Thematic units and contents.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3120",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"New Trends and Developments in Biometrics",title:"New Trends and Developments in Biometrics",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"In recent years, biometrics has developed rapidly with its worldwide applications for daily life. New trends and novel developments have been proposed to acquire and process many different biometric traits. The ignored challenges in the past and potential problems need to be thought together and deeply integrated. The key objective of the book is to keep up with the new technologies on some recent theoretical development as well as new trends of applications in biometrics. The topics covered in this book reflect well both aspects of development. They include the new development in forensic speaker recognition, 3D and thermo face recognition, finger vein recognition, contact-less biometric system, hand geometry recognition, biometric performance evaluation, multi-biometric template protection, and novel subfields in the new challenge fields. The book consists of 13 chapters. It is divided into four sections, namely, theory and method, performance evaluation, security and template protection, and other applications. 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He is a special professor of Tianjin City, too. He received his B.S. degree from South-Central University for Nationalities, China, and M.S. and Ph.D. degree from Chonbuk National University, Republic of Korea. He did his post-doc at the Advanced Graduate Education Center of Jeonbuk for Electronics and Information Technology-BK21 (AGECJEIT-BK21), Republic of Korea. He was a professor in Jiangxi University of Finance and Economics, China and was a visiting fellow in the University of New South Wales, Australia. He has published over 50 papers in related international journals and conferences. He has served as editors or reviews of international journals such as IEEE Transactions on Information Forensics & Security, Sensors, Science China, Information Technology Journal and so on, and as reviewers or PC members of many conferences such as ICNC\\'06-FSKD\\'06, IMPRESS’09, FIRM-EPECC’11. He is the publicity chair of ICMeCG’10-11. 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He was then honored with a prestigious fellowship from the Canadian Commonwealth to pursue a Ph.D. degree at the University of British Columbia (UBC), Canada, where he worked on the application of remote sensing for forest resources management. He has been involved in numerous collaborative international research projects that led to publications in reputable journals. Altogether, he has published a total of 14 books and more than 200 research publications. His research interests cover several aspects of forestry, mainly forest modeling, forest ecology, and biodiversity. He received the UiTM’s Best Researcher and Top Talent Awards in 2015 and 2021, respectively. He served as the Deputy Vice-Chancellor (Research and Innovation) from 2018 to 2021.",institutionString:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"6",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"Universiti Teknologi MARA",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"479437",title:"Dr.",name:"Engku Azlin Rahayu",middleName:null,surname:"Engku Ariff",slug:"engku-azlin-rahayu-engku-ariff",fullName:"Engku Azlin Rahayu Engku Ariff",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003SceBMQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-06-07T14:57:49.PNG",biography:"Engku Azlin Rahayu Engku Ariff is currently a senior lecturer in the Faculty of Applied Sciences, University Teknologi MARA (UiTM) Pahang Branch, and an Associate Fellow of the Institute for Biodiversity and Sustainable Development (IBSD), UiTM, Malaysia. She received an undergraduate degree in Biological Sciences from the Universiti Malaysia Terengganu (UMK) in 2009 with first-class honors. She was then awarded a graduate fellowship by UiTM to pursue a Ph.D. program in forest modeling, specifically, she worked on the development of predictive models to estimate carbon stocks in rubber trees. She has been an active research member at IBSD, participated in many conferences, and delivered oral presentations on topics relevant to her area of expertise. Research findings from her work have been published in chapters in books and journals and have impacted her field of research. 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\nAs a teacher of initial teaching training courses in this country, I perceived that teachers who graduated from training courses aimed at teaching at high schools feel and state their professional needs when performing their jobs.
\nUruguay education system offers free updates and continuous education, provided in different formats (conferences, courses, sessions, seminars, lectures and workshops.) Such instances are independent from each other and attendance is optional for teachers. There is no specific program for the enhancement of theoretical and practical training for high school teachers in their first 5 years of activity.
\nThis results in a problematic situation currently being researched in the framework of a doctoral thesis on education, led by EdD. Ramón Pérez Juste, UNED, Madrid, Spain [2].
\nThe aim is to contribute in the improvement of initial teacher training for high school teachers, by means of supporting the authorities of the CFE with a professional development program which addresses the professional needs of such teachers. In this sense, there are two specific objectives: 1. To design a pedagogical professional development program, aimed at enhancing beginning teachers who perform tasks at national public secondary education centers. 2. To perform an initial evaluation of the program in terms of appropriateness, adaptation, sufficiency and realism as regards its objectives, quality and viability.
\nThe accomplishment of the first objective presumes prior identification of professional training needs of target teachers. The second objective will be reached via the submission of the program to expert opinions and by means of interviews to recently graduated teachers. Due to extension matters, this section presents a summarized explanation of the objective.
\nThe making of the process starts with a collection of background and study of bases; it continues with research on the professional needs of target beginning teachers; it continues with its design and ends with its pre-evaluation, which resulted in the reformulation of the program.
\nThere are four study areas to the research on beginning teachers. One of the areas is related to the characteristics of such teachers, which shows no previous publications in Latin America before 2006, when the international workshop “Policies for Insertion of Beginning Teachers into the Teaching Profession: the Latin America experience and the Colombian case.” The second area is related to accompanying experiences in the United States, Europe (England, North Ireland, Scotland) and Israel and in countries from other continents, such as New Zealand and Japan. The third area relates to difficulties faced by beginning teachers, emerging from research done by Vonk (1983) [20] and Veenman [16]. The fourth area involves research on the socialization of participants. Such research includes influential factors, the different stages identified during the first year of activity, the strategies applied by teachers and potential changes of perspective in their teaching [3].
\nInternational research, written in English, on the development of professional teachers states the importance of teachers taking part of professional development instances, due to the positive impact that such instances have on their beliefs and habits, the students’ learning and of the implementation of education reforms [4].
\nWith reference to programs that enable professional opportunities and enhance training for beginning teachers, their institutionalization is recent in Latin America, when compared to the policies and support structures featured in European and Asian countries, such as Japan, where a compulsory training program has been active for graduated teachers since 1988.
\nUntil now, induction programs designed and structured to offer additional training and personalized assistance to beginning teachers are compulsory in 17 countries or regions (Germany, Estonia, Ireland, France, Italy, Cyprus, Luxembourg, Malta, Austria, Portugal, Romania, Slovenia, Slovakia, Sweden, the UK, Croatia and Turkey.) Some of these programs focus on individual assistance and others on training. However, all of them aim at assisting teachers in their adapting to the profession and reducing the possibilities of early dropout [5]. Accompanying projects for beginning teachers started being developed in Spain and Latin America (Argentina, Colombia, Chile and Uruguay) in the first decade of this century.
\nRegarding issues related to continuous training for active beginning high school teachers, who are the subject matter at an international level, within the 2010–2014 period, the subject matter mainly spotlights the requirements of society towards teaching. This involves: (a) assessment and reformulation of teaching training and practice and quality improvement; (b) training for the development of practices founded on respect for human rights and principles of inclusive education to respect diversity and (c) changes caused by the use of new information and communication technologies when teaching and learning. Furthermore, there is the resulting impact that such training has on teaching beliefs, which are exposed in the performance of the job and in the training of future teachers.
\nAcknowledging the importance of continuous teacher training is recognized by multiple international authors and organizations. It is characterized as a key process to teaching professionalization [5], in order to think of pedagogical practices and adapt to changes [6] and, as a need [7], it has been analyzed internationally, mainly in America and in the UK [8]. The existing offer and organization of continuous training in the countries which belong to MERCOSUR (Argentina, Brazil, Uruguay and Paraguay) have been analyzed, as well [9].
\nContinuous training involves understanding the development process of the profession [10]. Within such process, the transition from being a trainee teacher to having a first job usually causes a shock or “reality shower” to some, resulting from becoming aware of the differences between the reality and the ideals created throughout the initial training period [11]. This usually causes helplessness feelings and fear before failure. As to the cognitive aspect, this shock provokes aversion towards the theory that was learned, which seems useless when applied in practice. With reference to behavior, this shock blocks sensitive actions and reactions, therefore preventing teachers from identifying possibilities the situation presents [12]. Some others believe the phrase “reality shower” however eloquent is inappropriate, as it implies that there is an unavoidable short period of commotion to be faced [13].
\nFor some authors, this socialization stage, at which beginning teachers enter a professional group [14], takes place during the first 3 years of the course of their careers. However, some others extend such period to the first 5 years.
\nThis study calls this first stage the
These statements describe this first stage considering the role such phase plays in the continuum of the professional development process and the difficulties with which it confronts teachers. As a conclusion from critical inferential reading performed in relation to the characterization of this initial stage, the essence of such professional development phase seems to rely on the fact of acquiring the teaching role and the meaning of the profession and applying it in every instance in which teaching performance is required in a practical manner or in the being and feeling as a teacher in a specific context.
\nThis is considered a key period as well, provided that it is that in which teachers build their work culture and therefore acknowledge the importance of its being considered by professional teacher training proposals in Latin America [21].
\nThe aim of the program subject to this paper is the development of professional beginning teachers. The Day conception of professional development is adopted, as it is a “broad view of professional learning,” before other conceptions which are led by the acquisition of knowledge on the subject or teaching strategies [11]. This author adds informal learning to formal learning through experience, the former enabling teachers to overcome classroom situations and to improve their professional expertise.
\nIn this sense, the three main theories on which the proposal is based are: the conception of personalized education, a constructivist theory—both regarding teacher professional development—and adult transformative learning theory.
\nPersonalized education transforms the learning procedure into a personal training element, as conceived by García Hoz [22]. This is a type of education which addresses human needs and the present technological society conditions in which we live [23, 24]. Its pertinence is confirmed by the acknowledgment of a present need for personalized learning in pursue of more effective results, and by the current challenge of understanding how to adapt teaching methods in order to universalize learning [25].
\nThis educational conception is understood broadly, thus not linked to any specific philosophical, psychological or pedagogical current, but open to all lines of thinking which may contribute to the perfecting of the person—as a whole—with no reductionism whatsoever [23]. Notwithstanding any political powers or pressure groups, educational personalization accepts sociocultural and scientific progress.
\nFrom this point of view, it is understood that teachers may find the reasons for their profession in the nature of their own selves, if that serves as support [26].
\nPersonalized education, when related to aptitudes for evaluation and performance rather than to content learning, enhances training as a means for professional development. Therefore, the program aims at enabling a type of formative learning related more to beginning teachers’ understanding of the reality of teaching and learning, the pedagogical subject and school contexts, as well as to theirs ability to act upon an educative situation, rather than to specific disciplinary contents.
\nIn this sense, the educative style presents two main significances: teachers’ teaching styles and students’ learning styles within a person-forming teaching and learning model.
\nTeaching and learning are conceived as constitutive parts of a unique process, as teaching makes sense only when it provokes learning. The learning model related to personalized education is conditioned by how human cognitive activity is conceived, mainly when referred to intelligence and knowledge functions in a strict sense and to expression functions.
\nThe development of abilities necessary for the execution of such functions is the reason for the educational labor, therefore showing the aims of learning, which in personalized education are conceived as constituted by three types of components: cognition, aptitude and evaluation.
\nConstructivist theory conceptualizes professional teaching development defining teachers as active, practical and reflexive apprentices able to build their own theories and practices collectively with other teachers, institutional actors, families and members of the community.
\nThis is a long terms process which takes place in a particular context, i.e., it is centered in an educational institution and refers to daily teacher and student activities. This is not skills training but a culture building process. In this framework, teachers are conceived as practical and reflexive, and professional development aims at helping teachers to build new pedagogic theories and practices.
\nLearning gains a role through interaction with others in a real problem-solving context which encourages learning through reflection, experience and dialog, thus discovering the significance of happenings in a given context. It is a social rather than individual type of learning, based on specific rather than theoretical situations.
\nFrom these two viewpoints, professional development is a collaborative process that is more successful when it involves significant interactions. Regarding configuration, there is no professional development format or model better than others; institutions and educator must evaluate their needs, cultural beliefs and practices to decide which model is more appropriate for their situation [4].
\nFurthermore, encouraging teachers to teach for idea understanding and elaboration and diversity is essential in order to let students find productive entrance paths to knowledge at the same time they learn how to live together in a constructive manner. Teachers must combine content and student knowledge and understanding with the communities where they work, ensuring that families participate in the process as well [27].
\nConsidering that teachers are adults who not only teach but also learn, and that such learning implies learning how to teach, the learning theory called transformative learning theory, developed by Mezirow in the late 70’s, is adopted.
\nAccording to this theory, the construction of meaning is fundamental, provided that transformative learning is conceived as that which transforms reference frameworks.
\nReference frameworks refers to culture and language structures through which human experiences are construed and therefore given coherence and meaning [28]. Such frameworks are conceptualized as the groups of fixed cases and expectations, i.e., significance perspectives and ways of thinking.
\nThe author understands this theory as a type of cognitive epistemology on evidential and dialogic (instrumental and communicative, respectively) reasoning. Mezirow agrees with Habermas on the three types of learning (technical, practical and emancipatory) and names them: instrumental, dialogic and self-reflexive.
\nReasoning is deemed as an advance and belief evaluation process. From this viewpoint, transformative learning is conceptualized as an adult dimension of reason evaluation, which implies validation and reformulation of meaning structures.
\nTransformative learning theory supposes as a grownup way to transform those reference frameworks that lead actions. Adoption of such learning theory is deemed appropriate, considering that it may promote an evaluation of the conceptions related to the teaching, learning and professional identity of the participant teachers, and an eventual reformulation, if deemed appropriate [28].
\nThis proposal and corresponding formative on-site contextualized action is expected to achieve the following goals: a. to consider needs, demands and worries that teachers state regarding areas of improvement, especially in connection with teaching practices; b. to work on enhancing teaching skills from experience; c. to promote teacher participation and interaction; d. to establish adolescents and their learning as the observation and analysis focus for the creation of pedagogical practices; e. to provide theoretical and practical elements to develop teaching tasks that work towards citizenship education and coexistence, via the exercise of inclusion, attention to diversity and incorporation of the communities to which students belong.
\nIn order to find inquire into the need for beginning teacher training, a study population was conformed with up to 5-year professionally experienced teachers from the 42 public high schools from the East region of the country. High school inspectors and management teams acted as external observers, and secretaries and beginning teachers as beginning observers.
\nThe subjects of study are: beginning teachers’ profile and performance at high-schools where they work; expectations and interests in a professional enhancement program for beginning teachers; aims and contents that a program of the kind should have, and the need for training.
\nDuring a research preparation phase, a high-school board is created to collect information and form a database of the beginning teachers working in such institutions. Interviews are held with the inspectors of the East region of Secondary Education to inform them on the study to be performed and learn about their interest in the study, to request their support. The directors of the high-schools of the Region are informed via telephone about the importance that providing the information requested has for the research. Collection instruments are designed and validated by secondary education inspectors.
\nThe techniques applied for gathering information were surveys and interviews. Interviews as a means are selected due to the geographic distances among high-schools. Interviews allow the triangulation of the information collected in the surveys.
\nHigh-school (n = 42) teacher-secretaries are surveyed as per request of form-filling with the data about beginning teachers’ profiles (age, workload, graduate certificate or lack whereof).
\nIndividual interviews are presented as well to the members of the board (n = 91). They are deemed qualified informants based on their expertise and experience and are enquired on the performance of beginning teachers and expectations for a professional enhancement program aimed at beginning teachers.
\nInterviews with 19 directors and assistant directors (45% of the total) are held to analyze the performance of beginning teachers and know their perspective on the objectives and contents that a professional enhancing program aimed at beginning teachers should have. The selection criteria used for directors involve: representing over 30% of the total and that some of the directors work at high-schools located in departmental capitals, with over 1000 students, and others work at remote high-schools with under 500 students.
\nFour hundred and seventeen beginning teachers (57% of the total at reach) were personally interviewed and 21 (25% of the teachers willing to be interviewed) were telephonically interviewed on their professional needs, in order to also know their interest in a professional enhancement program.
\nQuantitative—by means of SPSS software- and qualitative methodologies—by means of content analysis—were applied.
\nBoth beginning teachers and participants of management teams of the high schools where they perform their teaching jobs, when interviewed, stated the need for professional training and, in most cases, showed their interest in the satisfaction of said needs via a professional enhancement course.
\nThe difference between graduated beginning teachers and non-graduated beginning teachers, when perceived, mainly resides in the strength of their initial training, theoretical or specific to a subject, and in the methodology observed in graduates.
\nThis conclusion is relevant as it defines the option of designing a program aimed at beginning teachers who have graduated from teacher training courses. It is understood that the professional needs of those who have not fulfilled the requirements of initial training courses to perform as teachers should be broader as non-graduate teachers, in general, lack pedagogical, psychological and educational training despite their subject-related expertise.
\nAlthough there is institutional support for beginning teachers, such support is not a part of any action plan organized by the National Council for Education but created or not according to the initiatives of management teams in each high school. Such support, if any, does not seem to be efficient enough for beginning teachers, who do not recognize it as a professional support device relevant to a high school culture.
\nFrom the management teams’ viewpoint, professional knowledge and especially pedagogical and psychological knowledge, the educational bond between teachers and adolescent students, groups and institutions, their colleagues and the context and the attitudes that teachers may have towards their profession must be subject to continuous training and skill development for beginning teachers.
\nConsistently, beginning teachers state their feeling a need for improvement and continuous professional self-training, in order to know how to deal with students and inappropriate behavior, for encouraging them to learn, contributing in the creation of a culture within the education center from a relational point of view and for strengthening general and specific didactic knowledge related to content teaching, learning orientation and student-performed tasks.
\nAdditionally, both student diversity and inclusion raise professional training needs in beginning teachers, to encourage learning and to consider those students who present learning difficulties, special needs or other problems, such as addictions.
\nConsequently, it is induced that a professional strengthening program which attempts an approach to the satisfaction of such needs must aim at continuing training related to the performance of teaching roles, in consonance with the requirements of the secondary level of education and in the framework of the professional stage of acquisition of teaching roles. Moreover, studying and understanding adolescents and planning their involvement in the classroom seems to be crucial as training subject matter, as adolescents and their physical, psychological and social conditions are diverse. Enhancing systematic observation is a potential asset for planning tasks in a diverse context.
\nLittle mention to the need for strengthening disciplinary knowledge confirms the interest in the design of a professional teaching development course with general pedagogical characteristics.
\nThis program is expected to present a pedagogical updating and renewing nature, aimed at improving the teaching profession [29]. This is a course of action structured with pedagogical contents common to all teachers and their areas, and it includes formative assessment [30].
\nThe program is called
Being a teacher and having a personalized educational style involves a way of teaching, working and expressing oneself, featured by: being receptive and conciliatory, which is related to the reception principle; being reflexive and creative, in relation to the personal identity principle; individualizing and encouraging coexistence, considering the manifestations of the identity principle; being optimistic, in accordance with the principles and corresponding manifestations that define a person.
\nThe program promotes pedagogy from the teacher as a person, aimed at the student as a person, which combines what teachers ought to do with real responsibilities of a teaching job. The following premises act as bases: (a) the initial acquisition of the teaching role, which beginning teachers experience, makes teachers prone to making sense of their professional performance or clarifying the sense and significance of their roles; (b) beginning teachers may find a reason to their profession in their nature, if assisted.
\nBased on such premises, two objectives give meaning to this program: (1) to contribute to the professional development of beginning teachers and (2) to encourage improvement in the teaching quality developed by beginning teachers, within this initial stage.
\nTherefore, the following general objectives are established: (a) to promote the development of critical thinking and participation in dialectical discourse on teaching tasks, students’ learning and the context in which they meet and how they relate; (b) to enhance general pedagogical training and aptitude towards continuous training as a requirement for performing teaching roles; (c) to enable the construction of a professional identity consistent with the characteristics that conform the initial stage of the professional teaching development process; and (d) to teach values and attitudes that consider teachers as professionals who assist students in their reaching the highest level of personal autonomy as a manifestation of personalized comprehensive education.
\nThe program is divided in four thematic units and a total class load of four credits (i.e., 60 hours) to be taken in 4 months, obtaining one credit per unit (i.e., 15-hour coursework during class time, assisted tasks and individual studying.) This option is substantiated by the research that argues that teachers need considerable professional development of about 50 hours to improve their skills and enhance student-learning [31].
\nThe modality proposed is blended workshop-courses. B-learning may facilitate the demands of the course, in so far as the number of hours participants need to attend the course decrease, thus encouraging home studying instead. An on-line platform is an essential resource to apply this modality.
\nThe general criteria used to solve issues related to content selection is the following: (a) selection of meaningful aspects and concepts that enable the acquisition of new knowledge to the participants; (b) possibility of exchanging work during class time; (c) adequation to beginners’ condition regarding training and experience; (d) approach to real situations related to teaching jobs; and (e) functionality, regarding the extent to which such contents can be applied effectively to teaching practices.
\nIt is a concentric program, organized consistently with pedagogical practice as interest center and linking core, from four analysis levels. These levels give name to each of the four units. Such units and their corresponding contents are presented in Table 1.
\nUnit 1 | \nUnit 2 | \nUnit 3 | \nUnit 4 | \n
---|---|---|---|
Being a teacher at secondary education level | \nSystematic observation for knowledge and analysis of pedagogical practice | \nAdolescents and their learning as a reason for pedagogical practices | \nSyllabi aimed at addressing students’ socio-personal diversity | \n
\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n\n
| \n
Thematic units and contents.
The teaching method applied throughout the course aims at the encouragement of motivation for constructive meaningful learning, based on the interrelation of contents and participants’ teaching experience. The following didactic criteria are considered for motivation: presentation of tasks with relevant contents which related to their reality and are valuable as necessary for their training and experience; student involvement in tasks, encouraging participation and providing the chance to choose topics to study in depth; concrete real work, based on experience, so as to promote understanding and raise interest in learning; recovery of main meaningful codes and languages for participants, arising from their contexts, visual culture, musical expressions, sports, interactive IT culture; inclusion of emotions when teaching, thus helping participants to overcome their insecurity and enabling thought and feeling expression; personalized communication and tracking of individual progress; encouragement of teamwork, as a mediator of experiences and external perspectives to favor personal identity and socialization; use of interesting topics to participants; progress and mistakes assessment and self-assessment and commitment to learning; coherence between teacher’s discourse and practices [32].
\nAssessment is one of the most significant activities of the professional development process promoted by the course.
\nIn this framework, assessment is conceptualized as a systematic process of collection of information on the relevant aspects of the educational situation. Assessment allows the formulation of pre-established value judgment to take improvement decisions in the training process of the teachers involved with such evaluation. Considering its social, control and certification dimensions, such value judgment is related to achievements instead of to aims.
\nGained knowledge, developed attitudes and developed and acquired procedures quality are subject to evaluation. Components of the program aimed at improving its execution by the leading teacher are subject to evaluation as well.
\nThe research performed on beginning teacher professional training needs was essential for the accomplishment of the objective: designing a professional development program aimed at enhancing beginning teacher training for teachers who work at national public high-schools. Apart from identifying the main common needs of the population that acted as the study subject, this research allows the deduction a first conclusion: the needs recognized for both beginning teachers and the directors of educative centers where the former work relate to general pedagogical update rather than to specific-discipline related analysis. This observation has enabled two important decisions to adopt in order to define the nature of the program. On the one hand, there is the need for a pedagogical program. On the second hand, the update strategy is the most appropriate and viable framework for the design of the program, provided that the target teachers have already received basic training provided by their initial training studies. Moreover, the educative system currently offers specializations based on the analysis of specific, disciplinary areas or institution management.
\nThe state-of-the-art study performed in the field of teacher training reveals the interest that the policies of education ministries from numerous countries express, and the interest of educative research on teacher preparation via training, updating or specialization, as means for continuous professional training. Consequentially, there is a second conclusion: it is necessary to define the objective of the training proposal to be presented. The decision adopted for the purpose of the pedagogical program to be designed to be teacher personal and professional growth acknowledges the value of people working as professional teachers who assume the responsible task of collaborating in the development of other people, i.e., the students. Therefore, their human condition and social responsibility are emphasized in the name of the program:
A pedagogical program aimed at teachers in their first professional stage must be coherent with the current challenges the society offers and with the demands of this teaching training. Within such demands social inclusion is emphasized.
\nThe third conclusion is that a pedagogical program of this kind should be structured on the following bases: teachers’ needs, demands and concerns regarding areas to improve, mainly in relation to teaching practices, teaching-skill enhancement, teacher participation and interaction; teenagers and their learning as the observation focus, pedagogical practice analysis and construction; practical and theoretical elements to develop teaching tasks addressed to citizenship education and coexistence by means of execution of inclusion, attention to diversity and involvement of the communities to which the students belong.
\nFrom a constructivist viewpoint, teachers are conceived as practical, reflexive and active learners who must be helped in their building new pedagogical theories and practices. In this sense, the fourth conclusion is related to the conditions a professional development program should present. Three conditions are highlighted: firstly, professional development conceived as a collaborative, culture-building process which will become more effective depending on significant interactions among teachers, members of the educative institution, students’ families and members of the community in general. Secondly, a professional development program must promote relevant teaching knowledge addressing the concerns resulting from teaching practices expressed by teachers. Thirdly, transformative learning may be the appropriate type of learning for a program that encourages the transformation of teachers’ reference frameworks through the development of critical thinking skills and participation in dialectical discourse in order to validate better reflective opinions.
\nThe fifth conclusion implies the general objectives of the course. These objectives must be aimed at promoting four critical aspects of a professional development program. Such objectives are: (a) development of critical thinking and participation in dialectical discourse on teaching tasks, student learning, the context where such learning takes place and student interaction; (b) general pedagogical training and aptitude for continuous training as requirements for practice teaching roles; (c) building a professional identities that match the characteristics which conform the initial stage of the teaching-profession development process; and (d) training in values and positive attitudes for the conception of teachers as professionals who provide assistance to students for them to achieve the highest possible level of personal autonomy as a result of personalized comprehensive education.
\nConsidering the national institutional context related to public teacher training and the comments of the researchers on teacher professional development, the sixth conclusion lays on the convenience of the program presenting the following characteristics: (a) being defined as an induction program; (b) being taken during the first year of career simultaneously with performing teaching tasks; (c) having a four-credit classload equivalent to 60 hours in a class/workshop b-learning modality; (d) certification upon passing the course; and (e) having national reach as far as budget, infrastructure and human resources needs are met.
\nOnce at program-design stage, the program is conceptualized as an action plan constituted by objectives, contents, means and resources and a system conformed via formative assessment, which is also influenced by external components, such as context and technical, practical and ethical requirements, according to the nature of the program.
\nThe seventh conclusion relates to the contents of each component of the program and consists of structuring them on four units articulated as per level of knowledge of pedagogical practice in relation to the following matters: (1) being a teacher at a secondary level, (2) teenagers and their learning as a reason for pedagogical practice, (3) systematic observation in pursue of knowledge and analysis of pedagogical practice, and (4) planning aimed at student socio-personal diversity.
\nThe rapid progress in artificial intelligence and internet-of-things technologies has increased the demand for portable and sustainable energy sources that can enable perpetual operation [1, 2]. Mechanical energy harvesters (MEHs) that convert abundant mechanical energy from the environment (wind, raindrops, water flow, and vibrations) as well as from human motions (walking, jogging, and running) into electricity, is considered a promising solution to alleviate the energy crisis for supplying power to low-power consumed portable electronics [3]. In particular, piezoelectric nanogenerators (PENGs) and triboelectric nanogenerators (TENGs) have received immense attention as they efficiently convert mechanical energy into electricity for powering portable and wearable electronics [4]. Furthermore, their simple structure, easy fabrication process, high energy-conversion efficiencies, flexibility, and mechanical robustness makes them well-suited for energy generation [4, 5]. PENGs transform mechanical energy into electricity by generating electric dipoles through the deformation of piezoelectric materials, while TENGs convert mechanical energy into electricity effectively through a coupling of contact electrification and electrostatic induction. In the past decade, several flexible MEHs have been demonstrated using diverse piezoelectric nanostructured materials including ceramics (e.g., PbZrxTi1−xO3 (PZT) and BaTiO3), semiconductors (e.g., ZnO and CdS), and polymers (PVDF and its derivatives) [6, 7, 8, 9]. Among these materials, perovskite-structured ceramics (i.e., ferroelectric materials) are commonly used materials for constructing efficient PENGs and sensors because of their strong dielectric and ferroelectric/piezoelectric properties [10, 11].
In recent years, organic/inorganic halide perovskites (OIHPs) have emerged as promising materials for solar cells with extremely high-power conversion efficiencies over 25% because of their unique optical and electrical properties while having a simple solution process [12]. Besides the discovery of the intriguing ferroelectric and piezoelectric properties of OIHPs have accelerated their recent application in PENGs [13, 14, 15]. In 2016, the first thin-based PENG was reported based on the solution-processed ferroelectric MAPbI3 thin films [14]. Subsequently, several flexible PENGs based on OIHP thin films and OIHP–polymer composite films have been developed [13]. OIHPs also exhibit impressive dielectric properties, which is one of the essential features for fabricating efficient TENGs. The first TENG based on MAPbI3 displayed light-dependent triboelectric output characteristics with a moderate performance [15]. Later, a series of commonly used Cs-based perovskites were applied in TENGs owing to their stability compared to organic perovskites [16, 17]. The light-active nature along with the ferro/piezoelectric properties of OIHP harnesses the light-dependent output characters of PENGs as well as TENGs, which allows the nanogenerators to be used as bimodal sensors for sensing pressure and light [18].
In this chapter, we introduce the viability of OIHP materials for mechanical energy harvesting in the form of nanogenerators. The crystal structure and dimensionality of OIHPs along with their dielectric, piezoelectric, and ferroelectric properties are discussed in detail. In addition, the operating mechanisms of OIHP based-MEHs (PENG and TENG) are discussed. Furthermore, the recent progress of various MEHs based on a broad range of OIHP/OIHP–polymer composite materials is summarized. Finally, a brief glimpse into current challenges and future developments for OIHP-based nanogenerators is provided.
The term “perovskite” represents a class of materials originating from the mineral calcium titanate (CaTiO3) and having a crystal structure of ABO3, which were discovered in 1839 by Gustav Rose [19]. Oxide perovskites are widely used in various dielectric, ferroelectric, piezoelectric, and pyroelectric applications. However, OIHPs differ from inorganic ceramic perovskites by containing halide anions in place of oxide anions. Three-dimensional (3D) OIHPs also have the general crystal structure of ABX3 (Figure 1a) [20], in which A represents an organic or inorganic monovalent cation (e.g., methylammonium (MA+ = CH3NH3+), formamidinium (FA+ = CH (NH2)2), or cesium (Cs+)), B denotes a divalent metal cation (e.g., Pb2+ or Sn2+), and X indicates a halide anion (Cl, Br, and I). In the crystal structure, A-site cations are connected with 12 neighboring X, while B-site is coordinated by 6 X anions to form cuboctahedral and BX6 octahedral geometries, respectively. The formation of the perovskite structure and its stability can be evaluated by the Goldschmidt tolerance factor (t) and the octahedral factor (μ) [21]. The tolerance factor is given by t = (rA + rX)/√2(rB + rX), where rA, rB, and rX are the ionic radii of A, B, and X, respectively. The octahedral factor is given by μ = rB/rX, which is directly correlated with a BX6 octahedron. The tolerance factor and octahedral factor values of OIHPs are expected to be in the range of 0.813 < t < 1.107 and 0.44 < μ < 0.90 [13], respectively. OIHPs tend to form ideal cubic, orthorhombic, and hexagonal structures when 0.8 < t < 1.0, t < 0.8, and t > 1, respectively [13, 22]. 2D perovskites or layered perovskites are formed by introducing large organic functional groups into the 3D structure (Figure 1b) and have received immense attention because of their excellent ambient stability [23]. These 2D perovskites can be prepared using a mixture of small cations that forms perovskite and a large organic cation that forms the layered metal halide. The general chemical formula for these layered perovskites is A′mAn–1BnX3n+1, where A′ is a monovalent (m = 2) or divalent (m = 1) long-chain organic cation (e.g., aromatic or aliphatic alkylammonium), which acts as a spacer. A, B, and X are cations and anions similar to the ones in 3D OIHPs, and n specifies the number of perovskite layers. Here, n = ∞ corresponds to a 3D structure, n = 1 represents a 2D structure, and other values of n denote a quasi-2D structure [24].
Schematic representation of a) typical ABX3 type 3D OIHP structure, b) structures of 2D OIHPs of A
A dielectric is referred as an insulating material that is polarized under an applied external electric field. The response of a dielectric material to an applied field is expressed in terms of permittivity. The dielectric constant or relative permittivity (εr) of a material is usually obtained from the ratio of its permittivity to the permittivity of a vacuum (ε0). Materials having a large dielectric constant have the ability to develop higher polarization for an applied electric field. In general, inorganic materials are well-known dielectric materials. In recent times, OIHPs are attracting extensive attention to be used as dielectric materials because of their simple low-temperature synthesis process. ABX3-structured materials exhibit higher dielectric constant values owing to the ease of polarizing the cell structure. Specifically, distortion of the edge-sharing BX6 octahedra in the ABX3 structure can produce an electric dipole between the A and B sites. OIHPs demonstrate impressive dielectric properties analogous to ceramic perovskites, but the values are relatively lower owing to the existence of polar organic cations in the center of the perovskite structure, which can introduce orientational disorder and polarization. The dielectric properties of various lead (Pb) and lead-free OHIPs have been previously investigated experimentally [14, 25, 26]. Kim et al. measured the temperature-dependent dielectric properties of MAPbI3 thin films and confirmed their tetragonal-cubic phase transition. MAPbI3 revealed a dielectric constant value of 52 at 100 kHz [14]. Furthermore, structural tuning of MAPbI3 also affects its dielectric properties. For example, with the partial incorporation of Cl into MAPbI3, the dielectric constant of the resultant films increased to 90.9 at 100 kHz (Figure 2a), while Br-incorporated MAPbI3 films exhibited a dielectric constant of 71.6 at 100 kHz [25]. In addition, a structural transition was also observed for partially incorporated Fe2+ into MAPbI3 from the dielectric study [26]. The partial replacement of Pb2+ with Fe2+ ions exhibited a tetragonal–cubic phase transition as discovered by the frequency dielectric study of Fe2+-incorporated MAPbI3 thin films (Figure 2b). The dielectric constant (εr) at 100 kHz of MAPb1-xFexI3 films continuously increased as the Fe2+ content increased to x = 0.07, attaining a maximum value of 107. It then decreased for larger Fe2+ content, indicating the ferroelectric-to-paraelectric phase transition for x = 0.07. The dielectric properties of OHIP-polymer composites were also investigated by a few researchers. In general, the heterogeneous materials interfaces in polymer composite films can induce an interfacial or a Maxwell–Wagner–Sillars polarization that results in an abrupt change of the total dielectric constant [27, 28]. As the MAPbI3 content in PVDF polymer increased, the dielectric constant of the MAPbI3–PVDF composite rapidly increased because of large dipole–dipole interactions (Figure 2c) [29]. In addition, the interaction between the organic action of MA+ and -CF2- between the perovskite and PVDF leads to the self-orientation of polymer chains, enabling the nucleation of the electroactive phase that results in the formation of a spontaneous polar β-phase in the composite films. Similarly, the dielectric properties of lead-free MASnBr3–PDMS composite films were also examined for various percentage weights of MASnBr3 (0 to 25 wt.%) [30]. As the MASnBr3 increased from 5 to 15 wt.% content, the dielectric constants of composite films progressively increased and achieved a maximum of 36.23 for 15 wt.% at 1 kHz. By contrast, the dielectric constant values of composite films decreased with a higher loading amount of MASnBr3 owing to increased agglomeration of MASnBr3 particles, which leads to the leaky nature of composite films. The tuning of the dielectric and piezoelectric properties of OIHPs by a simple solution process makes them suitable to be used to construct efficient mechanical energy harvesters.
Dielectric constants and dissipation factors of a) Cl-doped MAPbI3 thin films [
The piezoelectric effect refers to the capability of certain materials to generate electric charges under applied mechanical stress, which is also known as the direct piezoelectric effect. Conversely, an electric field applied to the material induces mechanical strain, which is called the converse piezoelectric effect. This unique property of piezoelectric materials allows their use as sensors and actuators. The structural requirement for a material to exhibit piezoelectricity is non-centrosymmetric. Piezoelectricity was first demonstrated in 1880 by brothers Pierre and Jacques Curie. The direct piezoelectric effect is observed in many natural crystalline materials such as Rochelle salt, quartz, topaz, and human bone. In addition, many engineered materials, in particular, inorganic perovskite materials with a structure of ABO3 including PZT, BaTiO3 and (K,Na)NbO3, exhibit a noticeable piezoelectric effect, and are widely studied for several applications [6]. The piezoelectric response or piezoelectric energy-harvesting capability of any piezoelectric material can be determined by its piezoelectric coefficient and is proportional to the dielectric constant and polarization (i.e., d33 α εrPr) [13].
OIHPs also exhibit relatively good piezoelectric properties similar to inorganic ceramic perovskites, but the values are comparatively lower. In recent years, some researchers have investigated the piezoelectric properties of OIHPs in order to determine their potential in various device applications. Kim et al. investigated the piezoelectric coefficient (d33) of solution-processed polycrystalline MAPbI3 films using piezoresponse force microscopy (PFM) and reported a d33 of 5.12 pm/V [14] (Figure 2d). A single-crystalline device may provide direct evidence regarding the piezoelectric properties of OIHPs, whereas studying the piezoelectric properties of polycrystalline films using PFM could face challenges owing to inaccurate estimation of tip contact area and other artifacts arising from surface topography and crystal orientation [27]. In this regard, Dong et al. verified the piezoelectric effect in single-crystalline MAPbI3 by depositing two parallel facet gold electrodes [28]. They obtained a d33 of 2.7 pm/V along the (001) direction for single-crystal MAPbI3 using the laser interferometry method. Compositional tuning of OIHPs also substantially altered their piezoelectric properties. The partial replacement of Pb with Fe in MAPbI3 improved the d33 of 17.0 ± 6.0 pm/V for MAPb1-xFexI3 (x = 0.07) [26]. Similarly, there was a considerable improvement in d33 of 20.8 pm/V observed for lead-free MASnI3 by substituting Sn in the Pb-site in MAPbI3 [31]. Likewise, lead-free MASnBr3 perovskite displayed a d33 of 2.7 pm/V [30] (Figure 2e–g). The slanted butterfly shape in amplitude loop of the MASnBr3 is caused from the electrochemical properties of defects, vacancies, and ions, which indicate that the MASnBr3 possess both electrochemical and piezoelectric properties. According to Ding et al., replacing the A and X site in MAPbI3 with FA and Br, respectively, significantly increased d33 (25 pm/V) for FAPbBr3 having a particle size 50–80 nm, which is a five-fold enhancement over MAPbI3 [32]. In addition, inorganic CsPbBr3 films also revealed a higher d33 of 40.3 pm/V after poling than organic MAPbI3 films [33]. As a subclass of 3D OIHPs, the piezoelectric properties of 2D perovskites (vacancy-ordered double perovskites) are also recently attracting significant research attention owing to their excellent ambient stability compared to 3D OIHPs. Although 2D OIHPs exhibit superior ambient stability, very few piezoelectric studies have been focused on the recently evolved 2D OIHPs. For instance, solution-processed (ATHP)2PbX4 displayed ferroelectric behavior with a large d33 of 76 pC/N and a giant piezoelectric voltage co-efficient (g33) of 660.3 × 10−3 V.m/N [34]. In addition, most 2D OIHPs have ferroelectric natures, thus displaying superior piezoelectric properties as a subclass of piezoelectric materials.
Ferroelectric materials are a class of dielectric materials that exhibit ferroelectricity. Ferroelectricity is the ability of materials to possess spontaneous electric polarization and originates from a non-centrosymmetric crystal structure. The direction of spontaneous polarization can be reversed in accordance with an applied external electric field. Ferroelectric materials belonging to the perovskite family (ABX3 crystal structure) are a subclass of pyroelectric and piezoelectric materials. Ferroelectric materials show ferroelectric behavior only below the Curie temperature (TC). Above TC, these materials display the paraelectric state (i.e., they are only polarized under an applied electric field). For example, a well-known inorganic perovskite, BaTiO3, undergoes a structural transition from tetragonal to cubic above 393 K [35]. Recently, OIHPs have been studied specifically with a focus on their ferroelectric properties because of their structural transition and impressive dielectric properties. Although there is a debate on existing ferroelectricity in MAPbI3, several researchers have conducted theoretical and experimental investigations to search for evidence of ferroelectricity in OIHPs. For instance, Kutes et al. provided the first experimental evidence of ferroelectricity in solution-processed MAPbI3 thin films with a grain size of ∼100 nm by directly observing the ferroelectric domains through a PFM study, which is a necessary tool to observe the ferroelectric domains at nanometer resolution. The reversible switching of those ferroelectric domains was also realized by electrical poling with a DC bias [36]. Rakita et al. conducted an experimental investigation for the existence of ferroelectricity in tetragonal MAPbI3. They observed the polarization inversion under an external field, lack of inversion symmetry, and spontaneous polarization based on the measurements of a polarization-electric field (P-E) hysteresis loop, second harmonic generation signals, and pyroelectric response, respectively [37]. Kim et al. confirmed the tetragonal-to-cubic phase transition by measuring temperature-dependent dielectric properties [14]. These studies clearly indicate the experimental evidence for ferroelectricity in MAPbI3 films. In addition, the PFM study upon lead-free MASnI3 demonstrates its ferroelectric property (Figure 2e–g) [31]. From the PFM results, a well-defined butterfly-shaped hysteresis loop and the existence of 180° of domain switching validate ferroelectric polarization in MASnI3 films. However, commonly used 3D OIHPs including MAPbI3 and MASnI3 exhibit relatively low TC, limiting their wider applicability at high temperature. Pan et al. reported stable 3D (3-ammoniopyrrolidinium) RbBr3[(AP)RbBr3] perovskites synthesized by evaporation of the precursor’s solution, which exhibited a ferroelectric nature at a high Tc = 440 K (Figure 3) [38].
PFM analysis of 2D layered (ATHP)2PbBr4 films; a) lateral PFM phase, b) amplitude, c) corresponding topography images and d) obtained local piezoelectric response phase hysteresis (top) and amplitude (bottom) loops under applied DC-bias [
Recently, researchers have been keen to study the ferroelectric properties of 2D OIHPs having advantageous characteristics including structural flexibility, diversity, and excellent moisture stability. The large asymmetric A-site cation provides an additional asymmetry to the 2D OIHP crystal. The orientation of such a large cation promotes ferroelectricity. Many excellent 2D OIHPs were designed and their ferroelectric properties investigated. For instance, 2D (ATHP)2PbBr4 was synthesized using the simple solution method and its ferroelectric property was investigated by measuring the P-E curve and lateral PFM [34]. The 180° contrast of domain orientation in the PFM phase image and separation of the adjacent domains by the domain walls in the PFM amplitude are a direct indictor of ferroelectricity for (ATHP)2PbBr4 (Figure 4). Another 2D OIHP [(4,4-DFHHA)2PbI4 (4,4-DFHHA=4,4-difluorohexahydroazepine)] displayed ferroelectric properties with a spontaneous polarization of 1.1 μC/cm2 at room temperature, with a TC of 454 K [39].
Schematic illustration of working mechanism of OIHP-based PENG.
A mechanical energy harvester that can produce electricity from mechanical vibrations is a very promising tool to realize sustainable energy generation in remote/indoor environs and even through human body movements. MEHs generally operate based on either the piezoelectric effect, triboelectric effect, or electromagnetic induction effects [13]. Amongst them, PENGs that operate based on piezoelectric effect and TENGs that operate based on triboelectric effect have attracted intense attention because of their direct power conversion ability and relatively easier fabrication processes. Intense research efforts have been conducted with regard to material and structural design, functionality, operation mechanism, and performance optimization of PENGs and TENGs [8, 13, 18]. More recently, the unique properties, low-temperature solution processing, and tunability of properties via compositional-tuning of OIHPs have highlighted their superior potential in the field of mechanical energy harvesters.
The working mechanism of a general piezoelectric nanogenerator having the metal–insulator–metal structure along with the formation of dipoles under applied force is schematically portrayed in Figure 4. In a non-poled piezoelectric material, the dipoles will be randomly orientated, while the orientation of those dipoles will be changed according to the applied electric field direction under poling. Initially, there will be no generation of output from the PENG without any applied strain owing to the absence of potentials (or in equilibrium state) at the electrodes. However, when mechanical stress is applied normal to the PENG, the piezoelectric material undergoes compressive deformation leading to the generation of dipoles within the active material. The subsequent dipolar polarization results in a piezoelectric potential difference between the two electrodes of the nanogenerator. This, in turn, leads to the flow of charges from one electrode to the other electrode through the external circuit by producing an electrical output signal. When the applied force is withdrawn, the piezoelectric potentials vanish and the electrons flow back to the original position and generate an electrical output signal with the opposite polarity. This output generation is a cyclic process under applied cyclic pressures. In addition, the output of a PENG significantly depends on the material and also some external parameters like applied pressure and frequency.
A TENG can effectively transform the irregular and randomly distributed mechanical energy into usable electricity via coupling contact electrification with electrostatic induction [18]. In general, when two different materials are in contact with each other, chemical bonds will be formed between the interface of those materials, leading to charge (i.e., electrons, or ions, or molecules) transfer from one material to another because of the difference in their electron affinities [40]. When the two surfaces are separated from each other, the potential drop in the triboelectric charges induces charges into the electrodes via electrostatic induction effect. The potential difference between the electrodes drives electrons to flow between the two electrodes, thus generating triboelectricity form the devices. Based on this principle, four kinds of TENGs with different modes of operations have been developed, as shown in Figure 5. In the contact–separation mode, the first invented operation mode of TENG, two dielectric films are placed face to face, and metal electrodes are deposited on the opposite surfaces of the dielectric layers (Figure 5a). The TENG operates when the force is applied normal to the device. In the lateral sliding mode, the device structure is similar to that of contact–separation mode (Figure 5b), and the TENG operates when the two films keep sliding against one another. This sliding operation offers more efficient charge transfer compared to that offered by the contact–separation mode [41]. By contrast, single-electrode mode is designed to work independently and can be moved freely (Figure 5c). This mode is composed of a moving dielectric film and an electrode film connected to the ground. When the top dielectric film approaches towards and/or departs from the bottom electrode, the distribution of the local electrical field may change by generating a potential difference between electrode and ground. This leads to a flow of electrons between the ground and electrode and generates electricity. The freestanding triboelectric-layer mode consists of two symmetrical electrodes underneath a moving dielectric layer that has electrodes of similar sizes (Figure 5d). In this mode of operation, no direct physical contact between the two triboelectric layers can be realized, which tends to extend the lifetime of the TENG [42]. Among these modes, the OIHP-based TENGs developed so far were constructed and operated based on vertical contact–separation mode [43, 44]. In the OIHP-based TENGs, the OIHP film fabricated on the electrode-coated substrate is a triboelectric material and is naturally separated from the counter triboelectric material using spacers. Furthermore, when a piezoelectric material like OIHP is used to construct a TENG, the dipoles formed by mechanical deformation of a piezoelectric material under an applied force promote the generation of more charges onto the surface of the OIHP film during TENG operation, as schematically portrayed in Figure 5e [8].
Schematic depiction of a–d) the four fundamental operating modes of TENG, e) vertical contact–separation mode of OIHP/OIHP-polymer composite based TENG.
OIHP materials have only been recently applied to PENGs because of their favorable characteristics, which include high piezoelectricity, flexibility, large-area fabrication and low-temperature synthesis along with the biocompatibility of lead-free OIHPs [30, 31]. In addition, various OIHP-polymer composite materials were developed to achieve flexible PENGs with improved mechanical and air stability [29]. Although the output power of OIHP PENGs is very moderate and is lower than OIHP solar cells, with increasing research efforts, the output power has enormously increased with polymer composites. OIHP-based PENGs having the typical metal– insulator–metal structures similar to other piezoelectric materials based devices and were constructed on flexible plastic substrates using simple solution methods [45, 46]. Yoon et al. reported the first OIHP PENG using solution-processed MAPbI3 thin films as shown in Figure 6a. The PENG poled at an applied field of 80 kV/cm demonstrated an output voltage and current density of ~2.7 V and ~140 nA/cm2 under a mechanical pressure of 0.5 MPa (Figure 6b) [14]. Later, many researchers focused on improving the output performance of OIHP PENGs [25, 26, 47]. For example, the lateral-structured PENG with inter digitated electrode (IDE) patterns using a MAPbI3 active layer and ZnO & Cu2O-charge transport layers achieved improved output current values [47]. The device was poled under a low (12 kV/cm) electric field for 10 min and was able to generate a voltage of ~1.47 V and a current of ~0.56 μA under 0.2 MPa pressure. In addition, the output of OIHP PENGs can be further enhanced by controlling the dielectric and piezoelectric properties of perovskite material via the concept of functional-modification of perovskite. A high amount of Cl or Br doping into MAPbI3 perovskite leads to enhanced dielectric and piezoelectric properties, which results in better piezoelectric output performance from halide doped-MAPbI3 PENGs compared to the pure MAPbI3 PENG (Figure 6c) [25]. As shown in Figure 6d, the poled 4Cl-MAPbI3 PENG generated a particularly high output voltage and current density of ∼5.9 V and ∼0.61 μA/cm2, respectively, because of the improved dielectric constant (εr = 90.9) and remanent polarization (Pr = 0.56 μC/cm2) of perovskite film. Similarly, the partial incorporation of Fe2+ into the Pb2+ sites of MAPbI3 perovskite using the simple solution method rapidly enhanced the piezoelectric output performances of PENGs [26]. As discussed earlier, with increasing Fe2+ content, the morphological and crystalline properties of the MAPb1-xFexI3 thin films were improved, leading to improvement of dielectric and piezoelectric properties up to a doping amount of 7 at.% (x = 0.07). After 10 at.% (x = 0.10) doping, the MAPb1-xFexI3 samples exhibited a structural transition from tetragonal to cubic; this was a paraelectric material and is unsuitable for PENG applications. However, as the Fe2+ concentration increased, the piezoelectric output performance of MAPb1-xFexI3 thin-film PENGs linearly increased and achieved a maximum of 4.52 V for 7 at.%-doped PENG. In addition, the same 7 at.%-doped PENG demonstrated a much higher piezoelectric output of 7.29 V and 0.88 μA/cm2 after poling at an applied electric field of 30 kV/cm.
a) Schematic picture of MAPbI3-based PENG, and b) corresponding pressure-dependent piezoelectric output performance [
However, the high toxicity of Pb makes it inappropriate for direct application in the human body or real environs. Researchers have been searching for other lead-free materials in an effort to develop alternatives to lead-based nanogenerators. One of the emerging lead-free OIHP materials is Sn-based perovskite, which is eco-friendly, biocompatible, and has a large piezoelectric coefficient comparable to that of ceramic PbTiO3, which makes it a promising candidate for high-performance nanogenerators in the medical field [31, 48]. The poled lead-free MASnI3 PENG produced an output voltage of 3.8 V and a current density of 0.35 μA/cm2 under an applied pressure of 0.5 MPa [31]. Similarly, the lead-free MASnBr3 PENG displayed an output voltage and current density of 1.56 V and 0.58 μA/cm2, respectively, under the same applied pressure of 0.5 MPa (Figure 6e and f) [30]. The generated low output from the MASnBr3 film is because of a lower piezoelectric coefficient of 2.7 pm/V compared to the MASnI3 d33 value of 20.8 pm/V [30, 31]. In addition to organic–inorganic halide perovskites (OHPs), some researchers have also explored inorganic halide perovskite (IHP) materials for PENG applications because of their decent environment stability compared to OIHPs. In particular, CsPbX3 has attracted considerable interest in device applications given its higher chemical stability than other perovskites. The CsPbBr3 nanogenerator was developed on a plastic substrate with the structure of PET/ITO/PDMS/CsPbBr3/ITO/PET and poled at an applied electric field of 25 kV/cm [33]. The PENG demonstrated better output performance with an output voltage and current of 16.4 V and 604 nA, respectively, after optimized poling conditions. The same device was further able to sense selective motions, such as eye-blinking, throat movements, and finger motions of a human body, highlighting the potential of CsPbBr3 materials for physiological sensing applications.
Although many studies prove the potential of materials in harvesting mechanical energy for generating the electricity, the practical application of OIHP-based PENGs has not been realized so far because of their lower outputs. Furthermore, they are completely incompatible with irregular mechanical deformations. Hence, a key solution proposed was to create composite OIHP structures with polymer materials for the construction of high-performance and long-term air-stable nanogenerators that can withstand highly harsh environs. The first OIHP–PDMS composite-based PENG (PET/ITO/FAPbBr3-PDMS/Al) was developed by incorporating ferroelectric FAPbBr3 nanoparticles into a PDMS polymer, spin-coating the composite onto an indium tin oxide (ITO)-coated PET substrate, and integrating the film with Al foil acting as a top electrode [32]. This PENG demonstrated a maximum piezoelectric output voltage and current density of 8.5 V and 3.8 μA/cm2, respectively, under pushing. Another group developed an eco-friendly PENG using lead-free MASnBr3-PDMS composite material (Figure 7a), which displayed a high piezoelectric output voltage of 18.8 V, current density of 13.76 μA/cm2, and power density of 74.52 μW/cm2 under an applied pressure of 0.5 MPa (Figure 7b) [30]. In addition, the PENG exhibited enormous air-stability over 120 days and mechanical durability over more than 10,000 cycles. However, the non-uniform dispersion of perovskite materials in highly viscous polymers like PDMS may result in modest interactions between PDMS and perovskite crystals that could reduce the piezoelectric output performance of nanogenerators [13]. Soon after, researchers have made use of ferroelectric PVDF polymers to realize high-performance nanogenerators because of its ferroelectric nature [29, 49, 50, 51, 52]. PVDF, a semi-crystalline ferroelectric polymer, is mainly available in four phases (α, β, γ, and δ). Among these, the β-phase is one of the polar phases and is a highly electroactive phase with superior piezoelectric properties [49]. Hence, the MAPbI3 perovskite solution was mixed with PVDF solution and spin-coated onto the desired plastic substrates to construct PENGs (Figure 7c) [52]. The 25 vol% MAPbI3-PVDF composite films showed porous-like morphology with good dispersion of MAPbI3 nanoparticles into the PVDF matrix as shown in SEM image of Figure 7d [29, 52]. By increasing the volume fraction of MAPbI3, the dielectric and ferroelectric properties of composite films improved remarkably owing to the enhanced β-phase content of the PVDF matrix caused by the strong polar interactions or hydrogen bonding between MAPbI3 and PVDF. In addition, PVDF encapsulation significantly increased the air-stability of MAPbI3 perovskite over 6 months [29]. The 25 vol% MAPbI3-PVDF PENG, with the IDE-structure given in Figure 7c, generated a high piezoelectric output voltage, current density and power density of 33.6 V and 3.54 μA/cm2, 41.18 μW/cm2, respectively, at an applied pressure of 300 kPa, while demonstrating long-term operational stability and mechanical stability due to SEBS polymer passivation (Figure 7e) [52]. Furthermore, another eco-friendly PENG based on lead-free FASnI3-PVDF nanocomposite materials that has a high piezoelectric coefficient of 73 pm/V demonstrated a piezoelectric output voltage of 23 V [50]. The piezoelectric output of the same PENG is highly influenced by the applied frequency and force as shown in Figure 7f and g, respectively. Furthermore, the developed lateral-structured PENGs based on highly uniform CsPbBr3-PVDF composite fibers reveal a recordable piezoelectric output performance with an output voltage of 103 V and circuit current of 170 μA/cm2, which is noticeably higher than many OIHP/OIHP-polymer materials [51]. The same composite PENG exhibits enhanced thermal/water/acid–base stabilities along with exceptional mechanical stability. These results open up a route for more simple and cost-effective production of high-performance PENGs using OIHPs and their polymer composite materials for mechanical energy harvesting and sensor applications.
a) Schematic representation of MASnBr3-PDMS composite based PENG, and b) corresponding piezoelectric output performance [
TENGs have been intensively utilized as flexible power sources and self-powered sensors [8]. Two dissimilar triboelectric nature materials lying at the extreme opposite ends of the triboelectric series are usually employed to fabricate TENGs in order to achieve higher output power. In particular, materials with high dielectric properties are suitable for realizing efficient TENGs, which are designed as part of capacitors [8]. Therefore, OIHPs are recognized as one of the most promising candidates for developing efficient TENGs because of their remarkable dielectric and piezoelectric properties along with low-temperature synthesis [52]. The first OIHP-based TENG developed using MAPbI3 perovskite is operated as a self-powered photodetector based on the combined properties of photoelectric and triboelectric effects [15]. The TENG comprising of two triboelectric parts (Cu/PET as a negative triboelectric material and MAPbI3/TiO2/FTO as a positive triboelectric material) as illustrated in Figure 8a is operated in a fundamental vertical contact–separation mode. This TENG generated a triboelectric peak-to-peak output voltage of 8 V under mechanical pushing in darkness because of triboelectrification. The output is immediately decreased by nearly 37.5% (~5 V) under illumination with a light-intensity of 100 mW/cm2, giving rise to a high responsivity of 7.5 V/W due to photogenerated charges in the light-active MAPbI3 film (Figure 8b). Further, the compositional tuning and electrical poling of perovskite materials can significantly improve the triboelectric performance of TENGs, because compositional modification and ion migration under poling process both tend to alter the conductivity of the OIHP films, which in turn changes the surface potential and electron affinity of those films [43]. Clearly, as shown in Figure 8c, the conductivity of the MAPbI3 perovskite film can noticeably change to either p-type (MAI rich) or n-type (PbI2 rich) by regulating the MAI/PbI2 ratio during the precursor synthesis [43]. This concept can further extend to TENG applications to realize high-performance TENGs. The composition-tuned MAPbI3 perovskite is paired with PTFE and nylon (PA6) polymer films to develop TENGs (Figure 8d). Here, the 500-nm-thick MAPbI3 film acts as a triboelectric positive friction layer while pairing with the triboelectric negative PTFE film in PT-PVK TENG and generates a peak output current density of 61.25 mA/m2. By contrast, the MAPbI3 film acts as a triboelectric negative friction layer while pairing with the triboelectric positive PA6 in PA-PVK TENG and generates a peak output current density of 21.5 mA/m2 with opposite polarity compared to that of PT-PVK TENG. The poling process further enhances the triboelectric output of PT-PVK TENG. The device generated a maximum output voltage, current density, and peak power density of 979 V, 106 mA/m2, and 24 W/m2 after an optimal compositional tuning (MAI/PbI2 ratio of 2) and poling process (EP = 4 V/μm). Similarly, the TENGs fabricated using composition tuned-Cs based perovskites demonstrate notable variations in their triboelectric output depending upon A-site or B-site, or halogen modification [44]. The TENG (glass/FTO/CsPbBr3-yCly//PVDF/Ag) demonstrates increasing output performance with increasing Cl content and reaches an output similar to that of only CsPbCl3-based TENG owing to increased electron-donating ability with increasing doping amount. Here, perovskite acts as a triboelectric positive layer, while PVDF films act as a triboelectric negative layer.
a) Schematic representation of MAPbI3-based TENG, and b) corresponding light-dependent triboelectric output performance [
As in the case of the OIHP–polymer PENGs, the OIHPs were further composited with polymer materials to improve the long-term operational stability along with air-stability of OIHP–polymer TENGs. To this end, several TENGs with different structures, materials, and modes of operations were developed and their feasibility to harvest the mechanical energy was demonstrated. The flexible single-structure multifunctional device with the structure of MAPbI3-PVDF/Au-IDE/SEBS can harvest mechanical energy and simultaneously sense multiple external stimuli like light and pressure (Figure 8e) [52]. The TENG in a single-electrode mode generates an output voltage of ∼44.7 V, a current density of ∼4.34 μA/cm2, and a power density of ∼59.52 μW/cm2 under cyclic contact–separations in darkness. Furthermore, the triboelectric output gradually increases with increasing light-intensity and reaches a maximum voltage of 67.9 V (Figure 8f), current density of 7.44 μA/cm2, and power density of 158.34 μW/cm2 at a high light intensity of 3.23 mW/cm2. This significant enhancement in triboelectric output is because of the combined photoelectric and triboelectric properties of the MAPbI3–PVDF active layer. Under mechanical pushing, when the pushing stack (Al2O3/Al-stack) touches the surface of the SEBS polymer, contact electrification results in the generation of charges with opposite polarities on the surfaces of the pushing stack as well as SEBS polymers. Concurrently, the active piezoelectric MAPbI3–PVDF layer undergoes deformation, thus generating dipoles. Owing to the combined triboelectric and piezoelectric effects, the charges will be induced on the Au electrode, leading to a higher potential difference between the electrode and the ground. The resultant potential difference allows the flow of electrons through the external circuit to the ground, thus generating improved outputs. However, when the TENG is illuminated under the applied pressure, the induced triboelectric charge allows the rapid injection of photogenerated charge carriers from MAPbI3 into the Au electrode. This results in a significantly higher triboelectric output under illumination compared to dark-state. Similarly, the fabricated MAPbI3–PDMS composite e-skin-based TENG is highly capable of harvesting mechanical energy and producing neural-stimulating electrical signals without relying on an external power supply [53]. The triboelectric output performance of e-skin significantly increases as the bending radius increases and shows high output voltage and currents of 0.659 V and 8.94 nA, respectively, for a bending angle of 60°. In addition, the device displays strain-dependent and light-stimulated voltage variations, which enable the device to operate as a self-powered pressure and physiological sensor application. More recently, a stretchable, breathable, and long-term stable hybrid MEH has been developed based on eco-friendly, 2D layered lead-free Cs3Bi2Br9, PVDF-HFP and SEBS composite (LPPS-NFC) nanofibers prepared via an electrospinning process [54]. Here, the strong electron-accepting nature of perovskite materials acts as a nucleating agent and improve the crystallinity and polar β-phase of PVDF polymers. The developed composite nanofibers can efficiently harvest the mechanical energy in piezoelectric as well as triboelectric modes. The LPPS-NFC stretchable device with the structure of Spandex/Ag-SEBS/LPPS-NFC//Al generates much larger peak-to-peak outputs with a voltage of 400 V, current density of 1.63 μA/cm2, and power density of 2.34 W/m2 in the hybrid mode based on the combined piezoelectric and triboelectric effects of composite film. Furthermore, the LPPS-NFC based MEHs reveal excellent stability and are able to produce stable outputs even under harsh mechanical deformations like washing, folding, and crumpling, indicating the superior potential of these LPPS-NFC-based MEHs for use in smart textile-based wearable devices. All these results demonstrate the high potential of hybrid perovskites as triboelectric materials, given their superior dielectric property and stepping forward for high-performance TENG platforms.
Plenty of research effort has been expended in the study of OIHP nanogenerators to prove the potential of OIHPs as promising active materials for mechanical energy harvesting. The development of OIHP-based mechanical energy harvesters can substantially advance IoT and AI systems. OIHP nanogenerators can operate as sensors that have a wide range of utility in environment monitoring, health monitoring, motion detection, robotics, e-skin, and human-machine interactions. Furthermore, those nanogenerators can supply power to conventional batteries in small-scale and portable electronic devices. However, the key factors that need to be resolved currently in the field of OIHP-based MEHs are air-stability, encapsulation, toxicity, mechanical sturdiness, and moderate performances. Future developments in this field are likely to be focused on the following aspects. First, the output performance and energy conversion efficiency of OIHP-based MEHs should be improved to meet the requirements of small-scale/portable devices. Second, in order to be implemented in wearable devices, the OIHP nanogenerators should be highly flexible, stretchable, and lightweight, and must be able to withstand harsh environs. Third, the eco-friendly nature and low toxicity of OIHP-based devices is a key characteristic for use in health monitoring/biomedical devices; thus, the need of lead-free OIHPs for MEH applications is necessary. Systematic investigations of OIHPs having various dimensions can introduce a new platform for designing high-performance nanogenerators. Controlling the dielectric and ferro/piezoelectric properties of various OIHPs via compositional and structural engineering can also assist nanogenerators to improve energy conversion efficiencies. Furthermore, it has been recognized that layered 2D OIHPs have better piezo/ferroelectric properties along with decent moisture and air stability compared to the 3D OIHPs owing to the presence of long-chain organic cation molecules. It is expected that flexible and stretchable self-powered systems with dynamic sensing properties are the future direction of wearable electronic devices. Therefore, integrating OIHPs with flexible piezoelectric polymers will aid in the construction of air-stable, mechanically robust and high-performance nanogenerators.
In this chapter, we presented the ability of OIHP materials including organic and inorganic halide perovskite materials to produce electricity by harvesting the ambient abundant mechanical energy. The structural suitability of various OIHPs and OIHP–polymer composites for developing high-performance MEHs is discussed in detail along with their dielectric, piezoelectric, and ferroelectric properties. In addition, some significant works based on OIHP-MEHs in the form of PENGs and TENGs are summarized. Finally, the existing issues and challenges facing current research are stated and some future research directions for pursuing the commercialization of OIHP-based MEHs in wearable, portable electronic devices are suggested.
This work was supported by a National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) grant funded by the Korean government (MSIP) (NRF-2021R1A2B5B03002016, NRF-2021R1A2C1010797, NRF-2021R1I1A1A01060012) and by the Basic Research Program through the National Research Foundation of Korea (NRF) funded by the Ministry of Education (Grant No. 2021R1A6A1A03043682).
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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\n\nAny use of the above terminology, or other words in the singular, plural, capitalization and/or he/she or they, are taken as interchangeable.
\n\nUnless otherwise stated, IntechOpen and/or its licensors own the intellectual property rights for all materials on www.intechopen.com. All intellectual property rights are reserved. You may view, download, share, link and print pages from www.intechopen.com for your own personal use, subject to the restrictions set out in these Terms and Conditions.
\n\nWe employ the use of cookies. By using the IntechOpen website you consent to the use of cookies in accordance with IntechOpen’s Privacy Policy. Most modern day interactive websites use cookies to enable the retrieval of user details for each visit. On our site, cookies are predominantly used to enable functionality and ease of use for those visiting the site.
\n\nIn no circumstances shall IntechOpen or its suppliers be liable for any damages (including, without limitation, damages for loss of data or profit, or due to business interruption) arising out of the use, or inability to use, the materials on IntechOpen's websites, even if IntechOpen or an IntechOpen authorized representative has been notified orally or in writing of the possibility of such damage. Some jurisdictions do not allow limitations on implied warranties, or limitations of liability for consequential or incidental damages; consequently, these limitations may not apply to you.
\n\nIntechopen.com website content and services are provided on an "AS IS" and an "AS AVAILABLE" basis. Material appearing on www.intechopen.com could include minor technical, typographical, or photographic errors. IntechOpen may make changes to any material contained on its website at any time without notice.
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\n\nCroatian version of Terms and Conditions available here
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Notably, enhanced AR signaling in CRPC has been documented in several studies; however, which of these factors are important for the biological function it remains poorly understood. Here, I review our current knowledge of the mechanistic roles of AR involved in prostate cancer progression and discuss the importance of the prostate cancer-associated signals.",book:{id:"6762",slug:"advances-in-testosterone-action",title:"Advances in Testosterone Action",fullTitle:"Advances in Testosterone Action"},signatures:"Ken-ichi Takayama",authors:[{id:"239221",title:"Dr.",name:"Ken-Ichi",middleName:null,surname:"Takayama",slug:"ken-ichi-takayama",fullName:"Ken-Ichi Takayama"}]},{id:"75047",title:"Role of Sex Hormones in Human Body",slug:"role-of-sex-hormones-in-human-body",totalDownloads:566,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Gonadal Steroids hormones play an important role in the reproductive and non-reproductive systems. Estrogen has important rule in cardiovascular system as it has vasodilator effect and reduces or prevents platelet activation. In addition, it improves the profile of circulating lipoproteins. All of which may explain why women at premenopausal age are less likely to have heart disease than menopause women or men. E2 play a grate effect on the skeletal system as it is one of the strongest regulators of osteoblast and osteoclast function, and it is responsible for the reduction of adipose tissue and regulation of the body weight, and also has dermatological effect,hence it stimulates the proliferation of keratinocytes and prevents their apoptosis, in addition to the progesterone which increases collagen synthesis. Estrogen is necessary for the functioning and integrity of the tissues of the urinary system specially of the lower urinary tract. Sex steroid are crucial for nervous system, as progesterone is important for production of neurosteroid, and estrogen is currently used in Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease because of its effects on mental health. The androgens also have a crucial biological effects on neural, muscle, bone, adipose tissue,prostate, cardiovascular, haemopoietic, and the reproductive systems. The gonadal steroid hormones play an important role in immune system and regulating the immune response against different viral or bacterial infections.",book:{id:"10313",slug:"reproductive-hormones",title:"Reproductive Hormones",fullTitle:"Reproductive Hormones"},signatures:"Nassrin Malik Aubead",authors:[{id:"329956",title:"Dr.",name:"Nassrin",middleName:null,surname:"Malik Aubead",slug:"nassrin-malik-aubead",fullName:"Nassrin Malik Aubead"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"1014",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:89,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:318,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:129,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:106,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:15,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"June 29th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:32,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. His research interests are focused on modern imaging methods used in medicine and pharmacy, including in particular hyperspectral imaging, dynamic thermovision analysis, high-resolution ultrasound, as well as other techniques such as EPR, NMR and hemispheric directional reflectance. Author of over 100 scientific works, patents and industrial designs. Expert of the Polish National Center for Research and Development, Member of the Investment Committee in the Bridge Alfa NCBiR program, expert of the Polish Ministry of Funds and Regional Policy, Polish Medical Research Agency. Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",slug:"adriano-andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",biography:"Dr. Adriano de Oliveira Andrade graduated in Electrical Engineering at the Federal University of Goiás (Brazil) in 1997. He received his MSc and PhD in Biomedical Engineering respectively from the Federal University of Uberlândia (UFU, Brazil) in 2000 and from the University of Reading (UK) in 2005. He completed a one-year Post-Doctoral Fellowship awarded by the DFAIT (Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada) at the Institute of Biomedical Engineering of the University of New Brunswick (Canada) in 2010. Currently, he is Professor in the Faculty of Electrical Engineering (UFU). He has authored and co-authored more than 200 peer-reviewed publications in Biomedical Engineering. He has been a researcher of The National Council for Scientific and Technological Development (CNPq-Brazil) since 2009. He has served as an ad-hoc consultant for CNPq, CAPES (Coordination for the Improvement of Higher Education Personnel), FINEP (Brazilian Innovation Agency), and other funding bodies on several occasions. He was the Secretary of the Brazilian Society of Biomedical Engineering (SBEB) from 2015 to 2016, President of SBEB (2017-2018) and Vice-President of SBEB (2019-2020). He was the head of the undergraduate program in Biomedical Engineering of the Federal University of Uberlândia (2015 - June/2019) and the head of the Centre for Innovation and Technology Assessment in Health (NIATS/UFU) since 2010. He is the head of the Postgraduate Program in Biomedical Engineering (UFU, July/2019 - to date). He was the secretary of the Parkinson's Disease Association of Uberlândia (2018-2019). Dr. Andrade's primary area of research is focused towards getting information from the neuromuscular system to understand its strategies of organization, adaptation and controlling in the context of motor neuron diseases. His research interests include Biomedical Signal Processing and Modelling, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation Engineering, Neuroengineering and Parkinson's Disease.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",slug:"luis-villarreal-gomez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",biography:"Dr. Luis Villarreal is a research professor from the Facultad de Ciencias de la Ingeniería y Tecnología, Universidad Autónoma de Baja California, Tijuana, Baja California, México. Dr. Villarreal is the editor in chief and founder of the Revista de Ciencias Tecnológicas (RECIT) (https://recit.uabc.mx/) and is a member of several editorial and reviewer boards for numerous international journals. He has published more than thirty international papers and reviewed more than ninety-two manuscripts. His research interests include biomaterials, nanomaterials, bioengineering, biosensors, drug delivery systems, and tissue engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:23,paginationItems:[{id:"82392",title:"Nanomaterials as Novel Biomarkers for Cancer Nanotheranostics: State of the Art",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105700",signatures:"Hao Yu, Zhihai Han, Cunrong Chen and Leisheng Zhang",slug:"nanomaterials-as-novel-biomarkers-for-cancer-nanotheranostics-state-of-the-art",totalDownloads:21,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11405.jpg",subseries:{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering"}}},{id:"82184",title:"Biological Sensing Using Infrared SPR Devices Based on ZnO",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104562",signatures:"Hiroaki Matsui",slug:"biological-sensing-using-infrared-spr-devices-based-on-zno",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:[{name:"Hiroaki",surname:"Matsui"}],book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82122",title:"Recent Advances in Biosensing in Tissue Engineering and Regenerative Medicine",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104922",signatures:"Alma T. Banigo, Chigozie A. Nnadiekwe and Emmanuel M. Beasi",slug:"recent-advances-in-biosensing-in-tissue-engineering-and-regenerative-medicine",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Biosignal Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11153.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}},{id:"82080",title:"The Clinical Usefulness of Prostate Cancer Biomarkers: Current and Future Directions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103172",signatures:"Donovan McGrowder, Lennox Anderson-Jackson, Lowell Dilworth, Shada Mohansingh, Melisa Anderson Cross, Sophia Bryan, Fabian Miller, Cameil Wilson-Clarke, Chukwuemeka Nwokocha, Ruby Alexander-Lindo and Shelly McFarlane",slug:"the-clinical-usefulness-of-prostate-cancer-biomarkers-current-and-future-directions",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Cancer Bioinformatics",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10661.jpg",subseries:{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:12,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6692",title:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6692.jpg",slug:"medical-and-biological-image-analysis",publishedDate:"July 4th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Robert Koprowski",hash:"e75f234a0fc1988d9816a94e4c724deb",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Medical and Biological Image Analysis",editors:[{id:"50150",title:"Prof.",name:"Robert",middleName:null,surname:"Koprowski",slug:"robert-koprowski",fullName:"Robert Koprowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTYNQA4/Profile_Picture_1630478535317",biography:"Robert Koprowski, MD (1997), PhD (2003), Habilitation (2015), is an employee of the University of Silesia, Poland, Institute of Computer Science, Department of Biomedical Computer Systems. For 20 years, he has studied the analysis and processing of biomedical images, emphasizing the full automation of measurement for a large inter-individual variability of patients. Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7218",title:"OCT",subtitle:"Applications in Ophthalmology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7218.jpg",slug:"oct-applications-in-ophthalmology",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Michele Lanza",hash:"e3a3430cdfd6999caccac933e4613885",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"OCT - Applications in Ophthalmology",editors:[{id:"240088",title:"Prof.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Lanza",slug:"michele-lanza",fullName:"Michele Lanza",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240088/images/system/240088.png",biography:"Michele Lanza is Associate Professor of Ophthalmology at Università della Campania, Luigi Vanvitelli, Napoli, Italy. His fields of interest are anterior segment disease, keratoconus, glaucoma, corneal dystrophies, and cataracts. His research topics include\nintraocular lens power calculation, eye modification induced by refractive surgery, glaucoma progression, and validation of new diagnostic devices in ophthalmology. \nHe has published more than 100 papers in international and Italian scientific journals, more than 60 in journals with impact factors, and chapters in international and Italian books. He has also edited two international books and authored more than 150 communications or posters for the most important international and Italian ophthalmology conferences.",institutionString:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institution:{name:'University of Campania "Luigi Vanvitelli"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7560",title:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods",subtitle:"Image Processing",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7560.jpg",slug:"non-invasive-diagnostic-methods-image-processing",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Mariusz Marzec and Robert Koprowski",hash:"d92fd8cf5a90a47f2b8a310837a5600e",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Non-Invasive Diagnostic Methods - Image Processing",editors:[{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:null}]},{type:"book",id:"6843",title:"Biomechanics",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6843.jpg",slug:"biomechanics",publishedDate:"January 30th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Hadi Mohammadi",hash:"85132976010be1d7f3dbd88662b785e5",volumeInSeries:4,fullTitle:"Biomechanics",editors:[{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. 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She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:null},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. Govindarajan completed his BSc degree in Zoology at Government Arts College (Autonomous), Kumbakonam, and MSc, MPhil, and PhD degrees at Annamalai University, Annamalai Nagar, Tamil Nadu, India. He is serving as an assistant professor at the Department of Zoology, Annamalai University. His research interests include isolation, identification, and characterization of biologically active molecules from plants and microbes. He has identified more than 20 pure compounds with high mosquitocidal activity and also conducted high-quality research on photochemistry and nanosynthesis. He has published more than 150 studies in journals with impact factor and 2 books in Lambert Academic Publishing, Germany. He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"337446",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Zavala-Colon",slug:"maria-zavala-colon",fullName:"Maria Zavala-Colon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Puerto Rico, Medical Sciences Campus",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"338856",title:"Mrs.",name:"Nur Alvira",middleName:null,surname:"Pascawati",slug:"nur-alvira-pascawati",fullName:"Nur Alvira Pascawati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Respati Yogyakarta",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"441116",title:"Dr.",name:"Jovanka M.",middleName:null,surname:"Voyich",slug:"jovanka-m.-voyich",fullName:"Jovanka M. Voyich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Montana State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"330412",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Farhab",slug:"muhammad-farhab",fullName:"Muhammad Farhab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"349495",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Ijaz",slug:"muhammad-ijaz",fullName:"Muhammad Ijaz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"20",type:"subseries",title:"Animal Nutrition",keywords:"Sustainable Animal Diets, Carbon Footprint, Meta Analyses",scope:"An essential part of animal production is nutrition. Animals need to receive a properly balanced diet. One of the new challenges we are now faced with is sustainable animal diets (STAND) that involve the 3 P’s (People, Planet, and Profitability). We must develop animal feed that does not compete with human food, use antibiotics, and explore new growth promoters options, such as plant extracts or compounds that promote feed efficiency (e.g., monensin, oils, enzymes, probiotics). These new feed options must also be environmentally friendly, reducing the Carbon footprint, CH4, N, and P emissions to the environment, with an adequate formulation of nutrients.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/20.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11416,editor:{id:"175967",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Gonzalez Ronquillo",slug:"manuel-gonzalez-ronquillo",fullName:"Manuel Gonzalez Ronquillo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/175967/images/system/175967.png",biography:"Dr. Manuel González Ronquillo obtained his doctorate degree from the University of Zaragoza, Spain, in 2001. He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517"},editorialBoard:[{id:"175762",title:"Dr.",name:"Alfredo J.",middleName:null,surname:"Escribano",slug:"alfredo-j.-escribano",fullName:"Alfredo J. 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