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While we are writing our reflections the spread of the contagion is worrying because of unexpected variants of the virus, and the emergency cannot be considered over. Therefore, it is necessary to think of this writing as an outline of reflection on this enormous change that we have been going through for more than a year now.
Some food for thought will therefore concern the effects on our existence, physical and psychological (if we still want to consider them separately), of the perception that a foreign body is spreading among us, putting our safety at risk, and of the limitations implemented by governments to contain its spread.
The interruption of all activities that accompanied our daily routine, although destabilizing, can be an opportunity to highlight and bring reflections on some assumptions and some changes that have characterized our lives in recent years, without our full attendance.
Suddenly space, time, relationships, everyday life, the sense of our proceeding, have taken on different colors. Reactions have been progressively more differentiated, and only in the coming years, with a look less immersed in the phenomenon, it will be possible to have a reading with more defined boundaries and to understand the long-term effects.
What we would like to present in this work are the first impressions gathered in this first period, in the exchange with patients, with colleagues, and in our daily life immersed ourselves in this same reality. In Victor Turner’s words, we are in the midst of a liminal phase where everything is possible except returning to the previous state [1].
If we had been asked to think about what a pandemic would have been like and how we would have inhabited it, we would probably not have imagined it that way. We are likely more inclined to imagine impactful events, delimited in time and definitive, in which little can be done, if not heroic acts that are the prerogative of a few.
In fact, the spread of Sars-CoV-2, for more than a year now, has changed our world as we knew it, not so much in a sudden and evident way, but by transforming that fabric of habits and implications which structure and move our existence. In an anthropological reading of the pandemic, Tosetto recalls the concept of “total social fact” by Marcel Mauss, precisely to define “a significant event for the majority of society that has repercussions on the practices and beliefs of all of us” [2]. We all remember how this emergency initially affected our lives here in Europe; it initially felt as a distant fact that would not concern us, with manifestations of intolerance or solidarity towards citizens of Chinese origin (or Asian in general), with growing concern and disbelief when we realized that the virus was already circulating widely in our territory and in our community, and few days later (at least here in Italy), with drastic and strongly impacting daily life measures, which still characterize it to a great extent. Pietro Saitta [3], in his comment on Covid-19 as a “cultural and political object”, observes how “the times of suspended normality are those that better illuminate the ordinary than others”. In fact, the outbreak of a social matter that interrupts and alters normality “highlights the relationships and tics of everyday life in times of peace”. This alteration of “normality” allows us to highlight some assumed assumptions, automatisms and functioning that have become inherent part of our cosmology, they normally belong more to a pre-reflective and implicit sphere, something that directs us without even realizing it.
Again Tosetto [2] observes that the pandemic has precisely “reconfigured our practices relating to movement and communication, it has broken the balance between these two dimensions, which the anthropologist Arjun Appadurai identifies as the foundations of globalized modernity”. A halt in the movement that has long characterized our realities, both on a small and large scale; the possibility of moving so quickly and in so many people to the other side of the world has to be considered, actually, something recent and certainly impacting. A revolution that is grafted onto another revolution in progress, the latter which seemed indisputable and unstoppable. This arrest of concrete spatial movement has been accompanied by an enormous expansion of the use of technological devices to communicate and keep contact spaces, which were suddenly interrupted, open. We are hardly fully aware of the era in which we live in, of the transformations underway, of the direction that some aspects are taking; however, when something so imposing is looming, we are given the opportunity to become more aware of what is moving-with-us. In the first lockdown phase (it is identified as the months from March to May 2020, taking as reference the first measures to contain the spread of the virus taken by the Italian government), it was common to read some comforting slogan like “everything will be fine” and “we will make it” that accompanied a sense of human and national solidarity, which characterized the first phase of this emergency period. But another feeling also arised and it was represented by another sentence, which appeared in different languages and in different contexts: “We won’t return to normality, because normality was the problem”.
In the first period of pandemic emergency, a shared experience of shock, led to mobilize as much energy as possible to stay alive (some on the front line putting all their effort to do the best possible to ensure adequate care, some immobilizing to stop the contagion), but there was also a sudden realization of some changes, and perhaps limits, previously denied or even just poorly enlightened.
The post Coronavirus is as disturbing as the crisis itself, in fact many share the idea that the world will no longer be what it was before, but what will it be then? We have entered the era of uncertainty, the unpredictable future is now in gestation [4]. In a short time, we have passed from the uncertainty about the origin of the virus to its propagation, its mutations, its treatments as well as its political, social, psychological and planetary consequences.
The human being is phylogenetically ready to respond to sudden and adverse events, mobilizing as much energy as possible to survive. If we refer to the psychotraumatological studies and evidence [5, 6, 7, 8], we can consider the first period of this pandemic as the traumatic event that we were ready to respond to, despite the subjective differences of the case, mainly with subcortical activations and with almost automatic mechanisms and with poor reflexive mediation. The possible answers in situations of extreme danger are attack, escape and, as a last resort, collapse, when the first two fail or are impossible. Much has been said about the terminology and the metaphor of war used to talk about this pandemic [9], the concept of enemy often used to identify the virus risks of creating a real misunderstanding, thus mobilizing incorrect reactions that could increase the sense of helplessness. Precisely, a visible enemy allows confrontation or escape but in front of this invisible entity, we cannot attack and even escaping is difficult. Is therefore collapse, or to a lesser degree denial, the only exit strategy, in conditions of grave danger where the only solution is “pretending to be dead”? However, if we pause on the metaphor of war, widely used in some countries to talk about this pandemic, we could ask ourselves: what kind of war? Then perhaps this comparison can be useful, in another way, to linger on some questions about the duration of some events. Probably no one at the beginning of a war would think of a long duration, perhaps of years; also as a psychic defense mechanism, we are led to see that event as point-like and not lasting, probably only this way we could have the energy and strength to cope with it. So it seems to be like this also for this pandemic which is still ongoing while we are writing and it is not over yet and certainly it is not a blitzkrieg. What kind of reactions, in the short, medium and long term, are therefore possible? Over time it will be more likely to understand the responses prevailing in the different phases of this pandemic, and the long-term effects that certain reactions can have, on the functioning of the I-Subject and on its auto-hetero-regulation, in the continuous exchange with the reality [10].
It is also interesting to mention the impact of the restrictions implemented to contain the contagion, here in Italy managed from October onwards through a system of zones (different colors have been used to indicate the greater or lesser danger and therefore the need for more or less stringent measures). In a discussion with colleagues and in the exchange with patients it was possible to collect an observation that we consider interesting to highlight: it was reported how this repeated scenario changes created a succession of “last days”, “last times”, “last meetings”. If on one hand the gradualness can be considered easier for our psychic apparatus to digest, on the other hand the continuous change of state might have created an emotional instability, whose long-term outcomes will only be understood in the future.
The issue of time, which we will discuss later, can help us understand the different observed behaviour as well as the different experiences, of citizens between the first and second phase. The first phase was characterized by a greater readiness to accep indications, the need to receive and show solidarity, and a poor differentiation of behaviors. In the second phase, however, the single management and the climate of sharing and solidarity seem to have left room for different positions, contrasts and less willingness to waive.
It is difficult to say whether precise temporal criteria for defining a state of emergency exist, from a sociological point of view; from the psychological point of view, the difference between a traumatic event delimited in time and what is defined as a prolonged trauma, a traumatic atmosphere, makes the possible outcomes of these events different from each other. A distinction between Post Traumatic Stress Disorder and what is recognized, by various authors dealing with trauma, such as Complex Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (it has recently joined the European diagnostic categorization ICD-11, not so for the DSM-5) consists in a more pervasive and destructuring impact on the personality, and concerns etiopathogenetic situations prolonged over time and often with a characteristic of impossibility to escape [11].
It is not possible here to go into clinical reflections on the psychic outcomes of the pandemic, but we can reflect on the prolonged duration of this situation and ask ourselves if it is still possible to consider it “emergency”. Indeed, it is not possible even at the time we are writing to consider this period behind us, so we are forced to reflect “in vivo”, probably in a strongly embodied way, which has not yet left room for reflexivity, as we usually define it, that is, detached from what we are experiencing at a precise moment. A question that will be discussed more deeply later on, concerns precisely the space for reflection and understanding, not in the “après-coup”, as we are used to, but initiated at the same time as the event, especially if it is excessively long.
In the various conversations we had with patients and colleagues in this period, and no less in personal experience, it was soon evident that the experience of time gradually assumed curvatures that we are not used to. We tend, perhaps also for psychic economy, to conceive time in a linear and non-contradictory sense. Having worked for some time with traumatized patients, accustomed to temporal leaps and contradictions in autobiographical narratives, it was soon evident to us that what was happening followed this temporal circularity, which tends to curl up around the subject, isolated and plundered by those routines that allow to “keep things in order”.
In personal life, time became more and more relative, normative criteria (such as data and recurrences) less usable, no longer responded to perceptions of speed/slowness, brevity/length; it was simply something else. It was a suspended time, which followed the tendency to put what was happening in brackets, waiting to return to normality, or on the contrary to absolutize it, as when we are experiencing such intense pain that we have the feeling that it will last forever [5]. In conversations with patients, or in discussions among colleagues, we found ourselves clearly dividing this situation from life, as if this were not part of it, as if this were not fully and profoundly life. In the process of life, a body has been grafted which, again, we recognize as foreign, not integrable, detached from the plot of what we consider to belong to us.
The days that are always the same, the loss of the references we were used to, especially in the first long lockdown, led to a crushing of experiences and an agglutination around a theme that, more or less consciously, we only wanted out of our reality. This could be considered as a nuance of a well-known defense mechanism, which has also accompanied this pandemic situation, which helps us in the moments of greatest difficulty to cope with it: denial. If a clear denial cannot be sustained in the course of this emergency, although denial and conspiratorial positions have emerged especially in the second phase, this putting time and life in brackets can be considered a prelude to what will happen next.
Yet, it is also possible to consider this abandonment of the linearity of time and history (especially if identified with a path towards unlimited progress) as an interesting factor compared to the illusion of total domination over it. One of the issues that distinguish our time is precisely that of the use of time, the hunger we have in consuming it, filling it and never allowing ourselves to inhabit it. The feeling of never having enough time, which produces suffering and feelings of growing alienation and dissatisfaction, is precisely the mirror of our use and abuse that prevents us from being, in the continuous pursuit of doing.
Those of us who are inclined to never stop, now that we are forced to do so, we face an opportunity and “over the course of time, time passed on my steps and slowly I was filled up with forgotten things that slowly forgot me” [12].
The time we have to live cannot be chosen, for this reason, as the existentialists maintain, we are thrown into the world and the only answer we can give to our throwaway is a project of a world hopefully authentic, unique and unrepeatable, and this freedom makes man condemned to liberty [13].
Only now that the pandemic stops the world, and even our “little world”, we do realize what world we had built, public and private; and that the dimensions in which we live, time and space, have changed radically and that the space, as well as the time that we have already talked about, undergoes an identical upheaval. In fact, with the pandemic we have gone from a urban space, dense, overcrowded, full of lights, voices, sounds, to an empty, dark, silent and semi-desert space; we have gone from the density and frenzy of a thousand relationships, to a single relationship; we went from changing a thousand clothes to living in a single space wearing disused home clothes, thus stripping ourselves of desires and wearing a psycho-uniform instead and being in relationship with whoever is there, regardless of being comfortable with them or not. The multiplicity of spaces, the cosmopolitan nature of places and the speed have made room for slowness, staticity; and in this living some have felt safe closed in their dimension of semi-isolation, others facing sacrifices and sufferings have experienced a real situation of suffering and nightmare. Reflecting on what happened, one remembers the times when one could freely live our time and space, one could organize outings, a weekend, a trip, choose a film and go to the cinema or to an exhibition, conditions that assume a connotation of privilege in front of a succession of DPCM that regulate and discipline our life and thus our feeling.
In this suspended time, many people have tried to live their time differently, they have dedicated themselves to tasks that they had delegated or left aside for a long time, they have ventured into new activities, experiencing in an unusual way a being in everyday life that suddenly seemed empty.
Already in the first phase of severe restrictions, different positions were observed in regard to these new routines. There were those who appreciated a recovery of self-care time, those who could not wait to return to their previous habits and those who began to reflect on their previous lifestyle, identifying its limits and planning possible changes.
But living is something that does not only concern individuals and their doing, but above all concerns our way of being in relation to others, in community.
Containment measures, prescribing distancing and isolation (or limiting social contacts to a minimum beyond the close ones – the cohabitants - and necessary - from indispensable work), could be considered as a “collapse of collective life”, on which much of our life is based. As Van der Kolk states, “Our culture leads us to focus on our own uniqueness, but, on a deeper level, we hardly exist as individual organisms. Our brains are designed to make us function as members of a tribe. Most of our energy is spent on connecting with others” [5].
We therefore have found ourselves in a paradoxical situation in which, as observed by Giuseppe Grimaldi “avoidance rather than contact, distance rather than commonality, solitude rather than the group are reconfiguring what it means to” make community “[…] redo everyday life, however not starting from trust and closeness but from mistrust and distance” [14].
But if it is true that we are deeply social creatures [5], how can we live in this new configuration that greatly redefines the way we relate to each other? With geographic, ethnic and social differences perhaps, making community has always been conceived in the proximity of bodies. So what happens when bodies are potential vehicles of contagion, when does proximity, instead of assuming positive connotations, become a herald of danger?
At the end of February already, in Italy, the first precautions began to be suggested, avoid touching each other as much as possible, stay at a safe distance. Then the more restrictive measures came, up to isolation which, for those who lived alone and no longer went to work, became almost total, except for some fleeting encounters at the supermarket or with neighbors in proximity contexts. As much as solitude may be appreciated, those who appreciate being able to take refuge in there, this condition never corresponds, apart from exceptional situations, to a state of almost total and obligatory isolation. In psychopathological evaluation, withdrawal and isolation are indeed considered serious symptoms that distinguish severe disorders such as psychotic or important depressive states.
Tosetto [2] states in this regard: “This retreat is not a free choice of hermitage but, on the contrary, it drags behind the expectations, roles and practices we have experienced in public spaces”. The author articulates, as previously reported, the impossibility of movement and a communicative hypertrophy, made possible by the availability and wide diffusion of technological devices, which “through the transition to the virtual […] crumbles the boundaries […]”. Everyone squeezed onto the screen of a device, we translated the habits of everyday life that concerned the way we used to meet, into a deterritorialized [15] and separated level.
Starting from a relational perspective and from the affirmation that there cannot be an individual isolated from relationships with the other, even in exceptional conditions, reflections on the individual inevitably lead to come to terms with an inseparable co-presence of the individual and of the group dimension and the circularity of the relationships between these different dimensions, in a reading of “circularity of relationships” [16]. The Covid-19 emergency has brought about a revolution in and of our daily life, leading us individually and collectively to reflect on the effects that have been produced on the interaction on social ties. There is no doubt that technology has opened up new possibilities for communicating at a distance, impacting our sociality, thus reducing our opportunities to be together and relate to each other; an extreme negative example is the Hikikomori Syndrome, a pathology widely spread in recent years that describes a particular psychiatric phenomenon manifesting as a profound social withdrawal, a self-exclusion from the outside world and a total rejection of any form of relationship, if not virtual. However, the need for relationship and sociality is still evident, alive, profound: the desire to see each other, to find each other, to communicate, to hug, to aggregate and simply to be among others, remains and is placed as the “higher floors of our feeling”. The relational dimension has been undermined in its roots and through a sense of destabilization and collapse of certainties, it has forced us to deal with pervasive feelings of distrust, deception, suspicion, fear that many people have resorted to cope with in dysfunctional way of isolation and by staying at home, identifying them as a safe haven, thus leaving an indelible mark on social relationships, creating a large consumption of psychic energy, which over time, has inevitably produced, states of anxiety, frustration and boredom. Covid represents for the current Western generations the first time in which history has entered and influenced our lives in such a meaningful way that transformed their dynamics. Until before the Pandemic, “History and Politics” were perceived by most people as external dimensions to our lives, afterwards people have began to feel that they no longer have control over their lives but that they are heterodirected by exogenous factors, which have pervaded the most intimate dimensions, configuring the right to free movement and the freedom to express and live one’s desires and needs. During this period of great uncertainty, we have in fact witnessed phenomena of strong polarization between “denial and security” for example, two apparently opposing postures that have in common the impossibility of holding up, for more or less long, uncertainty, confusion and bewilderment. The continuous closures, openings, closings and reopenings that have followed one another, have exasperated a longing for return to peace, requiring a continuous and extraordinary effort. One thing in the course of these long months has become clear, Covid is a Pandemic which by its nature can be defeated only through collective actions, both as regards the infection, the treatments and the vaccine. Once again thoughts, feelings and individual actions can and must be relocated in a framework of complex globality which, as Ceruti had already argued in 2018 [17], is the great challenge of our age. The philosofer added that it is urgent to rethink our traditional paradigms and effectiveness of our established modes of human action. This challenge requires careful and weighed reflection on the nature of national identities and their “community of destiny”. Therefore, it is urgent to reflect on the psychological ties’ complexity that the members of a society feel because only in this way, in a rereading of the circularity of relationships, we could deal with the suffering and the ties of the individual and of everyone.
A lack of human contact with others, in “real” sociality, which involved an encounter of bodies, was contrasted by an excess of the presence of vulnerable, sick, dead bodies.
The discussion concerning the communication style used during this period by mass media, to describe and narrate what was happening, cannot be treated here because it deserves an analysis and a dissertation on its own. However, it is important to underline that in this period, characterized by limited possibilities of meeting, exchange and discussion, the impact that information can have is to be considered different from that of a period in which it is mediated by other methods of knowledge, less impersonal and asymmetrical. The method used to inform us about the current emergency has influenced, in an exceptional way, our thoughts and the cognitive constructions that we were building with respect to our current reality.
The body dimension is often scotomized by considering ourselves human beings, all focused on our rationality and our “higher” mental functions.
In the new everyday life the body started to assume previously unknown boundaries, the contact no longer allowed, the movements no longer natural. Other people’s bodies gradually became the bearers of potential dangers, our embarrassed way of preserving the others from the same potential danger.
The body therefore assumed an imposing nature to which we were not used to, it was through it that the virus could reproduce and stay alive, endangering our life.
Will the procedural memory and the somatosensory memory keep these “missed acts” or rather withheld, this new way of relating, this caution and this distance, necessary up to now? At the end of the emergency it will be possible and important, to evaluate the results of these limitations and the new bodily and relational configurations.
From a clinical point of view, there are several aspects to pay attention to. Having transferred the therapeutic work from the studies to the virtual platforms, has allowed to maintain a therapeutic and relational continuity, especially in this period of great changes and challenges, and it has been a way to guarantee presence and stability, but we cannot ignore the differences between the two contexts and the effects of these translations.
Fabio Dei [18] asks himself “if Freud had been able to use Skype, would he have constructed the analytic setting in a different way? Would he have renounced the coexistence of bodies and elements of material culture (the ancient and ethnic objects that crammed his office, referring with their presence, to the “archaeological” depth of the unconscious?)”. His answer tends towards yes, being psychoanalysis “a verbal therapy that avoids contact between bodies (as opposed to popular therapies studied by anthropology which are based on touch instead: yet even in these, the principle of action at a distance is valid)”. Today many psychoanalysts pay increasing attention to various factors and they do not just consider the verbal component, although, what is exchanged through language still plays a preeminent importance.But it is perhaps precisely because of, or thanks to, this sudden change that some aspects have come to light. Beyond the attention to the setting, often simplistically identified with a physical space, many therapists have paused to ask themselves the type of work possible in those new conditions, both for the state of exceptionality in which they found themselves and which involved both (we will return to this point later) and because of the differences in the new “rules” of the meeting. The tendency to “go back to doing what had always been done”, to put in brackets the consequences of the spread of this virus and the containment measures adopted, certainly also affects mental health professionals, who have been no less affected from what happened. Meeting in a completely new way has brought multiple meanings and multiple reflections; here we focus in particular on the absence of corporeality. If on one hand, as Fabio Dei observed, this new structure could be the essence of the “talking cure”, few have considered this type of meeting preferable, especially when extended over time. Knowledge, learning, change, necessarily pass from a substantial involvement, which cannot be separated from the body, precisely because it passes through it.
This same body, through which we experience our being in the world, has been discovered vulnerable, or rather rediscovered. Vulnerability, the very essence of being alive, is in our time an aspect that we would like to deny or overcome, for that more or less explicit omnipotence that distinguishes the contemporary human being. The worry of getting sick, the fear of a body contaminated by an invisible and potentially lethal being, have brought back to the center the absolute violability of the body and human existence, which we tend not to consider in our reality, especially in the so-called developed countries, where early death, but perhaps by now death in general, is considered something exceptional and unacceptable.
And the return of the body and its mortality was accompanied by death burst that could not be ritualized. Academics have recognized, among the anthropological constants, the cult of the dead and the passage between life and death, as a moment to be accompanied by collectively shared rituals.
The now well-known images of the army wagons that, in Bergamo, carry the bodies of COVID-19 victims away from the hospitals, will remain a symbol of this cultural break that highlights the state of exceptionality. As Dei affirms, we observe an “anonymization of death, and the absence of any ritual filter that helps, to use De Martino’s words, to transcend anguish in value”, and always taking up De Martino’s concept, it brings us back to the importance of groupality in order to go through this phase of transition, both for the living and for the dead, “this transcendence can only be collective, communitarian. There is no reintegration into pure individual experience” [18].
Some hypothesize, once the emergency is over, a recovery of this collective rituality, which can be reparative with respect to this cultural break that will certainly leave scars. Dei is not positive about this, however he asserts “Having studied the forms of traumatic memory, even if in contexts completely different from this one (such as the massacres of civilians in war), I feel I can foresee rather bitter memorial conflicts” [18]. The loneliness resulting from the death and loss of a loved one brings excruciating emotions and the idea of dying “alone” is the most painful and excruciating expression that one can relive. This pandemic has seen us coming to terms with the awareness that death could not be shared with anyone, that the precious little world of a loved one would disappear with all its unique memories, feelings, experiences, dreams and desires known only by the one who was disappearing, reminding him of having no importance for the people who remain and giving back in turn, to those who wanted to cry and remember that person, the human need to be able to give and have a farewell from loved ones. The mystery of death and dying is immersed in the deep waters of solitude [19]. So what distinguishes loneliness from isolation? Loneliness is defined by the relationship to the other, which does not happen in isolation, it is staying open to the world of the other, of people, of things, keeping oneself open in a meaningful relationship with others. And in this, there is the real antithesis with isolation, in which one is closed and lost to the world, in its dimension of disinterest in interpersonal and community values. The emergency saw us sink into solitude but also into isolation and in some cases found us particularly negative, monads without doors and windows and in other cases, particularly positive, capable of opening loopholes and drawbridges to the experience of the story of suffering of the other which also met ours a little.
The invitation that Nietzsche addresses to each of us is to flee into our solitude, a solitude that in a different way belongs to each of us, to be silent as the tree that rises above the sea is silent and as the stone is silent. When loneliness ends, then the market begins [20].
We faced a crisis of meaning that sees us rethinking profound categories of living and dying, confronting ourselves with desperate fears that affect and attack our body, alive and dead, and ask us to activate a deep look in trying to rethink what has always been, as it has always been: “mourning makes us human and not being able to say goodbye upsets us”, the devotion and the cult of the dead transcends religions because, as the anthropologist Marta Villa [21] says “it is an intrinsic characteristic of being human”. In the time of Covid we face a mutilated mourning and this marks a profound fracture from a historical, cultural and anthropological point of view. Forced hospitalization has prevented us from greeting our loved ones, it breaks a moment that is personal but cultural at the same time, and checkmates the possibility of the individual being able to alleviate the moment of detachment from this land with the presence of the group, not being able to thus collectively manage the pain.
The psychological repercussions of this impossibility echo a
As already said, pandemic danger, the containment measures adopted to cope with it, have suddenly made it necessary to rethink the places and methods for continuing psychotherapy with patients. The disruption of the therapeutic work has led colleagues to discuss issues connected to this particular situation in a way that has probably never happened before in terms of frequency and intensity. Multiple reflections have been made about the setting change, with very different positions, as already mentioned. However, it can be hypothesized that the majority of therapists considered it essential to give continuity to care, especially in this particular period of high stress, by finding alternative methods of meeting.
Nevertheless, it seems more interesting to us to focus on another aspect discussed in these close comparisons: what should be handled in this “new meeting space”? The Covid issue, especially in the first pandemic phase, not only became part of the topics addressed in the session, but also seemed to occupy a different space. According to the discussions we had with colleagues at that time and our own clinical experience, there seemed to be a “surplus” of reality that it was difficult to place. The feeling of losing a degree of asymmetry, which allowed the therapist to “read” the reality with sufficient distance, to be able to understand it and restore it digested, made the therapeutic work different, apparently more complex. It has been stressed by many that this “social fact” involves everyone, recognizing this situation as different and unique.
It is curious to think how, focusing on our personal reality, we sometimes forget that we are part of a world that moves together and, without having to resort to complex phenomena such as the “butterfly effect”, there is nothing that really does not concern us. We tend to see ourselves outside the world, as if we were not part of it ourselves, as if we could observe it from the outside, even protect it, forgetting that we ourselves are what we consider and define “nature” and what we destroy or protect is ourselves, inserted in our reality, deeply interconnected with it and the other living beings who inhabit it; as Siegel claimed “Ironically, we come to feel attuned to ourselves while we also attain a sense of being connected to a much larger whole” [22].
Minolli [10] observes how there is the “danger of letting oneself be taken by self-organization and eliminating the eco-organization seen as “disturbing” because they are either opposed or remain distinct as if they were two alternative aspects”.
In our clinical practice we meet people from very distant countries, defined until recently “third world” or “developing countries”, although the stories they brought, as well as their reading, may seem distant, we soon realize that we can share feelings that allow for a profound exchange in which the distance tapers until it vanishes.
This danger, which has involved everyone, has allowed us to touch this closeness, the perception that what happens even far away from us directly involves us, to the point of upsetting our daily lives.
Therefore, how is it possible to inhabit the therapeutic space by sharing experiences and sensations that have rarely crossed us in such synchrony? Is it possible to understand what is happening to us “in the heart” of the very moment in which we go through it or is it only understandable in the après-coup?
Minolli [10] identifies two levels of functioning of the I-Subject. The first level is given by the “conscience” which has the task of “maintaining coherence with the received configuration and affirming itself”. The second level is given by the “consciousness of consciousness” which allows the I-Subject to “recognize its own configuration and existing being”.
It is possible to hypothesize, although it cannot be taken for granted, that in an emergency moment the I-Subject is more inclined to keep itself alive by affirming its own coherence and only in a moment of less external pressure, the activation of the “consciousness of consciousness” leads to a grasp of what has happened in the movement. If we remain in the conception of a body subject to external stress and its reaction to this pressure, as well as in the concept of resilience as the ability to return to the initial state, we risk losing the possibility created by this grasping itself in transformation, in a movement that it can go far beyond the “initial state” from which one started.
Several authors, among which we want to mention Marcelo Viñar, a Uruguayan psychoanalyst who lived under the civil-military dictatorship, criticize the concepts of trauma and resilience because, when decontextualized, they risk “fixing” the person in a out of time and out of context state, determined without escape from the outside. Viñar [23] writes about this “for a long time I have opposed the medicalization conveyed by the concept of PTSS (Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome) and its proliferating symptomatology, just as I have equally opposed resilience and its voluntaristic normalization. From pass-partout words by which pathologization replaces reflection. In their place, we have proposed the notion of sign, replacing that of outcome, since this is characterized by the pejorative tone of the handicap; on the other hand, the sign returns the multipurpose dimension of the painful experience, both in the sense of a handicap or outcome and in the sense of creativity”.
In all these months we have been constantly engaged with every ounce of energy and by all means to avoid contagion, to maintain social distancing, hoping that the lockdown of the bodies would not irremediably translate into a lockdown of the soul and feelings, thus living the pandemic as a watershed between the world before and the world after and where no gesture, however small, can be taken for granted. In several articles and texts, the need for the presence of the other has been mentioned, the coordinates of “dematerialization” of life, as the safest way to keep everything and everyone safe, displacing so many of our functions on the network, placing the relational sphere in the abstract art of bodies. But we have lacked and we lack bodies, we miss feeling and touching that are among the highest senses as stated by Hegel, because they connote us as humans and whose lack over time, could lead to being socially and spiritually distanced humans. Anyone who has given a caress or a kiss knows that in that instant the soul comes out of itself to meet another. For that meeting we fought, we are fighting and we will fight to keep our bodies alive. With this idea of living and embodied presence, we therefore come to terms with the psychological and social effects of a prolonged time of distance learning, smartworking or homeworking, which are not necessarily immediately visible but whose prolonged effects could accompany us for a long time, and as Lingiardi argued in his recent interview [24] we do not contrast the culture of the
In the processes of the “Presence to oneself”, patient and analyst work on shared method conditions that allow an opening to the possibility of going, both beyond the other and the other made one’s own [26] facing it and taking positions about it. This is where the space of crisis and creativity is experienced and in which you can actively choose your own path. Life poses challenges to us and never, as in the past year, the challenge has been and is ongoing, with objectives to be pursued, doubts, our patients’ anxiety and our own as well, to be handled with care and attention; “The quality of creativity not only goes beyond the contents, but it is present regardless of the achievement of any objective, and the mere fact of glimpsing the light at the end of the gallery already modifies one’s walk. It is already creativity to be on the way, in motion, despite the lows and the halts, towards taking one’s life qualitatively in hand” [27]. We as therapists can only emotionally support the process, always being on the patient’s side, whatever path he may take. In this presence and creativity of being, our Resilience could reside, as the ability to be Present to what is happening in that given moment.
After this long period of distancing and the strenuous attempts to avoid contagion, the feeling of needing to touch each other again, to contaminate oneself seems to be gaining ground; the ease with which the virus passed from one body to another has shown how much considering ourselves as single and separate beings is an illusion that is still difficult to sustain. Perceiving oneself as part of a single reality can be experienced as a bond but also as an opportunity to regain possession of a us that is constitutive, not questionable, and that does not block our personal progress but on the contrary supports and enriches it, in a dance which is made up of balance and rupture, harmonic by the mere fact of existing.
During this very long period, many sessions took place online, many “meetings” had instead of the consulting room, a “virtual” setting, such as the telephone and the internet. We constantly questioned about the quality and therapeutics of these interventions, and how it was possible to continue to be so, albeit with great fatigue reported by both sides. Covid entered the sessions, not only through the rooms of the house, the children and pets that burst onto the screen, but with all its reality and emotionality, the shared reality and the concrete suffering of the historical moment, they were no longer contents brought only by the patient, did not concern him excluding the therapist from that given moment, they were our daily life, our life. As reported by the psychotherapist Nancy Mc Williams [28] the Pandemic has made our work more intimate, informal, more revealing of the real interdependence between the patient and the analyst.
The fear of Covid affected both of us. It is here, in this theory of suffering, that this conception is assumed as a condition inextricably connected to the passage. “When a system faces a passage it is inevitable that it is bad, its passage from one state to another implies a passage that is not neutral at all, because it is marked by a laborious and dense elaboration, aimed at assuming the new. This transition is not a private, individual, intrapsychic fact, but also involves the outside world and the environment. The objective of the clinical intervention cannot therefore be the elimination of suffering, neutrality, but the therapist must make sure with his or her presence, that the patient appropriates it, actively, increasing self-awareness to make himself Present to himself, and to accept his own suffering and use it to cross the ford” [29].
Therefore, there is no normality to return to, a return to a first free from suffering, but an active, creative, suffered being there, which leads us to co-construct together, patient with analyst, person with person, an “uncertain here and now” made of human beings. In this perspective of care as a social paradigm, there is an intrinsic peculiarity of the relationship that binds patient and analyst together, trusting and relying, which transforms the process of taking care into an authentic anthropological project. Even beyond the Coronavirus these aspects belong to the human being, “the extraordinary thing of our time is to be open and available to a new vision of the world and therefore of the human being” [29].
We thank the Center of Milan of SIPRe (
The authors declare no conflict of interest in preparing this paper.
The U.S. Department of Energy (DOE) announced to invest $258 million to the exascale computing project in 2017. With funding from the six selected companies, the total investment reaches over $430 million to achieve the goal of delivering at least one exascale-capable supercomputer by 2021 [1]. Building an exascale high performance computing (HPC) system has to overcome four major challenges: parallelism, memory and storage, reliability, and energy consumption. An exascale system, if built using the existing technologies, will consume half of a gigawatt of power, which highly exceeds the expected power limit specified by DOE. Therefore, innovative technologies are needed to enhance the power and energy efficiency and improve the system performance with a low power consumption.
Compute nodes are a major power and energy consumer inside an HPC system. Deng et al. [2] found that about 60% of system power is consumed by CPU, around 30% of power is allocated to memory, and other components account for 10%. This situation becomes more obvious in HPC environments where compute intensive and data intensive computation keeps a system always busy. Hence, reducing power and energy consumption of computing units and memory is the major challenge for efficiency of the whole system.
The message passing interface (MPI) is the de facto standard for writing HPC applications. It is a computation-centric programming model, where MPI processes are independent execution units that contain instructions and state information, use their address spaces, and interact with each other via inter-process communication mechanisms defined by MPI. Application programmers focus on writing computation processes and dealing with their communication, while data-related components, including data layout, data placement, and data movement, are implicitly determined by computation. As the volume, variety, and velocity of data dramatically increase, computation-centric programming becomes inefficient. Data-centric programming is increasingly addressing these problems, because focusing on the data makes the big-data problems much simpler to express. It enables programmers to define data properties including organization, partitioning, privileges, and coherence, also allows runtime systems to control data movement, communication, task scheduling, and execution.
Legion, which is jointly developed by Stanford University, Los Alamos National laboratory, and Nvidia, is a data-centric parallel programming system for writing portable high performance programs targeted at heterogeneous architectures [3, 4]. Legion provides abstractions which allow programmers to describe properties of program data, such as independence and locality [3]. By making the Legion programming system aware of the structure of program data, it can automate many of the tedious tasks programmers currently face, including correctly extracting task- and data-level parallelism and moving data around complex memory hierarchies.
Existing works mainly focus on improving the performance of Legion applications. Little is known about the energy efficiency of the Legion system and many questions have not been answered, such as:
Unlike the traditional HPC programming systems, what are the distinct characteristics of power and energy consumption of Legion runtime and applications?
Can Legion applications achieve better power and energy efficiency, at the same time as accelerate the execution and increase the throughput?
How well do Legion runtime and applications utilize computing and memory resources on both homogeneous and heterogeneous systems?
In this chapter, we study these critical questions and analyze the energy efficiency of Legion applications and runtime system. We test a number of benchmark applications with varying configurations on a CPU-GPU heterogeneous platform. We run both the MPI version and the Legion version applications. The heterogeneous system offers pure CPU and CPU-GPU execution environments. We use a variety of power profiling tools such as PAPI [5], RAPL [6], PowerAPI [7], and NVML [8] to measure runtime power consumption and characterize power consumption, energy consumption, and resource utilization of applications run on Legion. Important contributions include: (1) Legion Helper affects the performance and power consumption of applications; (2) Legion-based GPU applications perform better with regards to energy efficiency and execution time for larger problem size.
As far as we know, this is the first investigation of the performance and energy properties of Legion applications and data-centric Legion runtime system. The findings and results produced from this work will improve our understanding of Legion and develop resource scheduling to maximize system performance while operating under static/dynamic power caps.
The remainder of this chapter is structured as follows. Section 2 briefly presents the data-centric programming model and Legion runtime. The test environment (hardware, benchmarks, and profiling tools) is described in Section 3. Section 4 presents the results on performance and energy efficiency on servers with only CPU. The results on heterogeneous servers with both CPU and GPU are presented in Section 5. Key findings are highlighted in Section 6. Section 7 describes and related research and Section 8 provides the conclusion.
Legion [3, 4] is a data-centric programming model and it provides runtime system to reduce expensive data movement in the complex memory hierarchy and to write highly portable and data intensive programs for heterogeneous system. Legion Runtime extracts independent tasks and allocates them to available computer resources to speed up parallel execution.
Compared to current computation-centric programming models, such as MPI and OpenMP, which require that programmers to explicitly specify the communication between compute nodes and data transfer for underlying parallel mechanisms, Legion focus more on defining data properties and the relationship between different data units [3]. Application developers can explicitly declare the properties of program data, including data organization, independence, partition, and locality. Therefore, Legion hides the operations of extracting parallelism and data movement and provides auto mapping to avoid suffering data moving overhead. Also, Legion allows programmers to customize optimal mapping for specific applications or infrastructure.
A dynamic scheduling approach called SOOP (“out-of-order” processor) is provided by the Legion runtime to map the dependences of tasks, distribute the tasks onto processor, map to physical instance for execution [4]. SOOP determines the task dependency at the logical region level by comparing the privileges and coherence modes to detect dependency between a newly registered task and a previous registered task. After the task dependency is satisfied, the task will be mapped and placed into the mapping queue, and scheduled to processors. Then task execution is performed and resources are recovered after execution. This whole process is automatic and hidden from Legion users. In our next discussion, we use the Legion Helper to refer to the set of processes that detect the dependency, map and dispatch of Legion tasks.
Before showing the experiment and discussing the results, we detail the platforms in our experimental environment in this section, provide the specifications of the homogeneous servers and heterogeneous servers, and describe the benchmark applications and profiling tools.
In the experiments, we use a homogeneous HPC server that consists of Enterprise version of Haswell processor, and a heterogeneous HPC server that has both CPU processor and a GPU accelerator. They will be referred to as the CPU server or GPU server in the following discussion.
The CPU server is a Dell PowerEdge T630 computer that has two sockets with Intel Xeon E5-2683 v3 processors, 128 GB RAM and 28 TB SSD. Table 1 contains the specification.
Dell PowerEdge T630 | |
2xIntel Xeon E5-2683 v3 (Haswell-EP) | |
Number of cores per socket | 14 |
Number of threads per socket 28 | 28 |
Base frequency | 2 GHz |
Turbo frequency | 3 GHz |
Thermal design power per Socket | 120 W |
Configuration of the CPU server.
To understand the power and energy characteristics of Legion on a heterogeneous environment, we run applications on a HP server having both Intel Xeon processor and NVIDIA Tesla K40c GPU accelerator, and another HP server with the same CPU processor and NVIDIA Tesla P100 GPU accelerator. Table 2 shows their specifications.
HP ProLiant heterogeneous server | |
NVIDIA Tesla K40c | |
Number of CUDA cores | 2880 |
DRAM | 12 GB |
Thermal design power per Socket | 235w |
NVIDIA Tesla P100 | |
Number of CUDA cores | 3584 |
DRAM | 12 GB |
Thermal design power per Socket | 250w |
Intel(R) Xeon(R) CPU X3460 | |
Number of cores per socket | 4 |
Number of threads per socket | 8 |
Base frequency | 2.8 GHz |
Turbo frequency | 3.46 GHz |
Thermal design power per Socket | 95 W |
Configuration of the GPU server.
To demonstrate the characteristics of the power and energy consumption of Legion runtime and application, we select two benchmark applications, which are compute-intensive, to run on both servers using Legion and MPI programming models.
MiniAero is a fluid dynamics mini-application [9, 10] designed to evaluate the programming model and hardware. It is an explicit unstructured finite volume code, which use Runge-Kutta four-order method to solve the compressible Navier-Stokes equations. It has the usual calculation and communication patterns on 3D unstructured mesh [11]. These meshes are generated on the CPU and then move to the devices (e.g. the CPU itself, GPU accelerator, or Xeon Phi). The original version of MiniAero uses multi-dimensional Kokkos arrays to store connectivity and flow data. Because MiniAero has a small dependency on tasks, the Legion version of MiniAero extracts concurrency from program data and maps it to physical regions to speed up the execution.
Circuit [3] is a sample application that simulates on any graph of integrated circuit components and wires [10]. An explicit iterative solver step through time and calculates the updated voltages and currents on each node and wire. It computes the current by examining the voltage differential across every wire, updates the charge for each node with new current, and then re-calculate the voltage for every node according to the charge. The Legion runtime controls the resource allocation, performs task scheduling, and moves program data. These operations decompose independent data and allocate it to different computational units for scalability.
The Performance API (PAPI) [5] provides a set of standard APIs to access the hardware performance counter to capture real-time statistics from multiple hardware devices. The counter exist as a small set of registers, which record the occurrence of signals and events, for instance, Machine Specific Register (MSR). PAPI provides portability across different platforms via the ability to accept platform specific counter numbers. This enables the users to access a variety of devices for these counters and enable performance monitoring and tuning of these components.
The Running Average Power Limit (RAPL) [6], introduced by Intel Xeon processors, which use a software power model to estimate the power and energy consumption of hardware. It can be used for monitoring of heat and energy and coverage of multiple domains such as PKG (Package Power), PP0 (Core), PP1 (uncore) and DRAM. The Haswell EP processor used in our experiments does not support PP0 and PP1 domains. Meanwhile, the RAPL counters can help to tune the performance of processors and balance the computing workloads on the nodes. In our experiments, we use the RAPL module in PAPI to profile the power consumption of the processor in the packet and DRAM domains.
PowerAPI [7] provides a library for measuring power consumption at the process level. PowerAPI is a pure software approach to estimate power consumption of various hardware devices based on energy analytical models. Additional, the library is actor-based framework that the users can choose modules to fit for their requirements, which enables lowering computational cost and high accuracy. Moreover, PowerAPI can provide performance statistics of a particular process.
The NVIDIA Management Library (NVML) [8] monitors and manages NVIDIA GPU devices. It provides interfaces for querying and controlling device states, handling events, and reporting errors. Real-time query-able statistics such as ECC error counting, active processes and utilization, temperature and energy consumption can be captured via these interfaces. Also, some modifiable state can be accessed (e.g. ECC mode, compute mode, Persistence mode). In our K40c GPU and P100 GPU, we record the real-time board power draw by querying the performance counters.
To better understand the power and energy consumption patterns of Legion applications, we compare the performance of processors and power consumption of both MPI versions and Legion versions of
To reduce noise and measurement errors, we perform each experiment 10 times and calculate the average of the measurements, and each run has the same initial conditions. The two applications are computationally intensive. Package and DRAM are the most important consumers of energy. To better characterize Legion applications and runtime, we separately measure and analyze the power and power consumption of Legion helper and computational processes.
For the MPI version of MiniAero, their processes have to be explicitly defined and they only share a part of the problem. The Legion version of MiniAero has some calculation processes and Legion helpers. We test the 3D-Sod with three problem sizes, that is 128 × 128 × 4, 256 × 256 × 4 and 512 × 512 × 4, on one, two and four CPU cores.
The CPU utilization, which is used to estimate the system performance, measures the percentage of CPU cycles used on a core. On a multi-core processor, a load of more than 100% indicates that two or more cores are being used by applications. Figure 1 shows CPU usage of MiniAero with different problem sizes running on different number of CPU cores. The figures show that the CPU usage of the MPI version is relatively stable and reaches about 100%. However, for the Legion version, the CPU cycles are not fully utilized by the Legion helper when the number of compute cores is less, but the usage keep increasing as the number of cores increases. On the other hand, those CPU cycles used by computational processes are reduced in our experiments. When the core number increases from 1 to 4, shown in Figure 1a–f and g–i, the Legion helper CPU usage increases from about 48% to more than 92%. In contrast, the average CPU utilization of the calculation processes drops from 75–25%. This suggests that identifying dependencies, mapping, and scheduling tasks on Legion can cause significant overhead that interferes with the useful calculation. The problem size, however, does not affect the CPU usage very much. In Figure 1a
CPU utilization of MPI and Legion versions of the
The power consumption of the package and DRAM of both processors is similar. The biggest difference which is 12 W between packages is observed when MiniAero runs on a core as shown in Figure 2a
Package and DRAM power consumption of MPI and Legion versions of the
The total power consumption when running the Legion version, including both the computational tasks and the Legion helper, is 71.3–80.7% of that for the MPI version. The two limits are reached when the workload is 128 × 128 × 4. The power consumption of the Legion version on 1, 2 and 4 cores is 57.8, 72.6 and 81.7 W respectively, while the MPI counterpart consumes 81.1, 90 and 101.2 W.
In addition, we use PowerAPI to measure the power consumption of the MPI version and Legion version of MiniAero at the process level. The power consumption is depicted in Figure 3. Figure 3 compares the power consumption of processors measured by
Power consumption of MPI version of
The execution time as shown in Figure 4 and energy consumption as shown in Figure 5 of Legion-version of MiniAero are relatively stable except the rise, when the Legion helper sends tasks to more cores for parallelism. In contrast, the MPI version follows the normal trend, where more cores accelerate execution and save energy. The results indicate that while Legion provides more partitions for the application, it distributes the workload equally among the cores and slows down tasks, which can be caused by the Legion helper. As a result, the power consumption of each processor does not change much while the execution time is prolonged, resulting in increased power consumption. The MPI version, on the other hand, fully exploits the extra cores, reducing execution time and power consumption.
Execution time of the
Energy consumption of the
The highest reduction in Legion execution time and energy is achieved when using a single core for a 512 × 512 × 4 problem size. The MPI version requires 36 times more execution time, and 45 times more energy than the Legion version respectively. Although the Legion helper causes more overhead, it reduces 89.1% of execution time and saves 90.8% energy compared to its MPI counterpart.
The Legion version of the circuit application is much more scalable than Legion version of MiniAero. The CPU utilization of Legion Helper jump to 17% at the beginning of the execution, and then the amount of utilization drops to 5% for the rest of the execution, as shown in Figure 6a. On the other hand, the CPU cores that perform computational tasks are fully used and the utilization is over 100% sometime. All the execution of
CPU utilization and power consumption of the
In Figure 6b display that more power is consumed by the packet domain when more cores are used for computational tasks. From one core to two cores, power consumption increases by 6.6 W and an additional 6.8 W is consumed by two cores into four cores. In the meanwhile, the power draw of DRAM remains low and constant.
It is also shown in Figure 7 that with more cores for computational tasks, execution time and power consumption are reduced. For example, if you run on two cores and four cores, 49.7 and 73.3% of execution time and 42.3 and 64.1% of energy, respectively, is reduced as if only one core is running.
Execution time and energy consumption of the
The power per watt of the Legion version of the circuit is 6.7 MFLOPS/W on a core. It reaches 11.6 MFLOPS/W on two cores and 18.0 MFLOPS/W on 4 cores, which is 1.73 times and 1.55 times higher than one core and two cores. This observation indicates good scalability and energy efficiency of Legion runtime and application.
To discover the power and energy consumption of Legion runtime and application on heterogeneous platform, we perform
Figure 8 shows the resource usage when connecting to the CPU server and the heterogeneous server. During the initialization phase, the CPU utilization on both platforms has a steep jump and reach beyond 100%, while the GPU utilization remain 0. After that, the GPU starts with parallel circuit tasks. For the two problem sizes (2 loops and 4 pieces, 4 loops and 8 pieces) shown in Figure 8, the circuit tasks run at a high CPU utilization of nearly 100%. The
The
Figure 9 shows the power consumption of the circuit on the CPU server and heterogeneous server with Tesla K40c. The power consumption of the CPU at the process level, measured with PowerAPI [7], is 3.05 W and remains stable in both cases. The power consumption of GPU, as measured by NVML [8], varies as the problem size changes; which is 50.5 W for 2 loops and 4 pieces of components and 55.1 W for 4 loops and 8 pieces of components respectively. This is because GPU has more capacity to handle more independent tasks and gain more throughput but consume more power.
Power consumption of
Figure 10 depicts the execution time and energy consumption of the
Execution time and energy consumption of circuit on two platforms (a) Execution time of circuit, and (b) Energy consumption of circuit.
Dynamic voltage and frequency scaling (DVFS) is often used to find the best configuration for optimal energy and energy savings. Figure 12 compares the performance of circuit running on GPU accelerator with different frequencies scaling, where Figure 11 shows the power consumption of circuit running on different frequencies, Figure 12a compares the execution time. Figure 12b and c describe the energy consumption and the “FLOPS” which indicate the energy efficiency of the circuit application. From the figure we can see that the standard frequency which is 745 MHz of the Tesla K40c GPU is not the best setting for the Legion circuit. With the lowest frequency at 324 MHz, the circuit takes 2.21 times more execution time while saving 35% of power. Execution time is reduced by 18.8 with 3.4% energy savings when operating the circuit with the highest GPU frequency. In both cases the power consumption is lower than at the standard frequency. Both frequency settings provide good energy efficiency. The frequency selection depends on the power requirements.
Power consumption with GPU frequency scaling.
Performance of circuit run at different GPU frequencies (loops = 4 and pieces = 8) (a) Execution time of different GPU frequency scaling, (b) Energy Consumption of different frequency GPU scaling, and (c) FLOPS of different frequency GPU scaling.
To follow the advance of hardware technology, we not only test Legion applications on our Nvidia K40 GPU, but also run the Legion version of circuit on a new GPU, that is P100 GPU Accelerator(12 GB Card). We scale the frequency of P100 to its base frequency at 1126 MHz and its max frequency at 1303 MHz to evaluate the performance of circuit. Figure 13 shows the performance of the Legion version of circuit with a workload of loops = 4 and pieces = 8. From Figure 13a, we can see if the frequency of P100 is set to 1303 MHz, the power consumption exceeds 100 W, while the power consumption is around 88 W, if the frequency is set to 1126 MHz. Figure 13b–d depict the execution time, energy consumption, and the processing power of P100 for Legion circuit respectively. Compared to Tesla K40c, there is a big improvement on performance, while the energy consumption has a significant drop. This is due to the reduced execution time. Hence, we expect that the Legion version of circuit will have a better performance on the latest GPUs.
Performance of circuit run at different GPU frequencies (loops = 4 and pieces = 8) (a) Power consumption of different GPU frequency scaling, (b) Execution time, (c) Energy, and (d) GFLOPS.
The Legion -based MiniAero is a good example to highlight the Legion Helper’s scalability problem. If the Legion helper is unable to isolate independent tasks quickly enough with the increased number of associated compute resources (such as CPU cores), this becomes a performance bottleneck. The resource utilization of Legion helper processes continues to increase and the throughput of compute tasks decreases. This leads to a longer execution time and reduced energy efficiency.
In cases where the Legion system and legacy applications have good scalability, energy and energy savings become more effective as more computational resources are used. The execution time of an application is significantly reduced, while the power consumption does not increase much, resulting in better energy efficiency.
Legion offers significant benefits through GPU computing. As GPU-mapped and scheduled tasks can be performed in parallel, performance enhancement and energy efficiency can be further improved.
Some new Legion program model features, model components, and how these components work were presented in [4]. A combination of static and dynamic checks to improve the solidity of the Legion system and a compositional parallel semantics are described in [12]. An event-based runtime system [13] is embedded in Legion asynchronously for heterogeneous and distributed storage architectures. Structure slicing [14] breaks the specification of data usage, identifies data parallelism, and reduces data movement. A highly productive programming language, Regent [10], which can be translated into Legion implementation, runs sequentially without explicit synchronization.
Power profiling in production computer systems provides valuable data and knowledge for the development of power simulators and resource scheduling policies. Fine-grained power profiling techniques measure the power consumption of individual hardware components such as CPU [15], memory [16], hard disk [17] and other devices [18]. In contrast, coarse-grained performance profiling aims to characterize system-wide performance dynamics, such as the macro stream framework [19]. Moreover, a power meter for virtualized environments was presented in [20]. CPU event counters and the Performance Programming Interface Library were used to estimate the power usage on a per-thread basis. Kamil et al. profiled HPC applications on multiple test platforms and projected the performance profiling results from a single node to a complete system [21]. Ge et al. investigated the influence of software and hardware configurations on system-wide power consumption [22]. They found that properties of HPC applications affect the power consumption of a system. Hackenberg et al. conducted a detailed analysis of Haswell’s P-state and C-state transition latencies and the impact of Haswell’s new power management mechanisms on memory bandwidth and performance reproducibility [23]. Our work differs from these previous efforts by measuring and analyzing the impact of new Haswell power management capabilities on the performance and performance of HPC codes.
Some researchers analyzed the power and energy efficiency of different types of applications run on HPC systems. Bari et al. investigated OpenMP’s runtime configurations on power constrained systems at different power levels [24]. They found that a suitable selection of OpenMP’s runtime parameters could improve the execution time and reduce the energy consumption of a parallel program by up to 67 and 72%, respectively. Qasem et al. [25] evaluated the impact of data layout and placement on the energy efficiency of heterogeneous applications by means of memory divergence, data access patterns, arithmetic intensities and data placement. They found that data layout and placement had a significant impact on the energy efficiency. Additionally, analytical models were developed to analyze energy efficiency in [26]. The models were able to support a priori selection of the operating frequency that leaded to a near optimal energy consumption for the execution of multi-threading applications. Meanwhile, Heinrich et al. aimed to predict the energy consumption of MPI applications by developing a computation model, a communication model, and an energy model which were integrated into the SimGrid simulation toolkit [27]. To improve the system performance by utilizing the available power budget more efficiently on multiple-node platforms, a hierarchical multi-dimensional power aware allocation framework was developed in [28] for power bounded parallel computing. The power allocation was performed using memory power-level settings, thread concurrency throttling, and core-thread affinity, and the scheduler outperformed other methods by 20% on average.
To control the power consumption of HPC systems, power limitation [29] is a promising and effective approach. System operators can balance the performance and power consumption of clusters by adjusting the maximum amount of power (also called the power budget) that clusters can consume. Pelly et al. presented a dynamic current sourcing and coverage method at the [30] Power Distribution Unit (PDU). They proposed using a heuristic policy to shift the capacity weakness to servers with increasing power requirements. Zhang et al. proposed a hybrid software/hardware power capping system and proved that their power cap outperforms the hardware power capping system provided by Intel and has the same reaction time [31]. For HPC jobs, many factors affect power consumption, including hardware configurations and resource usage. Femal et al. developed a hierarchical management policy to distribute the power budget to clusters [32]. Kim et al. investigated the relationship between CPU voltages and system performance and energy efficiency [33]. Utilizing Dynamic Voltage Scaling (DVS) technologies, a Task Planning Policy has been proposed that aims to minimize energy consumption while meeting specified performance requirements. Rountree et al. proposed guidelines for overprovisioning hardware with hardware-enforced performance limitations and system-wide performance reallocation in an application-independent manner [34, 35]. We have developed a complete system simulator, TracSim [36], which estimates the capacity of trapped energy under various power-limiting and job-planning guidelines.
In this chapter, we describe the power consumption, energy efficiency, performance, and resource usage of Legion runtime environment and applications. Our experimental results show that Legion offers favorable energy efficiency, although in some cases its scalability can be influenced by Legion Helpers. The Legion programming model is consistent with the massively parallel nature of the GPU design and shows good performance and energy efficiency for large problem-size applications.
This work is supported by the U.S. Department of Energy contract DE-AC52-06NA25396. This chapter has been assigned the LANL identifier LA-UR-16-25965.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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\n\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Küden and Ali Küden",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10900.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",publishedDate:"July 6th 2022",editors:[{id:"200365",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayzin B.",middleName:"B.",surname:"Küden",slug:"ayzin-b.-kuden",fullName:"Ayzin B. Küden"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"135",title:"Environmental Studies",slug:"environmental-studies",parent:{id:"12",title:"Environmental Sciences",slug:"environmental-sciences"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfSeries:0,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:177,numberOfWosCitations:193,numberOfCrossrefCitations:130,numberOfDimensionsCitations:339,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicId:"135",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"8969",title:"Deserts and Desertification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4df95c7f295de7f6003e635d9a309fe9",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",bookSignature:"Yajuan Zhu, Qinghong Luo and Yuguo Liu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8969.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"180427",title:"Dr.",name:"Yajuan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhu",slug:"yajuan-zhu",fullName:"Yajuan Zhu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6706",title:"Environmental Risks",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea444f5d9f74628b340b2d9514bca236",slug:"environmental-risks",bookSignature:"Florin-Constantin Mihai and Adrian Grozavu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6706.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"175726",title:"Dr.",name:"Florin-Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Mihai",slug:"florin-constantin-mihai",fullName:"Florin-Constantin Mihai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5995",title:"Mediterranean Identities",subtitle:"Environment, Society, Culture",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5254b511e85984b9457a09ddc2758a1c",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",bookSignature:"Borna Fuerst-Bjelis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5995.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"138475",title:"Prof.",name:"Borna",middleName:null,surname:"Fuerst-Bjeliš",slug:"borna-fuerst-bjelis",fullName:"Borna Fuerst-Bjeliš"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1011",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"aaa208c16030078cdca711a1867ca7ff",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",bookSignature:"Stephen S. Young and Steven E. Silvern",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1011.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"96190",title:"Dr.",name:"Stephen",middleName:null,surname:"Young",slug:"stephen-young",fullName:"Stephen Young"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2110",title:"Relevant Perspectives in Global Environmental Change",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a531a19888ec539192408b7a229fdbf9",slug:"relevant-perspectives-in-global-environmental-change",bookSignature:"Julius Ibukun Agboola",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2110.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107567",title:"Dr.",name:"Julius",middleName:"Ibukun",surname:"Agboola",slug:"julius-agboola",fullName:"Julius Agboola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,seriesByTopicCollection:[],seriesByTopicTotal:0,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"27194",doi:"10.5772/29375",title:"Using Fuzzy Cognitive Mapping in Environmental Decision Making and Management: A Methodological Primer and an Application",slug:"using-fuzzy-cognitive-mapping-in-environmental-decision-making-and-management-a-methodological-prime",totalDownloads:4657,totalCrossrefCites:41,totalDimensionsCites:89,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Elpiniki Papageorgiou and Areti Kontogianni",authors:[{id:"6011",title:"Dr.",name:"Elpiniki",middleName:null,surname:"Papageorgiou",slug:"elpiniki-papageorgiou",fullName:"Elpiniki Papageorgiou"},{id:"71620",title:"Prof.",name:"Areti",middleName:"D.",surname:"Kontogianni",slug:"areti-kontogianni",fullName:"Areti Kontogianni"}]},{id:"27184",doi:"10.5772/26954",title:"Effect of Environmental Change on Secondary Metabolite Production in Lichen-Forming Fungi",slug:"effect-of-environmental-change-on-secondary-metabolite-production-in-lichen-forming-fungi",totalDownloads:7067,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:29,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Christopher Deduke, Brinda Timsina and Michele D. Piercey-Normore",authors:[{id:"68386",title:"Dr.",name:"Michele",middleName:null,surname:"Piercey-Normore",slug:"michele-piercey-normore",fullName:"Michele Piercey-Normore"},{id:"68390",title:"BSc.",name:"Chris",middleName:null,surname:"Deduke",slug:"chris-deduke",fullName:"Chris Deduke"},{id:"102711",title:"Ms.",name:"Brinda",middleName:null,surname:"Timsina",slug:"brinda-timsina",fullName:"Brinda Timsina"}]},{id:"27182",doi:"10.5772/26536",title:"Primary Succession in Glacier Forelands: How Small Animals Conquer New Land Around Melting Glaciers",slug:"primary-succession-in-glacier-forelands-how-small-animals-conquer-new-land-around-melting-glaciers",totalDownloads:5004,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"1011",slug:"international-perspectives-on-global-environmental-change",title:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change",fullTitle:"International Perspectives on Global Environmental Change"},signatures:"Sigmund Hågvar",authors:[{id:"66992",title:"Prof.",name:"Sigmund",middleName:null,surname:"Hågvar",slug:"sigmund-hagvar",fullName:"Sigmund Hågvar"}]},{id:"55867",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69214",title:"The Marine Biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea in a Changing Climate: The Impact of Biological Invasions",slug:"the-marine-biodiversity-of-the-mediterranean-sea-in-a-changing-climate-the-impact-of-biological-inva",totalDownloads:2352,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"The Mediterranean Sea, one of the most complex marine ecosystems, is inhabited by a rich and diverse biota which is disproportionate to its dimensions. It is currently affected by different pressures, mainly driven by human activities such as climate change and bioinvasions. This Sea, also due to its geographic position (wedged between the temperate climate of central Europe and the arid climate of northern Africa), seems to be one of the regions most susceptible to global climate change. The increased rates of introduction and spread of marine alien species may represent a supplementary stress factor to Mediterranean marine native biota already challenged by climatic abnormalities. The Suez Canal is considered to be the main vector of introduction of non‐indigenous marine species into the Mediterranean Sea. Due to the dramatically accelerating rate of such introductions and due to the sheer magnitude of shipping traffic, the Mediterranean Sea may be considered as a true hotspot of marine bioinvasions. The complexity of interactions between native and invasive species and the associated resulting impacts make environmental management of such an issue particularly difficult. A collaboration between researchers, resource management agencies and policy makers is called for to bolster the effectiveness of invasive species management procedures.",book:{id:"5995",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",title:"Mediterranean Identities",fullTitle:"Mediterranean Identities - Environment, Society, Culture"},signatures:"Anna M. Mannino, Paolo Balistreri and Alan Deidun",authors:[{id:"202075",title:"Prof.",name:"Alan",middleName:null,surname:"Deidun",slug:"alan-deidun",fullName:"Alan Deidun"},{id:"203773",title:"Dr.",name:"Anna Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Mannino",slug:"anna-maria-mannino",fullName:"Anna Maria Mannino"},{id:"203777",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Balistreri",slug:"paolo-balistreri",fullName:"Paolo Balistreri"}]},{id:"55996",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69410",title:"The Fire in the Mediterranean Region: A Case Study of Forest Fires in Portugal",slug:"the-fire-in-the-mediterranean-region-a-case-study-of-forest-fires-in-portugal",totalDownloads:2080,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"Forest fires are a common disturbance in many forest systems in the world and in particular in the Mediterranean region. Their origins can be either natural or anthropogenic. The effects in regard to the time trends, vegetation, and soil will be reflected in the species distribution, forest composition, and soil potential productivity. In general, it can be said that the larger the fire and the shorter the time between two consecutive occurrences, the higher the probability to originate shifts in vegetation and soil degradation. In the Mediterranean region, the number of fire ignitions does not reflect the burnt area due to the occurrence of very large fires. The latter occur in a very small proportion of the number of ignitions, but result in very large burnt areas. Also there seems to be an increasing trend toward larger fires in the Mediterranean region due mainly to climatic and land use changes. This case study highlights the importance of vegetation regrowth a short time after the fire to maintain both forest systems and soil conservation.",book:{id:"5995",slug:"mediterranean-identities-environment-society-culture",title:"Mediterranean Identities",fullTitle:"Mediterranean Identities - Environment, Society, Culture"},signatures:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves and Adélia M.O. Sousa",authors:[{id:"187880",title:"Prof.",name:"Adélia",middleName:null,surname:"Sousa",slug:"adelia-sousa",fullName:"Adélia Sousa"},{id:"194484",title:"Prof.",name:"Ana Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"ana-cristina-goncalves",fullName:"Ana Cristina Gonçalves"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"77362",title:"Role of Eco-Village Initiatives in Mitigating Desertification in Semi-Arid Areas of Tanzania",slug:"role-of-eco-village-initiatives-in-mitigating-desertification-in-semi-arid-areas-of-tanzania",totalDownloads:112,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Climate change adaptation actions for mitigating desertification and improving community livelihood in developing countries have attracted numerous scholarly works. However, there have been insufficient findings on the adaptation regarding the eco-village practices in semi-arid areas in particular. This inspired a study to assess the role of eco-village practices in strengthening climate change adaptive capacity and mitigating desertification in semi-arid areas of Chololo village, Dodoma region in central Tanzania. Data were collected using mixed methods, that is, household survey (92), focus group discussions (21), key informants interviews (6), field observation and documentary review. Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) and content analysis were used in analyzing quantitative and qualitative data respectively. The study found a relatively high level of community awareness on the eco-village initiative; the initiative rehabilitated village forest reserve; improved land productivity for sorghum and pearl millet; increased number of planted trees; and strengthening communities’ adaptation to climate change through improved households’ nutrition, income and reduced water stress.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Fredy S. Mswima and Abiud L. Kaswamila",authors:[{id:"115390",title:"Prof.",name:"Abiud L.",middleName:"Lucas",surname:"Kaswamila",slug:"abiud-l.-kaswamila",fullName:"Abiud L. Kaswamila"},{id:"415117",title:"Dr.",name:"Fredy S.",middleName:null,surname:"Mswima",slug:"fredy-s.-mswima",fullName:"Fredy S. Mswima"}]},{id:"77741",title:"Characteristic on the Stability of Haloxylon ammodendron Plantation in the Southern Fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert, Northwest China",slug:"characteristic-on-the-stability-of-em-haloxylon-ammodendron-em-plantation-in-the-southern-fringe-of-",totalDownloads:165,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Using chronosequence theory and method, the characteristics of vegetation-soil coupling and structure stability of Haloxylon ammodendron plantations in the southern fringe of Gurbantunggut Desert were analyzed. The results showed, the canopy storey of H. ammodendron plantation experienced three stages, rapid growth (the age of 7 to 20), then slow growth (the age of 20 to 28) and last decline (over the age of 28). The best natural regeneration started from 17-yr-old plantation. Vegetation-soil system coupling degree (C) and coupling coordinative degree (D) of plantations with different age were not one-to-one correspondence. The system of H. ammodendron plantations always stayed in disorder recession, vegetation and soil were prone to loss type during the process of sand-fixation. Five principal components evaluated that the first rank was 42-yr-old plantation. It was inferred that the trend of the vegetation and soil system was from senescence to harmonious development. So the trend of coordinated development between vegetation and soil would be promoted, if the artificial tending and management measures strengthened.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Qinghong Luo, Qimin Chen, Miao He and Na Li",authors:[{id:"340564",title:"Dr.",name:"Qinghong",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"qinghong-luo",fullName:"Qinghong Luo"},{id:"347848",title:"Mr.",name:"Qimin",middleName:null,surname:"Chen",slug:"qimin-chen",fullName:"Qimin Chen"},{id:"348214",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Miao",middleName:null,surname:"He",slug:"miao-he",fullName:"Miao He"},{id:"348215",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Na",middleName:null,surname:"Li",slug:"na-li",fullName:"Na Li"}]},{id:"77086",title:"Bowing Sand, Dust, and Dunes, Then and Now–A North American Perspective",slug:"bowing-sand-dust-and-dunes-then-and-now-a-north-american-perspective",totalDownloads:94,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Dune fields of the present day, the Dust Bowl disaster of the 1930s U.S. Great Plains, and contemporary efforts to forecast, simulate, and understand dust storms have a striking, uniform commonality. What these apparently diverse phenomena have in common is that they all result from blowing sand and dust. This review paper unifies these three disparate but related phenomena. Its over-arching goal is to clearly explain these manifestations of windblown sand and dust. First, for contemporary dune fields, we offer reviews of two technical papers that explain the eolian formation and the continuing development of two major dune fields in southeastern California and northwestern Sonora, Mexico: the Algodones Dunes and the Gran Desierto de Altar. Second, historical, geological, meteorological, and socioeconomic aspects of the 1930s Great Plains Dust Bowl are discussed. Third, and last, we return to the present day to summarize two lengthy reports on dust storms and to review two technical papers that concern their forecasting and simulation. The intent of this review is to acquaint the interested reader with how eolian transport of sand and dust affects the formation of present-day dune fields, human agricultural enterprises, and efforts to better forecast and simulate dust storms. Implications: Blowing sand and dust have drastically affected the geological landscape and continue to shape the formation of dune fields today. Nearly a century ago the U.S. Great Plains suffered through the Dust Bowl, yet another consequence of blowing sand and dust brought on by drought and mismanagement of agricultural lands. Today, this phenomenon adversely affects landscapes, transportation, and human respiratory health. A more complete understanding of this phenomenon could (and has) led to more effective mitigation of dust sources, as well as to a more accurate predictive system by which the public can be forewarned.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Peter Hyde and Alex Mahalov",authors:[{id:"348247",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Hyde",slug:"peter-hyde",fullName:"Peter Hyde"},{id:"419631",title:"Dr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Mahalov",slug:"alex-mahalov",fullName:"Alex Mahalov"}]},{id:"61738",title:"Assessment of the Riparian Vegetation Changes Downstream of Selected Dams in Vhembe District, Limpopo Province on Based on Historical Aerial Photography",slug:"assessment-of-the-riparian-vegetation-changes-downstream-of-selected-dams-in-vhembe-district-limpopo",totalDownloads:1571,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Dams have been associated with various impacts on downstream river ecosystems, including a decrease in stream flow, species biodiversity, water quality, altered hydrology and colonisation of the area by invasive alien plant species. The impacts normally interfere with the ecosystem functioning of riparian and aquatic environments, thereby leading to decreased biodiversity. This study aims to assess the impacts of dams on downstream river ecosystems, using data from aerial photographs and orthophotos, supplemented by field work. Five dams in Limpopo Province, South Africa, were selected (Albasini, Damani, Mambedi, Nandoni and Vondo), and photographs from different years were used. The area devoid of trees of certain species both downstream and upstream of the dams was calculated using grids of predetermined square sizes on each available photograph. Aerial photographs and orthophoto data were supplemented by field work. The nearest-individual method was used in the field to determine tree density of particular tree species. The environments downstream of the dams show a loss of obligate riparian vegetation and an increase of obligate terrestrial vegetation (Acacia Karroo, Acacia Ataxacantha and Bauhinia galpinii). Treeless area increased in all cases, especially in the case of Mambedi and Vondo dams, indicating lower resilience and higher fragility there.",book:{id:"6706",slug:"environmental-risks",title:"Environmental Risks",fullTitle:"Environmental Risks"},signatures:"John M. Mokgoebo, Tibangayuka A. Kabanda and Jabulani R.\nGumbo",authors:[{id:"224099",title:"Prof.",name:"Jabulani",middleName:null,surname:"Gumbo",slug:"jabulani-gumbo",fullName:"Jabulani Gumbo"},{id:"250766",title:"Mr.",name:"M.J.",middleName:null,surname:"Mokgoebo",slug:"m.j.-mokgoebo",fullName:"M.J. Mokgoebo"},{id:"250767",title:"Prof.",name:"T.A.",middleName:null,surname:"Kabanda",slug:"t.a.-kabanda",fullName:"T.A. Kabanda"}]},{id:"78428",title:"Jojoba - The Gold of Desert",slug:"jojoba-the-gold-of-desert",totalDownloads:247,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Jojoba [Simmondsia chinensis (Link) Schneider] is evergreen, perennial and drought resistant shrub belongs to the family of Simmondsiaceae. It is a multipurpose oil seed crop mainly grown in desert regions of world. This plant has unique oil among plant kingdom which is chemically a liquid-wax. The liquid-wax is made up of an ester of long chain fatty acids and alcohols. The liquid-wax is unique in nature because have no traces of glycerine and easily modified via hydrolysis, hydrogenation, halogenation, sulfurization, phosphosulfurization and ozonization techniques. The main uses of liquid-wax in various industries like cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, petrochemicals and lubricants. It is a potential seed oil crop for desert region so it is well known as the gold of desert. The main purpose of this chapter is to review the complete information about this plant so that it can produce and utilized maximally. Moreover, the review focuses on biology, biogeography, physico-chemical properties of jojoba oil and propagation techniques of the plant of desert regions.",book:{id:"8969",slug:"deserts-and-desertification",title:"Deserts and Desertification",fullTitle:"Deserts and Desertification"},signatures:"Raman Bala",authors:[{id:"347678",title:"Dr.",name:"Raman",middleName:null,surname:"Bala",slug:"raman-bala",fullName:"Raman Bala"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"135",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:0,limit:8,total:null},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:104,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:32,numberOfPublishedChapters:320,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:12,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:141,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:8,numberOfPublishedChapters:133,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:5,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:17,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. 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He is a research professor at the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Husbandry, Autonomous University of the State of Mexico. He is also a level-2 researcher. He received a Fulbright-Garcia Robles fellowship for a postdoctoral stay at the US Dairy Forage Research Center, Madison, Wisconsin, USA in 2008–2009. He received grants from Alianza del Pacifico for a stay at the University of Magallanes, Chile, in 2014, and from Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT) to work in the Food and Agriculture Organization’s Animal Production and Health Division (AGA), Rome, Italy, in 2014–2015. He has collaborated with researchers from different countries and published ninety-eight journal articles. He teaches various degree courses in zootechnics, sheep production, and agricultural sciences and natural resources.\n\nDr. Ronquillo’s research focuses on the evaluation of sustainable animal diets (StAnD), using native resources of the region, decreasing carbon footprint, and applying meta-analysis and mathematical models for a better understanding of animal production.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma del Estado de México",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"28",title:"Animal Reproductive Biology and Technology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/28.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"177225",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"rosa-maria-lino-neto-pereira",fullName:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9wkQAC/Profile_Picture_1624519982291",biography:"Rosa Maria Lino Neto Pereira (DVM, MsC, PhD and) is currently a researcher at the Genetic Resources and Biotechnology Unit of the National Institute of Agrarian and Veterinarian Research (INIAV, Portugal). 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He is also Member of the Laboratory of genetic, animal and feed resource and member of Animal science Department of INAT. He graduated from Higher School of Agriculture of Mateur, University of Carthage, in 2002 and completed his masters in 2006. Dr. M’HAMDI completed his PhD thesis in Genetic welfare indicators of dairy cattle at Higher Institute of Agronomy of Chott-Meriem, University of Sousse, in 2011. 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Heshmati",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313921/images/system/313921.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hassan Massoud Heshmati is an endocrinologist with 46 years of experience in clinical research in academia (university-affiliated hospitals, Paris, France; Mayo Foundation, Rochester, MN, USA) and pharmaceutical companies (Sanofi, Malvern, PA, USA; Essentialis, Carlsbad, CA, USA; Gelesis, Boston, MA, USA). His research activity focuses on pituitary tumors, hyperthyroidism, thyroid cancers, osteoporosis, diabetes, and obesity. He has extensive knowledge in the development of anti-obesity products. Dr. Heshmati is the author of 299 abstracts, chapters, and articles related to endocrinology and metabolism. He is currently a consultant at Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC, Anthem, AZ, USA.",institutionString:"Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC",institution:null},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, México. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 270 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 4 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"428313",title:"Dr.",name:"Sambangi",middleName:null,surname:"Pratyusha",slug:"sambangi-pratyusha",fullName:"Sambangi Pratyusha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"CGIAR",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"13",type:"subseries",title:"Plant Physiology",keywords:"Plant Nutrition, Plant Hormone, Photosynthesis, Respiration, Plant Stress, Multi-omics, High-throughput Technology, Genome Editing",scope:"Plant Physiology explores fundamental processes in plants, and it includes subtopics such as plant nutrition, plant hormone, photosynthesis, respiration, and plant stress. 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Dr. Chen\\'s research interests include bioactive compounds, chromatography techniques, in vitro culture, medicinal plants, phytochemicals, and plant biotechnology. 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