Companies that provide filaments and pellets containing carbon nanotubes.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3825",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Pharmacology and Nutritional Intervention in the Treatment of Disease",title:"Pharmacology and Nutritional Intervention in the Treatment of Disease",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Pharmacology and Nutritional Intervention in the Treatment of Disease is a book dealing with an important research field that has worldwide significance. Its aim is to strengthen the research base of this field of investigation as it yields knowledge that has important implications for biomedicine, public health and biotechnology. The book has brought together an interdisciplinary group of contributors and prominent scholars from different parts of the world. The basic purpose of this book was to promote interaction and discussion of problems of mutual interests among people in related fields everywhere. The main subjects of the book include nutrition, mechanisms underlying treatments, physiological aspects of vitamins and trace elements, antioxidants: regulation, signalling, infection and inflammation, and degenerative and chronic diseases.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-1383-6",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-7208-6",doi:"10.5772/57023",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"pharmacology-and-nutritional-intervention-in-the-treatment-of-disease",numberOfPages:428,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"dbccaab3d464db86cf3adacf8252052c",bookSignature:"Faik Atroshi",publishedDate:"May 28th 2014",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3825.jpg",numberOfDownloads:40482,numberOfWosCitations:17,numberOfCrossrefCitations:11,numberOfDimensionsCitations:23,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:51,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"June 10th 2013",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 1st 2013",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 5th 2013",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 3rd 2014",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"February 2nd 2014",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"65639",title:"Dr.",name:"Faik",middleName:null,surname:"Atroshi",slug:"faik-atroshi",fullName:"Faik Atroshi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/65639/images/system/65639.jpg",biography:"Dr. Faik Atroshi, PhD, is a docent and a senior researcher in Pharmacology and Toxicology at the University\nof Helsinki, Finland. With a licentiate in biomarkers\nof health and disease and as an adjunct professor in\nClinical Genetics and Nutrition, he is both a senior\nresearcher and a visiting professor in several international institutions and universities, including the Sleep\nClinic andCancer Bio-Immunotherapy Institute, Helsinki, Finland. He is\nthe director of Education and Research for the Finnish Satellite Center,\nUNESCO; the president of the International Global Society for Nutrition,\nEnvironment, and Health (GSNEH); an editorial board member of the Scientific World Journal; and the committee member of the Finnish Medical\nPhysiological Society",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Helsinki",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Finland"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1196",title:"Epileptology",slug:"epileptology"}],chapters:[{id:"46445",title:"Epilepsy Treatment and Nutritional Intervention",doi:"10.5772/57484",slug:"epilepsy-treatment-and-nutritional-intervention",totalDownloads:1667,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Jerzy Majkowski",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46445",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46445",authors:[{id:"169301",title:"Dr.",name:"Jerzy",surname:"Majkowski",slug:"jerzy-majkowski",fullName:"Jerzy Majkowski"}],corrections:null},{id:"46531",title:"Use of Trace Elements and Halotherapy in the Treatment of Human Diseases",doi:"10.5772/58235",slug:"use-of-trace-elements-and-halotherapy-in-the-treatment-of-human-diseases",totalDownloads:2544,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Vincent S. Gallicchio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46531",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46531",authors:[{id:"169299",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",surname:"Gallicchio",slug:"vincent-gallicchio",fullName:"Vincent Gallicchio"}],corrections:null},{id:"46700",title:"Oxidative Stress and Dietary Interventions in Autism: Exploring the Role of Zinc, Antioxidant Enzymes and Other Micronutrients in the Neurobiology of Autism",doi:"10.5772/57512",slug:"oxidative-stress-and-dietary-interventions-in-autism-exploring-the-role-of-zinc-antioxidant-enzymes-",totalDownloads:1621,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Maija L. Castrén, Tuomas Westermarck and Faik Atroshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46700",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46700",authors:[{id:"169690",title:"Dr.",name:"Maija",surname:"Castrén",slug:"maija-castren",fullName:"Maija Castrén"}],corrections:null},{id:"46204",title:"Antioxidants as Complementary Medication in Thalassemia",doi:"10.5772/57372",slug:"antioxidants-as-complementary-medication-in-thalassemia",totalDownloads:3204,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Somdet Srichairatanakool and Suthat Fucharoen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46204",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46204",authors:[{id:"169580",title:"Dr.",name:"Somdet",surname:"Srichairatanakool",slug:"somdet-srichairatanakool",fullName:"Somdet Srichairatanakool"}],corrections:null},{id:"46410",title:"General Aspects of Ozone Therapy",doi:"10.5772/57470",slug:"general-aspects-of-ozone-therapy",totalDownloads:3646,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Ruhi Cakir",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46410",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46410",authors:[{id:"170435",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruhi",surname:"Cakir",slug:"ruhi-cakir",fullName:"Ruhi Cakir"}],corrections:null},{id:"46818",title:"Dietary Aspects in Cancer Prevention — A Mini-Review",doi:"10.5772/57371",slug:"dietary-aspects-in-cancer-prevention-a-mini-review",totalDownloads:1312,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Mohamed Abdulla and Sangeeta Shukla",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46818",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46818",authors:[{id:"169303",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Abdulla",slug:"mohamed-abdulla",fullName:"Mohamed Abdulla"}],corrections:null},{id:"46539",title:"Nutrition, Sleep and Sleep Disorders – Relations of Some Food Constituents and Sleep",doi:"10.5772/58345",slug:"nutrition-sleep-and-sleep-disorders-relations-of-some-food-constituents-and-sleep",totalDownloads:2490,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Markku Partinen, Tuomas Westermarck and Faik Atroshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46539",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46539",authors:[{id:"65639",title:"Dr.",name:"Faik",surname:"Atroshi",slug:"faik-atroshi",fullName:"Faik Atroshi"},{id:"169298",title:"Dr.",name:"Markku",surname:"Partinen",slug:"markku-partinen",fullName:"Markku Partinen"},{id:"169302",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuomas",surname:"Westermarck",slug:"tuomas-westermarck",fullName:"Tuomas Westermarck"}],corrections:null},{id:"46825",title:"Bioelements and Bioelementology in Pharmacology and Nutrition: Fundamental and Practical Aspects",doi:"10.5772/57368",slug:"bioelements-and-bioelementology-in-pharmacology-and-nutrition-fundamental-and-practical-aspects",totalDownloads:2875,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"A.V. Skalny",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46825",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46825",authors:[{id:"103626",title:"Prof.",name:"Anatoly",surname:"Skalny",slug:"anatoly-skalny",fullName:"Anatoly Skalny"}],corrections:null},{id:"46540",title:"Impact of CoQ10, L-Carnitine and Cocktail Antioxidants on Oxidative Stress Markers in HIV Patients — Mini Review and Clinical Trial",doi:"10.5772/58415",slug:"impact-of-coq10-l-carnitine-and-cocktail-antioxidants-on-oxidative-stress-markers-in-hiv-patients-mi",totalDownloads:1406,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"M Sauka, G Selga, A Skesters, A Silova, T Westermarck, A Latvus and\nF Atroshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46540",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46540",authors:[{id:"65639",title:"Dr.",name:"Faik",surname:"Atroshi",slug:"faik-atroshi",fullName:"Faik Atroshi"},{id:"169297",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuomas",surname:"Westermarck",slug:"tuomas-westermarck",fullName:"Tuomas Westermarck"}],corrections:null},{id:"46521",title:"Pharmacological and Clinical Effectiveness of Zingiber officinale and Alpinia galanga in Patients with Osteoarthritis",doi:"10.5772/58417",slug:"pharmacological-and-clinical-effectiveness-of-zingiber-officinale-and-alpinia-galanga-in-patients-wi",totalDownloads:1921,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Guntars Selga, M. Sauka, L. Aboltina, A. Davidova, P. Kaipainen, D.\nKheder, T. Westermarck and F. Atroshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46521",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46521",authors:[{id:"65639",title:"Dr.",name:"Faik",surname:"Atroshi",slug:"faik-atroshi",fullName:"Faik Atroshi"},{id:"169302",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuomas",surname:"Westermarck",slug:"tuomas-westermarck",fullName:"Tuomas Westermarck"},{id:"170231",title:"Dr.",name:"Pekka",surname:"Kaipainen",slug:"pekka-kaipainen",fullName:"Pekka Kaipainen"}],corrections:null},{id:"46525",title:"Trace Elements, Antioxidant Enzymes and Free Carnitine Levels Among Epileptic Patients Treated with Valproate Monotherapy",doi:"10.5772/57613",slug:"trace-elements-antioxidant-enzymes-and-free-carnitine-levels-among-epileptic-patients-treated-with-v",totalDownloads:1456,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Elżbieta Płonka-Półtorak, Tuomas Westermarck, Pekka Kaipainen,\nMarkus Kaski and Faik Atroshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46525",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46525",authors:[{id:"65639",title:"Dr.",name:"Faik",surname:"Atroshi",slug:"faik-atroshi",fullName:"Faik Atroshi"},{id:"169302",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuomas",surname:"Westermarck",slug:"tuomas-westermarck",fullName:"Tuomas Westermarck"},{id:"170231",title:"Dr.",name:"Pekka",surname:"Kaipainen",slug:"pekka-kaipainen",fullName:"Pekka Kaipainen"},{id:"170147",title:"Dr.",name:"Elżbieta",surname:"Płonka-Półtorak",slug:"elzbieta-plonka-poltorak",fullName:"Elżbieta Płonka-Półtorak"},{id:"170478",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus",surname:"Kaski",slug:"markus-kaski",fullName:"Markus Kaski"}],corrections:null},{id:"46824",title:"Clinical and Hematological Profiles During Valproate Treatment of Epileptic Patients with Intellectual Disability — Case Study and Mini Review",doi:"10.5772/57369",slug:"clinical-and-hematological-profiles-during-valproate-treatment-of-epileptic-patients-with-intellectu",totalDownloads:1725,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"P. Kaipainen, T. Westermarck, F. Atroshi, M. Kaski and M. Iivanainen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46824",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46824",authors:[{id:"65639",title:"Dr.",name:"Faik",surname:"Atroshi",slug:"faik-atroshi",fullName:"Faik Atroshi"},{id:"169302",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuomas",surname:"Westermarck",slug:"tuomas-westermarck",fullName:"Tuomas Westermarck"},{id:"170231",title:"Dr.",name:"Pekka",surname:"Kaipainen",slug:"pekka-kaipainen",fullName:"Pekka Kaipainen"}],corrections:null},{id:"46658",title:"Anti Oxidative, Anti Peroxidative and Hepatoprotective Potential of Phyllanthus amarus Against Anti Tb Drugs",doi:"10.5772/57373",slug:"anti-oxidative-anti-peroxidative-and-hepatoprotective-potential-of-phyllanthus-amarus-against-anti-t",totalDownloads:1607,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Sangeeta Shukla, Neelu Sinha and Amita Jaswal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46658",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46658",authors:[{id:"170079",title:"Dr.",name:"Sangeeta",surname:"Shukla",slug:"sangeeta-shukla",fullName:"Sangeeta Shukla"},{id:"170757",title:"Dr.",name:"Sangeeta",surname:"Shukla",slug:"sangeeta-shukla",fullName:"Sangeeta Shukla"}],corrections:null},{id:"46660",title:"The Pharmacology and Biochemistry of Selenium in Cancer",doi:"10.5772/58425",slug:"the-pharmacology-and-biochemistry-of-selenium-in-cancer",totalDownloads:1949,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"T. Westermarck, Arno Latvus and Faik Atroshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46660",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46660",authors:[{id:"65639",title:"Dr.",name:"Faik",surname:"Atroshi",slug:"faik-atroshi",fullName:"Faik Atroshi"},{id:"169302",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuomas",surname:"Westermarck",slug:"tuomas-westermarck",fullName:"Tuomas Westermarck"}],corrections:null},{id:"46368",title:"Adaptive Behaviour Change and Health in Adults with Down Syndrome: A Prospective Clinical Follow-Up Study",doi:"10.5772/57461",slug:"adaptive-behaviour-change-and-health-in-adults-with-down-syndrome-a-prospective-clinical-follow-up-s",totalDownloads:1624,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"T. Määttä, T. Tervo-Määttä, A. Taanila, M. Kaski and M. Iivanainen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46368",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46368",authors:[{id:"170478",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus",surname:"Kaski",slug:"markus-kaski",fullName:"Markus Kaski"},{id:"170550",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuomo",surname:"Maatta",slug:"tuomo-maatta",fullName:"Tuomo Maatta"},{id:"170858",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuula",surname:"Tervo-Määttä",slug:"tuula-tervo-maatta",fullName:"Tuula Tervo-Määttä"},{id:"170859",title:"Dr.",name:"Anja",surname:"Taanila",slug:"anja-taanila",fullName:"Anja Taanila"},{id:"170860",title:"Dr.",name:"Maati",surname:"Iivanainen",slug:"maati-iivanainen",fullName:"Maati Iivanainen"}],corrections:null},{id:"46500",title:"The Nutritional Status of Children with Suspected Abuse",doi:"10.5772/57374",slug:"the-nutritional-status-of-children-with-suspected-abuse",totalDownloads:1201,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Eileen Harper, Shirley Ekvall, Valli Ekvall and Wei Pan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46500",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46500",authors:[{id:"169302",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuomas",surname:"Westermarck",slug:"tuomas-westermarck",fullName:"Tuomas Westermarck"},{id:"170826",title:"Dr.",name:"Shirley",surname:"Ekvall",slug:"shirley-ekvall",fullName:"Shirley Ekvall"}],corrections:null},{id:"46661",title:"Copper Deficiency a New Reason of Androgenetic Alopecia?",doi:"10.5772/58416",slug:"copper-deficiency-a-new-reason-of-androgenetic-alopecia-",totalDownloads:1530,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Margarita G. Skalnaya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46661",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46661",authors:[{id:"170800",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita G.",surname:"Skalnaya",slug:"margarita-g.-skalnaya",fullName:"Margarita G. Skalnaya"}],corrections:null},{id:"46538",title:"Pharmacological Interventions of Selenium in Duchene Muscular Dystrophy: The Role of Reactive Oxygen Species in Mediating Lipid Peroxide Formation",doi:"10.5772/57370",slug:"pharmacological-interventions-of-selenium-in-duchene-muscular-dystrophy-the-role-of-reactive-oxygen-",totalDownloads:1339,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Tuomas Westermarck, Shirly Ekvall and Kaski Markus",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46538",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46538",authors:[{id:"169302",title:"Dr.",name:"Tuomas",surname:"Westermarck",slug:"tuomas-westermarck",fullName:"Tuomas Westermarck"}],corrections:null},{id:"46349",title:"Green Tea: Just a Drink or Nutraceutical",doi:"10.5772/57519",slug:"green-tea-just-a-drink-or-nutraceutical",totalDownloads:2420,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Sakaewan Ounjaijean, Suthat Fucharoen and Somdet\nSrichairatanakool",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46349",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46349",authors:[{id:"169580",title:"Dr.",name:"Somdet",surname:"Srichairatanakool",slug:"somdet-srichairatanakool",fullName:"Somdet Srichairatanakool"},{id:"170543",title:"Dr.",name:"Suthat",surname:"Fucharoen",slug:"suthat-fucharoen",fullName:"Suthat Fucharoen"}],corrections:null},{id:"46659",title:"Possible Relation Between Trace Element Status and Clinical Outcomes in Parkinson Syndrome",doi:"10.5772/57612",slug:"possible-relation-between-trace-element-status-and-clinical-outcomes-in-parkinson-syndrome",totalDownloads:1529,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Erland Johansson, Tuomas Westermarck and Faik Atroshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46659",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46659",authors:[{id:"169300",title:"Dr.",name:"Erland",surname:"Johansson",slug:"erland-johansson",fullName:"Erland Johansson"}],corrections:null},{id:"46418",title:"Metabolism Changes as Indicated by the Erythrocytes of Patients with Alzheimer’s Disease",doi:"10.5772/57511",slug:"metabolism-changes-as-indicated-by-the-erythrocytes-of-patients-with-alzheimer-s-disease",totalDownloads:1416,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Erland Johansson, Tuomas Westermarck, Paul Ek and Faik Atroshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/46418",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/46418",authors:[{id:"169300",title:"Dr.",name:"Erland",surname:"Johansson",slug:"erland-johansson",fullName:"Erland Johansson"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6951",title:"Personalized Medicine, in Relation to Redox State, Diet and Lifestyle",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2940f812b4520a28d958f5c23c606f02",slug:"personalized-medicine-in-relation-to-redox-state-diet-and-lifestyle",bookSignature:"Faik Atroshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6951.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65639",title:"Dr.",name:"Faik",surname:"Atroshi",slug:"faik-atroshi",fullName:"Faik Atroshi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"6127",title:"Cancer Causing Substances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"174eb39b8b0e84934f4a958e6d4de827",slug:"cancer-causing-substances",bookSignature:"Faik Atroshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6127.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65639",title:"Dr.",name:"Faik",surname:"Atroshi",slug:"faik-atroshi",fullName:"Faik Atroshi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5152",title:"Epileptology",subtitle:"The Modern State of Science",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3cd008df10046135bfaa4f329e83af7f",slug:"epileptology-the-modern-state-of-science",bookSignature:"Vladimir V. Kalinin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5152.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"31572",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",surname:"Kalinin",slug:"vladimir-kalinin",fullName:"Vladimir Kalinin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5710",title:"Seizures",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9489465a94b61e4e1c39ae0f9556af48",slug:"seizures",bookSignature:"Humberto Foyaca Sibat",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5710.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"142346",title:"Prof.",name:"Humberto",surname:"Foyaca Sibat",slug:"humberto-foyaca-sibat",fullName:"Humberto Foyaca Sibat"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66066",slug:"erratum-microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",title:"Erratum - Microbial Responses to Different Operating Practices for Biogas Production Systems",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66066.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66066",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66066",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66066",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66066",chapter:{id:"65614",slug:"microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",signatures:"Maria Westerholm and Anna Schnürer",dateSubmitted:"June 11th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 30th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 12th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Banu",slug:"rajesh-banu",fullName:"Rajesh Banu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"262546",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Schnürer",fullName:"Anna Schnürer",slug:"anna-schnurer",email:"anna.schnurer@slu.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"263116",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Westerholm",fullName:"Maria Westerholm",slug:"maria-westerholm",email:"Maria.Westerholm@slu.se",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"65614",slug:"microbial-responses-to-different-operating-practices-for-biogas-production-systems",signatures:"Maria Westerholm and Anna Schnürer",dateSubmitted:"June 11th 2018",dateReviewed:"November 30th 2018",datePrePublished:"February 12th 2019",datePublished:"September 4th 2019",book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Banu",slug:"rajesh-banu",fullName:"Rajesh Banu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"262546",title:"Prof.",name:"Anna",middleName:null,surname:"Schnürer",fullName:"Anna Schnürer",slug:"anna-schnurer",email:"anna.schnurer@slu.se",position:null,institution:null},{id:"263116",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Westerholm",fullName:"Maria Westerholm",slug:"maria-westerholm",email:"Maria.Westerholm@slu.se",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"6839",title:"Anaerobic Digestion",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Anaerobic Digestion",slug:"anaerobic-digestion",publishedDate:"September 4th 2019",bookSignature:"J. Rajesh Banu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6839.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"218539",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh",middleName:null,surname:"Banu",slug:"rajesh-banu",fullName:"Rajesh Banu"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10708",leadTitle:null,title:"Topics in Regional Anesthesia",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"\r\n\tThe goal of this book on Topics in Regional Anesthesia is to review selected subjects of importance in daily practice. Since the first years of the introduction of cocaine by Carl Koller in 1884, the evolution of regional anesthesia has been continuous, gradual and safe. Its development has been based on anatomy, the pharmacology of local anesthetics and adjuvant drugs, as well as advances in the various blocking techniques, with ultrasound guidance being the most recent advent. The use of ultrasound in regional anesthesia has shown the reduction of complications, which makes it mandatory to knowledge and acquire skills in all ultrasound-guided techniques.
\r\n\r\n\tUltrasound-guided regional blocks will be reviewed extensively, as well as intravenous regional anesthesia, thoracic spinal anesthesia. The role of regional anesthesia and analgesia in critically ill patients is of paramount importance. In addition, we will review the current role of regional techniques during the Covid-19 pandemic. Complications and malpractice is another topic that should be reviewed. Regional anesthesia procedures in some specialties such as pediatrics, orthopedics, cancer surgery, neurosurgery, acute and chronic pain will be discussed.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-570-4",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-569-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-571-1",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"264f7f37033b4867cace7912287fccaa",bookSignature:"Prof. Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo and Dr. José Ramón Saucillo-Osuna",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10708.jpg",keywords:"Regional Anesthesia, Ultrasound-Guided Regional Anesthesia, Local Anesthetics, Preventive Analgesia, Peripheral Blocks, Pediatric Regional Anesthesia, Intravenous Regional Anesthesia, Techniques, Complications, Adjuvants in Regional Anesthesia, Opioids, Alfa2 Agonists",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 23rd 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 23rd 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 22nd 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 10th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 9th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"18 days",secondStepPassed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:2,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Whizar-Lugo has published more than 100 publications on Anesthesia, Pain, Critical Care, and Internal Medicine. He works as an anesthesiologist at Lotus Med Group and belongs to the Institutos Nacionales de Salud as an associated researcher.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"169249",title:"Prof.",name:"Víctor M.",middleName:null,surname:"Whizar-Lugo",slug:"victor-m.-whizar-lugo",fullName:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169249/images/system/169249.jpg",biography:"Víctor M. Whizar-Lugo graduated from Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México and completed residencies in Internal Medicine at Hospital General de México and Anaesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine at Instituto Nacional de Ciencias Médicas y Nutrición Salvador Zubirán in México City. He also completed a fellowship at the Anesthesia Department, Pain Clinic at University of California, Los Angeles, USA. Currently, Dr. Whizar-Lugo works as anesthesiologist at Lotus Med Group, and belongs to the Institutos Nacionales de Salud as associated researcher. He has published many works on anesthesia, pain, internal medicine, and critical care, edited four books, and given countless conferences in congresses and meetings around the world. He has been a member of various editorial committees for anesthesiology journals, is past chief editor of the journal Anestesia en México, and is currently editor-in-chief of the Journal of Anesthesia and Critical Care. Dr. Whizar-Lugo is the founding director and current president of Anestesiología y Medicina del Dolor (www.anestesiologia-dolor.org), a free online medical education program.",institutionString:"Institutos Nacionales de Salud",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"5",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:null}],coeditorOne:{id:"345887",title:"Dr.",name:"José Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Saucillo-Osuna",slug:"jose-ramon-saucillo-osuna",fullName:"José Ramón Saucillo-Osuna",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000033rFXmQAM/Profile_Picture_1611740683590",biography:"Graduated from the Facultad de Medicina de la Universidad Autónoma de Guadalajara, he specialized in anesthesiology at the Centro Médico Nacional de Occidente in Guadalajara, México. He is one of the most important pioneers in Mexico in ultrasound-guided regional anesthesia. Dr. Saucillo-Osuna has lectured at multiple national and international congresses and is an adjunct professor at the Federación Mexicana de Colegios de Anestesiología, AC, former president of the Asociación Mexicana de Anestesia Regional, and active member of the Asociación Latinoamericana de Anestesia Regional.",institutionString:"Centro Médico Nacional de Occidente",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"347258",firstName:"Marica",lastName:"Novakovic",middleName:null,title:"Dr.",imageUrl:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",email:"marica@intechopen.com",biography:null}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6550",title:"Cohort Studies in Health Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"01df5aba4fff1a84b37a2fdafa809660",slug:"cohort-studies-in-health-sciences",bookSignature:"R. Mauricio Barría",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88861",title:"Dr.",name:"R. Mauricio",surname:"Barría",slug:"r.-mauricio-barria",fullName:"R. Mauricio Barría"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"50817",title:"Carbon Nanotubes and Graphene as Additives in 3D Printing",doi:"10.5772/63419",slug:"carbon-nanotubes-and-graphene-as-additives-in-3d-printing",body:'\nJohannes Gutenberg catalyzed one of the first revolutions in education, with the development of the printing press, allowing the dissemination of information to take a more structured pathway. In the modern world, computers, smartphones, and the internet have all contributed to the advancements in science, technology, and engineering. 3D printing is another revolutionary technology for the consumer and industrial markets. Although the consumer market is still relatively young, the industrial sector has matured with its inception in the mid-1980s. The first 3D printer was created by Charles W. Hull of 3D Systems Corp. He published patents detailing many of the concepts involved in 3D Printing, some of which are used today. Developments in the various forms of printing have resulted in the use of the umbrella term of additive manufacturing. At its core, 3D printing simply uses additives to create 3D structures produced from successive layers of additives, such as polymers, and is deposited onto a platform. There are many companies that develop affordable consumer 3D printers such as Makerbot and Flashforge (Figure 1).
\nA Flashforge Creator 3D printer. This is a dual-extrusion printer with a build volume of 300 cubic inches.
The most recognizable form of 3D printing is thermoplastic extrusion, commonly known as fused deposition modelling (FDM) [1], where a filament (typically 1.75 mm) is unwound from a spool and fed into an extrusion assembly. The use of a motor-driven gear helps feed the filament into a temperature controlled melting chamber before the melted plastic is extruded through the tip of the nozzle. A fan is also used to help maintain the temperature as shown in Figure 2. The design of extruders continues to evolve, making printing more efficient by improvements in the regulating temperature across the extrusion assembly, and design modifications to reduce wear and blockages.
\nPolylactic acid (PLA), a sustainable biodegradable polymer, and acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), a strong terpolymer used in a range of manufactured products, are two of the most popular polymers used for FDM, and have formed the basis of the next generation of mixed material filaments for researchers. Other polymers used include polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), which is water soluble and biodegradable, and are support structures for 3D printing. Polyamides (nylons) are strong, abrasion resistant, and typically used for mechanical parts. All of these polymers have the potential for the inclusion of carbon nanostructured additives to extend their utility in multi-functional 3D printed composites.
\nThere are many crowdfunded initiatives that are helping to further reduce the cost of entry level 3D printers and their accessories. Kickstarter, a world leading crowdfunding platform has seen a large interest in 3D printers providing a unique opportunity for both early adopters and industry specialists to evaluate cutting edge technology. ‘Form 1: An affordable, professional 3D printer’ is an example of a successful Kickstarter initiative with 2068 backers who pledged a total of $2,945,885 to bring the project to life. The printer retails at $2799 from Formlabs. Another example of a successful Kickstarter initiative was Printrbot which raised $830,827 with 1808 backers, and sold units for $199.
\nA picture of a dual extruder assembly from a FDM printer and a schematic of the extruder.
Selective laser sintering (SLS) is used to produce 3D components with a laser and powdered thermoplastics. During this process, a laser pulses onto a platform, creating a cross-section of the desired object on the powder. The laser is set to heat the powder just below its melting point causing it to fuse together. Fusing the powder in specific locations defined by the software creates the layers. An advantage of this method is the ability to process combinations of polymers and metals, and unused powder can be easily recycled. However, the particle size of the powder determines the precision of the print. This process has the potential for the incorporation of carbon nanotubes, but more research needs to be applied toward heat transfer processes [2].
\nDigital light processing (DLP) is another way of producing high resolution 3D objects. The process uses a vat of photopolymer with controlled exposure to the light from a DLP projector or an instrument using a digital micromirror device (DMD) [3]. The stage/build plate moves as the exposed liquid polymer hardens (Figure 3). Essentially, a 3D model on a computer is sliced into 2D cross-sectional layers to produce images that are sequentially sent to the DLP. The process continues until the 3D object is complete. Any remaining liquid photopolymer is then purged from the vat and the completed print removed.
\nDiagram of a digital light processing printer.
Stereolithography is similar to DLP printing with the use of photopolymers, but differing with the laser based light source. Objects are produced by printed layers, one at a time, by the use of a laser beam on the surface of a vat of the liquid photopolymer. The polymer hardens over the areas where the laser strikes and a stage is moved down into the vat by one layer. Depending on the model of the printer, a recoater blade would move across the surface of the vat, helping to deposit the next layer of liquid polymer. This process is repeated until the print is completed and the printed object is raised from the vat and the liquid polymer drained. The printed object is then cleaned and cured in ultraviolet light to finish the processing. Stereolithography has been used with a range of materials including graphene oxide [4]. There are many potential applications that directly relate to the inclusion of carbon nanotubes and graphene as additives for 3D printing [5, 6] in a sector that is currently undergoing rapid growth. The 3D printing sector took over 20 years to reach $1 billion by 2009 and over the following three years it reached $2 billion. Analysis of the market suggests it may reach $10 billion by 2019 [7].
\nWhile there has been much praise for the 3D printing industry, there have also been some negative consequences on the environment and security. The process of thermal extrusion consumes a lot of electricity and the estimates of emission rates of ultra-fine particles were large for printing with PLA feedstock and even higher for printing with ABS thermoplastic feedstock [8]. Security has become an important issue after the fabrication of a 3D printed gun.
\nThe US State Department is trying to implement a ban on the distribution of files for the 3D printing of guns; however, the nature of file distribution on the internet may make this almost impossible to police. Initially only files for replacement gun parts were available, but a video soon demonstrated the successful operation of a printed gun.
\nAdditive manufacturing is developing to meet the demands for durable replacement parts, which need to conform to specific mechanical and design requirements. With thermal extrusion, new printing materials must have suitable rheological and thermal properties to be able to be extruded and solidify while maintaining the accuracy of successive layers. The use of polymers in additive manufacturing are governed by the glass transition temperature, melting point, heat capacity, melt viscosity at elevated temperatures, and the shear stress of the material. Understanding the relationship between the structural properties will aid in the development of advanced functional printing filaments and materials.
\nThe glass transition temperature (Tg) is the temperature below which the polymer becomes brittle and hard like glass. The glass transition temperature is not the melting point, that is defined by the temperature at which crystalline or semi-crystalline polymers change from its crystal structure to its liquid form. Amorphous polymers have no sharp melting point due to their non-crystalline structure but they have a Tg temperature. Semi-crystalline polymers have both a Tg and melting temperature. Polymers that have a Tg below room temperature are elastic, while those with a Tg above room temperature tend to be rigid and brittle. The Tg is higher for polymers with stiff backbones and pendant groups that interact with nearby structures. Both of these features result in polymer chains requiring elevated temperatures to move. One example of a rigid backbone is a benzene ring as found in poly(p-phenylene) while a flexible backbone can be found with the CH2-CH2 bond in poly(ethylene) (Figure 4). A bulky branch may act as a plasticizer and lower the Tg by decreasing the packing of polymer chains. This can be seen with poly(methyl methacrylate) with a Tg = 100-120°C as compared to a Tg of 20°C for poly(butyl methacrylate), a difference of three additional carbons in the branch. Amorphous polymers decrease in strength above the Tg and start to soften gradually while the viscosity changes.
\nStructure of poly(ethylene), poly(p-phenylene), poly(methyl methacrylate) and poly(butyl methacrylate).
The lower the Tg of the polymer, the faster it reaches the optimal viscosity for extrusion. Heat capacity also plays a role in homogeneity during the heating process. The Tg should be lower than the degradation temperature of the polymer, or in a temperature range where there are no chemical changes. The heat capacity of semi-crystalline polymers has a greater change compared to amorphous polymers. As a polymer is heated above its Tg, the viscosity will change based on the temperature and shear rate as it reaches the printing nozzle. The shear rate is higher at the printing nozzle (100–200 s-1) compared to the other parts of the extrusion assembly.
\nThe effect of viscosity is even more pronounced as the polymer is extruded from the nozzle as there is a possibility of radial flow. This phenomenon, typically known as swelling at the nozzle, can be quantified by calculating the ratio of the maximum diameter of the extruded material to the diameter of the nozzle. The addition of inelastic (ceramics) and carbon fillers to the polymer reduce swelling at the nozzle and results in an increase in the resolution of printing [9]. A sphere of polymer melt is then deposited on the substrate. The cross-sectional area of that sphere is proportional to the flow rate (q) of the polymer melt and inversely proportional to the velocity of the printing head, as shown in Eq. (1). The effect of the flow rate is shown in Eq. (2), where k is a constant depending on dimensions of the liquefier/melting chamber, ΔP is the change in pressure, and η is the viscosity of the polymer melt. The higher the viscosity, the lower the flow rate and cross-sectional area of the deposited sphere. A small cross-sectional area results in a higher resolution of the object or part printed.
\nThe interaction between the printed melt and the surface depends on the surface tension and roughness. The polymer melt should adhere to the substrate allowing it to be removed once the polymer solidifies. The next interaction is between the first deposited polymer layer and the next layer. This interaction will have a critical role in mechanical properties, structure, and success or failure of the object or parts. For bonding to occur at that level, the deposited polymer needs to reach or surpass its Tg. This can be achieved by the transfer of heat from the melt polymer to the deposited polymer layer.
\nThermoplastic polymers like polyamide, polyolefin, polystyrene, polyester, and their co-polymers are favored in many applications from fabrics to packaging due to their excellent mechanical properties, durability, relative ease of processing, and the possibility of recycling. A thermoplastic is a polymer that softens upon heating above a temperature range and then solidifies upon cooling; this process can be repeated several times. At the molecular level, the polymer chains are associated via intermolecular Van der Waals forces that are easily broken at elevated temperatures. In contrast, thermoset polymers harden upon heating and are no longer moldable, decomposing at high temperatures. For 3D printing, thermoplastic polymers are the best candidates since they melt and mold during the extrusion process, and this has caused a resurgence in the production of these polymers with a focus on sustainability for the 3D printing industry [10]. Thermoset polymers are only used with their corresponding monomers, with an initiator added, as the printed materials are cured by ultraviolet light or heat during post processing.
\nThe most common materials used in 3D printing (FDM in specific) are amorphous thermoplastic ter-acrylonitrile-butadiene-styrene (ABS), PLA (Figure 5), PVA, polycaprolactone (PCL), and nylon.
\nCommercially available PLA and ABS pellets.
ABS is a terpolymer that is made from acrylonitrile, 1-3-butadiene, and styrene (Figure 6). The ratio of each monomer in ABS can be selectively modified, based on the synthesis method used, to yield different grades of ABS with the required mechanical, thermal, and processing properties. The percentage of styrene can vary from 65–76% and acrylonitrile by 24–35%. ABS is a light-weight, rubber-toughened thermoplastic, with low temperature toughness, and is stronger than polystyrene. It adopts the rubbery properties from polybutadiene, the toughness of acrylonitrile, while maintaining the reflective property of polystyrene, which can be enhanced using acetone. ABS is chemically resistant to water, aqueous acids, and alkali solutions but reacts/dissolves in carbon tetrachloride, concentrated nitric acid, concentrated sulfuric acid, esters, and acetone. For 3D printing, ABS can be produced in a variety of colors by adding pigments as raw ABS is translucent. Due to the reactive double bond in the polybutadiene region of the terpolymer, it may be oxidized in ultraviolet light, so indoor applications are preferred. Commercially available ABS filaments sold for 3D printing are extruded at 220–235°C, below the degradation temperature (400°C) at which it decomposes into its carcinogenic monomers. Due to its amorphous nature, ABS has no specific melting point and glass transition temperature, but it does have a range of 80 to 125°C. ABS, extrusion grade, has a tensile strength of 30–55 MPa and an elastic modulus of 897–2898 MPa.
\nMonomers of ABS.
PLA (Figure 7) is a biodegradable and low toxicity polyester thermoplastic made from lactide or lactic acid monomers. Both can be derived from the fermentation of carbohydrates which is a renewable resource, so PLA is considered an ecofriendly thermoplastic. PLA can be produced in amorphous and crystalline form. The most common way to produce high molecular weight PLA is by the ring opening of lactide catalyzed by a metal. PLA produced by this method is a racemic mixture of both L and D PLA (stereocenter is labeled in Figure 7–red star). PLA is a hygroscopic thermoplastic; it can undergo degradation with elevated humidity and temperature. PLA has a glass transition temperature of 40–70°C and a melting point of 130–180°C. Various degrees of degradation at 210 and 240°C have been reported [11], and the rate of degradation was high at 240°C. Moisture has a strong effect on degradation at 210°C. PLA undergoes thermal degradation, scission of bonds, and results in weight loss which has an effect on mechanical and rheological properties [12, 13]. It is worth noting that the extent of degradation also depends on other factors ranging from molecular weight to particle size. Commercially available PLA filaments are printed at 180–220°C at which it can react with water, if present, and cause discoloration and degradation, which might affect the end product mechanically. Amorphous PLA is soluble in most organic solvents, while crystalline PLA is soluble at elevated temperatures. PLA has a high tensile strength of 48–52 MPa, a tensile modulus of 3500 MPa, and good heat salability but tends to be brittle.
\nPVA is a hydrophilic, water soluble, biodegradable thermoplastic polymer (Figure 7). PVA is synthesized by the hydrolysis or alcoholysis of poly(vinyl acetate) (PVAc) due to the instability of its vinyl alcohol monomer. It can be produced in two types: partially hydrolyzed or fully hydrolyzed and can reach up to 99% hydrolysis. It has been used in the medical and industrial sectors, as PVA is biocompatible due to its low toxicity and minimal cell adhesion to its surface. The molecular weight of PVA depends on the molecular weight of the PVAc and can vary from 20,000–400,000 g/mol which affects the properties of PVA. When PVA has a molecular weight of 75,000–81,000 g/mol and is 98–99% hydrolyzed, it has a tensile strength of 17 MPa, and a tensile modulus of 1470 MPa [14]. PVA with a molecular weight of 146,000–186,000 g/mol when 98–99% hydrolyzed has a tensile strength of 51 MPa and tensile modulus of 443 MPa. PVA being soluble in water makes it suitable as support material for printing complex objects by forming a support structure. Initially, PVA rafts can be printed or dual extrusion printing techniques can be used to fill voids or intricate fine details during the print. The finished object can then be immersed in water to dissolve the PVA and leave the other extruded polymer in place. Rubber-elastomer filaments made of PVA with another polymer, sold under name of “Lay-felt”, are commercially available to produce micro-porous objects as end products by immersing printed objects in water.
\nPCL (Figure 7) is polymerized from a caprolactone (a five member ring cyclic ester) monomer by ring opening catalyzed by stannous octoate. PCL is hydrophobic and soluble in chloroform, carbon tetrachloride, cyclohexanone, benzene, and toluene. PCL biodegrades in the presence of microorganisms. It has a low glass transition temperature of -60°C [15], which makes it less brittle than other polymers with glass transition temperatures above room temperature. It also has a low melting point of 59–64°C with the advantage of low processing temperatures especially when mixed with other materials to form composites.
\nStructures of PLA, PVA, PVA-co-PVAc, and PCL.
Carbon nanotubes are known for their mechanical, electrical, and thermal properties, which initially makes them a suitable candidate to integrate into 3D printing polymers. MWCNTs have structural defects which provide suitable nucleation sites that allow for strong interactions with polymers [16] and for cross-linking and functionalization [17–19]. A homogeneous dispersion of carbon nanotubes in polymeric solutions are essential if they are to be used for enhanced CNT based filaments. The familiar problem of the aggregation of CNTs can be detrimental to FDM, possibly causing blockages at the nozzle and flux instability while printing, so research has focused on determining the concentration of CNTs that would surpass the percolation threshold (the transition between an insulating and conductive polymer) while maintaining the parameters for 3D printing.
\nThe theoretical concentration of carbon nanotubes required to reach the electrical percolation threshold for a CNT/Polymer composite can be obtained, as a first step, by the use of the power law:
\nwhere σ is the electrical conductivity, φ is the MWCNT volume concentration in the nanocomposite, φc is the critical MWCNT volume concentration at electrical percolation, and α is a critical exponent [6]. A comprehensive table of percolation thresholds for CNTs in polymer matrices was assembled by Bauhofer et al. [20]. It was also noted by Bauhofer that there were conflicting results concerning the dependence of the percolation threshold on the aspect ratio. The excluded volume analysis conducted by Celzard et al. showed that the percolation threshold of a fiber suspension would decrease when the aspect ratio increased [21]. Research by Bai et al. demonstrated a decreasing set of values for the percolation threshold when the CNT length increased [22]; however, Martin et al. [23] found an increasing percolation threshold when the CNT length increased. This problem can be reconciled by considering the type of percolation thresholds. Bai et al. possibly obtained statistical thresholds while Martin et al. acquired kinetic percolation. This is important to know as theoretical analyses reported tend to ignore the movement of filler particles and only seem to predict the dependence of the statistical percolation threshold on the filler aspect ratio.
\nUltrahigh molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) has been processed with MWCNTs and extruded to produce filaments [24]. However, it is not feasible to produce UHMWPE filaments by conventional extrusion due to the high Weissenberg effects [25] that would likely affect the flux during extrusion both for filament production and 3D printing. An alternative would be to use the gel-spinning technique [26] in which the polymer is dissolved and spun. The addition of MWCNTs can be problematic as they tend to aggregate during the solvent evaporation stage, but the problems were addressed by using a range of techniques including sonication, melt mixing, and extrusion [24].
\nThe compatibilization of a polymer is simply the addition of a material to immiscible blends of polymers resulting in an increase in stability. Compatibilized polyolefin rubber is an example of a composite that can be made conductive by the addition of carbon nanotubes [27] or graphene. The percolation threshold has been widely studied with carbon nanotube systems [28, 29]. The study of PC, ABS, and MWCNT composites confirmed that localization of MWCNTs changes from the ABS to the PC phase when the rubber content was reduced from 60 to 5% [30]. At low concentrations of rubber, MWCNTs localized in the PC phase resulting in an increase in conductivity and a low percolation threshold of around 0.5–1 wt% [28].
\nTernary systems could be an important framework for developing advanced 3D printing materials. With the ternary mixture of PCL, PLA, and MWCNT, it has been shown that the localization of carboxylic functionalized nanotubes can be identified at the PCL phase and at the phase interface. When the MWCNTs are not functionalized, they can only be located at the PCL phase resulting in an elevated percolation threshold. Ternary composites exhibit conductivities that are 3–4 orders higher than binary composites when the MWCNT content reaches 1 wt% [31]. Pötschke et al. developed a method to mix MWCNTs into thermoplastic matrices of PC and polyamide-6 (PA6) by melt blending the PE based masterbatch with high MWCNT loading. This improved the CNT dispersion in PC and PA6 and also reduced the percolation threshold [32]. In general, there are many strategies that can be applied to the mixing of CNTs with polymers.
\nPostiglione et al. reported the assembly of conductive 3D structures using a PLA/MWCNT nanocomposite using liquid deposition modeling (LDM) with dichloromethane (DCM) [6]. They reported a percolation threshold concentration of 0.67% with a conductivity of 10 S/m, and the highest conductivity was obtained with 5 wt% MWCNT with 100 S/m. Postiglione found that at a composition of 35% PLA in DCM with 1 wt% MWCNT, the rheological effects prevent the extrusion through the 3D printer as a higher pressure from the extrusion assembly would be required. Nanocomposites made from 25 wt% of PLA in DCM with 1 wt% MWCNTs can be printed out at a lower shear stress with a higher shear rate (1–50 s-1) when compared to 30 wt% PLA in DCM with 1 wt% MWCNTs (shear rates 5–11 s-1). Although the 25 wt% PLA/CNT mixture prints at a higher speed, a better resolution product was obtained using a 30 wt% PLA/CNT mixture at 10s-1 and a low speed of 0.1 mm s-1.
\nGrafting of single wall carbon nanotubes SWCNTs to poly(L-lactic acid) has been investigated [33] but so far MWCNTs are dominant, possibly due to their increased metallic character. However, Vatani et al. reported the fabrication of a highly stretchable sensor by dispersing 1 wt% SWCNT (average diameter 1.5 nm, length 1–5 micrometer) in a matrix of a blend of two photocurable monomers (cyclic trimethylolpropane formal acrylate and acrylate ester) [34]. The monomers/SWCNT composite was printed using direct writing into a polyurethane substrate on which the monomers were photo cured. The wires sustained strain up to 90% elongation and resistivity change increased proportionally with the strain.
\nIt is well known that the advent of carbon nanotubes caused a flurry of interest with researchers over how these nanoscale tubes could change the way we live. While it is easy to lead research by conjecture, once a plateau is reached, the refinement of the field begins. What we are seeing now is the development of stronger and highly efficient carbon nanotube based composites that, without the fanfare, are making their way into products.
\nAn article in Chemical and Engineering News [35] highlighted the difficulty in working on the field of carbon nanotubes. Phaedon Avouris, a member of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences and an expert in the field of carbon nanotubes and graphene said when scientists work on new materials, there is a rush to characterize it, publish papers in prominent journals, and then move on to a different material, “We’re left with a lot of unfinished work and unproven claims”. Although a fundamental understanding of the research topic may be achieved, few people are determined to solve the problems that facilitate the transition to applications.
\nProduction capacity of multi-walled tubes has peaked with Timesnano and Showa Denko, each producing over 2500 metric tons every year, but demand is still growing with conductive adhesives and fire retardant plastics leading the requests for applications [35]. In 2015, over 400 metric tons of multi-walled carbon nanotubes were used for conductive polymer composites with estimates reaching 1700 metric tons by the year 2020. It is possible that this may increase further as carbon nanotubes continue to transition into additive manufacturing.
\nMihail Roco, the senior adviser for nanotechnology at the National Science Foundation (NSF) said that carbon nanotubes form a component of nanotechnology. “Components are essential in advancing nanoscience, but they’re not the end goal in applications.” The NSF intends to advance toward the goal of building nanotech systems that provide answers to problems in industry and other areas. Carbon nanotubes have steered researchers toward the development of prototypes, and will continue to promote innovation over the next decade. Roco also said, “Carbon nanotubes focused attention on understanding matter at the nanoscale, on making new tools, on performance, on how to create groups that could cross disciplines”. This shows that beyond the hype, the legacy of carbon nanotubes for nanotechnology may prove to be an important milestone.
\n3DXTech is a company that provides filaments containing carbon nanotubes. Their 3DXNano™ ESD ABS filaments (containing MWCNTs) are available with diameters of 1.75 mm and 2.85 mm. The filament is tailored toward applications that require electrostatic discharge (ESD). The filament is produced using MG-94 Premium ABS and mixed with MWCNTs, and process/dispersion modifiers. 3DXTech state that the Tensile strength is 42 MPa in comparison to 41 MPa for the unfilled ABS. The surface resistance for ‘3DXNano™ ESD ABS’ is 107–109 Ω. An extrusion temperature of 220–240°C with a FDM platform temperature of 100–110°C is also suggested.
\nNanocyl are one of the worldwide leading experts in CNT based materials, producing research and industry grade carbon nanotubes. One of their product lines, PLASTICYL™, is a collection of carbon nanotubes thermoplastic concentrates for applications requiring electrical conductivity with good mechanical properties. The concentrates contain 10–20% of carbon nanotubes and are available in a diverse range of thermoplastic resins, including PC, PP, PA, PET, HDPE, and others. Although these enhanced thermoplastics were not specifically aimed at the FDM sector, they have a formulation that makes them applicable, subject to the temperature range of the extruder. PLASTICYL™ can be used in many applications and a surface resistivity range of 1–1012 Ω, and the typical loading for static dissipative applications are around 2–3% of CNTs in the final compound. The conductivity can be tailored for a given loading of CNTs, depending on the compounding conditions, and the viscosity of the basic resin. Nanocyl optimizes the dispersion of CNTs in a wide range of thermoplastics with the PLASTICYL™ range (www.nanocyl.com).
\nF-Electric is a PLA-based filament produced by ‘Functionalize’ that incorporates carbon nanotubes. F-Electric is one of the best conductive 3D filaments available on the market with a 0.75 Ω∙cm in volume resistivity. Table 1 shows some of the commercially available carbon nanotube based materials.
\nCompany | \nProduct | \n
---|---|
3DXTech | \n3DXNano™ ESD ABS + Carbon Nanotube Filament | \n
\n | 3DXNano™ ESD PETG + Carbon Nanotube Filament | \n
Functionalize F-Electric | \nFunctionalize F-Electric filament (PLA & Carbon Nanotube) | \n
Filabot | \nMWCNT1 Multi Walled Carbon Nanotube Pellets | \n
Cheap Tubes Inc. | \nCarbon Nanotube Masterbatches CNT-ABS-10 | \n
Nanocyl | \nPLASTICYL™ ABS 1501* | \n
\n | PLASTICYL™ HIPS 1001 | \n
\n | PLASTICYL™ PC 1501 | \n
\n | PLASTICYL™ PP 2001 | \n
Companies that provide filaments and pellets containing carbon nanotubes.
Consumer 3D printers are perfect for creating replacement parts and tools, and supporting learning from K-12 to higher education, but the process can produce a lot of waste from failed prints, supports, and rafts. Recycling these materials can be highly effective in reducing the costs of printing. Crowdfunded initiatives have been the main driving force in producing filament reclaimers with products such as the Filastruder (filastruder.com) and the Filabot (filabot.com) range of extruders and accessories. The process of reusing filaments is further complicated by the need to break down the waste so that it can be successfully channeled through a feed screw through to the melting chamber (surrounded by a heater) as shown in Figure 8. Extruded filaments can be collected on automated systems such as the Filabot Spooler, allowing the spool to be detached and connected to a 3D printer when completed.
\nDiagram of a filament maker and a picture of the ‘Filabot – Original’ used for producing filaments by FDM.
Graphene exhibits a range of exceptional qualities including flexibility and conductivity. 3D printing filaments augmented with graphene have the potential to enhance the manufacturing process of strong conductive composites. There are many applications of these carbon nanostructured additives in 3D printer filaments including sensors, trackpads, electromagnetic, and RF shielding.
\nGraphene has been rising in popularity as a material that would revolutionize electronics; fortunately, graphene has safely passed the peak of overestimated expectations and is now settling on some novel applications. Graphene has many interesting properties such as low resistivity, excellent thermal conductivity, optical transparency, and high electron mobility.
\nThere are only a select few companies that have produced graphene enhanced 3D printing materials, including Angstron Materials and Graphene 3D Labs (Table 2).
\nCompany | \nProduct | \n
---|---|
Black Magic 3D | \nConductive Graphene Filament | \n
\n | Conductive Thermoplastic Graphene/PLA Pellets | \n
Filabot | \nGraphite Infused Filament—ABS Based | \n
Angstron Materials | \nGraphene Enhanced Nanocomposites—PP, PC, ABS | \n
Graphene 3D Lab | \nGRAPH-PLA (Graphene/PLA Pellets) | \n
Commercial graphene or graphite infused 3D printing materials.
The use of graphene in 3D printing started with the Canadian company Grafoid, resulting in the product MesoGraf, which is produced from raw, unprocessed graphite ore in a one-step process. It is envisaged that the use of graphene in 3D printing will aid in conductivity and strength. Grafoid worked with Altamat to construct a facility to produce MesoGraf graphene-based powders and filaments for 3D printing, and Grafoid intends to supply a diverse catalog of MesoGraf-based powders and filaments to aid companies with additive manufacturing processes to produce their end-product prototypes and end-user products.
\nThere are some limitations with current 3D printing technology, especially when attempting to produce filaments with advance functional materials such as metals, graphene and carbon nanotubes. Problems may be associated with the size of particles and temperature variations of the constituents within a polymer matrix.
\nResearch is still ongoing into making FDM more applicable to producing advanced functional 3D printed materials in Dr. Acquah’s research group at Florida State University. The research group is using a combination of graphene-enhanced and carbon nanotube-enhanced 3D printing materials to tailor the properties. Research is also focusing on modifying polymers with graphene [36]. Although graphene has also been referred to as a remarkable material, homogeneous mixtures of graphene and polymers are essential to exploit the unique properties [37]. Wei et al. [38] stated that the major problem confronted by graphene composites was that of phase separation between graphene sheets. They addressed the problem with the use of graphene oxide (GO) to substitute graphene as the additive. GO contains oxygenated functional groups on its basal planes, which may assist graphene’s dispersion in polymer phases [38].
\nGraphene infused PLA pellets and 1.75 mm filaments.
Graphene 3D Labs is working on 3D printable batteries incorporating graphene, with the potential to surpass current commercially available batteries. They demonstrated a prototype battery in 2014 and the following year launched conductive graphene filaments for 3D printing. The filaments and pellets (Figure 9) contain highly conductive proprietary nanocarbon materials with PLA. Both the filaments and pellets extruded through a filament-producer are compatible with commercially available FDM printers. The volume resistivity is listed as 1 Ω∙cm which provides an excellent starting point for 3D printed circuitry and capacitive touch sensors.
\nResearch by Seung Kwon Seol of the Korea Electrotechnology Research Institute has demonstrated a process that is capable of 3D printing pure graphene nanostructures [39]. This achievement marked the first time graphene has been printed by itself without being used as the additive. The research available in the journal ‘Advanced Materials’ shows potential for expansion once the challenges such as reducing the size of the extruded material and increasing the yield are addressed.
\nCarbon Nanotubes and Graphene are some of the popular choices as additives for 3D printing, but carbon black (CB) and carbon fibres are unique carbon structured additives that have an extensive history in manufacturing, tailoring the properties of composites for electronic applications, and structural reinforcement respectively.
\nCB is soot-like in its appearance but differs from soot at the molecular level. CB is produced from the incomplete combustion of heavy petroleum products such as coal tar. As such, it is readily available and inexpensive. It is considered one of the most popular conductive additives because of its low cost and chemical stability [40].
\nA conductive thermoplastic composite called \'carbomorph\' which can be extruded through a consumer 3D printer has been produced [15]. In this work, Leigh et al. reported on the 3D printing of a piezo-resistive sensor from a composite of PCL with 15 wt% of CB as filler. Leigh stated that the transition from insulating to non-insulating behavior for composites with conductive filler is generally observed when the volume concentration of filler reaches a threshold of around 25% [41]. However, their decision to use 15 wt% CB was based on optimization, considering the thermal and rheological parameters required for successful printing. The thermoplastic polymer selected for the composite was the polymorph PCL. Bending the sensor resulted in a change of resistivity of 4%. The conductivity of the printed filament made from the PCL/CB composite was 11.1 S/m, which falls within the range of semi-conductors.
\nResistance was tested using 5 mm cubes of carbomorph by two-probe measurements with the two opposite cube faces (painted with silver conductive paint). The resistivity of the composite, in-plane with the layers, was 0.09±0.01 ohm m−1 and perpendicular to the layers, the resistivity was 0.12±0.01 ohm m−1. This is a significant observation as the reduction in the resistivity of 25% from the perpendicular to parallel orientation is a feature that needs to be considered for the next generation of functional composites. The plane of the layers of the printed filaments provides an unperturbed conductive pathway between the electrodes, while perpendicular to the layers, the conductive pathway depends upon the connection between successive layers.
\nLow-structure and high-structure carbon black. Figure adapted from Balberg [42].
Work by Balberg into the electrical phenomena in CB-polymer composites looked at the difficulties in establishing the percolation threshold for the incorporation of CB into polymers [42]. While he noted that previous studies in his reviews had explained the electrical data within the confines of inter-particle tunneling conduction [43] and/or that of classical percolation theory, the observations were far more convoluted. He noted that for different types of CB, the same volume percent of the CB phase in the composite produces different values for the resistivity [44, 45]. By investigating the characteristics, Balberg stated that the values of the (apparent) percolation threshold and the (apparent) percolation critical resistivity-exponent depended strongly on the particular type of CB. The particles could be treated in terms of how spherical-like they look, with more spherical CB particles termed ‘low-structure’ CB, in comparison to ‘high-structure’ CB. Figure 10 shows the closely packed network of spheres representing the low structure in a polymer composite with nearest-neighbor tunneling. The black spherical structures are the CB particles, and the blue shells represent the tunneling distance. The nearest-neighbor connections (black lines) indicate the dominant conducting elements that result in percolation-like behavior. Figure 10 also shows a high-structure CB polymer composite. The distances between the nearest inter-particle surfaces have a narrow, non-diverging distribution of the tunneling-resistor values in the network.
\nPLA filaments with CB as an additive are commercially available (Figure 11). Proto-pasta offers filaments that have a volume resistivity of 15 Ω∙cm, resulting in 3D prints that are 30 Ω∙cm perpendicular to the layers, and 115 Ω∙cm through the layers.
\nConductive PLA 1.75 mm filament containing carbon black.
As a stalwart of modern engineering, carbon fibers are an important part of reinforcement in composite materials. Properties such as low weight, high tensile strength, and low thermal expansion are some of the advantages of incorporating these fibers in composites. One of the known limitations of FDM is the low transfer of strength in the printed composites, but the use of carbon fibers in 3D printing is an important step toward creating high strength composites. Ning et al. reported printing out parts from an ABS/carbon fiber composite with different percentages by weight. The highest tensile strength reported for a 5 wt% composite of carbon fibers in ABS, printed using FDM was 42 MPa [46]. The tensile strength dropped as the percentage of carbon fiber increased to 10 wt%. The ductilities of all composites were less than the pure ABS. The 7.5 wt% carbon fiber composite had the largest value for the Young’s modulus. The reduction in the tensile strength and ductility of composites exceeding 10 wt% was due to the higher porosity of those composites.
\nA new start-up, MarkForged Inc., has been working on improving the integration of carbon fibers. The company has developed a new printer which uses two separate print-heads. The first head dispenses a polymer such as nylon or PLA, while the other dispenses a carbon fiber tow which is a coated thermoplastic. As the carbon fiber can be introduced during any part of the print process, composites can be produced without reinforced sections. MarkForged reported that tests demonstrated that the parts produced were stronger than 6061-T6 aluminum.
\nCarbon fiber filaments are also offered by Proto-pasta with fibers mixed with PLA. Proto-pasta states that the abrasive nature of the filament may cause the extrusion nozzle to fail prematurely.
\nAdditive manufacturing is a multi-disciplinary field that encompasses many aspects of chemistry, physics, and engineering in a manner not so dissimilar from its nanoscale counterpart, in the field of nanotechnology. The two areas of development that steer advances are the composition of the next generation of filaments, pellets, and resins for printing; and the equipment used for filament production. One of the most important examples of the level of advancement in both areas is the 3D printing of bio-inspired materials. Kang et al. recently produced life-sized body parts and tissues with living cells acting as the printing materials. The parts were stable enough to be used as viable replacements that could be tailored to individual needs rather than generic replacements [47].
\nOne of the limitations of consumer thermoplastic extrusion is the temperature range of the extruder assembly. While entry level printers were designed to work with ABS and PLA filaments, this meant that the nozzle temperatures were only required to reach 230–240°C. The latest generation of extruders such as the E3D V6 hotend are capable of high temperature extrusion up to 300°C and 400°C when the thermistor is exchanged for a thermocouple. These temperatures are essential for multi-material filaments that may require elevated temperatures, and polycarbonate and nylon based filaments. The high temperatures would also create additional problems with mixed materials. Polymers may degrade at higher temperatures and the carbon nanostructured additives may cause unfavourable results during extrusion. Stratasys offer a proprietary product called Digital Materials which are a range of several hundred combinations of PolyJet base resins. The Objet260 Connex 3D printing platforms use the PolyJet resin and are capable of depositing three materials with a layer thickness of 16 μm. The build resolution is 600 dpi on both the X-axis and Y-axis, and 1600 dpi on the Z-axis.
\nThe difficulty in producing mixed material filaments with carbon nanostructures, and the additional problems associated with the rheology and flux during FDM extrusion may be addressed by a move toward other additive manufacturing techniques such as the PolyJet system. Carbon nanotubes, graphene, and CB have been explored as additives for SLS [48–50]. The main issue again is creating a homogeneous distribution of the carbon nanostructures, but this can be achieved by simple mixing techniques. Paggi et al. reported on the process for the optimization of PA12/MWCNT nanocomposites by SLS [48]. They described a procedure for dispersing the MWCNT powder initially in chloroform using ultrasonic techniques for one hour. They added the polyamide powder to the suspension and continued mixing on a magnetic stir plate for 50 min to homogenize the solution. After a filtration process with a cellulose filter, the mixture was washed with acetone and placed in an oven at 80°C for four hours. Rotary blades were then used to homogenize the final powder. A CO2 laser (10 watts) with a beam diameter of 250 μm was used to fuse the powder. Pulsed mode was used to operate the laser at 5 kHz and the average layer thickness produced was 200 μm.
\nThe worldwide market for 3D printing, including the services sector, will likely increase at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 32.2% from 2014 to 2019 [51]. Some additive manufacturing processes show good potential for growth from 2014 to 2019. The 3D stereolithography sector is estimated to rise to $1.8 billion with a CAGR of 27.5%. PolyJet technology will rise to a modest $334 million, but with a CAGR of 40.7%. FDM will almost reach $1 billion with a CAGR of 30%, and SLS is expected to reach $504 million with a CAGR of 32.3%, so development into additives for these industries will continue to be strong. The industry segment focusing on services including design and development, manufacturing, and equipment repair will contribute to 53% of revenues. BCC Research also estimates that ‘services’ will reach $7.8 billion in 2019 with a CAGR of 31.4% from 2014 to 2019 [51].
\nThe major advantage in this market is the high level of diversification in the technology and applications. Advances in the design and function of 3D printers have catalysed the development of multi-material filaments and printing techniques that overcome some of the limitations of the durability of printed composites. 3D printing may also have a pronounced effect on more traditional manufacturing processes, affecting many aspects from the design and development of materials to the cost savings through the rapid production of custom parts. For consumers, it is the potential to be able to print replacement parts for household appliances.
\nPolymer composites with conductive fillers have the potential to be used in many areas from engineering to consumer product development, with tunable properties that include elasticity, durability, water wettability (hydrophobic/hydrophilic), and conductance.
\nThe use of metal fillers in polymer composites have been reported [52], and although the ability to print with conductive filler such as a metal is a clear advantage, the difficulty resides in the processability of the composite which may affect the quality and resolution of the 3D object. To reach a workable conductivity, the percentage weight of filler may need to increase, which causes an increase in the density and viscosity of the composite. The addition of the filler affects the rheological properties of the polymer. Metallic fillers are usually susceptible to oxidation, and most of the conductive fillers used are in a 5–120 µm diameter range, which can be a challenge by itself causing blockages at the nozzle-opening of most types of FDM printers, which typically have a nozzle diameter of 400 µm.
\nCarbon nanotubes as an additive for 3D printing are relatively new but an essential step toward the production of mixed-materials 3D printing. Much of the work in this area has focused on producing homogenous mixtures with PLA and ABS, with the goal of reducing the percolation threshold for conductivity. Polyhydroxylated fullerenes may also be an important bridge toward creating homogenous mixtures in polymers [53].
\nGraphene has been incorporated into filaments for FDM by a small but growing number of commercial entities. Its incorporation into filaments and pellets has been marketed primarily for their electron transport properties, as an improvement over CB based filaments.
\nStability constant of the formation of metal complexes is used to measure interaction strength of reagents. From this process, metal ion and ligand interaction formed the two types of metal complexes; one is supramolecular complexes known as host-guest complexes [1] and the other is anion-containing complexes. In the solution it provides and calculates the required information about the concentration of metal complexes.
Solubility, light, absorption conductance, partitioning behavior, conductance, and chemical reactivity are the complex characteristics which are different from their components. It is determined by various numerical and graphical methods which calculate the equilibrium constants. This is based on or related to a quantity, and this is called the complex formation function.
During the displacement process at the time of metal complex formation, some ions disappear and form a bonding between metal ions and ligands. It may be considered due to displacement of a proton from a ligand species or ions or molecules causing a drop in the pH values of the solution [2]. Irving and Rossotti developed a technique for the calculation of stability constant, and it is called potentiometric technique.
To determine the stability constant, Bjerrum has used a very simple method, and that is metal salt solubility method. For the studies of a larger different variety of polycarboxylic acid-, oxime-, phenol-containing metal complexes, Martel and Calvin used the potentiometric technique for calculating the stability constant. Those ligands [3, 4] which are uncharged are also examined, and their stability constant calculations are determined by the limitations inherent in the ligand solubility method. The limitations of the metal salt solubility method and the result of solubility methods are compared with this. M-L, MLM, and (M3) L are some types of examples of metal-ligand bonding. One thing is common, and that is these entire types metal complexes all have one ligand.
The solubility method can only usefully be applied to studies of such complexes, and it is best applied for ML; in such types of system, only ML is formed. Jacqueline Gonzalez and his co-worker propose to explore the coordination chemistry of calcium complexes. Jacqueline and et al. followed this technique for evaluate the as partial model of the manganese-calcium cluster and spectrophotometric studies of metal complexes, i.e., they were carried calcium(II)-1,4-butanediamine in acetonitrile and calcium(II)-1,2-ethylendiamine, calcium(II)-1,3-propanediamine by them.
Spectrophotometric programming of HypSpec and received data allows the determination of the formation of solubility constants. The logarithmic values, log β110 = 5.25 for calcium(II)-1,3-propanediamine, log β110 = 4.072 for calcium(II)-1,4-butanediamine, and log β110 = 4.69 for calcium(II)-1,2-ethylendiamine, are obtained for the formation constants [5]. The structure of Cimetidine and histamine H2-receptor is a chelating agent. Syed Ahmad Tirmizi has examined Ni(II) cimetidine complex spectrophotometrically and found an absorption peak maximum of 622 nm with respect to different temperatures.
Syed Ahmad Tirmizi have been used to taken 1:2 ratio of metal and cimetidine compound for the formation of metal complex and this satisfied by molar ratio data. The data, 1.40–2.4 × 108, was calculated using the continuous variation method and stability constant at room temperature, and by using the mole ratio method, this value at 40°C was 1.24–2.4 × 108. In the formation of lead(II) metal complexes with 1-(aminomethyl) cyclohexene, Thanavelan et al. found the formation of their binary and ternary complexes. Glycine,
Using the stability constant method, these ternary complexes were found out, and using the parameters such as Δ log K and log X, these ternary complex data were compared with binary complex. The potentiometric technique at room temperature (25°C) was used in the investigation of some binary complex formations by Abdelatty Mohamed Radalla. These binary complexes are formed with 3D transition metal ions like Cu2+, Ni2+, Co2+, and Zn2+ and gallic acid’s importance as a ligand and 0.10 mol dm−3 of NaNO3. Such types of aliphatic dicarboxylic acids are very important biologically. Many acid-base characters and the nature of using metal complexes have been investigated and discussed time to time by researchers [7].
The above acids (gallic and aliphatic dicarboxylic acid) were taken to determine the acidity constants. For the purpose of determining the stability constant, binary and ternary complexes were carried in the aqueous medium using the experimental conditions as stated above. The potentiometric pH-metric titration curves are inferred for the binary complexes and ternary complexes at different ratios, and formation of ternary metal complex formation was in a stepwise manner that provided an easy way to calculate stability constants for the formation of metal complexes.
The values of Δ log K, percentage of relative stabilization (% R. S.), and log X were evaluated and discussed. Now it provides the outline about the various complex species for the formation of different solvents, and using the concentration distribution, these complexes were evaluated and discussed. The conductivity measurements have ascertained for the mode of ternary chelating complexes.
A study by Kathrina and Pekar suggests that pH plays an important role in the formation of metal complexes. When epigallocatechin gallate and gallic acid combine with copper(II) to form metal complexes, the pH changes its speculation. We have been able to determine its pH in frozen and fluid state with the help of multifrequency EPR spectroscopy [8]. With the help of this spectroscopy, it is able to detect that each polyphenol exhibits the formation of three different mononuclear species. If the pH ranges 4–8 for di- or polymeric complex of Cu(II), then it conjectures such metal complexes. It is only at alkaline pH values.
The line width in fluid solutions by molecular motion exhibits an incomplete average of the parameters of anisotropy spin Hamilton. If the complexes are different, then their rotational correlation times for this also vary. The analysis of the LyCEP anisotropy of the fluid solution spectra is performed using the parameters determined by the simulation of the rigid boundary spectra. Its result suggests that pH increases its value by affecting its molecular mass. It is a polyphenol ligand complex with copper, showing the coordination of an increasing number of its molecules or increasing participation of polyphenol dimers used as ligands in the copper coordination region.
The study by Vishenkova and his co-worker [8] provides the investigation of electrochemical properties of triphenylmethane dyes using a voltammetric method with constant-current potential sweep. Malachite green (MG) and basic fuchsin (BF) have been chosen as representatives of the triphenylmethane dyes [9]. The electrochemical behavior of MG and BF on the surface of a mercury film electrode depending on pH, the nature of background electrolyte, and scan rate of potential sweep has been investigated.
Using a voltammetric method with a constant-current potential sweep examines the electrical properties of triphenylmethane dye. In order to find out the solution of MG and BF, certain registration conditions have been prescribed for it, which have proved to be quite useful. The reduction peak for the currents of MG and BF has demonstrated that it increases linearly with respect to their concentration as 9.0 × 10−5–7.0 × 10−3 mol/dm3 for MG and 6.0 × 10−5–8.0 × 10−3 mol/dm3 for BF and correlation coefficients of these values are 0.9987 for MG and 0.9961 for BF [10].
5.0 × 10−5 and 2.0 × 10−5 mol/dm3 are the values used as the detection limit of MG and BF, respectively. Stability constants are a very useful technique whose size is huge. Due to its usefulness, it has acquired an umbrella right in the fields of chemistry, biology, and medicine. No science subject is untouched by this. Stability constants of metal complexes are widely used in the various areas like pharmaceuticals as well as biological processes, separation techniques, analytical processes, etc. In the presented chapter, we have tried to explain this in detail by focusing our attention on the applications and solutions of stability of metal complexes in solution.
Stability or formation or binding constant is the type of equilibrium constant used for the formation of metal complexes in the solution. Acutely, stability constant is applicable to measure the strength of interactions between the ligands and metal ions that are involved in complex formation in the solution [11]. A generally these 1-4 equations are expressed as the following ways:
Thus
K1, K2, K3, … Kn are the equilibrium constants and these are also called stepwise stability constants. The formation of the metal-ligand-n complex may also be expressed as equilibrium constants by the following steps:
The parameters K and β are related together, and these are expressed in the following example:
Now the numerator and denominator are multiplied together with the use of [metal-ligand] [metal-ligand2], and after the rearranging we get the following equation:
Now we expressed it as the following:
From the above relation, it is clear that the overall stability constant βn is equal to the product of the successive (i.e., stepwise) stability constants, K1, K2, K3,…Kn. This in other words means that the value of stability constants for a given complex is actually made up of a number of stepwise stability constants. The term stability is used without qualification to mean that the complex exists under a suitable condition and that it is possible to store the complex for an appreciable amount of time. The term stability is commonly used because coordination compounds are stable in one reagent but dissociate or dissolve in the presence of another regent. It is also possible that the term stability can be referred as an action of heat or light or compound. The stability of complex [13] is expressed qualitatively in terms of thermodynamic stability and kinetic stability.
In a chemical reaction, chemical equilibrium is a state in which the concentration of reactants and products does not change over time. Often this condition occurs when the speed of forward reaction becomes the same as the speed of reverse reaction. It is worth noting that the velocities of the forward and backward reaction are not zero at this stage but are equal.
If hydrogen and iodine are kept together in molecular proportions in a closed process vessel at high temperature (500°C), the following action begins:
In this activity, hydrogen iodide is formed by combining hydrogen and iodine, and the amount of hydrogen iodide increases with time. In contrast to this action, if the pure hydrogen iodide gas is heated to 500°C in the reaction, the compound is dissolved by reverse action, which causes hydrogen iodide to dissolve into hydrogen and iodine, and the ratio of these products increases over time. This is expressed in the following reaction:
For the formation of metal chelates, the thermodynamic technique provides a very significant information. Thermodynamics is a very useful technique in distinguishing between enthalpic effects and entropic effects. The bond strengths are totally effected by enthalpic effect, and this does not make any difference in the whole solution in order/disorder. Based on thermodynamics the chelate effect below can be best explained. The change of standard Gibbs free energy for equilibrium constant is response:
Where:
R = gas constant
T = absolute temperature
At 25°C,
ΔG = (− 5.708 kJ mol−1) · log β.
The enthalpy term creates free energy, i.e.,
For metal complexes, thermodynamic stability and kinetic stability are two interpretations of the stability constant in the solution. If reaction moves from reactants to products, it refers to a change in its energy as shown in the above equation. But for the reactivity, kinetic stability is responsible for this system, and this refers to ligand species [14].
Stable and unstable are thermodynamic terms, while labile and inert are kinetic terms. As a rule of thumb, those complexes which react completely within about 1 minute at 25°C are considered labile, and those complexes which take longer time than this to react are considered inert. [Ni(CN)4]2− is thermodynamically stable but kinetically inert because it rapidly exchanges ligands.
The metal complexes [Co(NH3)6]3+ and such types of other complexes are kinetically inert, but these are thermodynamically unstable. We may expect the complex to decompose in the presence of acid immediately because the complex is thermodynamically unstable. The rate is of the order of 1025 for the decomposition in acidic solution. Hence, it is thermodynamically unstable. However, nothing happens to the complex when it is kept in acidic solution for several days. While considering the stability of a complex, always the condition must be specified. Under what condition, the complex which is stable or unstable must be specified such as acidic and also basic condition, temperature, reactant, etc.
A complex may be stable with respect to a particular condition but with respect to another. In brief, a stable complex need not be inert and similarly, and an unstable complex need not be labile. It is the measure of extent of formation or transformation of complex under a given set of conditions at equilibrium [15].
Thermodynamic stability has an important role in determining the bond strength between metal ligands. Some complexes are stable, but as soon as they are introduced into aqueous solution, it is seen that these complexes have an effect on stability and fall apart. For an example, we take the [Co (SCN)4]2+ complex. The ion bond of this complex is very weak and breaks down quickly to form other compounds. But when [Fe(CN)6]3− is dissolved in water, it does not test Fe3+ by any sensitive reagent, which shows that this complex is more stable in aqueous solution. So it is indicated that thermodynamic stability deals with metal-ligand bond energy, stability constant, and other thermodynamic parameters.
This example also suggests that thermodynamic stability refers to the stability and instability of complexes. The measurement of the extent to which one type of species is converted to another species can be determined by thermodynamic stability until equilibrium is achieved. For example, tetracyanonickelate is a thermodynamically stable and kinetic labile complex. But the example of hexa-amine cobalt(III) cation is just the opposite:
Thermodynamics is used to express the difference between stability and inertia. For the stable complex, large positive free energies have been obtained from ΔG0 reaction. The ΔH0, standard enthalpy change for this reaction, is related to the equilibrium constant, βn, by the well thermodynamic equation:
For similar complexes of various ions of the same charge of a particular transition series and particular ligand, ΔS0 values would not differ substantially, and hence a change in ΔH0 value would be related to change in βn values. So the order of values of ΔH0 is also the order of the βn value.
Kinetic stability is referred to the rate of reaction between the metal ions and ligand proceeds at equilibrium or used for the formation of metal complexes. To take a decision for kinetic stability of any complexes, time is a factor which plays an important role for this. It deals between the rate of reaction and what is the mechanism of this metal complex reaction.
As we discuss above in thermodynamic stability, kinetic stability is referred for the complexes at which complex is inert or labile. The term “inert” was used by Tube for the thermally stable complex and for reactive complexes the term ‘labile’ used [16]. The naturally occurring chlorophyll is the example of polydentate ligand. This complex is extremely inert due to exchange of Mg2+ ion in the aqueous media.
The nature of central atom of metal complexes, dimension, its degree of oxidation, electronic structure of these complexes, and so many other properties of complexes are affected by the stability constant. Some of the following factors described are as follows.
In the coordination chemistry, metal complexes are formed by the interaction between metal ions and ligands. For these type of compounds, metal ions are the coordination center, and the ligand or complexing agents are oriented surrounding it. These metal ions mostly are the transition elements. For the determination of stability constant, some important characteristics of these metal complexes may be as given below.
Ligands are oriented around the central metal ions in the metal complexes. The sizes of these metal ions determine the number of ligand species that will be attached or ordinated (dative covalent) in the bond formation. If the sizes of these metal ions are increased, the stability of coordination compound defiantly decreased. Zn(II) metal ions are the central atoms in their complexes, and due to their lower size (0.74A°) as compared to Cd(II) size (0.97A°), metal ions are formed more stable.
Hence, Al3+ ion has the greatest nuclear charge, but its size is the smallest, and the ion N3− has the smallest nuclear charge, and its size is the largest [17]. Inert atoms like neon do not participate in the formation of the covalent or ionic compound, and these atoms are not included in isoelectronic series; hence, it is not easy to measure the radius of this type of atoms.
The properties of stability depend on the size of the metal ion used in the complexes and the total charge thereon. If the size of these metal ions is small and the total charge is high, then their complexes will be more stable. That is, their ratio will depend on the charge/radius. This can be demonstrated through the following reaction:
An ionic charge is the electric charge of an ion which is formed by the gain (negative charge) or loss (positive charge) of one or more electrons from an atom or group of atoms. If we talk about the stability of the coordination compounds, we find that the total charge of their central metal ions affects their stability, so when we change their charge, their stability in a range of constant can be determined by propagating of error [18]. If the charge of the central metal ion is high and the size is small, the stability of the compound is high:
In general, the most stable coordination bonds can cause smaller and highly charged rations to form more stable coordination compounds.
When an electron pair attracts a central ion toward itself, a strong stability complex is formed, and this is due to electron donation from ligand → metal ion. This donation process is increasing the bond stability of metal complexes exerted the polarizing effect on certain metal ions. Li+, Na+, Mg2+, Ca2+, Al3+, etc. are such type of metal cation which is not able to attract so strongly from a highly electronegative containing stable complexes, and these atoms are O, N, F, Au, Hg, Ag, Pd, Pt, and Pb. Such type of ligands that contains P, S, As, Br and I atom are formed stable complex because these accepts electron from M → π-bonding. Hg2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, and Bi3+ metal ions are also electronegative ions which form insoluble salts of metal sulfide which are insoluble in aqueous medium.
Volatile ligands may be lost at higher temperature. This is exemplified by the loss of water by hydrates and ammonia:
The transformation of certain coordination compounds from one to another is shown as follows:
A ligand is an ion or small molecule that binds to a metal atom (in chemistry) or to a biomolecule (in biochemistry) to form a complex, such as the iron-cyanide coordination complex Prussian blue or the iron-containing blood-protein hemoglobin. The ligands are arranged in spectrochemical series which are based on the order of their field strength. It is not possible to form the entire series by studying complexes with a single metal ion; the series has been developed by overlapping different sequences obtained from spectroscopic studies [19]. The order of common ligands according to their increasing ligand field strength is
The above spectrochemical series help us to for determination of strength of ligands. The left last ligand is as weaker ligand. These weaker ligand cannot forcible binding the 3d electron and resultant outer octahedral complexes formed. It is as-
Increasing the oxidation number the value of Δ increased.
Δ increases from top to bottom.
However, when we consider the metal ion, the following two useful trends are observed:
Δ increases with increasing oxidation number.
Δ increases down a group. For the determination of stability constant, the nature of the ligand plays an important role.
The following factors described the nature of ligands.
The size and charge are two factors that affect the production of metal complexes. The less charges and small sizes of ligands are more favorable for less stable bond formation with metal and ligand. But if this condition just opposite the product of metal and ligand will be a more stable compound. So, less nuclear charge and more size= less stable complex whereas if more nuclear charge and small in size= less stable complex. We take fluoride as an example because due to their smaller size than other halide and their highest electro negativity than the other halides formed more stable complexes. So, fluoride ion complexes are more stable than the other halides:
As compared to S2− ion, O22− ions formed more stable complexes.
It is suggested by Calvin and Wilson that the metal complexes will be more stable if the basic character or strength of ligands is higher. It means that the donating power of ligands to central metal ions is high [20].
It means that the donating power of ligands to central metal ions is high. In the case of complex formation of aliphatic diamines and aromatic diamines, the stable complex is formed by aliphatic diamines, while an unstable coordination complex is formed with aromatic diamines. So, from the above discussion, we find that the stability will be grater if the e-donation power is greater.
Thus it is clear that greater basic power of electron-donating species will form always a stable complex. NH3, CN−, and F− behaved as ligands and formed stable complexes; on the other hand, these are more basic in nature.
We know that if the concentration of coordination group is higher, these coordination compounds will exist in the water as solution. It is noted that greater coordinating tendency show the water molecules than the coordinating group which is originally present. SCN− (thiocynate) ions are present in higher concentration; with the Co2+ metal ion, it formed a blue-colored complex which is stable in state, but on dilution of water medium, a pink color is generated in place of blue, or blue color complex is destroyed by [Co(H2O)6]2+, and now if we added further SCN−, the pink color will not appear:
Now it is clear that H2O and SCN− are in competition for the formation of Co(II) metal-containing complex compound. In the case of tetra-amine cupric sulfate metal complex, ammonia acts as a donor atom or ligand. If the concentration of NH3 is lower in the reaction, copper hydroxide is formed but at higher concentration formed tetra-amine cupric sulfate as in the following reaction:
For a metal ion, chelating ligand is enhanced and affinity it and this is known as chelate effect and compared it with non-chelating and monodentate ligand or the multidentate ligand is acts as chelating agent. Ethylenediamine is a simple chelating agent (Figure 1).
Structure of ethylenediamine.
Due to the bidentate nature of ethylenediamine, it forms two bonds with metal ion or central atom. Water forms a complex with Ni(II) metal ion, but due to its monodentate nature, it is not a chelating ligand (Figures 2 and 3).
Structure of chelating configuration of ethylenediamine ligand.
Structure of chelate with three ethylenediamine ligands.
The dentate cheater of ligand provides bonding strength to the metal ion or central atom, and as the number of dentate increased, the tightness also increased. This phenomenon is known as chelating effect, whereas the formation of metal complexes with these chelating ligands is called chelation:
or
Some factors are of much importance for chelation as follows.
The sizes of the chelating ring are increased as well as the stability of metal complex decreased. According to Schwarzenbach, connecting bridges form the chelating rings. The elongated ring predominates when long bridges connect to the ligand to form a long ring. It is usually observed that an increased a chelate ring size leads to a decrease in complex stability.
He interpreted this statement. The entropy of complex will be change if the size of chelating ring is increased, i.e., second donor atom is allowed by the chelating ring. As the size of chelating ring increased, the stability should be increased with entropy effect. Four-membered ring compounds are unstable, whereas five-membered are more stable. So the chelating ring increased its size and the stability of the formed metal complexes.
The number of chelating rings also decides the stability of complexes. Non-chelating metal compounds are less stable than chelating compounds. These numbers increase the thermodynamic volume, and this is also known as an entropy term. In recent years ligands capable of occupying as many as six coordination positions on a single metal ion have been described. The studies on the formation constants of coordination compounds with these ligands have been reported. The numbers of ligand or chelating agents are affecting the stability of metal complexes so as these numbers go up and down, the stability will also vary with it.
For the Ni(II) complexes with ethylenediamine as chelating agent, its log K1 value is 7.9 and if chelating agents are trine and penten, then the log K1 values are 7.9 and 19.3, respectively. If the metal ion change Zn is used in place of Ni (II), then the values of log K1 for ethylenediamine, trine, and penten are 6.0, 12.1, and 16.2, respectively. The log βMY values of metal ions are given in Table 1.
Metal ion | log βMY (25°C, I = 0.1 M) |
---|---|
Ca2+ | 11.2 |
Cu2+ | 19.8 |
Fe3+ | 24.9 |
Metal ion vs. log βMY values.
Ni(NH3)62+ is an octahedral metal complex, and at 25 °C its log β6 value is 8.3, but Ni(ethylenediamine)32+ complex is also octahedral in geometry, with 18.4 as the value of log β6. The calculated stability value of Ni(ethylenediamine)32+ 1010 times is more stable because three rings are formed as chelating rings by ethylenediamine as compared to no such ring is formed. Ethylenediaminetetraacetate (EDTA) is a hexadentate ligand that usually formed stable metal complexes due to its chelating power.
A special effect in molecules is when the atoms occupy space. This is called steric effect. Energy is needed to bring these atoms closer to each other. These electrons run away from near atoms. There can be many ways of generating it. We know the repulsion between valence electrons as the steric effect which increases the energy of the current system [21]. Favorable or unfavorable any response is created.
For example, if the static effect is greater than that of a product in a metal complex formation process, then the static increase would favor this reaction. But if the case is opposite, the skepticism will be toward retardation.
This effect will mainly depend on the conformational states, and the minimum steric interaction theory can also be considered. The effect of secondary steric is seen on receptor binding produced by an alternative such as:
Reduced access to a critical group.
Stick barrier.
Electronic resonance substitution bond by repulsion.
Population of a conformer changes due to active shielding effect.
The macrocyclic effect is exactly like the image of the chelate effect. It means the principle of both is the same. But the macrocyclic effect suggests cyclic deformation of the ligand. Macrocyclic ligands are more tainted than chelating agents. Rather, their compounds are more stable due to their cyclically constrained constriction. It requires some entropy in the body to react with the metal ion. For example, for a tetradentate cyclic ligand, we can use heme-B which forms a metal complex using Fe+2 ions in biological systems (Figure 4).
Structure of hemoglobin is the biological complex compound which contains Fe(II) metal ion.
The n-dentate chelating agents play an important role for the formation of more stable metal complexes as compared to n-unidentate ligands. But the n-dentate macrocyclic ligand gives more stable environment in the metal complexes as compared to open-chain ligands. This change is very favorable for entropy (ΔS) and enthalpy (ΔH) change.
There are so many parameters to determination of formation constants or stability constant in solution for all types of chelating agents. These numerous parameters or techniques are refractive index, conductance, temperature, distribution coefficients, refractive index, nuclear magnetic resonance volume changes, and optical activity.
Solubility products are helpful and used for the insoluble salt that metal ions formed and complexes which are also formed by metal ions and are more soluble. The formation constant is observed in presence of donor atoms by measuring increased solubility.
To determine the solubility constant, it involves the distribution of the ligands or any complex species; metal ions are present in two immiscible solvents like water and carbon tetrachloride, benzene, etc.
In this method metal ions or ligands are present in solution and on exchanger. A solid polymers containing with positive and negative ions are ion exchange resins. These are insoluble in nature. This technique is helpful to determine the metal ions in resin phase, liquid phase, or even in radioactive metal. This method is also helpful to determine the polarizing effect of metal ions on the stability of ligands like Cu(II) and Zn(II) with amino acid complex formation.
At the equilibrium free metal and ions are present in the solution, and using the different electrometric techniques as described determines its stability constant.
This method is based upon the titration method or follows its principle. A stranded acid-base solution used as titrate and which is titrated, it may be strong base or strong acid follows as potentiometrically. The concentration of solution using 103− M does not decomposed during the reaction process, and this method is useful for protonated and nonprotonated ligands.
This is the graphic method used to determine the stability constant in producing metal complex formation by plotting a polarograph between the absences of substances and the presence of substances. During the complex formation, the presence of metal ions produced a shift in the half-wave potential in the solution.
If a complex is relatively slow to form and also decomposes at measurable rate, it is possible, in favorable situations, to determine the equilibrium constant.
This involves the study of the equilibrium constant of slow complex formation reactions. The use of tracer technique is extremely useful for determining the concentrations of dissociation products of the coordination compound.
This method is based on the study of the effect of an equilibrium concentration of some ions on the function at a definite organ of a living organism. The equilibrium concentration of the ion studied may be determined by the action of this organ in systems with complex formation.
The solution of 25 ml is adopted by preparing at the 1.0 × 10−5 M ligand or 1.0 × 10−5 M concentration and 1.0 × 10−5 M for the metal ion:
The solutions containing the metal ions were considered both at a pH sufficiently high to give almost complete complexation and at a pH value selected in order to obtain an equilibrium system of ligand and complexes.
In order to avoid modification of the spectral behavior of the ligand due to pH variations, it has been verified that the range of pH considered in all cases does not affect absorbance values. Use the collected pH values adopted for the determinations as well as selected wavelengths. The ionic strengths calculated from the composition of solutions allowed activity coefficient corrections. Absorbance values were determined at wavelengths in the range 430–700 nm, every 2 nm.
For a successive metal complex formation, use this method. If ligand is protonate and the produced complex has maximum number of donate atoms of ligands, a selective light is absorbed by this complex, while for determination of stability constant, it is just known about the composition of formed species.
Bjerrum (1941) used the method stepwise addition of the ligands to coordination sphere for the formation of complex. So, complex metal–ligand-n forms as the following steps [22]. The equilibrium constants, K1, K2, K3, … Kn are called stepwise stability constants. The formation of the complex metal-ligandn may also be expressed by the following steps and equilibrium constants.
Where:
M = central metal cation
L = monodentate ligand
N = maximum coordination number for the metal ion M for the ligand
If a complex ion is slow to reach equilibrium, it is often possible to apply the method of isotopic dilution to determine the equilibrium concentration of one or more of the species. Most often radioactive isotopes are used.
This method was extensively used by Werner and others to study metal complexes. In the case of a series of complexes of Co(III) and Pt(IV), Werner assigned the correct formulae on the basis of their molar conductance values measured in freshly prepared dilute solutions. In some cases, the conductance of the solution increased with time due to a chemical change, e.g.,
It is concluded that the information presented is very important to determine the stability constant of the ligand metal complexes. Some methods like spectrophotometric method, Bjerrum’s method, distribution method, ion exchange method, electrometric techniques, and potentiometric method have a huge contribution in quantitative analysis by easily finding the stability constants of metal complexes in aqueous solutions.
All the authors thank the Library of University of Delhi for reference books, journals, etc. which helped us a lot in reviewing the chapter.
.
",metaTitle:"Order Print Copies - Terms",metaDescription:".",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/order-print-copies-terms/",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Orders have to be prepaid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD. Payments can be made by bank transfer or cheque, by credit card (Visa, MasterCard, American Express, Discover Card) and PayPal worldwide online payments system. In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\\n\\nThe combined printing and delivery times for orders vary from 12-20 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\\n\\nMy order has not arrived, what do I do?
\\n\\nIf you do not receive your order within 30 days, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPOD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us. Inspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nTaxes: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax of 5%. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing us their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\\n\\nCustoms: Shipping costs do not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Orders have to be prepaid in advance and before printing. We accept payment in GBP, EUR and USD. Payments can be made by bank transfer or cheque, by credit card (Visa, MasterCard, American Express, Discover Card) and PayPal worldwide online payments system. In accordance with the best security practice, we do not accept card orders via email.
\n\nThe combined printing and delivery times for orders vary from 12-20 business days, depending on the printed quantity and destination. This period does not include any customs clearance difficulties that may arise and that are beyond our control. Once your order has been printed and shipped, you will receive a confirmation email that includes your DHL tracking number. You can then track your order at www.dhl.com.
\n\nMy order has not arrived, what do I do?
\n\nIf you do not receive your order within 30 days, please contact us to inquire about the shipping status at orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nPOD products are non-returnable and non-refundable, except in the event of poor print quality or an error in quantity. If we delivered the item to you in error or the item is faulty, please contact us. Inspect your order carefully when it arrives. Any problems should be immediately reported to orders@intechopen.com.
\n\nTaxes: Residents of European Union countries need to add a Book Value-Added Tax of 5%. Institutions and companies, registered as VAT taxable entities in their own EU member state, will not pay VAT by providing us their VAT registration number. This is made possible by the EU reverse charge method.
\n\nCustoms: Shipping costs do not include any duties, taxes or clearing charges levied by the destination country. These charges are the responsibility of the customer and will vary from country to country.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5775},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5238},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1721},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10409},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15805}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118374},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateendthirdsteppublish"},books:[],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:18},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:8},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:19},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5247},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9243",title:"Coastal Environments",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8e05e5f631e935eef366980f2e28295d",slug:"coastal-environments",bookSignature:"Yuanzhi Zhang and X. San Liang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9243.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77597",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuanzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhang",slug:"yuanzhi-zhang",fullName:"Yuanzhi Zhang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10020",title:"Operations Management",subtitle:"Emerging Trend in the Digital Era",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"526f0dbdc7e4d85b82ce8383ab894b4c",slug:"operations-management-emerging-trend-in-the-digital-era",bookSignature:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Germano Lambert-Torres and Erik Bonaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10020.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9521",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",subtitle:"A One Health Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"30949e78832e1afba5606634b52056ab",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-one-health-perspective",bookSignature:"Mihai Mareș, Swee Hua Erin Lim, Kok-Song Lai and Romeo-Teodor Cristina",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9521.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"88785",title:"Prof.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Mares",slug:"mihai-mares",fullName:"Mihai Mares"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"190224",title:"Dr.",name:"Swee Hua Erin",middleName:null,surname:"Lim",slug:"swee-hua-erin-lim",fullName:"Swee Hua Erin Lim",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190224/images/system/190224.png",biography:"Dr. Erin Lim is presently working as an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates and is affiliated as an Associate Professor to Perdana University-Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Selangor, Malaysia. She obtained her Ph.D. from Universiti Putra Malaysia in 2010 with a National Science Fellowship awarded from the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation Malaysia and has been actively involved in research ever since. Her main research interests include analysis of carriage and transmission of multidrug resistant bacteria in non-conventional settings, besides an interest in natural products for antimicrobial testing. She is heavily involved in the elucidation of mechanisms of reversal of resistance in bacteria in addition to investigating the immunological analyses of diseases, development of vaccination and treatment models in animals. She hopes her work will support the discovery of therapeutics in the clinical setting and assist in the combat against the burden of antibiotic resistance.",institutionString:"Abu Dhabi Women’s College",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Perdana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"221544",title:"Dr.",name:"Kok-Song",middleName:null,surname:"Lai",slug:"kok-song-lai",fullName:"Kok-Song Lai",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221544/images/system/221544.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Lai Kok Song is an Assistant Professor in the Division of Health Sciences, Abu Dhabi Women\\'s College, Higher Colleges of Technology in Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates. He obtained his Ph.D. in Biological Sciences from Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Japan in 2012. Prior to his academic appointment, Dr. Lai worked as a Senior Scientist at the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation, Malaysia. His current research areas include antimicrobial resistance and plant-pathogen interaction. His particular interest lies in the study of the antimicrobial mechanism via membrane disruption of essential oils against multi-drug resistance bacteria through various biochemical, molecular and proteomic approaches. Ultimately, he hopes to uncover and determine novel biomarkers related to antibiotic resistance that can be developed into new therapeutic strategies.",institutionString:"Higher Colleges of Technology",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Higher Colleges of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9560",title:"Creativity",subtitle:"A Force to Innovation",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"58f740bc17807d5d88d647c525857b11",slug:"creativity-a-force-to-innovation",bookSignature:"Pooja Jain",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9560.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"316765",title:"Dr.",name:"Pooja",middleName:null,surname:"Jain",slug:"pooja-jain",fullName:"Pooja Jain"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9669",title:"Recent Advances in Rice Research",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12b06cc73e89af1e104399321cc16a75",slug:"recent-advances-in-rice-research",bookSignature:"Mahmood-ur- Rahman Ansari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9669.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185476",title:"Dr.",name:"Mahmood-Ur-",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman Ansari",slug:"mahmood-ur-rahman-ansari",fullName:"Mahmood-Ur- Rahman Ansari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10192",title:"Background and Management of Muscular Atrophy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eca24028d89912b5efea56e179dff089",slug:"background-and-management-of-muscular-atrophy",bookSignature:"Julianna Cseri",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10192.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"135579",title:"Dr.",name:"Julianna",middleName:null,surname:"Cseri",slug:"julianna-cseri",fullName:"Julianna Cseri"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"403",title:"Microbial Genetics",slug:"karyology-microbial-genetics",parent:{title:"Karyology",slug:"karyology"},numberOfBooks:5,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:169,numberOfWosCitations:69,numberOfCrossrefCitations:34,numberOfDimensionsCitations:80,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"karyology-microbial-genetics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"5085",title:"Telomere",subtitle:"A Complex End of a Chromosome",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2a8f40859d7bc312dea327fd9b058a20",slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5085.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4720",title:"Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Select Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5a842a00d86bc7f956a5fd1fe6d62b8a",slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4720.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3536",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"31abe97fe35989e4547bab854b38e03a",slug:"chromatin-remodelling",bookSignature:"Danuta Radzioch",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"165250",title:"Dr.",name:"Danuta",middleName:null,surname:"Radzioch",slug:"danuta-radzioch",fullName:"Danuta Radzioch"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1578",title:"Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Recent Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"fccad401cbcf998ea4de62d524abf82d",slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1578.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2291",title:"Clinical Flow Cytometry",subtitle:"Emerging Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5414617aafe62d7c6ec8205028f6967",slug:"clinical-flow-cytometry-emerging-applications",bookSignature:"Ingrid Schmid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2291.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109787",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Ingrid",middleName:null,surname:"Schmid",slug:"ingrid-schmid",fullName:"Ingrid Schmid"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:5,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"44225",doi:"10.5772/55370",title:"Role of Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2 Polycomb Protein and Its Significance in Tumor Progression and Cell Differentiation",slug:"role-of-enhancer-of-zeste-homolog-2-polycomb-protein-and-its-significance-in-tumor-progression-and-c",totalDownloads:3389,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Irene Marchesi and Luigi Bagella",authors:[{id:"91878",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Bagella",slug:"luigi-bagella",fullName:"Luigi Bagella"},{id:"164852",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Marchesi",slug:"irene-marchesi",fullName:"Irene Marchesi"}]},{id:"52461",doi:"10.5772/65353",title:"Molecular Diagnosis and Precision Therapeutic Approaches for Telomere Biology Disorders",slug:"molecular-diagnosis-and-precision-therapeutic-approaches-for-telomere-biology-disorders",totalDownloads:1213,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Rosario Perona, Laura Iarriccio, Laura Pintado-Berninches, Javier\nRodriguez-Centeno, Cristina Manguan-Garcia, Elena Garcia, Blanca\nLopez-Ayllón and Leandro Sastre",authors:[{id:"179373",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Sastre",slug:"leandro-sastre",fullName:"Leandro Sastre"},{id:"184869",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosario",middleName:null,surname:"Perona",slug:"rosario-perona",fullName:"Rosario Perona"},{id:"184870",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Iarriccio",slug:"laura-iarriccio",fullName:"Laura Iarriccio"},{id:"184871",title:"MSc.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Pintado-Berninches",slug:"laura-pintado-berninches",fullName:"Laura Pintado-Berninches"},{id:"184872",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Centeno",slug:"javier-rodriguez-centeno",fullName:"Javier Rodriguez-Centeno"},{id:"184873",title:"Ms.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Manguan-Garcia",slug:"cristina-manguan-garcia",fullName:"Cristina Manguan-Garcia"},{id:"184874",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"elena-garcia",fullName:"Elena Garcia"},{id:"184875",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Ayllon",slug:"blanca-lopez-ayllon",fullName:"Blanca Lopez-Ayllon"}]},{id:"37421",doi:"10.5772/38616",title:"What Flow Cytometry can Tell Us About Marine Micro-Organisms – Current Status and Future Applications",slug:"what-flow-cytometry-can-tell-about-marine-microrganisms-current-status-and-future-applications",totalDownloads:2396,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Recent Perspectives"},signatures:"A. Manti, S. Papa and P. Boi",authors:[{id:"118302",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Manti",slug:"anita-manti",fullName:"Anita Manti"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"49878",title:"Immunophenotyping of Acute Leukemias – From Biology to Clinical Application",slug:"immunophenotyping-of-acute-leukemias-from-biology-to-clinical-application",totalDownloads:2485,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Francesco Mannelli",authors:[{id:"178848",title:"M.D.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Mannelli",slug:"francesco-mannelli",fullName:"Francesco Mannelli"}]},{id:"50878",title:"Detection of Anti-HLA Antibodies by Flow Cytometer",slug:"detection-of-anti-hla-antibodies-by-flow-cytometer",totalDownloads:2351,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Tülay Kılıçaslan Ayna and Aslı Özkızılcık Koçyiğit",authors:[{id:"178265",title:"Dr.",name:"Tulay",middleName:null,surname:"Kilicaslan Ayna",slug:"tulay-kilicaslan-ayna",fullName:"Tulay Kilicaslan Ayna"}]},{id:"37054",title:"Effect of Monocyte Locomotion Inhibitory Factor (MLIF) on the Activation and Production of Intracellular Cytokine and Chemokine Receptors in Human T CD4+ Lymphocytes Measured by Flow Cytometry",slug:"effect-of-monocyte-inhibitory-locomotion-factor-mlif-on-the-activation-and-production-of-intracellul",totalDownloads:1566,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"clinical-flow-cytometry-emerging-applications",title:"Clinical Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Clinical Flow Cytometry - Emerging Applications"},signatures:"Sara Rojas-Dotor",authors:[{id:"109461",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas-Dotor",slug:"sara-rojas-dotor",fullName:"Sara Rojas-Dotor"}]},{id:"50807",title:"The Role of Cytometry for Male Fertility Assessment in Toxicology",slug:"the-role-of-cytometry-for-male-fertility-assessment-in-toxicology",totalDownloads:1268,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-select-topics",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Select Topics"},signatures:"Maria de Lourdes Pereira, Helena Oliveira, Henrique M.A.C.\nFonseca, Fernando Garcia e Costa and Conceição Santos",authors:[{id:"79715",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria De Lourdes",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"maria-de-lourdes-pereira",fullName:"Maria De Lourdes Pereira"},{id:"174419",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernando",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia E Costa",slug:"fernando-garcia-e-costa",fullName:"Fernando Garcia E Costa"},{id:"185982",title:"Prof.",name:"Helena",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"helena-oliveira",fullName:"Helena Oliveira"},{id:"185983",title:"Prof.",name:"Henrique M.A.C.",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca",slug:"henrique-m.a.c.-fonseca",fullName:"Henrique M.A.C. Fonseca"},{id:"185984",title:"Prof.",name:"Conceição",middleName:null,surname:"Santos",slug:"conceicao-santos",fullName:"Conceição Santos"}]},{id:"37421",title:"What Flow Cytometry can Tell Us About Marine Micro-Organisms – Current Status and Future Applications",slug:"what-flow-cytometry-can-tell-about-marine-microrganisms-current-status-and-future-applications",totalDownloads:2393,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Recent Perspectives"},signatures:"A. Manti, S. Papa and P. Boi",authors:[{id:"118302",title:"Dr.",name:"Anita",middleName:null,surname:"Manti",slug:"anita-manti",fullName:"Anita Manti"}]},{id:"37445",title:"Retracted: Applications of Quantum Dots in Flow Cytometry",slug:"applications-of-quantum-dots-in-flow-cytometry",totalDownloads:1852,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"flow-cytometry-recent-perspectives",title:"Flow Cytometry",fullTitle:"Flow Cytometry - Recent Perspectives"},signatures:"Dimitrios Kirmizis, Fani Chatzopoulou, Eleni Gavriilaki and Dimitrios Chatzidimitriou",authors:[{id:"45414",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kirmizis",slug:"dimitrios-kirmizis",fullName:"Dimitrios Kirmizis"},{id:"122229",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Chatzidimitriou",slug:"dimitrios-chatzidimitriou",fullName:"Dimitrios Chatzidimitriou"},{id:"134576",title:"BSc.",name:"Fani",middleName:null,surname:"Chatzopoulou",slug:"fani-chatzopoulou",fullName:"Fani Chatzopoulou"},{id:"134577",title:"Dr.",name:"Helen",middleName:null,surname:"Gavriilaki",slug:"helen-gavriilaki",fullName:"Helen Gavriilaki"}]},{id:"51979",title:"Telomeres and Cellular Senescence in Metabolic and Endocrine Diseases",slug:"telomeres-and-cellular-senescence-in-metabolic-and-endocrine-diseases",totalDownloads:1188,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Ryusaku Matsumoto and Yutaka Takahashi",authors:[{id:"187040",title:"Dr.",name:"Yutaka",middleName:null,surname:"Takahashi",slug:"yutaka-takahashi",fullName:"Yutaka Takahashi"}]},{id:"52461",title:"Molecular Diagnosis and Precision Therapeutic Approaches for Telomere Biology Disorders",slug:"molecular-diagnosis-and-precision-therapeutic-approaches-for-telomere-biology-disorders",totalDownloads:1213,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:6,book:{slug:"telomere-a-complex-end-of-a-chromosome",title:"Telomere",fullTitle:"Telomere - A Complex End of a Chromosome"},signatures:"Rosario Perona, Laura Iarriccio, Laura Pintado-Berninches, Javier\nRodriguez-Centeno, Cristina Manguan-Garcia, Elena Garcia, Blanca\nLopez-Ayllón and Leandro Sastre",authors:[{id:"179373",title:"Dr.",name:"Leandro",middleName:null,surname:"Sastre",slug:"leandro-sastre",fullName:"Leandro Sastre"},{id:"184869",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosario",middleName:null,surname:"Perona",slug:"rosario-perona",fullName:"Rosario Perona"},{id:"184870",title:"Dr.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Iarriccio",slug:"laura-iarriccio",fullName:"Laura Iarriccio"},{id:"184871",title:"MSc.",name:"Laura",middleName:null,surname:"Pintado-Berninches",slug:"laura-pintado-berninches",fullName:"Laura Pintado-Berninches"},{id:"184872",title:"MSc.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Centeno",slug:"javier-rodriguez-centeno",fullName:"Javier Rodriguez-Centeno"},{id:"184873",title:"Ms.",name:"Cristina",middleName:null,surname:"Manguan-Garcia",slug:"cristina-manguan-garcia",fullName:"Cristina Manguan-Garcia"},{id:"184874",title:"Dr.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia",slug:"elena-garcia",fullName:"Elena Garcia"},{id:"184875",title:"Dr.",name:"Blanca",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez-Ayllon",slug:"blanca-lopez-ayllon",fullName:"Blanca Lopez-Ayllon"}]},{id:"44220",title:"Condensins, Chromatin Remodeling and Gene Transcription",slug:"condensins-chromatin-remodeling-and-gene-transcription",totalDownloads:2090,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Laurence O. W. Wilson and Aude M. Fahrer",authors:[{id:"164464",title:"Mr.",name:"Laurence",middleName:null,surname:"Wilson",slug:"laurence-wilson",fullName:"Laurence Wilson"},{id:"164788",title:"Dr.",name:"Aude",middleName:null,surname:"Fahrer",slug:"aude-fahrer",fullName:"Aude Fahrer"}]},{id:"44225",title:"Role of Enhancer of Zeste Homolog 2 Polycomb Protein and Its Significance in Tumor Progression and Cell Differentiation",slug:"role-of-enhancer-of-zeste-homolog-2-polycomb-protein-and-its-significance-in-tumor-progression-and-c",totalDownloads:3388,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"chromatin-remodelling",title:"Chromatin Remodelling",fullTitle:"Chromatin Remodelling"},signatures:"Irene Marchesi and Luigi Bagella",authors:[{id:"91878",title:"Prof.",name:"Luigi",middleName:null,surname:"Bagella",slug:"luigi-bagella",fullName:"Luigi Bagella"},{id:"164852",title:"Dr.",name:"Irene",middleName:null,surname:"Marchesi",slug:"irene-marchesi",fullName:"Irene Marchesi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"karyology-microbial-genetics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/116923/alberto-moreno-regidor",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"116923",slug:"alberto-moreno-regidor"},fullPath:"/profiles/116923/alberto-moreno-regidor",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()