Monthly consumption of resources.
\r\n\tAnimal food additives are products used in animal nutrition for purposes of improving the quality of feed or to improve the animal’s performance and health. Other additives can be used to enhance digestibility or even flavour of feed materials. In addition, feed additives are known which improve the quality of compound feed production; consequently e.g. they improve the quality of the granulated mixed diet.
\r\n\r\n\tGenerally feed additives could be divided into five groups:
\r\n\t1.Technological additives which influence the technological aspects of the diet to improve its handling or hygiene characteristics.
\r\n\t2. Sensory additives which improve the palatability of a diet by stimulating appetite, usually through the effect these products have on the flavour or colour.
\r\n\t3. Nutritional additives, such additives are specific nutrient(s) required by the animal for optimal production.
\r\n\t4.Zootechnical additives which improve the nutrient status of the animal, not by providing specific nutrients, but by enabling more efficient use of the nutrients present in the diet, in other words, it increases the efficiency of production.
\r\n\t5. In poultry nutrition: Coccidiostats and Histomonostats which widely used to control intestinal health of poultry through direct effects on the parasitic organism concerned.
\r\n\tThe aim of the book is to present the impact of the most important feed additives on the animal production, to demonstrate their mode of action, to show their effect on intermediate metabolism and heath status of livestock and to suggest how to use the different feed additives in animal nutrition to produce high quality and safety animal origin foodstuffs for human consumer.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-404-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-403-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-405-9",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",keywords:"Technological Feed Additives, Feed Industry, Quality of Compound Feed, Non-Antibiotic Growth Promoter, Product Quality, Additive Enzymes, Digestibility of Nutrients, NSP Enzymes, Farm Animals, Livestock, Immunity, Microbiome",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 24th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 22nd 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 20th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 11th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 10th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Professor Emeritus from the University of Debrecen, Hungary who authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters) and edited 3 books. Member of various committees and chairman of the World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",middleName:null,surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/53998/images/system/53998.jpg",biography:"László Babinszky is Professor Emeritus of animal nutrition at the University of Debrecen, Hungary. From 1984 to 1985 he worked at the Agricultural University in Wageningen and in the Institute for Livestock Feeding and Nutrition in Lelystad (the Netherlands). He also worked at the Agricultural University of Vienna in the Institute for Animal Breeding and Nutrition (Austria) and in the Oscar Kellner Research Institute in Rostock (Germany). From 1988 to 1992, he worked in the Department of Animal Nutrition (Agricultural University in Wageningen). In 1992 he obtained a PhD degree in animal nutrition from the University of Wageningen.He has authored 297 publications (papers, book chapters). He edited 3 books and 14 international conference proceedings. His total number of citation is 407. \r\nHe is member of various committees e.g.: American Society of Animal Science (ASAS, USA); the editorial board of the Acta Agriculturae Scandinavica, Section A- Animal Science (Norway); KRMIVA, Journal of Animal Nutrition (Croatia), Austin Food Sciences (NJ, USA), E-Cronicon Nutrition (UK), SciTz Nutrition and Food Science (DE, USA), Journal of Medical Chemistry and Toxicology (NJ, USA), Current Research in Food Technology and Nutritional Sciences (USA). From 2015 he has been appointed chairman of World Conference of Innovative Animal Nutrition and Feeding (WIANF).\r\nHis main research areas are related to pig and poultry nutrition: elimination of harmful effects of heat stress by nutrition tools, energy- amino acid metabolism in livestock, relationship between animal nutrition and quality of animal food products (meat).",institutionString:"University of Debrecen",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of Debrecen",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Hungary"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"25",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",slug:"veterinary-medicine-and-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"54829",title:"Greening Accounting II: Exploring Feasibility of Environmental Accounting Framework",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68403",slug:"greening-accounting-ii-exploring-feasibility-of-environmental-accounting-framework",body:'\nPast decades have witnessed the efforts to integrate ‘environmental thinking’ within the accounting domain, where contributions from scholars and practitioners theorized how this would enable businesses to significantly reorient their behaviour towards environmental sustainability. In the previous chapter, author highlighted how the efforts in this regard have not moved significantly beyond rhetoric and why not having environmental concerns at the core of the prevalent accounting theories is a natural outcome of their existence, as these remain grounded within economic paradigm. This led to conceptualize a new accounting viewpoint as a theoretical solution that would hold environmental care as its core concern, instead of investing resources in retrofitting the existing mechanisms. This chapter validates the argument by experimenting with the proposed construct, so as to test the operational feasibility of environmental accounting (EA) in capturing firm-environment exchange. Leveraging transactions from a real-life case study, the construct could not only build temporal repository of aspects (stock), but also accounted for externalized liabilities of the firm, including how these assets are handled by the firm (flow). This feasibility supports the capability to generate information for firms to improve environmental insight of its processes, products, and decisions while maintaining temporality and auditability. Learning from the study provides inputs on how this could enable accounting to shape the corporate responsiveness of firms towards nature, and redefine the boundaries of accounting theory.
\nTo explore the pragmatic elements of EA framework proposed in the previous chapter, this section details how EA can capture firm-environment exchange to integrate externalities by using inputs from a real-life case example (Section 3), before generalizing information produced by such a framework (Section 4) and summarizing learning from the experiment (Section 5).
\nThe case study selected to support this experiment was conducted by the author in 2012–13 to study the relevance of environmental management accounting (EMA) in the hospitality sector and to expand the knowledge base with the findings. The study involved understanding the operating environment of two co-located hotels (five-star and three-star) in the western suburbs of Mumbai, India, that are managed by concept hospitality services (CHS facilities, hereafter) (Figure 1), and how they managed to reduce the impact on environment. Rationale for using this case study is to generate a view on the working of a firm from an industry where mass-balance is not the primary method to establish input-output link that has not been covered very often in literature. A service organization is expected to improve our understanding of the stock and flow of environmental aspects that differ from the manufacturing organization. Readers interested in the complete case study1 can refer to Debnath [1]. Due to limited space, only the major features of the case are highlighted here.
\nOperational layout of CHS (Sourced from Ref. [1]).
The CHS facilities are Ecotel® certified —certification of environmental and social leadership in hotel/hospitality business [2]—and equipped with the infrastructural and operational arrangements to support environmental conscious operational arrangements. Both the facilities are full-service business hotels and offered boarding/lodging, boutique restaurants, bars, and lounge facilities to the business travellers along with banquet and conference halls for corporate use. Guest service lifecycle covered reservation of rooms and guest check-in, followed by stay, boarding, and checkouts. The amenities and services consumed materials, water, energy and other resources, and produced wastes as outputs. Cumulative waste quantities (solid waste and waste water) reported in Table 1 were collected from the organizational records, whereas GHG emission due to energy consumptions is as per the norms of GHG accounting [3].
\nMonth (Unitsa) | \nFood production (Covers) | \nGarbage (mt) | \nLinen for wash (Par) | \nWater consumption (kL) | \nEnergy (kWh) | \nGHG (tCO2e) | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Supply | \nLaundry outsourced | \nTotal | \n||||||
Apr | \n9069 | \n14.8 | \n43555 | \n4156 | \n7170 | \n11326 | \n347783 | \n341 | \n
May | \n8248 | \n14.1 | \n51949 | \n5140 | \n8507 | \n13647 | \n353394 | \n346 | \n
Jun | \n5283 | \n10.3 | \n35045 | \n5899 | \n5775 | \n11674 | \n332496 | \n326 | \n
Jul | \n5585 | \n10.9 | \n39003 | \n6356 | \n6416 | \n12772 | \n352577 | \n346 | \n
Aug | \n7586 | \n11.1 | \n54359 | \n4906 | \n8916 | \n13822 | \n368708 | \n361 | \n
Sep | \n10111 | \n11.0 | \n45280 | \n5632 | \n7443 | \n13075 | \n357025 | \n350 | \n
Oct | \n8144 | \n11.4 | \n57461 | \n4344 | \n9428 | \n13772 | \n380822 | \n373 | \n
Nov | \n7790 | \n10.7 | \n47311 | \n4041 | \n7761 | \n11802 | \n341721 | \n335 | \n
Dec | \n13434 | \n9.2 | \n52360 | \n8956 | \n8597 | \n17553 | \n347388 | \n340 | \n
Total | \n75250 | \n103.7 | \n426323 | \n49431 | \n70012 | \n119443 | \n3181914 | \n3118 | \n
Monthly consumption of resources.
aUnits: kL—kilo liters; mt—metric tons; kWh—kilo watt-hours; tCO2e—tons of carbon dioxide equivalent.
All types of solid waste were segregated at source and collected through a 4-bin system that optimized its reuse/recycling. In regards to disposal of waste, CHS had invested in developing a vermicomposting facility to treat biotic waste that converted waste to compost (bio-fertilizer), which was sold at a nominal rate. Waste categorized and collected as unfit for recycling or reusing (e.g. butter paper, oil cans, etc.) was sent to landfill (a miniscule percentage say, 1–2% by weight). CHS also routed waste water to the community ETP for recycling, from where the treated water (mainly grey water) was received back for further use. CHS had laid pipes to circulate grey water and used it for designated purposes, such as cleaning and gardening. This reduced its operational dependency on fresh water. Complete recycling of organic waste and use of grey water saved CHS from contributing to the environmental impacts that it would have otherwise if waste was disposed using conventional means. However, the tangible savings in social costs cannot be incorporated as a part of EMA construct (Table 2). Neither would the liability arising due to waste water generated by laundry services that it outsourced to the external commercial washers. Table 2 details cost of environmental care for CHS as per EMA norms by keeping it restricted within the organizational boundary.
\nAs per EMA | \nAs per the case study | \nAmount (in INR) | \n
---|---|---|
(a) Material waste | \nDry and wet garbage—Bottles, packing materials, empty containers, food wastes, and others (100% recycled)—150 mt per annum | \n0.00 | \n
(b) Non-product outputs | \nWaste water (100% recycled) ~ 45,000 kL per annum | \n0.00 | \n
(c) Waste and pollutionprevention costs | \nFixed costs per annum of maintaining Ecotel certification Running cost of vermicomposting facility Operating cost of other activities with environmental considerations | \n250,000 +60,000a Unascertainable | \n
(d) R&D expenditure | \nNew initiatives for reducing environmental load | \nNot available | \n
(e) Less tangible costs | \nEmission externality of ~ 4.5 mtCO2e per annum | \n1,015,000b | \n
Total cost | \n\n | 1,325,000 | \n
EMA computations for CHS.
aAssumed maintenance cost of vermicomposting facility (1 person @ INR 5000 per month).
bEmission costs at INR 225/tCO2e (USD 4.5 at assumed exchange rate of INR 50/USD) [4].
To account for the aspects that CHS business activities generated, monetization norms were needed, so as to journalize these in the EA books. To monetize, valuation methods are used as proxies that would translate the externalized liability corresponding to the aspect. For example, externalized liability due to solid waste disposed through municipal infrastructure is pegged at INR 3500 mt−1 as the cost not internalized by CHS [5]. Externalized cost included actual cost of disposal incurred by municipalities along with externalities due to GHG generation from organic waste and social costs contributed by the informal sector. Similarly, GHG emission is valued at opportunity cost of market rate at USD 4.5 per tCO2e (INR 225 at exchange rate of INR 50 per USD) which has been the average rate of carbon for Indian projects in voluntary emission credit market [3]. Waste water has been valued at resource replacement rate of INR 50 kL−1, as followed in other EMA case studies [6]. Accordingly, environmental ledgers are drawn by journalizing entries that followed double-entry system, where respective aspect ledger (of asset nature) is debited to represent the release of specific type of waste to the common pool. These ledgers correspond to the physical nature of the aspects (waste and emissions) and reflect the environmental asset generated by the firm, akin to the finished products. Corresponding credit would go to the respective environmental account (of liability nature) so as to reflect externalized liability. A reversed entry on the other hand would reflect liability that has been annulled due to the changed processes/activities or any other reason. In simple terms, following accounting rules are abstracted from the generalized schematics for EA (as per Appendix 1) and have been used to draw the ledgers (Tables 3–7):
\nJournal entries should be balanced across quantity and value.
One accounting entry would always use same units of measurements.
To account for more than one aspect per business transaction, each aspect would have to have its own journal entry.
In case suitable monetization norm is not available for an aspect, it will remain in physical inventory.
The ledgers are interpreted as under:
\nLedger entries are summarized for different periods and represented combined form of t-accounts to record physical and monetary values together. However, firms can maintain separate accounts record aspect inventory and corresponding monetized liability.
Credit balance of Table 3 reflects social externality saved by CHS due to vermicomposting to treat bio-waste, instead of using municipal solid waste disposal system. Table 4 brings in the supply chain effects into the books of the CHS by performing resource accounting of waste water from outsourced laundry, and accounted it as an environmental liability for CHS. Table 5 reflects equivalent carbon value of GHG emissions due to energy usage.
Based on the selective performance data, these externalities created environmental obligation of around INR 3.8 million for 26 thousand guest nights (annualized) or INR 147 per guest night (Table 7). Accordingly, environmental liability at period-end represents monetized balance (in quantity and monetary terms) to reflect externalities, not annulled.
Management information (Table 7) is generated based on data/inputs from the sample ledgers and can be traced back to the individual ledgers, but without positive social externalities due to knowledge sharing by the firms [7] that cannot be quantified due to lack of suitable numeraire.
Date | \nParticulars | \nQty. (mt) | \nDebit (INR) | \nDate | \nParticulars | \nQty. (mt) | \nCredit (INR) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
12/12 | \nTo balance c/f | \n103.7 | \n362,950 | \n04/12 05/12 06/12 07/12 08/12 09/12 10/12 11/12 12/12 | \nBy Env. liability A/c By Env. liability A/c By Env. liability A/c By Env. liability A/c By Env. liability A/c By Env. liability A/c By Env. liability A/c By Env. liability A/c By Env. liability A/c | \n14.8 14.1 10.3 10.9 11.1 11.0 11.4 10.7 9.2 | \n51,800 49,350 36,050 38,150 38,850 38,500 39,900 37,450 32,200 | \n
\n | Total | \n103.7 | \n362,950 | \n\n | Total | \n103.7 | \n362,950 | \n
Solid waste (externality) T-account.
Date | \nParticulars | \nQty. (kL) | \nDebit (INR) | \nDate | \nParticulars | \nQty. (kL) | \nCredit (INR) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
04/12 05/12 06/12 07/12 08/12 09/12 10/12 11/12 12/12 | \nTo Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c | \n7170 8507 5775 6416 8916 7443 9428 7761 8597 | \n358,500 425,350 288,750 320,800 445,800 372,150 471,400 388,050 429,500 | \n12/12 | \nBy balance c/f | \n70,012 | \n3,506,000 | \n
\n | Total | \n70,012 | \n3,506,000 | \n\n | Total | \n70,012 | \n3,506,000 | \n
Waste water (outsourced laundry) T-account.
Date | \nParticulars | \nQty. (tCO2e) | \nDebit (INR) | \nDate | \nParticulars | \nQty. (tCO2e) | \nCredit (INR) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
04/12 05/12 06/12 07/12 08/12 09/12 10/12 11/12 12/12 | \nTo Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c To Env. liability A/c | \n341 346 326 346 361 350 373 335 340 | \n76,725 77,850 73,350 77,850 81,225 78,750 83,925 75,375 76,500 | \n12/11 | \nBy balance c/f | \n3118 | \n701,550 | \n
\n | Total | \n3118 | \n701,550 | \n\n | Total | \n3118 | \n701,550 | \n
GHG emissions T-account.
Date | \nParticulars | \nQty. (mt) | \nDebit (INR) | \nDate | \nParticulars | \nQty. (tCO2e) | \nQty. (kL) | \nCredit (INR) | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
12/12 12/12 | \nTo solid waste A/c To balance c/f | \n103.7 | \n362,950 3,844,600 | \n12/12 12/12 | \nBy waste water A/c. By emission A/c | \n3118 | \n70,012 | \n3,506,000 701,550 | \n
\n | Total | \n103.7 | \n4,207,550 | \n\n | Total | \n3118 | \n70,012 | \n4,207,550 | \n
Environmental liability control ledger.
Type of activity | \nEnvironmental aspects | \nSavings | \nValue (in INR) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Vermicomposting | \nSolid waste | \nSaved 104 mt reduction in wastes for landfill | \n+362,950 | \n
Composting of floral wastes from festivals | \nSolid waste | \nSaved 10 mt (assumed) floral wastes composted | \n+35,000 | \n
Outsourced linen washing | \nWaste water | \nNegative cost at replacement rate of water for ~ 70,000 kL per annum | \n−3,506,000 | \n
Use of non-renewable energy sources | \nEmissions from energy use | \nNegative costs of ~3.2 mtCO2e | \n−701,550 | \n
Total | \n−3,809,600 | \n
Annualized externalized liability of CHS.
This segment explains how EA framework adapts systematic approach of accounting to bookkeep aspects and externalized liability of firm. Although EA is exploratory in here and lacks the breadth and support enjoyed by other established accounting frameworks, which could lead to generate information that has not been studied to remove interpretive bias of decision-makers, especially to reflect how this might help firms to adapt to the changing expectations of the society. Still, it enables firms to compare its environmental performance with the economic ones, and trace its responses through indicators that can be a part of the overall enterprise risk framework.
\nWaste is an inevitable by-product of any transformation process. Information regarding internal costs incurred in generating and disposing waste could lead to the operational improvements of the firm, as EMA proposed, whereas information on externalized liabilities is expected to improve the firms’ response towards permanent cure. Even though having market mechanism to dispose waste, as in developed countries, has resulted in internalization of costs to a certain degree [8], this has also led to institutionalize ‘right to waste’ that is available for firms at a price, which has not been validated to bring a permanent change in the attitude of firms. Improved information on externalized liabilities through accounting that EA aims for, would push the firms to acknowledge accountability beyond using social infrastructure, where dissemination of valid information translates to improved transparency for investors, others stakeholders and society at a large, to appreciate such a behaviour. EA is expected to help firms improve their overall approach towards environmental care by providing a mechanism that can directly reflect its performance in real-time. Conscientious corporate citizens like Interface Global, Patagonia, and 3M (to name a few) have developed sustainable waste reduction techniques by resorting to servicizing, cradle-to-cradle lifecycle, and other initiatives [9]. EA can support firms develop insights about their decisions (e.g. externalized liability for CHS due to landfilled waste that needs a permanent cure) by generating temporal information that remains tied to the source.
\nDisposal of waste water through local or site-specific effluent treatment plant (ETP) is a common practice for firms, before releasing it to the public drainage system that ultimately releases treated water to the water bodies. However, this has not always been the case, for example, in case of developing and underdeveloped countries, where waste water could be released directly to the water bodies, resulting in severe loss of water resources. At the same time, waste water has not always been reused by developing in-house or community level grey water recycling system, where treated water could be used for reasons other than for drinking or human consumption. Missing legislative support to promote grey water recycling has also hindered the development of necessary infrastructure. With depleting levels of potable water globally and ever rising population, market mechanism to price such a scare resource would hardly do any justice to improve the situation in the long run. Mahadevia and Wolfe [10] have rightly pointed out that the next world war would be fought to control the water resources. The intent of accounting for waste water is to help firms understand the stress that they are contributing to within a region, which could lead to business disruptions as well [11]. This could also help firms to participate in improving the disparity within the region so as to be recognized as a valued member of the community that it serves [12].
\nEmission of GHGs and non-GHGs has harmful effects on biosphere and contributes to the changing climatic conditions. While GHG accounting is a methodical approach towards inventorizing emissions [3], it remains to be integrated within accounting where loss of temporality might lead to wrong choices, as detailed by the author with reference to a different case study [13], and is universally applicable. In any case, business decisions like moving away from high energy intensive machineries and processes to the lower ones (e.g. installation of bagasse-based boiler instead of using oil-fired boilers or to optimize energy utilization by using technological solutions) depend primarily on the associated economics of it (lowering cost per kg of steam), where environmental outcomes become by-products of the decisions. The argument here is, environmental impact of a business decision can be evaluated better if it could be tied with the performance levels (before and after the effective change), where temporality becomes a natural requirement that EA support. Same is true for carbon trade where accounting of initial emission allowance and other related transactions would need the accountants to separate emissions accounting from corresponding financial impacts, but which cannot be achieved as discussed in previous chapter, unless accounting can guide the practitioners to account for both the areas simultaneously. Author posits that EA supports this delineation and to separately account for temporal generation/savings of emission and the underlying economics, which cannot be dealt in here due to space constraints.
\nAs compared to EMA, where insights of environmental performance are limited within the organizational boundary of the firms (Table 2), EA offers information on the type of aspects and how these are being handled. For example, solid waste account of CHS details saved social cost and is treated as an asset (Table 3), whereas waste water account from outsourced laundry (Table 4) registered as liability that CHS should be looking into with improved commitment to remain a pro-environmental business that it has declared itself to be. Same is the case of emissions that CHS should be caring for. These insights could not have been possible without letting EA break the boundary of ownership and reflect how firms are contributing to the environmental duress. Although this might not resolve differences that are inherent to the industries in regards to how they operate and/or use resources (e.g. discrete manufacturing vs. hospitality business vs. mining sector), information generated and disseminated by EA could still institutionalize shared vocabulary that is the need of the hour, including devising common terminologies to express how firms might be viewing its performance as compared to others, or in analysing industry specific trends (e.g. environmental care institutionalized by extractive industry as its operating norms). The framework also generalizes the boundary to handle areas that lack computational insights like emission of non-GHG gases (like F-gases) or positive social externalities that CHS generated through the workshops it conducted for other firms to become environmentally friendly, and could be pursued as a part of future research.
\nThis section assimilates different aspects of the experiment and validates the relevance of information generated by EA in its capacity to support decision-making. While a single case study can never bring the complete set of facts to reflect the uniqueness of different industries, still it offers a good number of points to relate to generalize the capability of EA in generating information of practical relevance to support firms, and can be characterized through the needs of decision-making in managerial accounting.
\nTraceability: EA creates the transactional backbone of environmental aspects to become a part of an information system and offer relevant and verifiable data for environmentally conscious decision-making without losing temporality, transparency and traceability. Traceability links pieces of information to the source event/transaction from a particular time period (e.g. quantity of GHG emission for a quarter) and absolves EMA and corporate management information system from the need of using arbitrary methods to quantify and accumulate information on the environmental aspects and impacts.
Timeliness: EA opens the door for the organizations to actively consider externalities as integral to the business activities, and improves transparency in the reporting of ethical negatives, that the previous chapter detailed, as mandatory for voluntary reports to drive ethical positives. Here, an accounting construct can generate information as soon as the underlying activities are recorded and available for its real-time dissemination for decision-making purposes.
Relevance: EA allows the existing accounting frameworks to continue in ‘as-is’ form, which saves time and resources required to modify and institutionalize accounting to care for within a single framework. Relevance of information from managerial decision-making purposes can only be hypothesized here, as its practical utility is yet to be tested, and leaves the door open for future research to address, including how it might support the standards of sustainability and ecological accounting.
Uniformity: EA separates the computational complexities of quantification and monetization from the accounting process. Needless to mention, identification of aspects based on the business activities and methods for quantification would need inputs and active cooperation of environmental experts, while accounting of aspects including valuation and ledgerisation can remain within the accounting domain. This not only brings uniformity to the entire process, and seeks active role of environmental management system (EMS) to establish uniformity while interpreting, as well as, disseminating information.
Valuation of externalities and corresponding limitations to develop it as an acceptable norm in business, has been a lexicon in environmental accounting theories. Methodological improvements in developing verifiable basis of ascertaining cost of waste or in ascertaining corresponding externalities that it contributes to, is expected to support businesses with improved understanding, capturing the impacts in nominal terms and to contribute to the scholarship of ecological modelling [14–16]. However, different class of waste could follow different routes of recycling, reuse, and ultimate disposal (cradle-to-grave), or return to the material cycle (cradle-to-cradle), or anything in between. For example:
\nManufacturer →
\n(Recyclable waste) Recycler → Reprocessing → Entry to material chain.
(Hazardous waste) Hazmat handler → Safe disposal.
(Non-recyclable waste) Municipal disposal → Landfill.
(End of life) Reclaiming for recycling → Recycler → Disposal.
As evident, each route of disposal would generate separate set of externalities that would be specific to the movement of waste. In other words, even though firms can scan the upstream and downstream supply chains to develop inventory of externalized liabilities, it would remain relative (or incomplete). With loss of causal relationship that waste suffer after entering into the pool of common/public goods, where regional complexities and multiple interaction upon dissemination makes it difficult to trace and capture impacts, quantification and monetization of aspects would results from our contemporary, not comprehensive, understanding of the ecological profile of waste. This brings in the cognitive limitations in discovering how waste might interact with different receptors in nature that would always be dynamic, and accordingly, would make it impossible to cover complete set of impacts and costs to be known at any given point of time (Figure 2). Other than the layered nature of truth, that would get exposed as collective human knowledge would grow, it would always lead to a certain degree of uncertainty in simultaneous determination of impacts (Δi) within a complex adaptive system, along with the cost (Δc) associated in neutralizing it (analogous to the Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle), and is contrary to the deterministic nature of costs and impacts that accounting theories are used to.
\nLayered nature of environmental impacts and costs (Sourced by Author).
Accordingly, we have to acknowledge the boundary of knowledge regarding future impacts of health and ecological effects and related monetary assessment of damage/remediation/restoration to remain outside the collective knowledge base (methodological limitations). Lack of information on exact causal relationship between aspect and impacts that are time-delayed might limit interpretation of damages (cognitive limitations), along with the second and higher order impacts that fail causation (interpretive challenges). This leads to two important conclusions for EA: (a) offering interpretation of business events by accepting probabilistic nature of outcomes as against the deterministic ones, and, (b) to view cost only as a proxy and not an outcome of elemental interactions. Accordingly, EA would need to support multiple measurements and valuation schemes, holding these as proxies to translate firm-environment exchange.
\nThis sub-section explores how EA improves the information base and supports sustainability. Firstly, it is relevant to explain how accounting—a two dimension construct of time and money—has evolved to be the language of business from economic perspectives. EA extends it to the third dimension by bringing in calculative practices of accounting to the domain of firm-environment exchange, aiming to help firms measure its impact on environment and resources. This process also encapsulates stakeholders’ demands and organizational interests to help firms identify, understand, and improve environmental performance.
\nSecond, environmental aspects generated by business and its impacts on biosphere are subject to the cognitive limitations of human knowledge, and would remain so, until and unless intricate nature of human activities and corresponding ecological responses across time are well understood. While these cognitive limitations would lead us to explore the complete cycle of natural interaction for the sake of improving scientific accuracy, it also supports layered nature of externalities that limits our ‘complete’ view. Accordingly, all impacts of an aspect would not be known at all times, and so would our efforts to derive costs to abate or harvest the aspects. Continuing with the argument, externalities generated by waste is not absolute, and instead, would depend on how organizations have chosen to deal with them. So in altruist sense, it is the externalities generated by the chosen path of the waste that should be reflected as the environmental liability of a firm.
\nWith reference to sustainability, this boundary reflects perennial nature of approximate understanding that we humans would have to live with, in regards to how we are engaged with our surroundings. Accordingly, the need for developing an accounting argument that is not dependent on frozen information of constituent elements and their reactions, as traditional accounting practices would have expected, becomes eminent. EA offers an in-principle arrangement to develop repository of the outcomes of firm-environmental interactions while preserving the capabilities of traditional accounting practices. Also, this can help firms review the very first step to deal with it, as that is within the sphere of its control, instead of investing in the efforts to analyse complete cycle, where EA can limit itself to account for the first-order impacts of the interactions. Although, such a view is proximate, it still highlights the important areas where firms should pay attention to, and redefine its accountability towards nature and society.
\nAn artificial system, like accounting, imitates human requirements to study events for abstracting information so as to generate a map that would help others to navigate and/or interact with the information produced and shared. However, EMA and contemporary sustainability theories are yet to develop a construct to support and measure the environmental embeddedness of firms, the in situ environmental care with which firms operate, where actions and decisions of a firm are guided by the degree to which firms are upholding their commitments to be environmentally benign as agents of societal progress. While critical theories have advocated to consider the constraints within the accounting capabilities to consider these, albeit theoretically, normative view preferred to look elsewhere, mostly due of the inability of a structure that cannot wrap these challenges within the current form of enactment, pushing the need itself to the fringes of our collective conscience. The two chapters on greening accounting aimed at carving a conceptual space for accounting to hold the intent, i.e. having ‘environmental well-being’ at its core, where accounting language can be leveraged to decipher business transactions in accordance to the needs. While the second part is always easy, it is the first part that is crucial and hopes to pave for enriching accounting, from being a pragmatic solution to uphold accountability that it is ingrained in!
\nThis section provides scheme to analyse business transactions of a firms from bookkeeping perspective, reflecting how the corresponding business activities might be generating or subsuming environmental assets. While the transaction categories covered here are not exhaustive and can be enhanced subsequently, the accounting schema represents how EA separates environmental dimension of business transactions from the financial/cost accounting-related transactions.
\nActivities that generate environmental aspects: This category of transactions would result in generation of aspects like emissions, solid waste, waste water, etc. that add to the stock of environmental assets. The corresponding liability would reflect environmental contingency arising due to the addition to common pool, where the accounting treatment would be:\n Dr. Environmental asset (aspect type) Aspect Qty X Valuation norm To Environmental liability (corresponding transaction class)
Sequestration/transfer of environmental aspects: Business activities that would result in sequestering or transferring environmental assets are part of this set. For example, reuse and recycling of food waste using in-house vermicomposting facility or recycling of waste water to improve grey water usage (as CHS did from the case study) to reduce environmental load. Similarly, sale of electricity by utilities would result as transfer-out of GHG load from producer to the consumer(s). Journal entry in this case could be:\n In case of sequestration: Dr. Environmental liability sequestered Aspect Qty saved X Valuation norm To Environmental Asset (aspect type) In case of transfer: Dr. Environmental liability transferred Aspect Qty saved X Valuation norm To Environmental Asset (aspect type)
Business activities earning environmental credits: Involvement of firms in community activities would result in reducing local waste and save social costs, e.g. reducing community waste by using organizational facilities, thereby helping the business to earn environmental credits. Journal entry in such cases would be to create a credit (or reward):\n Dr. Environmental savings generated Aspect Qty X Social costs saved To Environmental/Social Cost saved
Permit/fees/legal charges/other environmental expenses incurred by business: These transactions are driven by organizational interactions with market and legal system to improve/regulate environmental and social considerations of the firm and would include expenses incurred in purchasing/selling permits and/or licenses, and/or any other expenditure incurred that is/are related to or impacted due to environmental obligations/decisions. These transactions would generally be accounted within the financial books, and can also be EA to accumulate financial impacts supporting environment decisions of firms.\n Journal for expenditures: Dr. Environmental Expenditure (individual head) Amount incurred To Environmental contingency covered Journal for income: Dr. Environmental contingency impacted Amount incurred To Environmental Income (individual head)
Adjustment transactions in environmental ledgers: These entries would take place within the environmental ledgers to transfer balances, enter corrections, or revalue aspects due to change in quantification and/or valuation norms of the aspects. The journal entry would be:\n Dr. Environmental Ledger A Change in value To Environmental Ledger B
The field of wearable technology has experienced evident exponential growth in the past 20 years (fueled by the significant increase in mobile device usage and in the expansion of the Internet of Things). Recent market research on wearables also forecasts further growth in the next 3 years [2]. This growth in wearable technology, exemplified in terms of products entering the market and academic research output [1], has been quoted by numerous articles and been used to justify further research potential in the field. However various statistics indicate that the sector of wearable technology on the market represented by Smart Textiles & Apparel, despite the abundance of research output in this sector, continues to be much smaller than that represented by (hard) accessories and devices (e.g., smartwatches and earbuds), which are by far dominating the wearable landscape. Furthermore, various studies show that even with the dominant sector of wearable accessories and devices, there is a high rate of abandonment by users after a short period of time [22].
\nGiven that “wearable technology” and “Smart Textiles & Apparel” have already gained a great deal of attention and traction in the market and in academic research, there is a tendency for terms to be misused interchangeably or confused; therefore, this review begins by defining and distinguishing terminology used in the scope of Smart Textiles & Apparel. It will then outline the various ways in which Smart Textiles & Apparel have evolved over time by providing examples of innovations in the field. Finally, it will consider some of the practical barriers and challenges in the field.
\nBy mapping out the evolution of Smart Textiles & Apparel as well as its practical barrier and challenges, it will help provide a more realistic sense of the direction the field is headed in the future and subsequently the potential opportunities which need to be addressed in order to propel the field forward—and ultimately toward making a valuable contribution to society.
\nAs the fields of wearable technology and Smart Textiles & Apparel have expanded and matured over the years, their scope has broadened to encompass increasingly more facets and applications. As a result, a great deal of associated terminology has emerged and some of which have the tendency to be interchangeably or confused with another. Therefore, it is relevant to take a moment to provide clarification and distinction on the quintessential terms of the field (as accepted in academia and the industry, as well as within the bounds of this article).
\nAccording to Google Trends (which presents statistics on the amount of interest a search term or topic has garnered online over the years), Web searches on topic of “wearable technology” skyrocketed between 2013 and 2015 by about 500% (see Figure 1), which aligns with the proliferation of commercially available wearables, such as the Apple iWatch (which was released in early 2015). However, Figure 1 also shows that the topic of “wearable technology” had been circulating long (over 20 years) before its surge presence in the last 5 years [3].
\nGraph of Google Trends “Web search interest” on the topic of “wearable technology” over time, with image markers indicating the release dates of the earliest iterations of some “landmark” wearable technology product lines [28, 29, 30, 31, 32].
The term “wearable technology” (often shortened to just “wearables” and sometimes used interchangeably with “wearable devices” or “smart devices”) originated to describe the integration of electronics and computers into clothing or accessories that could be worn comfortably on the body [4], given that the earliest developments, such as the 1999 “Wearable Motherboard,” were motivated and enabled by the successive ubiquity of computers, mobile electronics, World Wide Web usage, and big data [5]. However, there are now many examples of advanced “technology” that are also “wearable,” but which do not necessarily integrate electronic or computing components—these instead belong to the scope of “Smart Textiles & Apparel.” Figure 2 presents a visual to further help distinguish and clarify wearable technology and Smart Textiles & Apparel as well as provide examples of the types of technologies associated with each area. Therefore, as shown in Figure 2, “smart textile” is a category on its own which does not fully overlap with wearable technology, as even though there are wearable technology examples which involve smart textiles (in which case they count as “smart apparel or other wearables inanimate objects”), there are a great deal of smart textiles which are not used toward wearables but toward applications which do not require removal of the textile once applied (such as car interiors or wallpaper). Instead the key distinguishing quality of smart textiles is that they are “soft” materials with flexibility and drapability.
\nDiagram to help distinguish and clarify terms within wearable technology and Smart Textiles & Apparel [37, 38, 40, 41].
Another pair of terms which are often confused are “smart textiles” and “electronic textiles” (“E-textiles”). Essentially, smart textiles describe a novel category of textiles which have the capability to sense or/and react with or/and adapt to external conditions or stimuli [6], while E-textiles are generally defined as textiles with electronic components or conductive fibers integrated within to give it smart or intelligent functions [7, 8]. Therefore smart textiles are the overarching category which includes E-textiles as one type of smart textile; however, it also includes other types of textiles which exhibit smart or intelligent functions without electronic or conductive elements (see Figure 2 for examples of the different types of smart textiles).
\nTo better understand the current and potential future state of Smart Textiles & Apparel, it is helpful to conduct a critical review of the statistics reflecting the progress in the field. One example of such statistics is shown in Figure 3, which shows the number of “Smart Textiles & Apparel”—related scholarly publications produced over the years, based on a search via the widely used scholarly publications database Scopus using the following search criteria: TITLE-ABS-KEY (smart or intelligent or conductive or electronic or sensor) and TITLE-ABS-KEY (textile or apparel or clothing or fashion or knit or yarn or fiber or wearable). Figure 3 indicates an obvious exponential growth in academic research output in the field of Smart Textiles & Apparel, which appears even more consistent and unwavering than the sporadic surge in Web search topic interest in “wearable technology” from Google Trend statistics (Figure 1). However, to gain a more balanced view beyond just academic research, statistics on market presence should also be considered. One source of information which can help gauge and compare the market presence of different forms of wearable technology is the annual attendance audit from the Consumer Electronics Show (CES), a highly prominent conference for innovative technologies being introduced to the market [9]. In particular, data on the number of exhibit attendees representing the “wearables” category was extracted from the annual CES audit summaries of 2012 to 2018 (a sample of this 2017 data is shown in Figure 4) and compiled into Figure 5. Given that CES is a prominent platform for technologies entering the market, its data compiled in Figures 5 and 6 validates the growing presence of wearable technology in the market. However, according to statistics from Gartner (Figure 7), the share of wearable technology’s growing presence occupied specifically by Smart Apparel is much less significant (less than 5% representation), while (hard) accessories (e.g., smart watches, ear-worn devices) represent the dominant category.
\nNumber of publications on Smart Textiles & Apparel over time (based on Scopus database search results). Source: Scopus.
An example of the CES annual audit summary data on the number of attendees representing the top 20 product categories, from the 2017 CES audit summary.
Numbers of CES exhibit attendees representing the “Wearables” category from 2012 to 2018 (obtained from the annual CES audit summaries).
Photographs taken at the 2011 CES [39].
Global unit shipments of wearable technology by category (2017–2022), alongside image examples. Source: Gartner © Statista 2019 [27, 33, 34, 35, 36].
Statistics such as that shown in Figure 7 suggest that Smart Textiles & Apparel still have room to grow in terms of market presence, despite its exponential growth in academic research output. This contrast between its growth in academia and in the market indicates a clear gap and prompts the question of what factors are deterring Smart Textiles & Apparel from being more prominent in the market. This article will start to address this question in the following sections.
\nUnderstanding how Smart Textiles & Apparel have evolved over the years will help anticipate the direction and opportunities of future growth. Based on an overview of literature, it was deducted that Smart Textiles & Apparel have evolved in three different ways: their degree of integration, their degree of intelligence (or “smartness”), and their degree of self-sufficiency (as summarized in the diagram of Figure 8)—each will be explained in the following sections.
\nFlowchart summarizing the evolution of Smart Textiles & Apparel.
Smart Textiles & Apparel have evolved in terms of their degree of intelligence (or smartness). This concept is based on the characterization of smart textiles as described by Tao and various other authors in the field, which classifies their degree of intelligence (or “smartness”) according to whether they can perform one or more of the following functions: sense, react, and adapt [6, 10, 11].
\nTraditional textiles (e.g., woven cotton fabrics, knitted wools yarns, etc.), while still functional (i.e., providing warmth, softness, etc.), are latent and do not sense, react, or adapt to external stimuli. The minimum requirement for a smart textile is the ability to sense environmental conditions or an external stimulus, which qualifies it as “passive smart.” If it further has the ability to react after sensing, then it qualifies as “active smart.” Some examples of this include Grado Zero Espace’s shape-memory shirt made from Oricalco fabric which reacts by changing shape based on sensing heat [12] and Aurelie Mosse’s intentional use of electro-active light-responsive polymers to create textiles for interiors which sense light and react by changing shape for esthetic effect or for function [13]. Finally, if a smart textile cumulatively has the ability to sense, react, and adapt based on the learned experience from what it sensed and reacted to previously, then it qualifies as “very smart.” A conceptual example of this is exemplified in the “No-Contact Jacket” created by Adam Whiton and Yolita Nugent, which functions to sense heavy force applied to the jacket (e.g., when wearer is hit by an attacker) and reacts by emitting an electrical chart (i.e., to electrocute the attacker) but also could, in the future, have the potential to integrate machine-learning intelligence to record data on cumulative forces sensed and learn to differentiate between amicable forces (e.g., from a hug or tap) and violent forces, depending on position or amount of force or time of day [13].
\nSee Figure 8 which presents a visual overview of these definitions of degree of intelligence (or “smartness”).
\nAnother way Smart Textiles and Apparel have evolved is in terms of their degree of integration. This refers to the extent to which the component/material/substance which performs the “smart” function is embedded into the textile. As Smart Textiles & Apparel have evolved, there has generally been a progression toward a higher degree of embeddedness or integration of the “smart”-functioning component material/substance into the textile. This progression is characterized by Hughes-Riley et al. as three generations: first generation, second generation, and third generation [7]. Although Hughes-Riley describes this progression in the context of E-textiles, it could very well apply to non-electronic smart textiles (e.g., thermochromic inks).
\nIn first-generation smart textiles, the lowest degree of integration, the “smart”-functioning component/material/substance was applied or attached to the surface of the textile; this generation of Smart Textiles Apparel is typically more rigid and bulky and lacks drapability. Some examples of first-generation smart textiles include the use of the “LilyPad Arduino” electronic components on garments [14], printing circuits with conductive ink onto the surface of fabrics, or even embroidering conductive yarns onto fabrics to create conductive pathways. In second-generation smart textiles, the “smart”-functioning component/material/substance is integrated into the textile structure, for example, the weaving or knitting of conductive yarns to form a textile pressure sensor [15], Layne and Orth’s work of weaving LEDs, or conductive yarns into the woven textile structure [13]. This generation of Smart Textiles & Apparel is typically more flexible but still tends to be lacking in comfort and versatility. In third-generation smart textiles, the highest degree of integration, the “smart” function is manifested innately as a part of the yarn or fiber and able to exist much more discretely within a textile design without interfering with its esthetic qualities and comfort level. Most examples of this generation of Smart Textiles & Apparel have been made possible by nanotechnology, such as embedding semiconductor systems within fibers for energy harvesting and storage [7] or the Mincor TX TT “lotus effect” coating of nanoparticles on yarns which allow a high level of hydrophobicity to enable a self-cleaning function [16].
\nThe term “fourth generation” used in this article refers to the potential next degree of integration in which Smart Textiles & Apparel are progressing towards but have not yet been fully realized in production and therefore currently exist more as inspiring visionary concepts. One example of a “fourth-generation” concept is the idea of harnessing the innate “smartness” of the nature to create textiles which function “smartly,” which is exemplified in the design research of Carole Collette. In her work titled “Suicide Pouf,” Collette created cushions which would physically change shape with time as the fibers shed in their natural death process, i.e., relying on the biological process of cell death (apoptosis) to create a dynamic textile object. In “bio-lace,” Collette demonstrates an inspiring idea of biologically engineered plants to grow roots which are able to form lace designs on their own [13]. Another visionary concept explored in the work of artists McRae and Tilbury is that of having the human biology or skin to contribute to the creation or modification of what we wear—so not just “smart” functionalities being more integrated into a textile but essentially engineering the human body’s biological functions to form its own textiles [13]. Currently, these are rather conceptual ideas, far from mass-market realization. However, they stretch the imagination on the degree of integration that Smart Textiles & Apparel could possibly be achieved in the future.
\nSee Figure 8 which presents a visual overview of these characterizations of degree of integration.
\nSmart Textiles & Apparel have also evolved in terms of their degree of self-sufficiency. This refers to the extent to which they can self-sufficiently perform their “smart” functionalities and sustain itself throughout its life cycle, without depending on (non-renewable) energy input or producing (non-biodegradable) waste output. The evolution of degree of self-sufficiency is categorized here as past, present, and future.
\nThe “past” stage refers to Smart Textiles & Apparel which have been made from non-renewable or non-biodegradable raw materials and dependent on non-renewable energy resources to manufacture, to function (e.g., batteries), to maintain (e.g., laundry), and to dispose of. However the growing concern of how polluting the apparel and textile industry and the recent buzz of fashion companies committing to achieving carbon neutrality or employing 100% sustainable materials within the next 10 years [17, 18, 19] is motivating a progression toward the “present” stage of the degree of self-sufficiency evolution, which refers to Smart Textiles & Apparel that perform their “smart” (sensing and reacting) functions self-sufficiently (i.e., without requiring a non-renewable energy source input), are self-sustaining (e.g., self-cleaning, self-healing, energy harvesting), and produce limited environmental impact in its manufacture, maintenance, and disposal. The “present” stage factors in sustainability as not only an afterthought but as an intrinsic part of the development and life of Smart Textiles & Apparel. Some examples which fall in this category include the self-cleaning “lotus effect” coating of Mincor TX TT yarn, the use of natural yarns with shape-memory properties which give the textile structure the functionality of becoming more permeable when damp or warm [16], self-healing “green” composites [20], and the light energy absorbing and storing properties of phosphorescent pigments integrated into textiles [13, 21].
\nOne potential “future” direction in the degree of self-sufficiency of Smart Textiles & Apparel could involve an additional element of intelligently adapting (and gradually improving) its self-sufficient smart functions by learning from each experience. So, for example, it could be manifested in the ability of a shape-memory textile to predict when to react without waiting on an external stimulus to trigger it or for a self-healing composite to learn where the weak points in a textile are and produce more self-healing agent in certain areas. These are, once again, only visionary ideas for now; however, with the help of quickly advancing artificial intelligent technologies, its realization could present itself sooner than we think.
\nSee Figure 8 which presents a visual overview of these characterizations of degree of self-sufficiency.
\nDespite burgeoning research into Smart Textiles & Apparel, there remains a great deal of room for improvement in terms of market presence. Furthermore, even with wearable technology (hard) accessories which represent a larger portion of market share, there is the hurdle of low retention and high abandonment rates of such devices less than a year after purchase [22]. Hence below defines some of the challenges contributing to the above disparities and potential opportunities to help tackle those disparities:
Lack of esthetic appeal: a common feedback on the Smart Apparel options in the market is that they are not fashionable and lack esthetic appeal [23, 24]. What becomes quickly apparent when browsing some of the most exciting wearable innovations at the 2019 Consumer Electronics Show [25] is that they still look more like “techy” electronic devices than something we would recognize as wearable. More and more consumers expect flexibility, comfort, and ease in clothing; however, most smart technologies approved for the market are still relatively bulky and difficult to integrate seamlessly and discretely into traditional clothing materials and styling and dressing habits. (Therefore, as Figure 7 shows, the smartwatches and ear-worn devices lead in the wearables category at CES, because they have already been adopted as electronic devices that can be worn without causing disruption to or conflict with an outfit). But also, the lack of visibility and accessibility designers in the industry have to Smart Textiles & Apparel technologies is also a barrier to help breed better design esthetics in the field.
Limited design options: even with wearables that are esthetically well-designed, they tend to come in limited varying options (e.g., in terms of size, colorways, silhouettes, etc.). Currently, the complexity of smart functionalities can limit the design flexibility, so once a successful design is established, it is not easy to vary. This is an issue as today’s consumer demand options and flexibility in what they purchase. Therefore, there is a need for Smart Textiles & Apparel technologies to be more versatile, complement different materials, and able to be used in different textile manufacturing processes.
Lack of assimilation with current supply chain processes/quality standards: the apparel and textile supply chain and quality standards have yet to adapt to the nuances and specific needs of Smart Textiles & Apparel [26]. Because the apparel and textile supply chain is still very much catered to the production of traditional textiles, many suppliers and retailers in the industry might be dissuaded from adopting “smart” technologies due to the time and cost needed to recalibrate processes in the supply chain to manage those “smart” technologies effectively. Furthermore, a great deal of “smart” technologies are not yet developed enough to meet the rigid, long-established quality standards of the textiles and apparel industry or vice versa in that the long-established industry quality standards are not being updated sufficiently to keep up with the incoming “smart” technologies.
Lack of understanding real human and societal needs: an underlying impression of wearable technology is that it is creating a supply for which there is no real demand (i.e., trying to create a demand). Therefore, in order to make wearables more relevant and desired, there is a need to better understand real human and societal needs so that Wearables can improve in ways to meet those needs. For example, in today’s connected world, it is clear that people desire to be connected, but how much so? Where do people draw the line in terms of where they want technology integrated into their everyday lives? When does it become disruptive? These are just some questions that need to be asked to better understand the true needs of humans and society.
Lack of selling performance and consumer feedback: there is a great deal of statistics available on the quantity of wearable technology and Smart Textiles & Apparel entering or available in the market but limited statistics on how well products sold or on feedback from customers after use. Obtaining such information is important to formulating a clear understanding of real consumer needs. Furthermore, as there are evidently successful wearable technology commercial products out on the market, it would be informative to evaluate what differentiates the successful products from the rest.
This review has attempted to provide a brief introductory overview to the now expansive field of wearable technology and Smart Textiles & Apparel, starting by looking at the evident surge in interest in wearable technology in the last 6 years which has been fueled by the release of many “landmark” devices to the commercial market as well as an increasingly mobile-reliant and connected landscape. The exponential growth is also manifested in academic research output in the field, as well as wearable technology products released to the market (which is also forecasted to continue to grow in the future). This chapter also provided clarification on terminology, distinguishing wearable technology and Smart Textiles & Apparel as two separate fields which overlap only in some cases, but also each has their separate unique sub-categories. The chapter then presented the analysis of the progression or evolution of Smart Textiles & Apparel in terms of degree of intelligence, degree of integration, and degree of self-sufficiency. The chapter also takes on a more critical lens to realize the fact that Smart Apparel has a much smaller representation in the wearable technology boom (in comparison with the “hard” wearable accessories and devices such as smartwatches and earbuds which are the dominant categories) as well as the low retention rate of most wearable devices. Given these limitations, the chapter discusses some areas of opportunity for Smart Textiles & Apparel research and product development to enable it to gain more traction and ultimately make a more valuable contribution in the society.
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