also increased the production of caspase-3, Bax, caspase-9, and phospho-JNK, as well as reducing mitochondrial membrane potential, resulting in cell death [120]. Supplementing rats with glucan produced from oyster mushrooms with breast cancer was associated with a decrease in tumor recurrence, tumor volume, and total tumor nodules [121].
Figure 5 shows a possible molecular signaling cascade implicated in Pleurotus species’ anti-cancerous activity:
Pleurotus extract inhibits Cox-2-PGE2 pathway, which stimulates angiogenesis, and the VEGF (potent angiogenic factor) route, which is necessary for tumor development.
The bioactive chemicals found in N-cadherin decreased cell transformation. MMP-2 and MMP-9 (Zn-dependent endoproteases) are inhibited by mushroom extract, which is essential for EMT (Epithelial Mesenchymal Transition) in cancerous cells through tumor formation.
Mushroom extract inhibits anti-apoptotic protein (Bcl-2) while activating/upregulating pro-apoptotic components such as bid, bax, cytochrome c release, fas, and cellular damage occurs.
It prevents cells from progressing through the cell cycle and suppresses malignant cell growth via a p53-dependent and p53-independent route.
In several types of malignant cells, its bioactive chemical causes DNA fragmentation.
Pleurotus extracts induced the activation and modulation of several signaling pathways in cancer cells, resulting in the prevention of cancer cell development, procreation, angiogenesis, and metastasis, as well as cell death.
After 72 hours of exposure, because of its potential to elicit humoral and cellular immune responses against cancer cells, HeLa cells were suppressed by 60% by Pleurotus sajor-caju extracellular polysaccharide which is a sulfated derivative and HPV16E7 vaccines derived from β-glucan produce from the same species can be used for cervical cancer therapy [122, 123]. The anti-proliferative impact of gold nanoparticles generated by photo-irradiation from Pleurotus Florida was dose-dependent against human chronic myelogenous leukemia cell lines K-562 [124]. Immunomodulation is a method that uses immune cell activation can aid in the targeting and destruction of tumor cells while also imbuing the encounter with long-term memory. The activities include lymphoid cell stimulation, cellular immune function enhancement phagocytosis stimulation [125, 126].
Colorectal cancer cell development is inhibited by methanolic extracts of Ganoderma dried fruiting bodies induce by cell growth in the G2–M cell cycle phase, which is caused by cell proliferation. Methanol extract promotes sp. 21 and p 27 while downregulating cyclin A and B kinase proteins [127]. Pleurotus ostreatus, an edible fungus, has antiapoptotic action due to the presence of β-glucan, a therapeutic carbohydrate with a low molecular weight. Lectin derived from the extract of the therapeutic fungus Clitocybene bularis has anti-proliferative action against human leukemic T cells. Most lectins have several carbohydrate-binding sites, which attach to a glycosylated cellular receptor of T cells, triggering the antileukemic signaling cascade [128]. The impact of triterpenes derived from Ganoderma lucidum mycelial extract on human leukemia cancer cell lines HT-29 exhibits cell cycle arrest in the G2–M phase [129]. Stomach cancer is caused by smoked meat, a high-salt diet, while complex carbohydrate, fruits & vegetables, consumption of high dietary fiber, a low-fat diet, and dairy products lowers the incidence of gastric cancer [130]. Ganoderma lucidum is one of the most extensively used medicinal fungus species for combating stomach cancer [131].
Hyperglycemia (abnormally high fasting and postprandial glucose levels in the blood) refers to a group of illnesses with various etiologies that are a serious public health concern globally. Mushrooms, which have historically been used as diabetic treatments, constitute an attractive topic for the development of novel forms of therapies for diabetes and its after-effects. Many mushrooms have been shown to manage blood glucose levels clinically and/or experimentally and to alter the course of diabetes problems without causing negative effects [41, 132]. Aside from improving hyperglycemia, β-glucan treatment in diabetes settings has been demonstrated to produce a systemic enhancement that may improve the body’s resilience against the development of diabetic complications [133, 134, 135]. Mushroom-glucans are polysaccharides that do not include starch and have a core of glucose polymer chain with extra beta-(1–6) branch points. The length of the β-glucan main chains varies, as do the kinds and degree of complication of side-chain branching. High molecular weight glucans with more structural complexity are thought to outperform low molecular weight glucans in terms of efficacy. Mushrooms also include heteropolysaccharides D-glucans with xylose, mannose, galactose, and uronic acid chains, as well as glycoproteins D-glucanprotein complexes [136].
Mushrooms have a high fiber content of roughly 3 g. per cup, which can assist persons having type 1 diabetes control their blood glucose. Blood sugar levels, cholesterol, and insulin levels in patients with type 2 diabetes can all be improved. However, having diabetes is not a requirement for eating a high-fiber diet. According to usual eating standards, the female should eat 25 g of fiber per day while an adult man should take 38 g. In 100 g dried powder of Pleurotus florida, phytochemical screening revealed the presence of alkaloids 1.92 mg, flavonoids 2.78 mg, saponins 0.05 mg, phenols (61.85 mg catechol equivalent), tannins 0.52 mg, glycosides 0.12 mg, and terpenoids 0.08 mg, which show anti-diabetic characteristics by lowering blood glucose levels [128]. Mushrooms, particularly
Immunomodulatory mushrooms are the most often employed medicinal mushrooms in today’s Korea, China, Japan, and Asian nations. Some polysaccharides or polysaccharide-protein complexes from different types of edible mushrooms have been proven to enhance the non-specific immune system and perform anticancer action by activating the host’s defensive system [86]. These medications cause effector cells such as T lymphocytes, macrophages, and NK cells to release antiproliferative cytokines such as IL-1b, IFN-g, TNF-a, and others, which induce tumor cell death and differentiation [139]. β -glucans contained in edible mushrooms have been shown to have an immune-boosting impact [140]. Specific β-glucans receptors are preferentially expressed on the surface of neutrophils, dendritic, natural killer (NK) cells, and monocyte/macrophages, when β-glucans are consumed [141], The activation of the nuclear factor k-lightchain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-kB), generation of cytokines, transcription of inflammatory-immune genes, reactive oxygen species (ROS) and nitric oxide (NO) occurs after the receptor recognition stage (ROS) [142, 143]. Other pattern recognition receptors (PRR) have been linked to -glucan recognition, and they may work in tandem with dectin-1/TLR or perhaps independently [144]. -Glucan receptors may be inhibited after damage, but -glucans from a fungal pathogen, which produce large quantities of the interleukin-1 receptor antagonist (IL-1RA), can activate a significant immunomodulatory response independent of these receptors [144]. One of the finest dietary sources of selenium is edible mushrooms [145]. Selenium is required for the immune system to operate properly. Selenoproteins are selenium-bound proteins that play a role in immune system cell differentiation, proliferation, and activation, regulating both the congenital and adaptive immunological responses. Selenium’s immunoregulatory effect is further demonstrated by its impact on leukocyte activities such as migration, phagocytosis, adhesion, as well as cytokine release, which may be critical in chronic inflammation and autoimmune disorders. Furthermore, selenoproteins play important role in cellular antioxidative activities. Selenium is an important component in the fight against free radicals, thanks to its involvement in the architecture of Superoxide, or glutathione peroxidase, among other things.
Numerous mushroom species included ergosterol (vitamin D precursor) and ergocalciferol (vitamin D2), as well as other sterols. Ergosterol is abundant in the fruiting bodies of A. bisporus [146]. Vitamin D has a wide range of benefits for humans, according to current studies. Its scarcity has been linked to the onset of metabolic syndrome and hypertension, as well as intestinal inflammation, diabetes, and other health problems and certain types of malignancies, all of which are caused by chronic inflammation [147].
Mushrooms include a variety of bioactive chemical ingredients that aid in bone metabolism and reduce the risk of osteoporosis in humans. Mushrooms increase the osteogenicity of cultured bone cells and induce bone formation and mineralization [148]. Edible Mushrooms are a rich source of vitamin D. Vitamin D’s main function is to keep bones healthy by stimulating calcium absorption from the gut and maintaining calcium homeostasis. Vitamin D insufficiency is a worldwide problem that also affects regions with enough sunshine [149]. Vitamin D deficiency may exacerbate bone loss by lowering calcium absorption and raising parathyroid hormone levels [150]. Rheumatoid arthritis is a degenerative joint condition that causes impairment. Inflammation in joints resulted in the loss of form and function as people become older, about 35–45 years old. Women are more impacted than males when it comes to chronic inflammation, joint pain, and autoimmune illness, which is characterized by chronic inflammation, joint pain, and autoimmune disease. A poly-branched (1,3/1,6)-D-glucans from P. Ostreatus has been shown to have anti-arthritic action [151, 152].
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are a type of neurological disorder that causes the brain or nervous system to deteriorate over time. Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease and the most common cause of dementia. The two major mechanisms that contribute to its advancement are oxidative stress and neuroinflammation [153]. Edible mushrooms have high levels of polyphenols, polysaccharides, vitamins, carotenoids, and minerals, all of which have antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties [154]. Recent research has shown that mushrooms can help with some elements of neurodegenerative illness; nevertheless, human studies are inadequate to prove clinically significant consequences on brain health indicators. Although, it has been discovered that mushroom eating slows the onset of Alzheimer’s disease and protects against -amyloid peptide toxicity in the brain and moderate intellectual disability [85]. Niacin-rich mushrooms have higher therapeutic effectiveness in the rehabilitation of Parkinson’s disease [155]. Polyozellin, a bioactive substance found in edible mushrooms, might be used to test Huntington’s disease sufferers [156]. Polysaccharides, hericenones and erinacines, Erinacine A, Psilocybin, Triterpenoids, nucleotides, sterols, steroids, Quercetin, −(1–3)-d-glucan, Ergothioneine, Selenium, vitamin D2, antioxidants, glutathione, and ergothioneine are examples of bioactive components present in edible mushrooms that have a protective effect against neurodegenerative disease [157].
Mushrooms, without a doubt, maybe called functional food. According to current dietary recommendations for disease prevention and treatment, edible mushrooms have adequate nutritional content, and their consumption can impact several identified risk indicators. Mushroom consumption obviously has a cholesterol-lowering or hypocholesterolemia impact through many methods such as reducing VLDL, enhancing lipid metabolism, blocking HMG-CoA reductase activity, and so delaying the chances of cardiovascular diseases. Several studies have shown that eating mushrooms on a daily basis considerably decreases chronic diseases like cancer, atherosclerosis, diabetes mellitus inflammation, obesity, and many other diseases. However, this technique should be accompanied by frequent physical exercise, nutritional and lifestyle adjustments. Regular mushroom eating may result in synergistic and better results. Mushrooms’ antioxidant and anti-inflammatory components also help to lessen the burden of many ailments.
We thank the digital library GCUF for providing access to the publication.
There is no conflict of interest.
The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.
",metaTitle:"Our story",metaDescription:"The company was founded in Vienna in 2004 by Alex Lazinica and Vedran Kordic, two PhD students researching robotics. While completing our PhDs, we found it difficult to access the research we needed. So, we decided to create a new Open Access publisher. A better one, where researchers like us could find the information they needed easily. The result is IntechOpen, an Open Access publisher that puts the academic needs of the researchers before the business interests of publishers.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/our-story",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"We started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
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\\n\\nWe started by publishing journals and books from the fields of science we were most familiar with - AI, robotics, manufacturing and operations research. Through our growing network of institutions and authors, we soon expanded into related fields like environmental engineering, nanotechnology, computer science, renewable energy and electrical engineering, Today, we are the world’s largest Open Access publisher of scientific research, with over 4,200 books and 54,000 scientific works including peer-reviewed content from more than 116,000 scientists spanning 161 countries. Our authors range from globally-renowned Nobel Prize winners to up-and-coming researchers at the cutting edge of scientific discovery.
\n\nIn the same year that IntechOpen was founded, we launched what was at the time the first ever Open Access, peer-reviewed journal in its field: the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems (IJARS).
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\n\n\r\n\tEducation and Human Development is an interdisciplinary research area that aims to shed light on topics related to both learning and development. This Series is intended for researchers, practitioners, and students who are interested in understanding more about these fields and their applications.
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Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"4",type:"subseries",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Emerging Fungal Pathogens, Invasive Infections, Epidemiology, Cell Membrane, Fungal Virulence, Diagnosis, Treatment",scope:"Fungi are ubiquitous and there are almost no non-pathogenic fungi. Fungal infectious illness prevalence and prognosis are determined by the exposure between fungi and host, host immunological state, fungal virulence, and early and accurate diagnosis and treatment. \r\nPatients with both congenital and acquired immunodeficiency are more likely to be infected with opportunistic mycosis. Fungal infectious disease outbreaks are common during the post- disaster rebuilding era, which is characterised by high population density, migration, and poor health and medical conditions.\r\nSystemic or local fungal infection is mainly associated with the fungi directly inhaled or inoculated in the environment during the disaster. The most common fungal infection pathways are human to human (anthropophilic), animal to human (zoophilic), and environment to human (soilophile). Diseases are common as a result of widespread exposure to pathogenic fungus dispersed into the environment. \r\nFungi that are both common and emerging are intertwined. In Southeast Asia, for example, Talaromyces marneffei is an important pathogenic thermally dimorphic fungus that causes systemic mycosis. Widespread fungal infections with complicated and variable clinical manifestations, such as Candida auris infection resistant to several antifungal medicines, Covid-19 associated with Trichoderma, and terbinafine resistant dermatophytosis in India, are among the most serious disorders. \r\nInappropriate local or systemic use of glucocorticoids, as well as their immunosuppressive effects, may lead to changes in fungal infection spectrum and clinical characteristics. Hematogenous candidiasis is a worrisome issue that affects people all over the world, particularly ICU patients. CARD9 deficiency and fungal infection have been major issues in recent years. Invasive aspergillosis is associated with a significant death rate. Special attention should be given to endemic fungal infections, identification of important clinical fungal infections advanced in yeasts, filamentous fungal infections, skin mycobiome and fungal genomes, and immunity to fungal infections.\r\nIn addition, endemic fungal diseases or uncommon fungal infections caused by Mucor irregularis, dermatophytosis, Malassezia, cryptococcosis, chromoblastomycosis, coccidiosis, blastomycosis, histoplasmosis, sporotrichosis, and other fungi, should be monitored. \r\nThis topic includes the research progress on the etiology and pathogenesis of fungal infections, new methods of isolation and identification, rapid detection, drug sensitivity testing, new antifungal drugs, schemes and case series reports. It will provide significant opportunities and support for scientists, clinical doctors, mycologists, antifungal drug researchers, public health practitioners, and epidemiologists from all over the world to share new research, ideas and solutions to promote the development and progress of medical mycology.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11400,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"302145",title:"Dr.",name:"Felix",middleName:null,surname:"Bongomin",slug:"felix-bongomin",fullName:"Felix Bongomin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/302145/images/system/302145.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gulu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Uganda"}}},{id:"45803",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Payam",middleName:null,surname:"Behzadi",slug:"payam-behzadi",fullName:"Payam Behzadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/45803/images/system/45803.jpg",institutionString:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institution:{name:"Islamic Azad University, Tehran",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{},publishedBooks:{paginationCount:7,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7102",title:"Pneumonia",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7102.jpg",slug:"pneumonia",publishedDate:"May 11th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Nima Rezaei",hash:"9fd70142814192dcec58a176749f1b60",volumeInSeries:13,fullTitle:"Pneumonia",editors:[{id:"116250",title:"Dr.",name:"Nima",middleName:null,surname:"Rezaei",slug:"nima-rezaei",fullName:"Nima Rezaei",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/116250/images/system/116250.jpg",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Iran"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null},{type:"book",id:"9615",title:"Chikungunya Virus",subtitle:"A Growing Global Public Health Threat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9615.jpg",slug:"chikungunya-virus-a-growing-global-public-health-threat",publishedDate:"February 9th 2022",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",hash:"c960d94a63867dd12a8ab15176a3ff06",volumeInSeries:12,fullTitle:"Chikungunya Virus - 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Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 28th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfPublishedChapters:317,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},subseries:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",keywords:"Omics (Transcriptomics; Proteomics; Metabolomics), Molecular Biology, Cell Biology, Signal Transduction and Regulation, Cell Growth and Differentiation, Apoptosis, Necroptosis, Ferroptosis, Autophagy, Cell Cycle, Macromolecules and Complexes, Gene Expression",scope:"The Cell and Molecular Biology topic within the IntechOpen Biochemistry Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of cell and molecular biology, including aspects related to biochemical and genetic research (not only in humans but all living beings). We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics include, but are not limited to: Advanced techniques of cellular and molecular biology (Molecular methodologies, imaging techniques, and bioinformatics); Biological activities at the molecular level; Biological processes of cell functions, cell division, senescence, maintenance, and cell death; Biomolecules interactions; Cancer; Cell biology; Chemical biology; Computational biology; Cytochemistry; Developmental biology; Disease mechanisms and therapeutics; DNA, and RNA metabolism; Gene functions, genetics, and genomics; Genetics; Immunology; Medical microbiology; Molecular biology; Molecular genetics; Molecular processes of cell and organelle dynamics; Neuroscience; Protein biosynthesis, degradation, and functions; Regulation of molecular interactions in a cell; Signalling networks and system biology; Structural biology; Virology and microbiology.",annualVolume:11410,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"79367",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana Isabel",middleName:null,surname:"Flores",fullName:"Ana Isabel Flores",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRpIOQA0/Profile_Picture_1632418099564",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario 12 De Octubre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"328234",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Palavecino",fullName:"Christian Palavecino",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000030DhEhQAK/Profile_Picture_1628835318625",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Central University of Chile",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Chile"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}]},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",keywords:"Phenolic Compounds, Essential Oils, Modification of Biomolecules, Glycobiology, Combinatorial Chemistry, Therapeutic peptides, Enzyme Inhibitors",scope:"Chemical biology spans the fields of chemistry and biology involving the application of biological and chemical molecules and techniques. In recent years, the application of chemistry to biological molecules has gained significant interest in medicinal and pharmacological studies. This topic will be devoted to understanding the interplay between biomolecules and chemical compounds, their structure and function, and their potential applications in related fields. Being a part of the biochemistry discipline, the ideas and concepts that have emerged from Chemical Biology have affected other related areas. This topic will closely deal with all emerging trends in this discipline.",annualVolume:11411,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"241413",title:"Dr.",name:"Azhar",middleName:null,surname:"Rasul",fullName:"Azhar Rasul",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRT1oQAG/Profile_Picture_1635251978933",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"178316",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergey",middleName:null,surname:"Sedykh",fullName:"Sergey Sedykh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178316/images/system/178316.jfif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Novosibirsk State University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}}]},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",keywords:"Biomolecules Metabolism, Energy Metabolism, Metabolic Pathways, Key Metabolic Enzymes, Metabolic Adaptation",scope:"Metabolism is frequently defined in biochemistry textbooks as the overall process that allows living systems to acquire and use the free energy they need for their vital functions or the chemical processes that occur within a living organism to maintain life. Behind these definitions are hidden all the aspects of normal and pathological functioning of all processes that the topic ‘Metabolism’ will cover within the Biochemistry Series. 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Thus proteomics, an area of research that detects all protein forms expressed in an organism, including splice isoforms and post-translational modifications, is more suitable than genomics for a comprehensive understanding of the biochemical processes that govern life. The most common proteomics applications are currently in the clinical field for the identification, in a variety of biological matrices, of biomarkers for diagnosis and therapeutic intervention of disorders. From the comparison of proteomic profiles of control and disease or different physiological states, which may emerge, changes in protein expression can provide new insights into the roles played by some proteins in human pathologies. Understanding how proteins function and interact with each other is another goal of proteomics that makes this approach even more intriguing. Specialized technology and expertise are required to assess the proteome of any biological sample. Currently, proteomics relies mainly on mass spectrometry (MS) combined with electrophoretic (1 or 2-DE-MS) and/or chromatographic techniques (LC-MS/MS). MS is an excellent tool that has gained popularity in proteomics because of its ability to gather a complex body of information such as cataloging protein expression, identifying protein modification sites, and defining protein interactions. 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