\r\n\tThe fundamental research areas of Evolutionary Psychology can be divided into two broad categories: on the one hand, the basic cognitive processes, and the way they evolved within the species, and on the other, the adaptive social behaviors that derive from the theory of evolution itself: survival, mating, parenting, family and kinship, interactions with non-parents and cultural evolution. Indeed, Evolutionary Psychology explains at individual and group level the fundamental behaviors of social life, such as altruism, cooperation, competition, social exclusion, social support, etc. etc. Similar to the mechanisms of natural selection for physical characteristics, not only the mind follows biological laws, but also psychological abilities - such as the theory of mind, the ability to represent the intentions, thoughts, beliefs, and emotions of others - have had to adapt and must make themselves functional to the social life of individuals and groups. In addition, Sociology takes the same aspects into consideration, emphasizing the interaction, symbolic and otherwise, of individuals. The latter investigates the neural mechanisms underlying the same social behaviors that are of interest to evolutionary psychology. To study the neural correlates involved in such behaviors is necessary to understand the biological laws that underlie human behavior and brain functioning.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book aims to open a debate full of theoretical and experimental contributions among the different disciplines in social research, psychology, neuroscience, sociology, useful to give an innovative vision to the present research and future perspective on the topic.
",isbn:"978-1-83968-871-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-870-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-872-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bd4df54e3fb185306ec3899db7044efb",bookSignature:"Dr. Rosalba Morese, Dr. Vincenzo Auriemma and Dr. Sara Palermo",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10450.jpg",keywords:"Evolutionary Psychology, Human Social Evolution, Human Social Behaviour, Social Cognition, Social Neuroscience, Functional Neuroimaging, Neuropsychology, Altruism, Cooperation, Social Exclusion, Social Support, Social Inclusion",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 18th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 21st 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 24th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 15th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 14th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Rosalba Morese is carrying out research in the framework of Neuroscience and Social Psychology. She currently works at the Institute of Public Health of Faculty of Biomedical Sciences and at the Faculty of Communication, Culture, and Society of Università Della Svizzera Italiana, Lugano, Switzerland.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Vincenzo Auriemma's focus is on the study of empathy in human interactions. He studied at the University of Essex in England, the University of Pisa, Genoa, Rome in Italy, and the University of Italian Switzerland in Switzerland. He is the principal responsible for the 'PERSEO' research which analyzes the reasons for the 'drop-out' in psychology.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:"Researcher of the EUROPEAN INNOVATION PARTNERSHIP on Active and Healthy Ageing and Assistant Specialty Chief Editor for Frontiers in Psychology - Neuropsychology.",coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"214435",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosalba",middleName:null,surname:"Morese",slug:"rosalba-morese",fullName:"Rosalba Morese",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/214435/images/system/214435.jpg",biography:"Rosalba Morese obtained a degree in psychology at the University of Parma. She subsequently held various\nteaching positions at the Department of Psychology and the Faculty of Medicine and Surgery of the\nUniversity of Parma.\nHer training continued with the attainment of the title of PhD in Neuroscience at the University of Turin,\nduring which she acquired and developed interdisciplinary skills and point of view through the application\nof bioimaging and psychophysiological methods to investigate the neurophysiological mechanisms involved\nduring communication and social interactions.",institutionString:"Universita della Svizzera Italiana",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universita della Svizzera Italiana",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Switzerland"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"338363",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Auriemma",slug:"vincenzo-auriemma",fullName:"Vincenzo Auriemma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/no_image.jpg",biography:'He is pursuing a PhD in Sociology from the University of Salerno, Italy. He is a researcher of sociology and neurosociology at the University of Salerno, Italy. His focus is on the study of empathy in human interactions and he studied at the University of Essex in England, the University of Pisa, Genoa, Rome 3 in Italy and the University of Italian Switzerland in Switzerland. He has participated in national and international conferences with about 25 reports/communications. He is the principal responsible for the "PERSEO" research which analyzes the reasons for the "drop-out" in psychology, using the methodology of the Gounded Theory and analyzing empathy, fear and panic. He is Co-Editor for Frontiers. He is also a member of the Italian Society of Sociology (AIS).',institutionString:"University of Salerno",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Salerno",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},coeditorTwo:{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233998/images/system/233998.jpeg",biography:"Sara Palermo is a MSc in Clinical Psychology and a PhD in Experimental Neuroscience. Moreover, she obtained the National Scientific Enabling Certificate for Associate Professorship in April 2017 (ASN-2017). She is an expert in experimental neuroscience, clinical neuropsychology and advance neuropsychological testing. Moreover, she performs multidimensional geriatric evaluation and basic neurological symptomatology detection in patients with neurodegenerative disorders. She is also engaged in Activation Likelihood Estimation meta-analysis of neuroimaging studies.\r\nShe worked as a postdoc research fellow at the Department of Neuroscience 'Rita Levi Montalcini” in Turin until July 2017. Since then she works as research fellow at the Department of Psychology in Turin. To date, she owns three research Group memberships at the University of Turin (Italy). She is a member of the 'Center for the Study of Movement Disorders” (research area: Neurology) and the 'Placebo Responses Mapping Group” (research area: Physiology) at the Department of Neuroscience, and a member of the 'Neuropsychology of cognitive impairment and central nervous system degenerative diseases Group” at the Department of Psychology (Research Area: Psychobiology and physiological psychology).\r\nThe main topics of her research are the study of awareness of illness, metacognitive-executive deficits in neuropsychiatric and neurological disorders, physical and cognitive frailty in the elderly, and placebo/nocebo phenomena. Interestingly, all of them may represent appealing perspectives from which to study how neuropsychological abnormalities can be explained in terms of brain activities and with the use of neuropsychiatric and neuropsychological batteries considering a neurocognitive approach. Given her research interests and scientific publications, she has been an ordinary member of the Italian Society of Neuropsychology (SINP), of the Italian Association of Psychogeriatrics (AIP), of the Italian Society of Neurology for Dementia (SiNdem), and – finally – of the international Society for Interdisciplinary Placebo Studies (SIPS). Importantly, she is a member of the European Innovation Partnership on Active and Healthy Aging (EIP on AHA), for which she is involved in the Action Group A3 Functional decline and frailty. \r\n\r\nSara Palermo is Panel Editor for 'EC Psychology and Psychiatry'. 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It is perceived as relevant for working in various working environments, for career success, and for effective participation in democratic societies [4]. However, young professionals entering working practice often failed to acquire public speaking skills according to the scientific literature as well as evaluations from the corporate sector. Therefore, it is crucial to critically discuss the effective and efficient integration of learning trajectories on oral presentation competence in higher education curricula [3].
A recently conducted review study revealed a comprehensive set of educational design principles for developing oral presentation competence in higher education [3, 5]. Three out of the seven principles directly refer to formative assessment strategies, of which the type of feedback, involving peers in feedback processes, and self-assessment are named as crucial learning environment characteristics. Although several empirical studies, aiming to further refine these principles, mentioned the teacher as a crucial feedback source, it might be questioned to what extent innovative technologies, such as VR, could play an essential role in both (1) facilitating presentation rehearsals and (2) providing feedback to the individual learner.
Follow-up research showed that students’ oral presentation competence can be developed by the use of VR [6]. However, still the role of the teacher remained crucial, since the produced data reports, delivered by the VR system, needed to be interpreted by the teacher into feedback messages for the student. Recent developments in technology and education managed to translate the quantitative data into qualitative feedback messages on presentation delivery aspects. As a consequence, current designers of presentation curricula are challenged if the learner is able to individually interpret automatized and personalized feedback messages after rehearsing in front of virtual audiences. In line with this, it questions to what extent teachers’ roles might change over time.
The goal of this chapter is to synthesize recent studies into a set of educational design principles for effective use of VR, to discuss practical implications and to construct a future research agenda on this topic for the higher education context.
Previous studies in this field emphasized the benefits of using VR to reduce presentation anxiety in the higher education context [7, 8]. These studies revealed that if students present in a virtual environment, they report lower self-reported levels of anxiety. Further, researchers showed that the degree of anxiety experienced by the presenter depended on the type of virtual audience. In line with this, a hostile, negative audience demonstrated a strong effect on students’ perceived presentation anxiety [8]. Other researchers focused on the relationship between VR and students’ development of oral presentation skills. It was found that immediate feedback could positively impact students’ evaluation if sparse feedback strategies were provided instead of continuous or no feedback at all [9]. In that study, feedback was delivered by a color-coded gauge above the audience. Further, another study proved that interactive audiences in VR encouraged students’ development of presentation skills [10].
Although several studies focused on the relationship between VR for delivering feedback and reducing presentation anxiety and developing oral presentation skills, cognition and attitude towards presenting were not included within the research foci. Following the construct of competence, it is stated that if students acquire more knowledge about presenting, their presentation behavior might positively develop and as a result also change their attitudes towards presenting [3]. Further, previous researchers studied immediate feedback on presentation delivery aspects within VR, while delayed feedback verbally provided by a presentation expert can be considered as an essential type of feedback in realistic presentation skills curricula. Another bias of the described studies is that the feedback is solely provided within the system. However, it remains questionable to what extent VR is as effective as presentation experts providing their feedback based on observation and interpretation of students’ actual behavior. Finally, students’ perceptions with regard to the use of VR and the provision of feedback based on these systems have scarcely been researched. Therefore, it is crucial to include this crucial intermediate variable for encouraging learning processes and outcomes in follow-up studies.
Taking the mentioned gaps in presentation literature on VR into consideration, a recent experiment studied the effectiveness of a VR-based presentation task, in which students received feedback after the presentation rehearsal in VR—on eye contact, use of voice, posture and gestures—that was traced by the VR system and interpreted by a presentation expert [6]. The results showed that the three components—cognition, behavior, and attitude towards presentation—increased significantly without a difference in impact between the experimental and control conditions consisting of a face-to-face presentation with only an expert feedback. In addition, a self-evaluation test showed that students from the experimental group highly appreciated the analytical and detailed characteristics of the VR feedback and at the same time shared suggestions regarding the integration of VR in higher education. With regard to the scientific relevance of that study, integrating both forms of feedback (VR and face-to-face feedback) could further increase the quality of feedback messages and as a result impact students’ learning outcomes focusing on presenting. In line with this, educational design principles relating to the type of feedback could be further optimized.
Recent developments in innovative technologies as well as in pedagogical and educational sciences revealed that feedback messages can be constructed by the VR computer system and delivered to the individual learner [6]. At the same time, recent trends in educational practice underscore the need to encourage personalized learning in which learning environments directly match learners’ needs and individual preferences, to adjust learning environments just-in-time and to facilitate opportunities to practice and to deliver feedback irrespective of time and place [6]. Taking the earlier published comprehensive set of seven educational design principles for developing oral presentation competence in higher education into account, how can virtual learning environments further optimize existing principles, such as instructions, learning activities, and formative assessment strategies, in order to create more effective, efficient, and challenging learning trajectories fostering students’ presentation competence in higher education curricula? (Figure 1).
Presenting in front of a virtual audience in the television studio of “Presenting with Impact.” ©Kees Rutten.
This section focuses on constructing seven educational design principles for optimizing students’ development of oral presentation competence by making use of VR. The first sentence of each paragraph formulates the particular design principle followed by conceptual and empirical argumentations.
First, learning trajectories fostering students’ presentation competence in VR should directly relate to personal learning objectives of the individual learner. As emphasized by studies in presentation literature, learners vary with respect to their learning needs and preferences [2, 3]. For instance, some students need to develop their use of voice, and others should use more supportive gestures during their presentation. In regular presentation skills courses, it is considered as a challenge for teachers to differentiate between students with varying objectives partly due to time constraints. However, VR environments can facilitate opportunities to practice and to rehearse irrespective of time and space, at students’ own preferred pace and potentially without the intervention of a presentation expert. These developments foster personalized learning and could create more effective as well as efficient learning environments.
Second, presentation learning paths should be positioned just-in-time prior to an authentic presentation task. Normally, face-to-face presentation courses are being provided at a fixed moment in time without a specific connection to a final, authentic presentation task [3]. If mobile, personalized learning environments in VR are facilitated prior to a presentation task for a real client, it could impact the motivation of the individual learner and as a consequence foster the development of students’ oral presentation competence [3]. Positioning presentation activities in VR prior to a performance for a real audience, for example, in the context of an internship, might also increase the perceived relevance resulting in more effective student learning.
Third, presentation learning environments should incorporate varying types of non-expert and expert models. In current face-to-face presentation courses, students acquire knowledge on presenting by observing non-expert models such as peers. However, the presentation literature revealed that both non-expert and expert models can foster students’ self-efficacy towards presenting [3]. Further, expert models show different types of performances with regard to eye contact, use of voice, and posture and gestures. In line with this, within VR environments, learning activities can be integrated, focusing on developing presentation behavior based on preferred expert models. Finally, learners in VR can compare their own performances on presentation delivery aspects to the averages of world leaders, CEOs, or television personalities.
Fourth, learning trajectories towards presenting should facilitate opportunities to practice in varying environments. In face-to-face presentation curricula, one of the challenges for teachers is to provide rehearsals for students, especially in times when opportunities for teacher-student interactions are diminishing. Virtual reality facilitates practicing presentations in front of interactive audiences in varying contexts, such as classroom settings, theater environments, and television studios. Although previous researchers claim that a two-presentation sequence is required, other presentation experts suggest that students need at least four or five rehearsals in order to significantly develop their behaviors [11, 12]. Practicing in front of virtual audiences in different contexts is considered as one of the crucial principles for virtual learning environments fostering students’ presentation competencies.
Fifth, students should receive immediate and delayed feedback messages on their actual presentation performances. A recently conducted experimental study revealed that feedback from VR systems can be characterized as detailed and analytic, while face-to-face feedback from teachers concerns positive and constructive messages [6]. Combining these insights and relating these to the main quality criteria of feedback could facilitate the construction of personalized high-quality feedback messages fostering students’ presentation skills [13]. Further, another study revealed that immediate feedback is as effective as delayed feedback; however, this type of feedback is especially effective for enhancing aspects such as eye contact, use of voice, and posture and gestures [14]. During presentations in front of virtual audiences, icons can be projected above these avatars informing the presenter on the extent to which they make eye contact with all audience members and their speech rate.
Sixth, students should have the opportunity to receive feedback from external feedback sources such as peers. Previous research revealed that triangulating feedback mechanisms allow for greater reflective learning [3]. Further, students that are actively involved in their learning processes and work collaboratively could feel a higher sense of responsibility and an increased attention to the performance criteria and as a result foster their presentation skills. However, the provision of peer feedback in regular educational face-to-face systems is limited. By making use of VR, students can deliver and receive feedback irrespective of time and space. Further, it could also increase the authenticity of the situation. For example, if students are required to present in English and their peers are from another country, it could increase their motivation and as a consequence also their performances.
Seventh, reflection activities facilitate the development of students’ oral presentation skills. Students’ reflection on their own behavior can be considered as essential for student learning [15]. However, quasi-experimental studies revealed that self-assessment tasks revealed a limited impact on students’ attitude towards presentation and the actual presentation skill [3, 16]. Essential argumentations refer to the lack of an external feedback source, the complexity of reflection cycles, and a lack of active reflection of the individual student [3]. VR could optimize the principle of self-assessment tasks for presentation skills development, since feedback can be delivered by the system and learning trajectories are adapted based on the input of the individual learner. Further, students can practice in front of virtual audiences without the need to be actually in environments such as classrooms, theater environments, and television studios.
Research on VR fostering presentation competence combined with recent developments in technology and education facilitated the design of a mobile, personalized, and comprehensive learning environment in VR. The following advantages for student learning can be formulated: (1) the environment relates to the personal learning objectives of the individual learner, (2) the student is able to use this VR tool for developing presentation skills just-in-time, and (3) presenters can individually rehearse their presentation performances as many times as they need and receive feedback by the VR system during or after every single presentation.
While teachers and teacher educators in varying countries, such as the Netherlands, Italy, Thailand, and the United States, are experimenting and integrating this VR tool in educational practice, several challenges appear so far.
First, teachers are challenged to critically rethink their presentation curriculum if certain parts can be facilitated by the VR system. Examples refer to (1) working with individual learning objectives, (2) learning from instructions, (3) observing presentation models, (4) rehearsing in front of different environments, and (5) receiving immediate and delayed feedback on performances.
Second, teachers are challenged to design more effective self-assessment tasks with the support of VR. In line with this, more information of the individual learner can be traced, such as big data, by monitoring their learning processes in VR. This challenges the teacher not only to act as an instructor within presentation curricula but also to further support their role as coaches by making use of both observations and interpretations and analyzing detailed information about presentation delivery aspects facilitated by the VR system.
Third, teachers are also challenged to co-design such virtual learning environments because their educational expertise and experience are key for making effective use of VR. Since expertise from several domains, such as ICT, communication, and education, is needed in order to effectively develop these environments, teachers and teacher educators should collaborate with professionals from varying domains and sectors.
Nevertheless, several implications for educational practice remain with regard to implementing VR in presentation education. Integrating VR in education means that teachers, teacher educators, curriculum designers, and coaches need to be trained before entering formative assessment processes supported by VR. Finally, working with VR means, initially, investments in terms of effort, time, and financial resources that should directly relate to strategic policies of higher education institutions [6, 17].
The following section describes five directions for future research and sets a research agenda for developing oral presentation competence supported by VR in higher education. These directions are built on the gaps concerning the foci of previous VR studies, inconsistencies in empirical and conceptual findings, and the quality of empirical evidence, taking into consideration the related study designs of the reviewed publications.
First, recent technological developments managed to convert quantitative information from the VR system into qualitative feedback messages that directly relate to the standards for high-quality feedback in presentation research [13, 18, 19]. In line with this development, the question is to what extent the presentation expert (the teacher)—as a crucial feedback source—can be replaced in certain parts of the feedback process [20]. Therefore, an empirical study should be conducted within a realistic educational setting in higher education and focuses on the impact of qualitative feedback messages in a VR system on the development of students’ ability to speak in public. Such an experimental pretest posttest study examines to what extent the development of students’ cognition, behavior, and attitude towards presentation depends on an experimental condition in which students present in front of a virtual audience and receive automated feedback that can be interpreted individually. The effects are suggested to be compared with a control condition in which students present in VR and receive feedback based on the VR system that is interpreted by the teacher. Mixed methods, such as knowledge tests, validated rubrics, and self-evaluation tests, should be used for data collection [16]. Such a study contributes both to presentation research and educational practice, since insights from this study could lead to a further refinement of educational design principle 5, with regard to the type of feedback, as previously emphasized by researchers in this field [3, 21]. Moreover, the results of the study provide insights about how teachers’ roles might change in formative assessment strategies in the higher education context with regard to ensuring personalized and automated feedback.
Second, previous studies revealed that self-assessment tasks have limited impacts on students’ development of oral presentation competence in the higher education context [3, 15, 22]. The question is whether the development of personalized learning environments in VR can enhance the quality of self-assessment tasks in higher education, since students can now (1) adjust their learning trajectory to their personal learning objectives, (2) use these VR environments just-in-time, and (3) practice their presentation skills and receive unlimited feedback. A longitudinal study should focus on students’ data obtained by the VR system. Mixed methods, consisting of quantitative analyses of VR data and qualitative research (including observations and in-depth interviews), are suggested to be used to (1) describe the learning processes of students in VR, (2) monitor the reflection processes of the individual students with the aim of strengthening self-assessment tasks in presentation education, and (3) test the relationship between (a) reflection processes of students and (b) learning outcomes focused on presenting in VR [3].
Third, previous studies emphasized that at least a two-presentation sequence is required for students to effectively develop their oral presentation competence [2, 6, 11]. However, it remains questionable how the development of students’ performances behaves after their second presentation. In the context of a business curriculum, researchers studied the optimal number of presentations and concluded that a significant increase in performance can be traced between the first and second presentation, though a three-presentation sequence revealed no significant benefits. This might be caused by the fact that students past the apex of the classical S-shaped learning curve [11]. Other researchers, however, claimed the integration of four or five performances in presentation curricula [12, 23]. These findings should be interpreted in the light of domain-specific face-to-face presentations assessing solely presentation skills instead of taking other core components of the construct of competence, such as cognition and attitude towards presenting, into account. Further, facilitating students’ presentations in curricula can be considered as a time-consuming activity. Therefore, future research should test the hypothesis of the two-presentation sequence, scarcely supported by empirical studies in presentation literature, by integrating VR in realistic educational settings. Future experimental studies could distinguish between several conditions, such as a one-presentation, two-presentation, and three-presentation sequence, and verify potential differential impacts on students’ oral presentation competence in higher education.
Fourth, a previous study on VR and the development of students’ oral presentation competence emphasized the limitation with regard to students’ unfamiliarity with adopting VR for learning purposes [6]. This could have influenced the results of that study, both in terms of impacts on developing presentation competence and perceptions towards using the innovative technology [24]. For example, certain students might have perceived the use of VR as motivating, while other students might have experienced the use of VR as evoking their presentation anxiety. Therefore, longitudinal studies could reveal if oral presentation competence can be influenced if participants first become more familiar with the technology and whether students’ perceptions change over a longer period of time while using VR.
Fifth, future studies should focus on testing the generalizability of the constructed and formulated set of principles in this chapter with regard to different student characteristics. Since researchers in this field reported that students could differ in their perceptions of VR depending on their preferred learning activities, it is suggested to incorporate the following characteristics in future experimental study designs: (1) students’ traits (such as gender, age, and educational level), (2) experienced versus non-experienced students regarding presenting in VR, (3) students from different sociocultural traditions (e.g., teacher-centered versus student-centered higher education curricula), and (4) students with varying personal goals or learning patterns that influence their perceptions of the value of feedback types for developing presentation competencies [25].
This chapter aimed to synthesize previous studies into a set of educational design principles in VR, fostering students’ presentation competence, to discuss practical implications and to construct a future research agenda on this topic. Optimizing earlier formulated principles could develop a theoretical framework situated in the context of VR for presenting to direct intervention and empirical and theoretical studies. Besides studying the optimization of the formulated principles, future studies should test the generalizability of the set by taking student characteristics, their perceptions, and sociocultural backgrounds into consideration. In line with this, it remains questionable to what extent this set of principles can also be adopted to foster other academic and communication competencies in VR, since comparable learning environment characteristics are visible for developing argumentation, negotiation, and scientific writing skills. Future scientific and practical research should also take the recent developments of technological and educational trends into account in order to create both effective and efficient virtual learning environments in higher education in which high levels of ecological validity are guaranteed.
This work was supported by a research grant of the University of Applied Sciences Utrecht. Within the VR project on developing oral presentation competence, the following partners collaborated: (1) VR-Lab of the University of Applied Sciences Utrecht, (2) CoVince Adventurous Learning, and (3) partner schools of the NOA Group in Amsterdam.
None of the authors or partners in the project report any conflict of interest.
Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants in the reported studies.
The authors would like to thank photographer Kees Rutten for producing the picture for this project.
Perfect (reversible) cyclic heat engines operate at Carnot efficiency [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Perfect (reversible) nonheat engines and noncyclic (necessarily one-time, single-use) heat engines operate at unit (100%) efficiency. A simple example of a noncyclic heat engine is the one-time expansion of a gas pushing a piston. (If the expansion is isothermal, the heat is supplied from the internal energy of a reservoir; if is adiabatic, the heat is supplied from the internal energy of the gas itself. A polytropic expansion is intermediate between these two extremes.) Other examples include rockets: the piston (payload) is launched into space by a one-time power stroke (but typically most of the work output accelerates the exhaust gases, not the payload) and firearms: the piston (bullet) is accelerated by a one-time power stroke and then discarded (but some, typically less than with rockets, of the work output accelerates the gases resulting from combustion of the propellant). (Some rocket engines, e.g., those employed in the Space Shuttle and by SpaceX, can be refurbished and reused, but both the first use and each subsequent refurbishment and reuse constitute a necessarily one-time, single-use of a noncyclic rocket heat engine.)
But a usually necessary [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7], although not always sufficient, requirement to achieve reversibility is that a heat engine, whether cyclic or noncyclic—indeed any engine, heat engine or otherwise—must operate infinitely slowly, i.e., quasi-statically [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. And infinitely slow operation, which implies infinitesimally small power output, is obviously impractical [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Indeed, some types of friction, such as sliding and rolling friction, do not vanish as the speed of operation becomes infinitely slow [8, 9, 10, 11] [see also Ref. [1], Sections 5-2, 6-1, 6-2, 8-1, 11-1, and 11-2; Ref. [2], Section 4.2 (especially the 3rd and 4th paragraphs) and Figure 4.3; Ref. [3], Problem 4.2-1; and Ref. [4], Section 3.6]. In such cases, reversibility does not obtain even with infinitely slow, i.e., quasi-static, operation [8, 9, 10, 11]. By contrast, for example, in cosmology, reversibility may in some cases obtain even with processes occurring at finite rates [12], but of course this is not relevant with respect to practical heat engines.
Most real heat engines operate, if not at maximum power output, then at least closer to maximum power output than to maximum efficiency. Assuming endoreversibility (irreversible heat flows directly proportional to finite temperature differences but otherwise reversible operation), at maximum power output cyclic heat engines operate at Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency [13, 14, 15] (see also Ref. [3], Section 4-9). The work outputs of heat engines—indeed of all engines, heat engines or otherwise—are in almost cases totally frictionally dissipated as heat immediately or on short time scales [16, 17]. For example, an automobile’s cyclic heat engine’s work output in initially accelerating the automobile is typically frictionally dissipated only a short time later the next time the automobile decelerates; its work output while the automobile travels at constant speed is immediately and continually frictionally dissipated. [Rare exceptions include, for example, a noncyclic rocket heat engine’s work output being sequestered essentially permanently as kinetic and gravitational potential energy in the launching of a spacecraft (but typically most of the kinetic energy accelerates the exhaust gases, not the payload) and a cyclic heat engine’s work output being sequestered for a long time interval as gravitational potential energy in the construction of a building.]
We note that the work output of any engine (heat engine or otherwise) can be dissipated only via friction. Additional losses can, and almost always if not always, also occur, for example, irreversible heat losses engendered by finite temperature differences (no insulation is perfect). [The Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency [13, 14, 15] (see also Ref. [3], Section 4-9) takes into account losses due to irreversible heat flows directly proportional to finite temperature differences but assumes otherwise reversible operation.] But such heat losses are not work. An engine’s work output per se can be dissipated only via friction. This is true because work is a force exerted through a distance: thus work can be dissipated only by an opposing force that is nonconservative. And nonconservative force is friction. [It might be contended that, ultimately, friction is the electromagnetic force, which is conservative. But for all typical macroscopic motions, for which the kinetic energy in any given degree of freedom greatly exceeds kBT (kB is Boltzmann’s constant, T is the temperature), friction is effectivelynonconservative.]
But if a heat engine’s work output must be frictionally dissipated, it is best to dissipate it not at the temperature of its cold reservoir but instead at the highest practicable temperature. This is consistent with the Second Law of Thermodynamics, which allows frictional dissipation of work into heat at any temperature [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7] (in Ref. [6], see pp. 11–12, 60–65, and 263–265, especially pp. 263–265). The entropy increase resulting from frictional dissipation of work
We should emphasize that the entropy increase
Of course, efficiency is highest if work
Although we do not consider them in this chapter, we should note that: (a) There are generalizations of the Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency [13, 14, 15] (see also Ref. [3], Section 4-9) at maximum power output both for macroscopic heat engines [18, 19, 20] and for microscopic heat engines [21, 22], with irreversible heat flows not necessarily directly proportional to temperature differences. (b) There are analyses of maximum heat-engine work output per cycle (as opposed to maximum power output) [23]. Comprehensive discussions concerning the Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency and generalizations thereof are provided in Refs. [24, 25, 26]. Some, but not all, such generalized efficiencies [18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26] do not differ greatly from the Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency [13, 14, 15] (see also Ref. [3], Section 4-9). In particular, we note that alternative results [26] to the Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency have been derived [26]. But for definiteness and for simplicity, in this chapter, we employ the standard Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency [13, 14, 15] (see also Ref. [3], Section 4-9) for cyclic heat engines operating at maximum power output.
A misconception pertaining to the efficiencies of engines (heat engines or otherwise) is discussed and corrected in Section 2.
In Section 3, we review the work outputs, efficiencies, and entropy productions of Carnot (reversible) and Curzon-Ahlborn (endoreversible) heat engines, first without frictional dissipation of a heat engine’s work output and then with frictional dissipation thereof into its cold reservoir. In Section 3, we do not consider frictional dissipation of a heat engine’s work output at the highest practicable temperature, which we dub as high-temperature recharge (HTR).
In Section 4, we discuss the work outputs, efficiencies, and entropy productions of Carnot and Curzon-Ahlborn heat engines operating with frictional dissipation of a heat engine’s work output at the highest practicable temperature—which we dub as high-temperature recharge (HTR)—and the improvements thereof over those obtainable (as per Section 3) without HTR. Cases wherein HTR is practicable include, but are not necessarily limited to, (a) hurricanes, which via HTR are rendered more powerful than they would otherwise be [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37], (b) thermoelectric generators [38], and (c) heat engines powered by a cold reservoir, employing ambient as the hot reservoir, for example, heat engines powered by the evaporation of water [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51] or by liquid nitrogen [52], ocean-thermal-energy-conversion (OTEC) heat engines [53, 54, 55, 56], and heat engines powered by the cold of outer space [57].
Concerning (a) in the immediately preceding paragraph, on the one hand, the importance of HTR (dubbed as “dissipative heating”) has been confirmed in a study of Hurricane Andrew (1992) [36], and, as one might expect, “dissipative heating appears to be a more important process in intense hurricanes, such as Andrew, than weak ones” [36]. But, on the other hand, more recently it has been contended [37] that, while HTR exists in hurricanes, it is of lesser importance than previously supposed [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36]. [There are occasional speculations concerning extracting useful energy from hurricanes (with or without help from HTR) and also freshwater. But, of course, except for (strongly built!) windmills and ocean-wave-powered generators for extracting energy and reservoirs for extracting freshwater, this is beyond currently available (and perhaps even currently foreseeable) technology. To the extent that HTR increases wind speeds in hurricanes, it increases the power flux density available to (strongly built!) windmills and ocean-wave-powered generators: wind power flux density is proportional to the cube of the wind speed (and directly proportional to the air density). But, at least for the time being, the main (or perhaps even only) employment of HTR in hurricanes is by the hurricanes themselves, to increase their wind speeds, whether as previously supposed [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36] or to a lesser degree [37].
To the best knowledge of the author, the concept of HTR was first partially and qualitatively broached by Spanner (see Ref. [6], pp. 11–12, 60–65, and 263–265, especially pp. 263–265) and, later, was first fully and quantitatively expounded and developed by Emanuel [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34] in the course of his research concerning hurricane science. It was subsequently employed by Apertet et al. [38] for increasing efficiencies of thermoelectric generators. In these works [6, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 38] and in related works [35, 36, 37, 58, 59, 60, 61, 62], the concept is not dubbed HTR, but of course it is the concept itself, and not the dubbing it with a name, that is important. To the best knowledge of the author, the concept has not been dubbed HTR (dubbed, if at all, as “dissipative heating”) in the previous literature. Heat engines employing it have previously been dubbed “dissipative engines” (see, e.g., Refs. [58, 59, 60]).
The increases in efficiency attainable via HTR are not practicable if frictional dissipation of work into other than the cold reservoir is not practicable. Thus they are never practicable for noncyclic (necessarily one-time, single-use) heat engines: however the work output of a noncyclic (necessarily one-time, single-use) heat engine might be frictionally dissipated, the heat thereby generated cannot restore the engine to its initial state. Moreover in many cases the work outputs of noncyclic (necessarily one-time, single-use) heat engines are not frictionally dissipated at all, at least not during practicable time scales, for example, a noncyclic rocket heat engine’s work output is sequestered essentially permanently as kinetic and gravitational potential energy in the launching of a spacecraft (but typically most of the kinetic energy accelerates the exhaust gases, not the payload). They also are never practicable for reverse operation of cyclic heat engines as refrigerators or heat pumps, because for both refrigerators and heat pumps, the total energy output (the work W, plus the heat QC extracted from a cold reservoir at the expense of W as required by the Second Law of Thermodynamics) always is deposited as heat QH into the hot reservoir (QH = QC + W): thus there is never any additional energy to be deposited into the hot reservoir (as there is from frictional dissipation of work done via forward operation of cyclic heat engines). {See Ref. [1], Section 20-3; Ref. [2], Sections 4.3, 4.4, and 4.7 (especially Section 4.7); Ref. [3], Sections 4-4, 4-5, and 4-6 (especially Section 4-6); Ref. [5], Section 5.12 and Problem 5.22; Ref. [7], pp. 233–236 and Problems 1, 2, 4, 6, and 7 of Chapter 8; Ref. [16], Chapter XXI; Ref. [17], Sections 6.7, 6.8, 7.3, and 7.4; and Ref. [54], Sections 5-7-2, 6-2-2, 6-9-2, and 6-9-3, and Chapter 17. [Problem 2 of Chapter 8 in Ref. [7] considers absorption refrigeration, wherein the entire energy output is into an intermediate-temperature (most typically ambient-temperature) reservoir, and hence for which HTR is even more strongly never practicable.]} They also are not practicable for cyclic heat engines in cases wherein a cyclic heat engine’s work output is not frictionally dissipated immediately or on short time scales [16, 17], for example, as gravitational potential energy sequestered for a long time interval in the construction of a building. For a building once erected typically remains standing for a century or longer. Even if, when it is finally torn down, its gravitational potential energy were to be totally frictionally dissipated into a hot reservoir, it is simply impracticable to wait that long. Thus HTR is not practicable in all cases. But in the many cases wherein cyclic heat engines’ work outputs are frictionally dissipated immediately or on short time scales [16, 17], practicability obtains: improved conversion—and reconversion—of frictionally dissipated heat into work, and hence improved cyclic heat-engine performance, can then obtain.
Since HTR is never practicable for noncyclic (necessarily one-time, single-use) heat engines such as rockets or firearms, or for reverse operation of cyclic heat engines as refrigerators or heat pumps, henceforth we will (except where otherwise mentioned) focus exclusively on forward operation of cyclic heat engines.
Note that the primarily relevant time scale pertaining to “in the many cases wherein cyclic heat engines’ work outputs are frictionally dissipated immediately or on short time scales [16, 17]” is (i) the time interval between a cyclic heat engine’s work output and frictional dissipation of this work output [16, 17], not (ii) the time interval required for frictional dissipation per se. The time interval (ii) is zero in all cases wherein work is done against the nonconservative force of friction and hence frictionally dissipated immediately. Indeed, in all cases of steady-state engine operation against friction (e.g., an automobile traveling at constant speed) both time intervals are zero. This is by far the most common mode of engine operation. Even work output sequestered when an engine is started or when an automobile accelerates is typically frictionally dissipated only a short time later, when the engine is turned off or when the automobile decelerates. Work output sequestration for a century or longer can obtain (as gravitational potential energy) in the construction of buildings and essentially permanently in the launchings of spacecraft—but these are rare exceptions. Thus we focus on time interval (i): a necessary (but not sufficient) condition for HTR to be practicable is that the time interval (i) be zero or at most short. (This condition is automatically met in steady-state engine operation, wherein work is frictionally dissipated immediately and hence both time intervals are zero.)
But for cyclic heat engines whose work outputs typically are frictionally dissipated immediately or on short time scales [16, 17], HTR often is practicable. For cyclic heat engines employing ambient as the cold reservoir, the existent hot reservoir is likely already at the practicable upper temperature limit. Hence for these cyclic heat engines, HTR at the temperature of the hot reservoir could increase efficiency, but HTR at a still higher temperature probably would not be practicable. By contrast, consider cyclic heat engines powered by a cold reservoir, employing ambient as the hot reservoir, for example, cyclic heat engines powered by the evaporation of water [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47, 48, 49, 50, 51] or by liquid nitrogen [52], ocean thermal-energy-conversion (OTEC) heat engines [53, 54, 55, 56], and heat engines powered by the cold of outer space [57]. For these cyclic heat engines, HTR at a higher temperature than ambient probably would be practicable. For these cyclic heat engines, employment of HTR could boost the temperature of the hot reservoir from ambient to the highest practicable temperature for HTR.
Henceforth if HTR is employed we construe the terms “the highest practicable temperature for HTR” and “the hot reservoir” to be synonymous.
Recapitulation and generalization are provided in Section 5. A reply to criticisms [58, 59] of HTR is provided in Section 6 and in references cited therein. Concluding remarks are provided in Section 7.
The efficiency of any engine in general is its work output (force-times-distance output) divided by its energy input, and the efficiency of a heat engine in particular it is its work output (force-times-distance output) divided by its heat-energy input. What happens to an engine’s work output after the work has been done is an entirely different issue.
Work can be done either against a conservative force, in which case it is sequestered, or against the nonconservative force of friction, in which case it is dissipated as heat. To re-emphasize, in either case—whether the opposing force is conservative or nonconservative—the efficiency of any engine in general is its work output (force-times-distance output) divided by its energy input, and the efficiency of a heat engine in particular it is its work output (force-times-distance output) divided by its heat-energy input. What happens to an engine’s work output after the work has been done is an entirely different issue.
In this Section 2, we wish to correct a misconception that is sometimes made, according to which an engine’s efficiency can exceed zero only if its work output is done against a conservative force. This misconception is erroneous.
In the vast majority of cases, for almost all engines on Earth, work is done against the nonconservative force of friction, and hence instantaneously and continually dissipated as heat. The engines work at steady state, and while working, their internal energy and the internal energy of any equipment they might be operating do not change. Consider, for example, the engine of any automobile, train, ship, submarine, or aircraft traveling at constant speed, any factory or workshop engine such as a power saw operating at constant speed, or any domestic appliance engine such as that of a dishwasher, refrigerator, etc., operating at constant speed. According to the erroneous misconception that an engine’s efficiency is zero if its work output is done against the nonconservative force of friction, the efficiency of all of these engines—indeed of almost all engines on Earth—would falsely be evaluated at zero. If their efficiencies were truly zero, they could do zero work against any opposing force, conservative or nonconservative, i.e., they could not operate at all. A specific example is the following: If the efficiency of an engine (heat engine or otherwise) attempting to maintain an automobile at constant speed was zero, the engine could do zero work against friction, and the automobile’s speed would also be zero.
Only in rare cases, such as the construction of buildings and the launchings of spacecraft, is the work done even against conservative forces (e.g., gravity, inertia, etc.) sequestered for any significant lengths of time. Even in most cases wherein work is done against a conservative force, it is frictionally dissipated a short time later. For example, the work done in accelerating an automobile against its own inertia is typically frictionally dissipated as heat a short time later the next time the automobile decelerates. The net effect of the acceleration/deceleration process is frictional dissipation of the automobile’s temporarily sequestered kinetic energy, the same as the instantaneous and continual frictional dissipation of its kinetic energy while it operates at constant speed.
In general, when an engine (heat engine or otherwise) is turned on, part of its work output is sequestered as its own kinetic energy and the kinetic energy of any equipment that it might be operating. But this kinetic energy is frictionally dissipated as heat when the engine is turned off, so the net effect of the on/off process is frictional dissipation of this temporarily sequestered kinetic energy, the same as the instantaneous and continual frictional dissipation of the engine’s work output while it operates at constant speed between the time it is turned on and the time it is turned off.
The standard (without high-temperature recharge or HTR) Carnot efficiency
and
We define the temperature ratio between a heat engine’s cold and hot reservoirs as
The efficiency ratio
By the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics, for a standard reversible heat engine operating (without HTR) at Carnot efficiency, the heat input
and
We note that, in most derivations (in textbooks or elsewhere) of
Similarly, by the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics, for a standard endoreversible heat engine operating (without HTR) at Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency, the heat input
and
Note that for any
As we have already noted, heat engines’ work outputs are, in almost all cases, totally frictionally dissipated as heat immediately or on short time scales [16, 17]. For example, an automobile heat engine’s work output in initially accelerating the automobile is typically frictionally dissipated only a short time later the next time the automobile decelerates; its work output while the automobile travels at constant speed is immediately and continually frictionally dissipated. [Rare exceptions include, for example, a noncyclic rocket heat engine’s work output being sequestered essentially permanently as kinetic and gravitational potential energy in the launching of a spacecraft (but typically most of the kinetic energy accelerates the exhaust gases, not the payload) and a cyclic heat engine’s work output being sequestered for a long time interval as gravitational potential energy in the construction of a building.] Apart from such rare exceptional cases, in the operation of any cyclic heat engine operating at any efficiency without HTR—whether reversible at Carnot efficiency, endoreversible at Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency, or otherwise—not only is the waste heat
Note that for any
If, as is almost always the case, a cyclic heat engine’s work output
Consider first a reversible heat engine operating at Carnot efficiency. If the engine’s work output
Note that not only is
In Eq. (11), we applied Eqs. (5) and (6). Yet, also applying Eq. (9),
The entropy ratio
It may be of interest to note that
Consider next an endoreversible heat engine operating at Curzon-Ahlborn efficiency. If the engine’s work output
The efficiency
In Eq. (14), we applied Eqs. (7) and (8). Yet, also applying Eq. (9),
But, as one would expect,
There is one more efficiency ratio that is of interest. Applying Eqs. (10) and (13):
The efficiency ratio
Note that: (a) Applying Eqs. (3), (4), (17), and (18), in the limit
As an aside, it may be of interest to note, applying Eqs. (3) and (17), that
Efficiency is of course highest if work
The Second Law of Thermodynamics allows frictional dissipation of work into heat at any temperature [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7] (in Ref. [6], see pp. 11–12, 60–65, and 263–265, especially pp. 263–265). The entropy increase resulting from frictional dissipation of work
And the corresponding saving of exergy or free energy is
Note that in the limit
Consider work
Consider the following thought experiment. If an automobile travels at constant speed, the work output of its engine is immediately and continually frictionally dissipated, but the work was done and the efficiency was
If a heat engine’s work output is frictionally dissipated into its hot reservoir, the net heat input required from the hot reservoir is reduced from
We note that the temperature of the cosmic background radiation is only
While in this chapter we do not challenge the Second Law, we do challenge an overstatement of the Second Law that is sometimes made: that energy can do work only once. This overstatement is false. Energy can indeed do work more than once, in principle up to an infinite number of times, and even in practice many more times than merely once, before its ability to do work is totally dissipated. Consider these three examples: (i) Energy can do work in an infinite number of times in perfect (reversible) regenerative braking of an electrically-powered motor vehicle, with the motor operating backward as a generator during braking. Even with real-world less-than-perfect (less than completely reversible) regenerative braking, energy can do work many more times than merely once before its ability to do work is totally dissipated. (ii) Energy can do work in an infinite number of times in perfect (reversible) HTR (in the limit
The concept of HTR (without being dubbed HTR) was criticized by Makarieva, Gorshkov, Li, and Nobre [58] and by Bejan [59], as being in conflict with the First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics, especially with the Second Law (see especially Sections 4 and 5 of Ref. [58] and Section 4 of Ref. [59]). These criticisms are addressed directly in Ref. [60]. They are also addressed in works concerning (a) HTR in hurricanes [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37, 62] and (b) the experimental verification of HTR in increasing efficiency of thermoelectric generators [38]. [Concerning (a) immediately above, on the one hand, the importance of HTR (dubbed as “dissipative heating”) has been confirmed in a study of Hurricane Andrew (1992) [36], and, as one might expect, “dissipative heating appears to be a more important process in intense hurricanes, such as Andrew, than weak ones” [36]. But, on the other hand, more recently it has been contended [37] that, while HTR exists in hurricanes, it is of lesser importance than previously supposed [27, 28, 29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35, 36].]
Perhaps the simplest and most straightforward reply to these criticisms [58, 59] is that provided by Spanner (see Ref. [6], pp. 11–12, 60–65, and 263–265, especially pp. 263–265): Friction resulting from dissipation of work can in principle generate arbitrarily high temperature
As has been previously emphasized [35], it is only recycling of a heat engine’s waste heat
There is one caveat: the entropy increase
What Eq. (22) brings to light is that the operation of the heat pump, even if perfect (reversible), results merely in the recovery of
We provided introductory remarks, an overview, and general considerations in Section 1. A misconception pertaining to the efficiencies of engines (heat engines or otherwise) was discussed and corrected in Section 2. Then we discussed the work outputs, efficiencies, and entropy productions of Carnot (reversible) and Curzon-Ahlborn (endoreversible) heat engines. In Section 3, we reviewed the standard (without HTR) work outputs, efficiencies, and entropy productions of Carnot (reversible) and Curzon-Ahlborn (endoreversible) heat engines, first without frictional dissipation of heat engines’ work outputs and then with frictional dissipation thereof into their cold reservoirs. In Section 4 we considered them with frictional dissipation of heat engines’ work outputs into their hot reservoirs (with HTR). (If HTR is employed, we construe the terms “the highest practicable temperature for HTR” and “the hot reservoir” to be synonymous.) We showed that the efficiencies of both Carnot and Curzon-Ahlborn engines can be increased, indeed in some cases greatly increased, via employing HTR. The increases in efficiencies via employing HTR are minimal in the limit
We provided recapitulation, as well as generalization, in Section 5. We replied to criticisms [58, 59] of HTR in Section 6.
As we have already noted in Section 1, the increases in efficiency attainable via HTR are not practicable if frictional dissipation of work into other than the cold reservoir is not practicable. Thus they are never practicable for noncyclic (necessarily one-time, single-use) heat engines: however the work output of a noncyclic (necessarily one-time, single-use) heat engine might be frictionally dissipated, the heat thereby generated cannot restore the engine to its initial state. Moreover in many cases the work outputs of noncyclic (necessarily one-time, single-use) heat engines are not frictionally dissipated at all, at least not during practicable time scales, for example, a noncyclic rocket heat engine’s work output is sequestered essentially permanently as kinetic and gravitational potential energy in the launching of a spacecraft (but typically most of the kinetic energy accelerates the exhaust gases, not the payload). They also are never practicable for reverse operation of cyclic heat engines as refrigerators or heat pumps, because for both refrigerators and heat pumps, the total energy input (the work
We emphasize yet again that First and Second Laws of Thermodynamics are not violated. The First Law is not violated because no new energy is created (or destroyed): super-unity efficiencies via employment of HTR obtain via recycling and reusing the same energy, not via the creation of new energy. The Second Law is not violated because the change in total entropy is positive if HTR is employed and frictional dissipation of work as heat is into the hot reservoir, albeit less strongly positive than if HTR is not employed and frictional dissipation of work as heat is into the cold reservoir. The improved heat-engine performance that HTR provides ultimately obtains from this reduction of entropy increase.
While in this chapter we do not challenge the First or Second Laws of Thermodynamics, we should note that there have been many challenges to the Second Law, especially in recent years [64, 65, 66, 67, 68, 69]. By contrast, the First Law has been questioned only in cosmological contexts [70, 71, 72] and with respect to fleeting violations thereof associated with the energy-time uncertainty principle [73, 74]. But there are contrasting viewpoints [73, 74] concerning the latter issue.
I am very grateful to Dr. Donald H. Kobe, Dr. Paolo Grigolini, Dr. Daniel P. Sheehan, Dr. Bruce N. Miller, and Dr. Marlan O. Scully and for many very helpful and thoughtful insights, as well as for very perceptive and valuable discussions and communications, that greatly helped my understanding of thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. Also, I am indebted to them, as well as to Dr. Bright Lowry, Dr. John Banewicz, Dr. Bruno J. Zwolinski, Dr. Roland E. Allen, Dr. Abraham Clearfield, Dr. Russell Larsen, Dr. James H. Cooke, Dr. Wolfgang Rindler, Dr. Richard McFee, Dr. Nolan Massey, and Dr. Stan Czamanski for lectures, discussions, and/or communications from which I learned very much concerning thermodynamics and statistical mechanics. I thank Dr. Stan Czamanski and Dr. S. Mort Zimmerman for very interesting general scientific discussions over many years. I also thank Dan Zimmerman, Dr. Kurt W. Hess, and Robert H. Shelton for very interesting general scientific discussions at times. Additionally, I thank Robert H. Shelton for very helpful advice concerning diction.
The author declares no conflicts of interest.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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