A comparison of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of pure copper processed by various SPD methods, an equal speed rolling and the DSR technique.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83962-360-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-853-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-361-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"793751ee53f02ca84c8fe298a66208c9",bookSignature:"Dr. Kazuyuki Matsumoto",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9885.jpg",keywords:"Affective Computing, Sentiment Analysis Systems, Information Processing, Information Extraction, Neural Computing, Deep Learning, Swarm Intelligence, Chatbot, Dialogue Breakdown, Nursing Information Systems, Nursing Management Systems, Clinical Pathways Systems",numberOfDownloads:243,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 9th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 2nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 1st 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 19th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 20th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"7 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A member of the technical committee of the international conference of IEEE and other international societies with broad research experience in Sensibility Robotics.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"195756",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazuyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsumoto",slug:"kazuyuki-matsumoto",fullName:"Kazuyuki Matsumoto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195756/images/system/195756.png",biography:"Dr. Matsumoto received his Ph.D. degree in 2008 from the Faculty of Engineering, the University of Tokushima. He is currently an assistant professor at the University of Tokushima. His main research field is Sensibility Robotics. His research interests include affective computing, Emotion Recognition, and Natural Language Processing. He has published over 30 peer-reviewed articles as a leading author. He is a member of the technical committee of the international conference of IEEE and other societies. He is a member of Information Processing Society of Japan (IPSJ), The Institute of Electronics, Information and Communication Engineers (IEICE), The Japanese Society for Artificial Intelligence (JSAI), The Association for Natural Language Processing (ANLP), The Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan (IEEJ) and Human Interface Society.",institutionString:"University of Tokushima",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Tokushima",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"9",title:"Computer and Information Science",slug:"computer-and-information-science"}],chapters:[{id:"73157",title:"Humanistic Next-Generation Artificial Intelligence Capable of Association",slug:"humanistic-next-generation-artificial-intelligence-capable-of-association",totalDownloads:86,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75588",title:"Artificial Brain for the Humanoid-Nurse Robots of the Future: Integrating PsyNACS© and Artificial Intelligence",slug:"artificial-brain-for-the-humanoid-nurse-robots-of-the-future-integrating-psynacs-and-artificial-inte",totalDownloads:56,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75393",title:"Expectations and Ethical Dilemmas Concerning Healthcare Communication Robots in Healthcare Settings: A Nurse’s Perspective",slug:"expectations-and-ethical-dilemmas-concerning-healthcare-communication-robots-in-healthcare-settings-",totalDownloads:44,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"75671",title:"Utterance Emotion Estimation by Using Feature of Syntactic Pattern",slug:"utterance-emotion-estimation-by-using-feature-of-syntactic-pattern",totalDownloads:27,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"195756",title:"Dr.",name:"Kazuyuki",surname:"Matsumoto",slug:"kazuyuki-matsumoto",fullName:"Kazuyuki Matsumoto"}]},{id:"75435",title:"Robot Therapy Program for Patients with Dementia: Its Framework and Effectiveness",slug:"robot-therapy-program-for-patients-with-dementia-its-framework-and-effectiveness",totalDownloads:31,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"194667",firstName:"Marijana",lastName:"Francetic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194667/images/4752_n.jpg",email:"marijana@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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\nAccording to a well-known Hall-Petch relationship, a grain refinement through a properly conducted thermomechanical processing is one of the most efficient ways to improve a mechanical strength of metallic materials. It has been already established that the best compromise between a high-strength and an acceptable ductility is generally achieved when a grain size is in the submicron (ultrafine) regime of 100–1,000 nm. Furthermore, a large fraction of high-angle grain boundaries (HAGBs) in a material’s volume is a crucial feature supporting a kinetics of diffusion-related phenomena and resulting with, e.g., an improved environmental resistance of ultrafine-grained (UFG) materials, as compared to their counterparts with a coarse-grained structure. Processing methods involving a severe plastic deformation (SPD) have been already recognized as the most efficient and thus industrially preferable techniques of the UFG material fabrication. In SPD processes, the material is subjected to a very large plastic deformation (true strain
A differential speed rolling (DSR) is a modification of the rolling process which involves a deformation with different values of a rotational speed of the upper and the lower rolls. This kind of processing belongs to the group of asymmetric rolling processes that have been already introduced to a large-scale production of flat steel products [1]. The asymmetry is introduced to the rolling process by using different diameters, different materials (that generate a differentiation of friction conditions on upper and lower surface of a deformed sample), or different rotational speed of working rolls (Figure 1). From a standpoint of design simplicity, the easiest and the best solution is the differentiation of rolls speed. In the case of the DSR process, this modification gives an unequal rolling velocity imposed to upper and lower surface of the processed sample. The main characteristic of the DSR method is a value of a rolls speed differentiation coefficient R defined as a ratio of the upper to lower rolls speed.
\nA schematic drawing of (a) a normal rolling process and different variants of the asymmetric rolling (b) with an unequal rolls diameter (differential diameter rolling), (c) with a different rolls materials (a differential friction rolling), and (d) with a differential speed rolling.
The first theoretical description of such a process was proposed in the 1940s of the last century [2], and a further development of this method was mainly devoted to the improvement of technological aspects of the rolling process. Between 1960s and 1980s, many experiments and theoretical calculations have been carried out on the roll forces, roll torques, and rolled product shape alteration due to the existed asymmetry of rolling gap [3–6]. It has been generally established that the asymmetry of the roll gap may be utilized as a factor improving work of the hydraulic gauge control in a plate-rolling mill leading to, e.g., a prominent decrease of the rolling force and torque and improvement of a rolled strip shape. Additionally, a lower rolling force and torque are not only beneficial in terms of providing a lower wearing of tools and a higher rigidity of the rolling cage but also give a better control and make a process more applicable to produce thin sheets or foils [7]. It was shown by Dyja et al. [8] on the real example of a plate mill in the steel plant, Częstochowa (Poland), that the introduction of rolls speed asymmetry to the rolling of eight different carbon-manganese steels leads to decreasing of the rolling force in the last finishing passes up to more than 70 %, depending on the applied process parameters. It has been documented that the implementation of asymmetrical rolling in the rolling mills equipped with the hydraulically controlled adjustment of rolling gap results with an improvement of plate geometry, e.g., a flatness and transverse profile or decrease of the thickness differentiation along the plate. These results are in line with those presented by Kawalek et al. [9] indicating that a lower value of the unit press decreases an elastic deflection of a rolling stand upon an asymmetric rolling pass.
\nA rolling gap geometry in (a) the equal speed rolling and (b) the differential speed rolling. In the case of the DSR process, a shear zone is located between neutral points (N1′:N2′) shifted to different positions (based on [
This positive effect of the DSR implementation on technological aspects of a rolling process is attributed to a change in the deformation geometry. Roumina and Sinclair [10] reported that the differentiation of rolls speed results with a shifting of so-called neutral points (the position where the sheet velocity equals the roll velocity) on upper and lower surfaces of the sample. The neutral point associated with the slow roll is shifted toward the entrance of the roll gap, while the neutral point associated with the fast roll is moved toward the exit of the roll gap (Figure 2). This situation leads to both a different distribution of rolling pressure (and thus lowering of the rolling force) and an imposition of a high through-thickness shear strain to the material. It was also confirmed by Tian et al. [11] that the extent of cross shear region increases with the increase of the speed ratio, whereas the rolling force decreases.
\nA schematic drawing that is used for strain and strain rate assessment in the DSR process (based on [
Based on the assumption that the deformation gradient in the DSR method is approximated by a superposition of a plane strain (which is specific for the normal rolling process) and a simple shear in the rolling direction (Eq. (1)), Ko et al. [12] proposed approximate equations for the strain and strain rate imposed by DSR (Eq. (6)). This evaluation is based on trigonometric relationships between a geometry of a sample and a rolling gap schematically shown in Figure 3. However, it is worth noted that in this attempt the friction between a sample and the rolls is neglected; thus, calculated strain values may be underestimated:
By taking into assumption that
The
Therefore, the contact arc length
Subsequently, the average deformation time
where
Finally, the total equivalent strain is expressed as
where
It should be underlined that in the “technological” attempt to the DSR process, the introduced asymmetry is rather low (usually the
Generally, there are two main purposes for using the DSR method in a material processing. The first one is to produce high-strength materials by a grain refinement through a high-plastic strain accumulation—due to the presence of additional shear deformation, the DSR method is considered as one of the SPD techniques. The second one is to control a deformation texture that affects anisotropy of mechanical properties (and also determines a recrystallization texture formed upon a subsequent annealing). Obviously, these two purposes are in many cases simultaneously achieved.
\nMaterial | \nProcessing | \nUTS [MPa] | \nReference | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
Pure copper | \nECAP (1 cycle) | \n344 | \n[16] | \n|
ECAP (4 cycles) | \n413 | \n[17] | \n||
ECAP (8 cycles) | \n378 | \n[18] | \n||
ECAP (8 cycles) | \n386 | \n[19] | \n||
HPT (5 cycles) | \n445 | \n[20] | \n||
ARB | \n(1 cycle) | \n290 | \n[21] | \n|
(2 cycles) | \n350 | \n|||
(3 cycles) | \n370 | \n|||
(4 cycles) | \n380 | \n|||
(5 cycles) | \n388 | \n|||
(6 cycles) | \n395 | \n|||
As-annealed | \n200 | \n[15] | \n||
Equal speed rolling (1-pass reduction of 65 %) | \n350 | \n|||
\n | \n |
A comparison of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of pure copper processed by various SPD methods, an equal speed rolling and the DSR technique.
The grain refinement effect by the DSR method was previously observed in numerous pure metals and alloys. Kim et al. [15] reported that in oxygen-free copper, submicron grain size of 820 nm is obtained after the 65 % thickness reduction in a single rolling pass by the DSR method (the
Similar findings were shown by Jiang et al. [22] on pure aluminum subjected to the DSR process. The authors found that the cold rolling (with the
Material | \nProcessing | \nUTS [MPa] | \nReference | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
Commercially pure aluminum | \nECAP | \n(1 cycle) | \n120 | \n[23] | \n
(2 cycles) | \n130 | \n|||
ECAP | \n(1 cycle) | \n110 | \n[24] | \n|
(2 cycles) | \n135 | \n|||
(8 cycles) | \n165 | \n|||
Repetitive tube expansion and shrinking (RTES) (1 cycle) | \n140 | \n[25] | \n||
Rotatory swaging (1 cycle—true reduction of 3) | \n163 | \n[26] | \n||
Constrained groove pressing (CGP) (2 cycles) | \n105 | \n[27] | \n||
HPT (2 cycles) | \n145 (estimated from reported hardness) | \n[28] | \n||
Equal speed rolling (total thickness reduction of 90 %) | \n150 | \n[22] | \n||
\n | \n |
A comparison of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of commercially pure aluminum processed by various SPD methods, an equal speed rolling and the DSR technique.
Some works were also devoted to a fabrication of high-strength sheets made of ultrafine-grained titanium via the DSR process. Kim et al. [29] documented that this purpose may be successfully achieved by an effective grain refinement (the grain size in the range of 100–300 nm) through the differential speed rolling (with the
Material | \nProcessing | \nUTS [MPa] | \nReference | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|
Commercially pure titanium | \nECAP (1 cycle) | \n780 | \n[31] | \n|
ECAP | \n1 cycle | \n571 | \n[32] | \n|
3 cycles | \n624 | \n|||
5 cycles | \n665 | \n|||
ARB (6 cycles) | \n892 | \n[33] | \n||
HPT (4 cycles) | \n870 | \n[34] | \n||
\n | [29] | \n
A comparison of ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of commercially pure titanium processed by various SPD methods and the DSR technique.
The strengthening of metals upon the DSR deformation is related to the structure refinement by a formation of narrowly spaced shear bands distributed homogeneously over the entire section of the sheet and a high temperature rise during the rolling. It was presented by Kim et al. [15] that the temperature rise may exceed a value of 284 K upon the cold rolling (with the
The second purpose for using the DSR processing—the control of a deformation texture that affects anisotropy of mechanical properties—is especially important in the case of aluminum and magnesium alloys. These materials mainly due to their very good strength to weight ratio are considered as candidates in many car and plane body applications. However, the main drawback of these materials is their lower formability (namely, a susceptibility to deep drawing) than conventional low carbon steels. Aluminum and aluminum alloys are well known for their high-mechanical property anisotropy (a so-called earing behavior) upon a deep drawing process. The presence of this kind of shape defects of processed components generates a necessity for using additional operations and a waste of large quantity of the material. It was recognized that the main determinant of such behavior is a {1 0 0}<1 0 0> cubic crystallographic texture formed in a fully annealed state. On the other hand, it was proposed by Lequeu and Jonas [37] that formation of the undesired {1 0 0}<1 0 0> recrystallization texture component may be prominently inhibited through an application of shear deformation prior a heat treatment. Therefore, a number of works have been devoted to a development of asymmetric rolling-based processing techniques that allow for the fabrication of aluminum alloy sheets with enhanced formability.
\nEngler et al. [38] reported that the most efficient method of the formability improvement is to introduce {1 1 1} textures (composed of crystallographic orientations that are characterized by {1 1 1} crystallographic planes parallel to a rolling plane). Since these orientations are normally found in bcc metals and alloys (and are responsible for an excellent drawability of low carbon steels), in the case of
While magnesium alloys (especially these containing Al and Zn additions—a so-called AZ series) are in many fields superior to aluminum alloys (e.g., possess a lower density and thus a better specific strength), their problematic formability concerns even a greater attention. Over a last few years, a number of scientific works have been devoted to a fabrication of Mg alloy sheets with a good drawability. It was proposed that the main reason for a very poor cold formability and a high mechanical anisotropy is an induction of a strong {0 0 0 1} basal texture in conventional plastic-forming processing [42] due to limited number of slip systems in hexagonal close-packed (hcp) crystal structure [43]. Results of an extensive study on various Mg alloys, e.g., AZ31 [44–47], AZ91 [48], AM31 [49, 50], or ZK60 [51, 52] alloys, showed that the DSR has a great impact on the intensity of the basal texture and plasticity of these materials. Generally, it was established that increasing the shear deformation by raising either the rolls speed ratio or a rolling reduction leads to weakening of the basal texture through facilitating the activation of prismatic slip during deformation. The basal texture weakening effect at high speed ratios is attributed to extensive tension twinning that occurred in the basal-oriented matrix, which in turn is exceptionally found in a conventional rolling process. Consequently, the DSR-fabricated Mg alloy sheets are characterized not only by more isotropic properties but also by the enhanced plasticity combined with exceptionally high strength (that is related to the simultaneous structure refinement [53–55]). Therefore, the DSR process is considered to be one of the most efficient techniques for processing these materials.
\nA newly proposed interesting usage of the DSR process is a fabrication of composite materials via a powder compaction [56] or an improvement of properties of these materials in the additional step of a manufacturing process. It was recently reported by Yoo et al. [57] on the example of carbon nanotube/copper and by Kim et al. [58] in a study on TiC/aluminum metal matrix composites that the large amount of redundant shear strain induced during the DSR significantly facilitates the dispersion of the reinforcement (through breaking up their clusters), having also a positive impact on mechanical properties of processed materials. It is believed that this research direction will become more and more important in a near future.
\nBy summarizing, it should be again underlined that the DSR process exhibits a great potential in a large-scale fabrication of bulk metal components with enhanced mechanical properties and formability. The high imposed shear strain leads to an extensive structural evolution involving a grain refinement, affecting a crystallographic texture and a distribution of “second-phase” particles. What is very important, resulting mechanical properties of DSRed materials are much better than those of conventionally cold-rolled materials and at least not worse than those of counterparts subjected to hydrostatic SPD methods while having an undeniable advantage of a better efficiency in terms of a larger quantity of processed material and a lower number of needed operations.
\nSuperhydrophobicity was first observed in the nature on lotus leaf and in some other plants in which their leaves would not get wet. The main reason of this phenomenon was the unique surface structure of the lotus leaf and also presence of a low surface energy material on the surface of the leaf. In order to achieve superhydrophobic surface or coating, the surface must possess hierarchical micro- and nano-roughness and low surface energy at the same time. Hierarchical micro- and nanoscale roughness will trap air on the surface that will cause increase in water contact angle, and low surface energy will decrease the tendency of water to have bonding with the surface. So, almost all the methods to achieve superhydrophobicity consist of two steps: first to make a hierarchical surface roughness and then surface modification by a low surface energy solution of some materials like fatty acids, fluoroalkyl silanes, etc.
Atoms and molecules of liquid and solid have higher energy on the surface because there are few chemical bonds on the surface. This energy of surface atoms or surface molecules is known as the surface tension or the surface free energy. This energy is shown by
In this equation, WSL is the adhesion work per unit area, ɣSA is the surface free energy between air and solid, ɣLA is the surface energy between air and liquid, and ɣSL is the surface free energy between liquid and solid.
When water droplet is placed on the surface of the solid, these two will reach equilibrium and water droplet makes a specific angle with the surface known as water contact angle (
In this equation, ALA and ASL are, respectively, liquid/air interface and liquid/solid interface. In this situation, regardless of gravitational potential energy and in constant volume and pressure in the equilibrium, dEtotal is considered equal to zero.
For a droplet with constant volume,
Then according to these equations, cos
Several wetting models have been defined to calculate contact angle on the surface. The first wetting model is Young’s equation that was just mentioned. This model does not consider surface roughness of the solid surface. The Young’s equation is shown below:
In this equation,
It is obvious that in most cases, the surface is not smooth; so, Young’s equation is not able to calculate the contact angle properly; thus, Wenzel equation was introduced. In this equation, it is considered that the surface wetting occurs uniformly and the equation is shown below:
In this equation,
As mentioned before, wetting is considered to be uniform in Wenzel’s equation, or in other words, it is considered that water went through all surface cavities and there is no dry part. On the other hand, there is another wetting model that considers that the wetting is not uniform and air packets do not let water to get into the surface cavities. In this case, water is in contact with solid and air packets, and water contact angle with air is equal to 180
In the above equations,
Schematic illustration of (a) Young’s model, (b) Wenzel model, and (c) Cassie-Baxter model.
Superhydrophobic surfaces and coatings as mentioned have a unique behavior against water droplets. This unique behavior result into a new set of applications including self-cleaning, anti-icing, antibacterial, oil-water separation, corrosion resistance, etc. Some applications are described below.
There have been many reports of oil contaminants in sea waters and rivers due to leak of factories waste into nature and accidents like Deep Water Horizon. Removing oil contaminants from water was always challenging and expensive; so, different methods have been introduced by scientists in order to remove them. These methods are categorized into three main groups: water removing, oil removing, and smart controllable separators. The water removing filters are superhydrophilic and superoleophobic; this kind of filters works under water and when they get wet by water, the presence of the water on the surface of the filter prevents oil to pass from the filter pores. The category in oil removing method which by my personal opinion is a more efficient way because the amount of oil is always less than the amount of water; so, it is logical that we try to remove oil from water and not water from oil. To remove oil from water, the material should be superhydrophobic and superoleophilic. Superhydrophobic oil removing filters are the main part of the oil removing category. Gao et al. [2] used a TiO2-coated mesh in order to separate oil from water (Figure 2a), and Crick et al. [3] used a silicon elastomer coating on a mesh to efficiently separate organic solvents like hexane, petroleum ether, and toluene from water. As shown in Figure 2b, water droplet cannot pass through the filter but toluene can easily pass through.
(a) Oil–water separation with use of TiO2-coated superhydrophobic and superoleophilic mesh [
There are several ways to protect a surface from corrosion. During the past two decades, scientists have been using superhydrophobic nanocomposite coatings without any toxic materials in order to protect various surfaces from corrosion. The corrosion protection capability of the superhydrophobic coatings mainly is because of the presence of air packets between surface and corrosive solution, and these packets act like a barrier and prevent from corrosive ions diffusion and protect the substrate [1].
Superhydrophobic metallic surfaces could be able to decrease the corrosion rate of metals by several orders of magnitude through imparting hydrophobization. Several reports have been published that demonstrated the enormous capability of superhydrophobic surfaces on the corrosion mitigation. The potentiodynamic polarization test revealed a significant decrease in the corrosion current density (Figure 3) of metallic surfaces by using a commercial hydrophobic surface modification [4].
Potentiodynamic polarization curves of bare metallic surfaces (hydrophilic) and surface modified samples with a commercial hydrophobic material (hydrophobic) and with developed commercial hydrophobic materials (superhydrophobic) [
The lotus leaf’s surface is always clean regardless of any contamination that may be present in its surrounding environment. This leaf has a unique surface structure coated with wax and shows superhydrophobic properties, and sliding angle is very low so water can easily slide on the surface of the leaf and remove any contaminants. The aforementioned properties of superhydrophobic surfaces and coatings are called self-cleaning properties. There are many superhydrophobic coatings which were synthesized with different methods and used in industries. It is worth to mention that the actual self-cleaning surface is the surface exhibiting the combined superhydrophilicity and photocatalytic behaviors to decompose the dirt. The use of the term, self-cleaning surface, is not appropriate for superhydrophobic surfaces, which are extremely dry and repel water drops. As schematically shown in Figure 4, these surfaces do not actually clean themselves but they wash away the dirt when the water drops roll over the surface.
Schematic illustration of self-cleaning process in (a) non-hydrophobic and (b) hydrophobic surfaces.
In recent years, superhydrophobic coatings have been suggested as anti-icing coatings. As mentioned before, the presence of air packets on the superhydrophobic surfaces causes the water droplets to slide easily on the surface; therefore, there will not be enough time for the droplet to freeze on the surface; consequently, this reduces the side effects of frosts on the surfaces. Every year ice storms harm the equipment such as electrical transmission equipment, communication systems, aerospace facilities, highways, etc. In order to reduce this kind of damages, different methods have been developed such as local warming and preventing of ice formation by chemical activities and additives, which have some limitations in practical applications. On the other hand, the preventing of surface from ice development by superhydrophobicity phenomena could be practical in most cases without requiring special requirements and devices. One of the important applications of icephobic surfaces is using the insulators of transmission lines, which are needed to prevent the ice formation in a cold area. The experimental survey of ice formation on coated and uncoated surfaces of an insulator (Figure 5) under a condensing weather condition at −5°C and saturated humidity revealed that the superhydrophobic surface is completely effective in reducing ice adhesion to the surface up to 97%.
Comparison of the ice formation on the uncoated and superhydrophobic-coated insulators [
Actually scientists have some disagreements about the relations between superhydrophobicity and anti-icing properties. Some believe that these two are not related to each other; on the other hand, some insist that superhydrophobicity results to anti-icing properties. This disagreement is because there is no specific standard that can be used to evaluate ice adhesion to the surfaces; also, the method of preparing ice for each study is different from the others; so by now, it is not possible to have a definite answer to this matter. The recent studies have helped to get a better understanding about ice formation process on superhydrophobic surface but there is still much left unknown about the nucleation, growth, and adhesion to the surface which need more studies and information in this subject.
Drag force is one of the major problems that a solid moving in water such as a ship or submarine faces. This force is resulted from the friction force between water and moving solid surface in the water. Inspired from shark skin, several superhydrophobic coatings were fabricated in order to reduce the drag. As mentioned before, superhydrophobic coatings have some air pockets inside their hierarchical micro- and nanoscale surface structures which will reduce the contact between solid and liquid so that the drag force will dramatically reduce. Drag reduction phenomenon by superhydrophobic surfaces was investigated in various works such as the one reported by Dong et al. [6], where they have fabricated a superhydrophobic coating on a model ship with a large and curved surface by electroless deposition of gold aggregates. The superhydrophobic model ship exhibited a remarkable drag reduction of 38.5% (Figure 6). On a non-coated sample, the friction is just between solid and water, but on a superhydrophobic surface, there are three phases, water, solid, and trapped air between these two; so, the friction will be drastically reduced in this situation which is known as the plastron effect.
(a) Illustration of the device for the drag-reducing test; (b) velocity of the model ships with and without a superhydrophobic coating versus the values of the resistance in the circuit within the ship; snapshots of (c) at the beginning and (d) at the end of the drag-reducing test [
Antibacterial properties are essential in biosensors, implants, food packaging, and industrial and marine equipment. For example, one of the main reasons that cause infection in patient after surgery is bacteria that grow on implants. In order to solve this problem, antibacterial coatings that reduce the bacterial adhesion to the surface suitable are used. One research in this regard fabricated the silver nanoparticles on cotton fibers and then modified by the hexadecyltrimethoxysilane to get superhydrophobicity [7]. Antibacterial activity of the samples (inhibition zone formed on agar medium) has been determined as shown in Figure 7. The results showed that the normal cotton samples, exhibit no antibacterial activity, whereas the silver modified cotton surfaces killed all the bacteria under and around them showing a distinct inhibition zone with an average width of 8.78 mm around the samples.
Antibacterial activity of (a) normal cotton (the upper two) and Ag NP modified cotton (the lower two) textiles, and (b) normal cotton (the upper two) and hydrophobized Ag NP modified cotton (the lower two) textiles [
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",metaTitle:"Waiver Policy",metaDescription:"We feel that financial barriers should never prevent researchers from publishing their research. With the need to make scientific research more publically available and support the benefits of Open Access, more institutions and funders have dedicated funds to assist their faculty members and researchers cover the APCs associated with publishing in Open Access. Below we have outlined several options available to secure financing for your Open Access publication.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/waiver-policy",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
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\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
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