Research works performed on indoor phthalate (taken from Ref. [8]).
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5921",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Textiles for Advanced Applications",title:"Textiles for Advanced Applications",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book presents a global view of the development and applications of technical textiles with the description of materials, structures, properties, characterizations, functions and relevant production technologies, case studies, challenges, and opportunities. Technical textile is a transformative research area, dealing with the creation and studies of new generations of textiles that hoist many new scientific and technological challenges that have never been encountered before. The book emphasizes more on the principles of textile science and technology to provide solutions to several engineering problems. All chapter topics are exclusive and selectively chosen and designed, and they are extensively explored by different authors having specific knowledge in each area.",isbn:"978-953-51-3501-2",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3500-5",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4648-3",doi:"10.5772/66015",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"textiles-for-advanced-applications",numberOfPages:432,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"4deef8de2e616f18c51985a3cafe9acb",bookSignature:"Bipin Kumar and Suman Thakur",publishedDate:"September 20th 2017",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5921.jpg",numberOfDownloads:36324,numberOfWosCitations:43,numberOfCrossrefCitations:27,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:69,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:5,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:139,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 27th 2016",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 17th 2016",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 13th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 14th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 13th 2017",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"177114",title:"Dr.",name:"Bipin",middleName:null,surname:"Kumar",slug:"bipin-kumar",fullName:"Bipin Kumar",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/177114/images/system/177114.jpg",biography:"Dr. Bipin Kumar graduated from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Delhi, India, with a Ph.D. in Textile Engineering in 2013. Currently, he is an assistant professor in the Department of Textile Technology at IIT Delhi. Prior to joining IIT Delhi, he was a research assistant professor (2016–2017) at the Hong Kong Polytechnic University. He also served as a cultural ambassador (2014–2016) to the United States at the University of California Davis via the prestigious Fulbright Fellowship program. \n\nHis main research focuses on smart fibrous/polymeric materials and related fabric structures. He has more than forty publications in leading refereed SCI journals of materials, textiles, and medical fields, seven patents, three authored books, and many other academic publications. He has been awarded several prestigious awards including the Entrepreneur Faculty Award (IITDAA, 2020), IEI Young Engineer Award (Institute of Engineers, 2019), Teaching Excellence Award (IIT Delhi, 2018), DST INSPIRE Faculty Award 2016 (DST, 2016), Award for Excellence in Postdoctoral Research (UC Davis, 2016), and many more. He holds editorial membership at several international refereed journals including Journal of Engineered Fibers and Fabrics and Fabrics, American Association of Textile Chemists and Colorists Journal of Research, Fibres & Textiles in Eastern Europe, Advance Research in Textile Engineering, Current Trends in Fashion Technology & Textile Engineering and Journal of Textile Engineering & Fashion Technology. \n\nDr. Kumar’s research team launched their first commercial product, KAWACH Mask, in May 2020 at the time of the COVID-19 emergency. He is leading two successful start-ups at IIT Delhi, ETEX and SWATRIC, to commercialize several textile innovations for engineering and medical applications, including KAWACH masks, antiviral T-shirts, anti-radiation garments, Indian flags, E-textiles, anxiety garments, and more.",institutionString:"Indian Institute of Technology Delhi",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Delhi",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"201508",title:"Dr.",name:"Suman",middleName:null,surname:"Thakur",slug:"suman-thakur",fullName:"Suman Thakur",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201508/images/5985_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Suman Thakur, currently a postdoctoral fellow at Hong Kong Polytechnic University, obtained his Ph.D. in Smart Polyurethane Nanocomposites from the Department of Chemical Sciences, Tezpur University, India. He had also worked as a postdoctoral researcher at Chonbuk National University, Republic of Korea in 2015-2016. His current research interest includes the synthesis of bio-based smart polyurethane, nanomaterials including graphene based nanomaterials/nanohybrids and polymer nanocomposites for their different advanced applications such as shape memory materials, self-healing polymer, photocatalysis, etc.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Hong Kong Polytechnic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1376",title:"Manufacturing Engineering",slug:"textile-engineering-manufacturing-engineering"}],chapters:[{id:"54846",title:"Textile Application: From Need to Imagination",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68376",slug:"textile-application-from-need-to-imagination",totalDownloads:2545,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"To understand textiles and their application today, as well as future applications, it is necessary to comprehend the development of textiles and their applications throughout history. The gradual development of textile production processes and the use of different materials, influenced the development and application of materials themselves. Numerous innovations made since Industrial revolution, events in technology development and international competition have shaped the industry and continue to affect the textile production even today. Nowadays, textiles can be divided into two main sectors according to their application: conventional textiles (textiles for fashion clothing) and technical textiles with numerous applications for nearly all society needs. Due to market needs and technology development, the interference of all areas of science occurs, resulting in amazing innovations that follow existing trends and set future trends in terms of interactivity, digital and electronic functionality, social and environmental awareness, esthetics, etc. These are the reasons for great freedom, development prospects, expression of creativity and thus of innovativeness. The need for them today is greater and more important than ever before in the history of textiles and their application.",signatures:"Ivana Schwarz and Stana Kovačević",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/54846",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/54846",authors:[{id:"9970",title:"Prof.",name:"Stana",surname:"Kovacevic",slug:"stana-kovacevic",fullName:"Stana Kovacevic"},{id:"97687",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivana",surname:"Schwarz",slug:"ivana-schwarz",fullName:"Ivana Schwarz"}],corrections:null},{id:"55570",title:"Woven Fabrics for Technical and Industrial Products",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68989",slug:"woven-fabrics-for-technical-and-industrial-products",totalDownloads:2552,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Textile products are classified into products for clothing, household, and technical textiles. Products for clothing and household goods such as curtains, textile wallpapers, fabrics, furniture, carpets, and so on can be easily defined. Textiles that do not fit into these categories may be considered technical textiles. Technical textiles are products designed to perform a specific function. In this category are the woven fabrics presented in this chapter, such as webbings or woven fabrics used to produce reinforcing elements of composite materials.",signatures:"Adrian Buhu and Liliana Buhu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55570",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55570",authors:[{id:"200896",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Adrian",surname:"Buhu",slug:"adrian-buhu",fullName:"Adrian Buhu"},{id:"205560",title:"Dr.",name:"Liliana",surname:"Buhu",slug:"liliana-buhu",fullName:"Liliana Buhu"}],corrections:null},{id:"56019",title:"Multifunctional Foldable Knitted Structures: Fundamentals, Advances and Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69292",slug:"multifunctional-foldable-knitted-structures-fundamentals-advances-and-applications",totalDownloads:2224,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Contemporary multifunctional textiles are based on hi-tech functionalization. Knitted structures can be relatively rapidly designed and produced in a variety of textures due to their composition of many interlacing loop elements and their combinations. Foldable weft-knitted structures exist in a wide range of forms from simple rolls, ribs, and pleats to more complex three-dimensional structures. They exhibit new kind of geometry and deformation mechanisms. Some of them exhibit auxetic potential. Foldable knitted structures are multifunctional and widely usable. They can be produced in a variety of structures, qualities, and dimensions: in panels, fully-fashioned, or seamless. Their possible application lies in different fields, such as fashionable and functional clothing, sportswear, medical care, packaging, interior design, sound and shock absorption, etc.",signatures:"Alenka Pavko-Čuden and Darja Rant",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56019",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56019",authors:[{id:"201730",title:"Prof.",name:"Alenka",surname:"Pavko Čuden",slug:"alenka-pavko-cuden",fullName:"Alenka Pavko Čuden"},{id:"201735",title:"BSc.",name:"Darja",surname:"Rant",slug:"darja-rant",fullName:"Darja Rant"}],corrections:null},{id:"55424",title:"Textile Reinforced Structural Composites for Advanced Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68245",slug:"textile-reinforced-structural-composites-for-advanced-applications",totalDownloads:3807,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:15,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Textile-reinforced composites are increasingly used in various industries such as aerospace, construction, automotive, medicine, and sports due to their distinctive advantages over traditional materials such as metals and ceramics. Fiber-reinforced composite materials are lightweight, stiff, and strong. They have good fatigue and impact resistance. Their directional and overall properties can be tailored to fulfill specific needs of different end uses by changing constituent material types and fabrication parameters such as fiber volume fraction and fiber architecture. A variety of fiber architectures can be obtained by using two- (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) fabric production techniques such as weaving, knitting, braiding, stitching, and nonwoven methods. Each fiber architecture/textile form results in a specific configuration of mechanical and performance properties of the resulting composites and determines the end-use possibilities and product range. This chapter highlights the constituent materials, fabric formation techniques, production methods, as well as application areas of textile-reinforced composites. Fiber and matrix materials used for the production of composite materials are outlined. Various textile production methods used for the formation of textile preforms are explained. Composite fabrication methods are introduced. Engineering properties of textile composites are reviewed with regard to specific application areas. The latest developments and future challenges for textile-reinforced composites are presented.",signatures:"Nesrin Sahbaz Karaduman, Yekta Karaduman, Huseyin Ozdemir\nand Gokce Ozdemir",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55424",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55424",authors:[{id:"175839",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nesrin",surname:"Sahbaz Karaduman",slug:"nesrin-sahbaz-karaduman",fullName:"Nesrin Sahbaz Karaduman"},{id:"201620",title:"Dr.",name:"Yekta",surname:"Karaduman",slug:"yekta-karaduman",fullName:"Yekta Karaduman"},{id:"201621",title:"Dr.",name:"Hüseyin",surname:"Özdemir",slug:"huseyin-ozdemir",fullName:"Hüseyin Özdemir"},{id:"201622",title:"Dr.",name:"Gökce",surname:"Özdemir",slug:"gokce-ozdemir",fullName:"Gökce Özdemir"}],corrections:null},{id:"55992",title:"Hybrid Yarn Composites for Construction",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69034",slug:"hybrid-yarn-composites-for-construction",totalDownloads:2118,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Textile-reinforced concrete (TRC) is a new innovative construction material that leads to light-weight and cost-effective construction. TRC consists of a finely grained cement-based matrix and high-performance, continuous multifilament yarns made of alkali-resistant glass, carbon, or polymer. Using these fibers provides superior mechanical properties and corrosion resistance in comparison with ferroconcrete. The application of epoxy resin coating to the textile materials improves the utilization of mechanical performance and handling properties as well. In recent years, researchers have studied alternative methods because coating process is very detailed and epoxy resin is of high cost. The experimental part of this chapter focuses on the experimental investigation carried out on high-strength concrete reinforced with hybrid yarns. Braiding technology was used to manufacture hybrid yarn from alkali-resistant glass fiber (ARG) and polypropylene (PP) filament. Next step, thermoplastic part of braided yarn was melted on press heating. Finally, TRC was produced from ARG, coated ARG, carbon fiber, coated carbon fiber, and heated hybrid yarns. Although the contribution of the heated hybrid yarn is limited, it is expected that the desired results will be obtained by changes in braiding yarn production and yarn composition ratios.",signatures:"Mutlu Kurban, Osman Babaarslan and İsmail Hakkı Çağatay",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55992",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55992",authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",surname:"Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan"},{id:"202502",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Mutlu",surname:"Kurban",slug:"mutlu-kurban",fullName:"Mutlu Kurban"},{id:"206001",title:"Prof.",name:"İsmail Hakkı",surname:"Çağatay",slug:"ismail-hakki-cagatay",fullName:"İsmail Hakkı Çağatay"}],corrections:null},{id:"55165",title:"Three-Dimentional Textile Preform Using Advanced Textile Technologies for Composite Manufacturing",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68175",slug:"three-dimentional-textile-preform-using-advanced-textile-technologies-for-composite-manufacturing",totalDownloads:2416,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Textile reinforcement structure plays an important role in the reinforcement/composite performances during the composite manufacturing and in-service life of the composite material. Structures with a three-dimensional (3D) fiber topology are desired due to their superior multiaxial performance and efforts have been made to modify 2D textile technologies to produce complex 3D shapes. Most of these 3D solutions are based on the principle of adding out-of-plane reinforcements to a planar 2D fabric. Well-established 3D textile methods such as braiding and knitting have also been demonstrated to directly produce near net-shape structures. To understand these potentialities, the first section of this chapter will present the several textile technologies with strengths and weaknesses of these processes to manufacture technical reinforcements for composite applications. In the following sections, several applications with specific textile architectures will be given, in particular, the applications of the through-the-thickness reinforcement and 3D textile ply during the composite manufacturing.",signatures:"Peng Wang, Xavier Legrand and Damien Soulat",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55165",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55165",authors:[{id:"200577",title:"Prof.",name:"Peng",surname:"Wang",slug:"peng-wang",fullName:"Peng Wang"},{id:"205435",title:"Dr.",name:"Xavier",surname:"Legrand",slug:"xavier-legrand",fullName:"Xavier Legrand"},{id:"205436",title:"Prof.",name:"Damien",surname:"Soulat",slug:"damien-soulat",fullName:"Damien Soulat"}],corrections:null},{id:"55310",title:"Textile Composites for Seat Upholstery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68984",slug:"textile-composites-for-seat-upholstery",totalDownloads:2478,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Textile for seat upholstery is a part of wide field of Mobiltech. It is very important segment of the visual identity of a vehicle, so its design, along with other high set requirements, is of the utmost importance. Textiles for seat upholstery are subject to many challenges; therefore, some of the required properties are resistance to stress, abrasion, UV radiation, external temperature and humidity, static electricity and peeling, as well as offering safety and comfort. For cladding car seat construction with textile, individual cutting parts of the fabric are joined by seam, and this part usually has the lowest mechanical properties. Therefore, in designing seat upholstery, the focus needs to be on these material segments. The function of the seam is to provide uniform transmission of loads between two joined materials and keep their integrity, which is not completely possible with stitched seam. Therefore, the material behaviour in places of sewn seam, the impact of the needlepoint and needle type on the strength, the appearance and seam quality will be discussed. Since the textile composites for seat upholstery are exposed to the multi-cyclical stress on certain areas, a part of this chapter will be focused precisely on that field.",signatures:"Stana Kovačević, Jacqueline Domjanić, Snježana Brnada and Ivana\nSchwarz",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55310",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55310",authors:[{id:"9970",title:"Prof.",name:"Stana",surname:"Kovacevic",slug:"stana-kovacevic",fullName:"Stana Kovacevic"},{id:"97687",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivana",surname:"Schwarz",slug:"ivana-schwarz",fullName:"Ivana Schwarz"},{id:"201525",title:"Dr.",name:"Jacqueline",surname:"Domjanić",slug:"jacqueline-domjanic",fullName:"Jacqueline Domjanić"},{id:"201526",title:"BSc.",name:"Snježana",surname:"Brnada",slug:"snjezana-brnada",fullName:"Snježana Brnada"}],corrections:null},{id:"56372",title:"Contemporary Personal Ballistic Protection (PBP)",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69085",slug:"contemporary-personal-ballistic-protection-pbp-",totalDownloads:3350,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The review concerns existing contemporary protective equipment and their components serving against ballistic and non-ballistic threats of different sorts. The main focus, however, is on the personal ballistic protection (PBP) based on textile components and their role in the protective elements. Soft ballistic protections are crucial Soft ballistic protections are crucial elements of PBP, for example in military and law enforcements. Although the subject of PBP was limited in this chapter to soft ballistic protection, other elements, e.g. hard ballistic protection, stab-resistant vests, dual threat, so-called in-conjunction protective elements, modern helmets, were also mentioned in this chapter to demonstrate positioning of the soft ballistic protection and other elements in the global personal protection approach. Apart from it, the chapter contains selected information concerning high-performance polymers and fibres as well as a brief notes about their application in protective panels being basic elements of any protective element. The final remarks concern the most up-to-date approach in relation to ballistic protection, which is immersing high-performance fibres into non-Newtonian liquid substances having the ability of ordering their chemical particles and changing into a high concentration and high segregation lattice under the influence of kinetic energy impact.",signatures:"Izabela Luiza Ciesielska-Wróbel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56372",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56372",authors:[{id:"175790",title:"Dr.",name:"Izabela",surname:"Ciesielska-Wrobel",slug:"izabela-ciesielska-wrobel",fullName:"Izabela Ciesielska-Wrobel"}],corrections:null},{id:"55317",title:"Efficiency of Medical Workers’ Uniforms with Antimicrobial Activity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.68830",slug:"efficiency-of-medical-workers-uniforms-with-antimicrobial-activity",totalDownloads:1902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Antimicrobial finishing of textiles protects users from pathogenic microorganisms, which can cause medical and hygienic problem. The use of such textiles particularly increases in healthcare facilities, where reduction and transmission of pathogenic bacteria are important factors for preventing nosocomial infections. In the present study, the efficiency of fabric with silane quaternary ammonium compounds (Si-QAC) applied as active agents was evaluated. A test was performed according to ATCC 100-1999 Test Method after 0-, 24- and 48-hour incubation times. The treated textiles were effective against Enterococcus faecalis, Staphylococcus aureus and Klebsiella pneumoniae, but were not effective for Gram-negative Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Testing was also performed in hospital environment at infectious department where working clothes made of treated fabric were compared to normal working clothes. Antimicrobial textiles were not effective in a hospital environment, where average microbial count on medical workers’ uniforms without antimicrobial protection was 1.4 × 109 cfu/mL, and 1.3 × 109 cfu/mL for uniforms made of antimicrobial material. Our conclusion is that quantities of application rates for Si-QAC should be higher or should be improved with applying another antimicrobial coating to obtain complex with dual activity.",signatures:"Urška Rozman, Daniela Zavec Pavlinić, Emil Pal, Vida Gönc and\nSonja Šostar Turk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55317",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55317",authors:[{id:"189776",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Urška",surname:"Rozman",slug:"urska-rozman",fullName:"Urška Rozman"},{id:"195205",title:"MSc.",name:"Vida",surname:"Gönc",slug:"vida-gonc",fullName:"Vida Gönc"},{id:"200386",title:"Prof.",name:"Sonja",surname:"Šostar Turk",slug:"sonja-sostar-turk",fullName:"Sonja Šostar Turk"},{id:"203962",title:"Dr.",name:"PhD Daniela",surname:"Zavec Pavlinić",slug:"phd-daniela-zavec-pavlinic",fullName:"PhD Daniela Zavec Pavlinić"},{id:"203963",title:"MSc.",name:"Emil",surname:"Pal",slug:"emil-pal",fullName:"Emil Pal"}],corrections:null},{id:"56544",title:"Functionalized Polypropylene Filaments for Flammability",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69461",slug:"functionalized-polypropylene-filaments-for-flammability",totalDownloads:2325,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A large number of textiles and indoor decorations including carpets, curtains, wallpaper, and so on are all easy to burn. Textile materials that are readily combustible can serve as one of the ingredients in a fire and pose a serious threat to human life and property in fire accidents. The demands for flame‐retardant textile fabrics have a steady growth for the past decades and have become an urgent exigency. In this research, two new eco‐friendly boron chemicals, boric acid, and borax decahydrate, were used as flame‐retardant. The flame‐retarding functions for bulked continuous filaments polypropylene (BCF PP) yarn are investigated through the applications of boron chemicals. It is determined that applying boron chemicals improves fire retardance.",signatures:"Nazan Avcioğlu Kalebek",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56544",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56544",authors:[{id:"175829",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazan",surname:"Kalebek",slug:"nazan-kalebek",fullName:"Nazan Kalebek"}],corrections:null},{id:"55837",title:"Textile Materials in Liquid Filtration Practices: Current Status and Perspectives in Water and Wastewater Treatment",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69462",slug:"textile-materials-in-liquid-filtration-practices-current-status-and-perspectives-in-water-and-wastew",totalDownloads:2747,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Filtration is considered the keystone of water and wastewater treatment and is used for various purposes, such as sludge dewatering and concentrating any solution. Moreover, as an advanced filtration technology, membranes can remove materials ranging from large visible particles to molecular and ionic chemical species. Proper selection of filter media/membrane material in filtration processes is often the most important consideration for assuring efficient separation. Filter media can be classified by their materials of construction, such as cotton, wool, linen, glass fiber, porous carbon, metals, and rayons. Recently, new polymeric materials have been used both individually and/or blended in filtration processes for the treatment of waters and wastewaters. The purpose of this chapter is to bring an overview on the textile-originated filter materials in filtration applications from conventional filtration to advanced membrane processes. Although many researches on filter media are available, very few researches have been carried out on the cutting-edge technologies about using filter materials on filtration processes from classical to advanced membrane processes. Therefore, in this part of the book, following major and minor titles are stated truly on the aforementioned new technologies and linked with conventional methods in water and wastewater treatment applications.",signatures:"Murat Eyvaz, Serkan Arslan, Ercan Gürbulak and Ebubekir Yüksel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55837",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55837",authors:[{id:"170083",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Murat",surname:"Eyvaz",slug:"murat-eyvaz",fullName:"Murat Eyvaz"},{id:"170084",title:"Dr.",name:"Ercan",surname:"Gürbulak",slug:"ercan-gurbulak",fullName:"Ercan Gürbulak"},{id:"176700",title:"MSc.",name:"Serkan",surname:"Arslan",slug:"serkan-arslan",fullName:"Serkan Arslan"},{id:"176701",title:"Prof.",name:"Ebubekir",surname:"Yüksel",slug:"ebubekir-yuksel",fullName:"Ebubekir Yüksel"}],corrections:null},{id:"56078",title:"Shape Memory Polymers for Smart Textile Applications",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69742",slug:"shape-memory-polymers-for-smart-textile-applications",totalDownloads:3085,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Shape memory polymer (SMP) is a genre of smart materials which demonstrate a capability to fix in the temporarily programed shape and to recover the original shape upon exposure to external stimuli. Such unique and amazing properties of SMPs are applied to develop smart textiles by incorporating SMP into the fabric. Various types of stimuli-responsive SMPs such as thermal, light, pH, and moisture have been used in textiles for enhancing or attaining some smart properties. The integration of SMPs in fabric provides many fascinating and improved properties such as good aesthetic appeal, comfort, textile soft display, smart controlled drug release, fantasy design, wound monitoring, smart wetting properties and protection against extreme variations in environmental conditions. In this chapter, we discussed different types of SMP used for this purpose, their functions, and applications in textiles with their potential applications in the near future.",signatures:"Suman Thakur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56078",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56078",authors:[{id:"201508",title:"Dr.",name:"Suman",surname:"Thakur",slug:"suman-thakur",fullName:"Suman Thakur"}],corrections:null},{id:"56502",title:"FELT: Communicating Emotion through a Shape Changing Textile Wall Panel",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70032",slug:"felt-communicating-emotion-through-a-shape-changing-textile-wall-panel",totalDownloads:1656,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"FELT is a 5ʺ × 6ʺ (150 cm × 180 cm) computational textile panel, made up of four modules of frame and textile that was designed to understand what emotion is communicated to people using vision and touch from a still and shape changing textile. The purpose of FELT is to determine what still and shape changing, textural expressions of computational textiles can communicate emotion to people at the scale of an architectural wall. The central idea is that for both still and moving or shape changing textiles, there will be differences in what is communicated to people depending on whether the people experience the textiles via vision alone or via both vision and touch. In this chapter, two methods are described that were used to carry out the research. The first method is a design method used to produce shape changing textiles. The second method described is the user study. There are two user studies that will be discussed in this chapter to understand what emotion[s] are communicated by shape changing textiles and the FELT wall panel. If architects, artists, designers, engineers and scientists, and others could begin to understand the nature of what various textile expressions communicate, and what computational textiles communicate in transformation, then it would be possible to more clearly understand the role that texture of a computational textile plays in communicating emotion through a computational object. A textile that can move or change its shape could be used on a robot as robot skin, for example, for people who may benefit from some communication through vision and touch. A computational textile may be used on a wall, a pillow, curtain, furnishings, toys, and many other designed objects to communicate to people and children who do not have access to their emotions. This may be a child with autism or someone not in touch with what they are feeling. A textile can be used to have nonverbal communication with people through vision and touch.",signatures:"Felecia Davis",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56502",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56502",authors:[{id:"200617",title:"Dr.",name:"Felecia",surname:"Davis",slug:"felecia-davis",fullName:"Felecia Davis"}],corrections:null},{id:"56743",title:"ESD Knitted Fabrics from Conductive Yarns Used as Protective Garment for Electronic Industry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69843",slug:"esd-knitted-fabrics-from-conductive-yarns-used-as-protective-garment-for-electronic-industry",totalDownloads:1595,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Nowadays, interest in protection against electrostatic discharge (ESD), regarded as an important issue, is still growing. ESD may lead to serious economic losses and can also be hazardous to humans. In zones where substances with low values of ignition energy occur, ESD may involve a high risk of fire or explosion. Protective clothing is used to reduce the risk of electrostatic discharge (ESD) in electronics industry as well as in explosive atmospheres. In the manufacturing process of electronic products, significant percentage-related failures due to ESD phenomena that occur on the production line, especially where they are not installed systems and rigorous protection rules, are still recorded. Protective clothing with antistatic properties is designed to prevent the transfer of electrical charge from human operator to electronic device during the manufacturing process. In this chapter, a study was conducted about the electrical parameters representative for the control of electrostatic discharges as well as the surface and volume resistivity by applying the current absorption-resorption method and parameters of charge decay using the standardized induction method on several knitted conductive fabrics with carbon yarn. Current absorption-resorption method is applied for the first time in research under antistatic and dissipative fabrics.",signatures:"Gabriela Telipan, Beatrice Moasa, Elena Helerea, Eftalea Carpus,\nRazvan Scarlat and Gheorghe Enache",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/56743",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/56743",authors:[{id:"107188",title:"Prof.",name:"Elena",surname:"Helerea",slug:"elena-helerea",fullName:"Elena Helerea"},{id:"189129",title:"Mrs.",name:"Gabriela",surname:"Telipan",slug:"gabriela-telipan",fullName:"Gabriela Telipan"},{id:"205554",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",surname:"Moasa",slug:"beatrice-moasa",fullName:"Beatrice Moasa"},{id:"205557",title:"Mr.",name:"Razvan",surname:"Scarlat",slug:"razvan-scarlat",fullName:"Razvan Scarlat"},{id:"205558",title:"Dr.",name:"Eftalea",surname:"Carpus",slug:"eftalea-carpus",fullName:"Eftalea Carpus"},{id:"205559",title:"Mr.",name:"Gheorghe",surname:"Enache",slug:"gheorghe-enache",fullName:"Gheorghe Enache"}],corrections:null},{id:"55669",title:"The Long Way of the Success: From Idea to the Market",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69210",slug:"the-long-way-of-the-success-from-idea-to-the-market",totalDownloads:1524,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Due to the changes in the textile field, effective solutions come from two directions: incorporating ideas in physical new and very modern products or giving value to new ideas that can impulse later discoveries and potential applications by identifying specific niches. New trends ask to cultivate a culture of entrepreneurship not only in terms of business but even at the level of research as the last chance for those who cannot produce traditionally in market conditions. The commercial or research (innovative) niches must be identified at the national and international levels and conducted to new advancements that should guide to commercial destination by responding to special human needs. The purpose of this chapter is to reveal five case studies as examples of integrating smart textiles into the value chain. This research shows that success is a consequence of intensive- and commercial-oriented company policy, an effect of updating to nowadays conditions, and an inspired movement to the right business way. The chapter also represents an invitation for creative people to focus on developing innovative value chains.",signatures:"Adriana Ungureanu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/55669",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/55669",authors:[{id:"204186",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",surname:"Ungureanu",slug:"adriana-ungureanu",fullName:"Adriana Ungureanu"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10410",title:"Textiles for Functional Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5be34ee24510dc6ac217b82f0ce41ab0",slug:"textiles-for-functional-applications",bookSignature:"Bipin Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10410.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"177114",title:"Dr.",name:"Bipin",surname:"Kumar",slug:"bipin-kumar",fullName:"Bipin Kumar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3137",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"78714c655bf80050e9713a50a0581ccb",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",bookSignature:"Melih Günay",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3137.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"33126",title:"Dr.",name:"Melih",surname:"Gunay",slug:"melih-gunay",fullName:"Melih Gunay"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5086",title:"Textile Wastewater Treatment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"793e019e29b364d0daa8031b0800c3c3",slug:"textile-wastewater-treatment",bookSignature:"E. 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From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6610",title:"Evolving BCI Therapy",subtitle:"Engaging Brain State Dynamics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"81a5621637cfaad35284f268db29bb60",slug:"evolving-bci-therapy-engaging-brain-state-dynamics",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6610.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7868",title:"Redirecting Alzheimer Strategy",subtitle:"Tracing Memory Loss to Self Pathology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"57b9b4f3a8d378e6ce3b7444d134fbd1",slug:"redirecting-alzheimer-strategy-tracing-memory-loss-to-self-pathology",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7868.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10350",title:"Sleep Medicine and the Evolution of Contemporary Sleep Pharmacotherapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"65adb695b7195972208b5da128f531ba",slug:"sleep-medicine-and-the-evolution-of-contemporary-sleep-pharmacotherapy",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10350.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8059",title:"Neurostimulation and Neuromodulation in Contemporary Therapeutic Practice",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8cc2c649900edf37ff3374fdc96a1586",slug:"neurostimulation-and-neuromodulation-in-contemporary-therapeutic-practice",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee and Seyed Mansoor Rayegani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8059.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7798",title:"Neuroethics in Principle and Praxis",subtitle:"Conceptual Foundations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c331b07083fed290d6be2ccf32f1118f",slug:"neuroethics-in-principle-and-praxis-conceptual-foundations",bookSignature:"Denis Larrivee",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7798.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"206412",title:"Prof.",name:"Denis",surname:"Larrivee",slug:"denis-larrivee",fullName:"Denis Larrivee"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6092",title:"Neuroplasticity",subtitle:"Insights of Neural Reorganization",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1003fc63680b1c04e9135f3dea18a8c3",slug:"neuroplasticity-insights-of-neural-reorganization",bookSignature:"Victor V. 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This is a challenge for companies to comply with economic, environmental, and social needs.
As presented in Figure 1, to address economic, environmental, and social issues, companies must address multidisciplinary issues such as follows:
sustainable development (SD) which emphasizes the balance between economic well-being, natural resources, and society without compromising the quality of life of the human population [3];
supply chain (SC) management, which is focused on optimizing the flow of goods and services through the supply chain, considering the procurement of raw materials, the distribution from suppliers to manufacturers, the transformation into final products and warehousing operations, and the distribution of final products from manufacturers to retailers. This to actively streamline the company’s supply-side activities to maximize customer value and gain a competitive advantage in the marketplace.
inventory control and management, which is focused on determining the appropriate inventory replenishment strategies to ensure efficient supply and distribution of products when needed at the minimum cost.
Interdisciplinary studies in sustainability (adapted and edited from Ref. [
Here, it is important to observe that different storage/warehousing is performed through all the SC. Just in the last decade, health risk was identified for people who work at storage facilities due to the presence of semi-volatile organic compound pollutants (SVOC) and plastic contaminants which are generated by the stored inventory [5, 6, 7]. In this regard, the most abundant SVOCs found among the 58 classified SVOCs are phthalates.
In general, there are six types of phthalate that have been found in outdoor and indoor air and surfaces [6, 8]. Phthalates are distributed worldwide, having a global presence ranging from the most remote regions in the Arctic to isolated rainforests of the Amazon [8, 9]. On March 2019, the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a priority list of 40 chemicals to determine if they are of high or low risk for human health. Phthalates were considered within the “high priority” list [6].
There are studies that have concluded that the pollution of phthalate in the air is harmful to human health [8, 9, 10, 11, 12]. Also, it has been determined that humans are exposed through ingestion, inhalation, and dermal exposure, even since intrauterine development [13, 14].
Because phthalates, which are organic lipophilic compounds, are mainly used to increase the flexibility of plastic polymers, they are frequently used in printing inks and food packages [14, 15]. Thus, exposure to phthalates mainly occurs via food ingestion [10, 14, 16, 17, 18].
Inhalation is the second route of exposure as phthalates degrade into particles that diffuse through the air [10]. This can be the main route of exposure for individuals who work in plasticizing processes [10] or in closed places where products with phthalate are stored for long periods of time such as in warehouses. Because phthalates are used as plasticizers in numerous consumer products, commodities, and building materials, this compound has been found in offices, work places, homes, bathrooms, gardens, and food containers. Table 1 presents an overview of the places where people are more exposed to indoor phthalates.
Country | Place | Work |
---|---|---|
Japan | Home | [19] |
China | Home/office | [20] |
Sweden | Pre-school | [21] |
Canada | Home | [22] |
USA (California) | Child care facility | [23] |
Research works performed on indoor phthalate (taken from Ref. [8]).
As presented in Table 1, phthalates are found in human residential and occupational environment in high concentrations, both in air and in dust [24]. Thus, we can consider the facilities of industries such as warehouses, productions areas, and scrap areas, to be frequently contaminated with this compound.
In the case of products which are stored during long periods of time, there are economic, environmental, and health implications on SD. If the product is not used or moved (e.g., low inventory rotation), it may deteriorate and/or become obsolete, leading to economic losses. Also, a deteriorating product may release other harmful chemicals. Finally, in the social aspect, there is the health risk for employees who are exposed to harmful chemicals generated by the stored products. If the management fails to determine the optimal inventory levels and lots, the environmental, social, and economic risks can affect all entities through the SC.
To extend on these findings, we perform an updated review of the presence of phthalates and their effect on human health. Also, we extend on the adaptation of supply strategies to reduce these effects through the SC and on the environment. This is performed through the modeling of phthalate generation and integration within a stochastic inventory control strategy.
Phthalates are chemicals which are produced in high volumes, accounting for 70% of the world consumption of plasticizers in 2014. In this context, Asia, Western Europe, and the USA accounted for 59, 14, and 16%, respectively, of the world plasticizer consumption in 2014 [25].
More recently, phthalates accounted for 65% of the world consumption of plasticizers in 2017. Figure 2 presents the main consumers of plasticizers in 2017. However, in 2005, this amount was higher (approximately 88%), and it was forecasted to decrease to 60% by 2022. This decrease was defined to be caused by [25]:
rapid consumption growth of non-phthalate plasticizers, mainly terephthalates, epoxy, aliphatics, and benzoates, as replacements for DEHP and other phthalates such as DINP and BBP;
continued growth of non-phthalates in different applications and markets; and
ongoing pressure from retailers and consumers to limit the use of phthalates, especially in developed regions.
World consumption of plasticizers 2017 (adapted and edited from Ref. [
However, consumption of phthalate plasticizers has been also forecasted to grow at an average annual rate of 1.3% during 2017–2022. Today, phthalates are known pollutants, which can affect human health. Human bio-monitoring studies from 2000 to 2015 have determined that exposure to phthalates can cause adverse health outcomes like fertility problems, respiratory diseases, childhood obesity, and neuropsychological disorders [9, 12, 15, 26]. Other studies found that it may disrupt fetal testicular testosterone production [27, 28].
Although many studies have researched on the impact of outdoor pollution on human health, few studies have investigated the impact of indoor pollution on the human health. Because people spend most of their time indoors, it is crucial to understand how an indoor pollutant, including household dust, affects human health [19, 29].
Indoor pollution is largely influenced by outdoor sources, but indoor activities (e.g., cooking, cleaning, and the use of consumer products and building materials) are also sources of indoor pollution [5, 11, 20, 23, 30, 31]. Phthalate levels build up over time in indoor environments where their main sources like children’s toys, cosmetics, flexible PVC flooring, and cable insulation among others are found [8, 31].
Consequently, six phthalates, namely, dimethyl phthalate (DMP), diethyl phthalate (DEP), di-n-butyl phthalate (DBP), butyl-benzyl phthalate (BBP), di(2-ethylhexyl) phthalate (DEHP), and di-n-octyl phthalate (DnOP) have been identified as priority pollutants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency (US EPA) and the European Union (EU). Usage of DEHP, DBP, BBP and DnOP has been limited to ≤0.1% in toys and childcare articles by EU (Directive 2005/84/EC), US (CPSIA—Consumer Product Safety Improvement Act of 2008), China (China National Standard GB 6675, 2014), India (BIS, 2011), and Japan (Japan Toy Safety Standard ST-2002 Part 3, 2011). Recently in 2015, DEHP, DBP, and BBP were classified as reproductive toxicant category 1B and completely banned from any application without prior approval in the EU.
To compare two exposure scenarios, different dust particle fractions were analyzed: inhaled (<5 μm) and ingested (<75 μm) fraction sizes. Results showed that the daily intake of dust-contaminated phthalate was 2 to 12 times (inhalation and ingestion, respectively) higher for 2-year-old children than for adults [11].
However, phthalate exposure (phthalate metabolite levels in urine) among countries indicates the highest exposure for people living in Europe (2.1 × 102 μg/l) closely followed by USA (2.0 × 102 μg/l) and least in Asia (1.3 × 102 μg/l) [26]. In this context, there are reported discrepancies between trends of industrial consumption and human exposure [8, 14, 18].
The highest concentrations of phthalates in different items have been found in the range of 300–461 g/kg for DEHP, 283–345 g/kg for DBP, 150 g/kg for DnOP, and 20–33 g/kg for BBP in floorings, shower curtains, gloves, plastic sandals, plastic balls, and soap packaging [8, 18].
Particularly in Latin America, a phthalate presence study was carried out on beverages, where the results brought that the bottles contained average 2.62 g/kg of diethylhexyl (FDEH) [10, 32].
Increased phthalate levels have been found in the presence of temperature changes (i.e., bottled water exposed to higher than 35°C or sunlight) [31, 33, 34, 35]. Elevated temperatures considered in various studies do not represent ambient temperature but become important in case of heating of for example food in products containing phthalates. However, the influence of temperature on phthalate emissions in dust requires further investigation.
Also, higher relative humidity has been reported to increase hydrolysis of phthalates, which results in a gradual decrease in concentration of phthalates in the source and a sink [8]. An increase in temperature increases the emission rates of non-covalently bound phthalates from their polymer matrices resulting in a higher concentration in warmer months [30]. In good agreement, studies have found higher phthalate levels in summer in indoor as well as outdoor surfaces [8, 9].
These studies have been carried out in houses, kinder gardens, and offices in places where cleaning is regular [8, 15]. Hence, in closed places where products with this chemical are stored, the toxicity risk is even higher. Thus, there is a necessity to reduce the effect of this chemical by storing just the optimal lots.
Within all industries, management is focused on solving the essential decision-making associated to product design/placement, organization, picking operations, facility layout, and distribution. These operations take place within spaces or logistic facilities such as offices, workshops, and warehouses, where workers spend most of their time (40–60 hours per week). In these closed places, airflow distributes many impurities, including phthalates which can be ingested or inhaled [9, 14, 15, 32].
The importance of airflow has been studied when designing the warehouses because phthalates are not chemically bound to the plastics and they can leach into water, indoor dust, and air, resulting in cyclic exposure [14, 36]. In these closed spaces, the stored products can spread out this pollutant which may be increased based on temperature conditions. In this situation, co-workers inhale phthalates during labor time [14, 15] and contamination by phthalates (more than 100 mg/l) has been reported to be common in heavily industrialized areas.
Additional to airflow, inventory movement is another aspect to contribute to phthalate accumulation. As inventory commonly stores packaged products (bottles, bags, paper and board packaging, etc.) if it remains static, it can generate more dust and particles [9, 10, 11, 32]. Based on this information, Figure 3 presents the theoretical cycle of emission of phthalate within the facilities present in the SC.
Theoretical exposure of phthalates through the air (own work).
From this cycle of emission, we can identify that inventory movement through the facilities is dependent of the inventory turnover, which can be optimized through the use of proper supply strategies. This task requires consideration of real market conditions which are characterized by demand of products with large variability.
Thus, stochastic demand patterns are a main aspect to consider within the strategies to reduce phthalate accumulation/emission and improve inventory turnover.
Within logistic management of inventories, there are strategies to improve inventory turnover and reduce static inventory and inventory levels. As an example, consider the cost equation of the continuous review strategy to determine the optimal lot size
where
As emission of phthalates is associated to the size of the warehoused lot (i.e.,
To determine the optimal lot size considering the minimization of phthalate, the following mathematical formulation can be defined:
Subject to:
where (3) is the objective function, (4) is the restriction to ensure that the lot size does not lead to increase the cumulative phthalate over a permissible limit
Additionally, periodic surface cleaning and handwashing has been identified as appropriate measures to reduce accumulation and exposure to phthalate [38]. Particularly for co-workers, the use of protective wear within warehouses is highly recommended.
Research performed to model
The advantage of ANNs to model data when compared to standard regression approaches is that regression only performs well if the regression equation fits very closely the considered data. By contrast, the use of hidden neuron layers provides ANNs with more flexibility to fit any data pattern.
As input data for modeling, we considered the estimations presented by Afshari et al. and Liang et al. [39, 40] regarding phthalate concentrations (μg/m3) generated by PVC and different materials in indoor spaces. Figure 4 presents a review of the approximate concentration values reported in Refs. [39, 40].
Review of concentration patterns through time on different indoor spaces and materials (own work based on data reported in Refs. [
As presented in Figure 4, significant differences are found depending on the considered material and environment. For assessment purposes of the proposed model, we consider an average concentration which is also presented in Figure 4.
For modeling through ANNs, it was important to match the concentration data based on m3 to stored units in the warehouse. To accomplish this task, the following variables are considered:
Thus, (4) can be represented as:
where
For this purpose, we considered the nonlinear autoregressive with external (exogenous) input (NARX) [41] time series ANN. For time series modeling, the NARX ANN can associate the current value of a time series to (a) past values of the same series and (b) current and past values of an external series that influences the series of interest [42]. Thus, it can predict a series
In this case,
Hidden layers | 2 |
Neurons | 10 |
Training method | Levenberg-Marquardt |
Training details of the NARX ANN.
Structure details of the NARX ANN.
Figure 6 presents the comparison of the performance of the ANN for t = 0:360 days and the original average data with t = 0:150 (as presented in Figure 4). It can be observed that the prediction of the ANN closely resembles the available data used for training within the period from t = 0:150 days.
Performance of the NARX ANN for extended time periods.
With the estimated concentrations, we can proceed to assess the model described by (3)–(6) with a supply example. This assessment considers two scenarios: (a) scenario with no control on the phthalate concentrations and (b) scenario with restriction
In the previous section, we provided the means for phthalate concentration modeling through ANNs and its integration within an inventory supply strategy. To address the impact of this strategy, we proceed to quantitatively evaluate the economic and environmental results on an inventory supply case.
Table 3 presents the numerical data of the considered supply case (this is, the set of values for (3)–(6)). This case considers the supply strategy over a 5-year period (1800 days with a cumulative demand of 60,000 units). Each unit of product is assumed to have a standard size of 0.50 m × 0.50 m × 0.50 m = 0.125 m3. At
Planning horizon = 1800 days | |
Daily demand = | |
Daily standard deviation = 8 units | |
Lead time = 180 days | |
Assessment data for the integrated model with phthalate emission.
With these data, we proceed to evaluate two scenarios:
Scenario 1: determination of the supply lot size Q is performed based only on the economic aspects of (3) without the phthalate emission factor.
Scenario 2: determination of the supply lot size Q is performed based on the economic aspects of (3) and considering the phthalate emission factor defined by (4) and (6).
Both scenarios were solved with the Solver Tool ® of MS Excel. The results which were obtained are presented in Table 4.
Scenario | 1 | 2 |
---|---|---|
Objective function | ||
Restrictions | Q > 0 | Q > 0 |
1880 | 1312 | |
6257 | 6271 | |
25,646 | 27,088 | |
71.66 μg/m3 | 50.00 μg/m3 |
Results of the integrated model with the assessment data.
If no restriction on the concentration of phthalate is considered, then large lots can be ordered (Q = 1880 units). This minimizes the overall operating costs (E(C) = 25,646). Also, these large lots can lead to cumulative phthalate concentration up to 71.66 μg/m3.
If the restriction on the cumulative phthalate is considered, a reduction of 30.22% can be obtained (50.00 μg/m3). However, as this is dependent of the lot size, smaller lot sizes are required (Q = 1312 units). As consequence, this can lead to an increase in operational costs up to 5.62% (E(C) = 27,088).
These findings are very important to establish strategies to balance economic and environmental/health benefits. Particularly within the supply chain, suppliers, manufacturers, and distributors are continuously exposed to phthalates and thus represent health risks in the long term.
Minimizing the exposure to phthalate is an important task within all contexts in our society. These chemicals are present in office buildings, schools, homes, vehicles, food packaging, and warehouses, among others. The sources of phthalates which are used in building materials are more permanent in nature and their removal requires regulatory intervention, while other sources such as plastic materials and foam mattresses are easier to be replaced or removed [8].
In manufacturing, where inventories are the main resource for production, supply, and distribution, phthalates are continuously present. However, determining the possible risk based on phthalate concentration through time in warehousing facilities is not widely studied.
In this work, we explored on this aspect and proposed an integrated inventory control model with phthalate emission factor. Also, we addressed phthalate emission through the use of ANNs to estimate concentrations for different time periods where are commonly considered during inventory control strategies.
As presented, if phthalate concentrations are not considered, these can be increased in the presence of large lots, which frequently decrease operational costs associated to inventory ordering/re-supply.
If considering the phthalate concentration restriction to a certain permissible level, this can lead to reduce the ordering lots and, thus, to increase the operational costs. Nevertheless, the cost increase may be minimal in comparison to the reduction in phthalate concentration.
Thus, the proposed model can be used to support measures to control the presence of phthalate while keeping also under control the operational costs. Also, the model can be used as a basis for extended or alternative models considering the costs of cleaning tasks and the risk of specific health complications in certain environments/contexts.
The physiological range of human body temperature is 36.8 ± 0.3°C [1]. During physical activity, body temperature can rise from 38 to 40°C, and exposure to extremely low ambient temperatures can lead to a decrease in body temperature to 35°C [2]. In clinical thermometry, the mean physiological oral temperature of 36.8 ± 0.9°C correlates with the end product of the energy of all enzymatic reactions. Metabolism, through the sum of all the body’s cellular reactions, is usually measured as the amount of oxygen consumed. The standardized estimate of metabolism is the basal rate of metabolism, which depends on the activity of these physiological processes to maintain euthermia [3]. The physiological body temperature of the human body core is about 37°C and is controlled in a narrow range (33.2–38.2°C), and is further narrowed if oral measurements are neglected in favor of rectal, tympanic, or axillary measurements [4]. Abnormal deviations of the core temperature of even a few degrees will trigger the body’s thermoregulatory mechanisms, and changes in temperature outside the physiological range can prove fatal. Measured body temperature above 42°C leads to cytotoxicity with protein denaturation and impaired deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) synthesis [5], resulting in organ failure and neuronal damage. If body temperature falls below 27°C (hypothermia), associated neuromuscular, cardiovascular, hematological, and respiratory changes may prove equally fatal [6]. The core temperature is maintained in the range of +/ 6°C in the environment from 10–55°C, while the skin temperature varies depending on the environment. The temperature measured orally is from 36.5 to 37°C, while the rectal temperature is 0.5°C higher [7]. In humans, body temperature varies by about 1°C during the day, with a gradual increase during wakefulness and a decrease during sleep [8]. Daily fluctuations in body temperature are a strong effect of circadian rhythms [9] associated with a number of physiological functions, such as metabolism and sleep [10, 11]. Evidence in humans and rats shows that circadian temperature rhythm is controlled separately from locomotor activity rhythms [12]. The amount of core temperature formation depends on the intensity of metabolism, and it depends on basal metabolism, muscle activity, thyroxine, adrenaline, noradrenaline, sympathetic nervous system activity, cell temperature, and digestive system activity. Heat release depends on the rate of conduction to the skin surface and the rate of heat transfer from the skin to the environment. The skin and subcutaneous tissue participate in the thermal insulation of the body. Blood vessels can regulate heat transfer by constriction and dilatation [13]. Body temperature varies depending on where it is measured. In thermoregulatory research, it is common for the body to be divided into two sections—the outer core, which includes the skin and which mainly varies in temperature with the environment, and the inner core, which includes the central and peripheral nervous system and has a relatively stable temperature [13, 14]. The preoptic area of the anterior hypothalamus plays a major role in the regulation of body temperature [15]. Most nerves are more sensitive to heat than to cold. Heating these areas of the brain increases the body’s sweating, and cooling interrupts any mechanism of heat loss. There are many more receptors on the periphery to register cold than heat and all act on the hypothalamus [16]. Heat receptors also exist in deep tissues and are exposed to body core temperatures. On both sides of the posterior hypothalamus at the level of the mammary corpuscles is the posterior hypothalamic region that integrates central and peripheral thermal sensations. The role in the regulation of body temperature is mediated by sweat glands that have cholinergic innervation (acetylcholine), and to some extent, they can be stimulated by adrenaline and noradrenaline, secrete primary secretion, which is a product of epithelial cells, depending on the intensity of sweating [17]. With poor sweating, the secretion takes more time to pass through the canals, and consequently, more sodium and chlorine ions are reabsorbed, and potassium, urea, and lactic acid ions are concentrated. The process of acclimatization is associated with the reduction of sodium and chlorine ions in sweat, which improves the preservation of body electrolytes [18]. The nervous system acts as a biological thermostat for heating and cooling inside the animal’s body. Because animals use resources, such as energy, water, and oxygen, for thermoregulation, the nervous system monitors the abundance of these resources and adjusts thermoregulatory mechanisms accordingly. Hunger, dehydration, or hypoxemia alter the activity of temperature-sensitive neurons in the preoptic region of the hypothalamus. Other regions of the brain work together with the hypothalamus on the adaptability of thermoregulation. For example, the amygdala is likely to inhibit neurons in the preoptic area, overriding thermoregulation when there is a risk of hypothermia or overheating. Moreover, the hippocampus allows the animal to remember microcells that allow safe and efficient thermoregulation [19].
Hyperthermia is a condition of elevated body temperature, above the upper physiological limit [19, 20]. When the body is exposed to high temperatures, the secretion of interleukins 1 and 6 (IL-1 and IL-6) and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) alpha from excited immune cells, which act on thermoregulatory centers and consequently lead to setting the center to a higher temperature [20]. In the body’s response to hyperthermia, it is important to distinguish between endogenous and exogenous hyperthermia. Exogenous hyperthermia occurs when the influx of heat from the external environment increases significantly, such as in tropical areas, in small enclosed spaces that do not have adequate insulation and airflow with artificial increase in air temperature, in the bathroom during bathing, in saunas, and in Turkish baths. The fastest exogenous hyperthermia develops when there is a combination of increased heat influx from the outside with difficulty in heat transfer. Under these conditions, heat transfer mechanisms, despite maximum activation, do not remove heat from the outside, and body temperature begins to rise. Thermoregulation is actively aimed at raising the temperature by the process of overheating, all with the aim of faster heat transfer. In the 1990s, science showed that hyperthermia was teratogenic to both humans and animals. The state of hyperthermia can be the result of two processes. One is impaired production and release of heat, conditionally speaking the relationship between body temperature and ambient temperature, and the other is the setting of the thermoregulatory center to a higher level [21]. When there is an increased ambient temperature, the body temperature level rises slightly to the newly set temperature and hyperthermia occurs. Temperature rise occurs due to reduced temperature release and increased thermogenesis. High-energy consumption is required to raise the temperature, so a feeling of exhaustion may be present. When the body temperature equalizes that of the thermoregulatory center, thermogenesis ceases (if pyrogen secretion has ceased). After that, the set temperature of the thermoregulatory center returns to a lower value and there is a gradual decrease in body temperature due to reduced thermogenesis and increased heat release. Infectious diseases, exposure to elevated ambient temperature, hypothalamic damage, malignancies, tissue necrosis, and any other stimulus that could stimulate immune cells to secrete endogenous pyrogens can lead to hyperthermia [22, 23]. Hyperthermia occurs in combination with increased hypothalamic activity with values above the physiological range and occurs when the body’s thermoregulatory mechanisms are no longer able to efficiently emit heat (evaporate) [24]. Exogenous environmental stressors, such as high temperature; growth factors and ligands for surface receptors; and many drugs or chemical agents can cause apoptosis. However, cells that have undergone apoptosis show similar morphology, suggesting that these divergent apoptotic stimuli converge to induce a common cell-death pathway. Possible signaling molecules that ultimately lead to apoptosis are interleukin-1-enzyme (ICE)-like1 protease or caspase and other ceramide messengers [25]. If the body temperature of the nucleus does not decrease, a fatal outcome occurs in 30–80% of patients [26]. Heatstroke can cause severe damage to myocardial cells in rats, followed by an increase in apoptotic cells. Heatstroke causes oxidative damage to cellular proteins and DNA [27, 28]. Exposure to heatstroke for 1 hour seriously injures chicken myocardial cells, as evidenced by decreased cell vitality and the onset of apoptosis.
With an increase in body temperature, cardiac output and blood pressure drop drastically and are associated with myocardial oxygen consumption. Hypoxia causes numerous injuries to the heart muscle, from subendocardial hemorrhage, myocardial necrosis, and rupture among fibrin fibers. An increase in internal temperature in rats from 37–42°C also causes tachycardia and increases mean blood flow and vascular resistance by 13% [29]. In the state of heatstroke, large amounts of calcium are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the heart muscle, causing a hypermetabolic state. Continuous increase in calcium allows excessive stimulation of aerobic and anaerobic glycolytic metabolism, leading to respiratory and metabolic acidosis, increased membrane permeability, and the occurrence of hyperkalemia. Rhabdomyolysis leads to an increase in potassium and myoglobin levels in the heart and edema occurs. Disseminated intravascular coagulation occurs as a consequence of thromboplastin release in tissues [30].
Monitoring of hematological parameters enables fast detection of changes in the physiological state because changes in hematological parameters manifest themselves very quickly and precede possible damage. Each species has its own characteristics of individual hematological parameters. It is evident that there are unfavorable endogenous and exogenous factors that can, in certain circumstances, change the original biconcave form of mammalian erythrocytes and thus partially or completely disable its physiological role in gas exchange.
Erythrocytes or red blood cells make up the majority of blood cells. Although they are called cells, mature erythrocytes do not have a nucleus, mitochondria, or other organelles. Normal erythrocytes are actually biconcave plates with an average diameter of about 7.8 μm. In the thickest place, their thickness is about 2.5 μm, and in the center 1 μm or less. Their average volume is 90 to 95 μm3. Their membrane is too large in relation to the cell content, so the deformation will not cause the membrane to stretch, but neither will it burst, which would happen to many other cells. The cytoplasm of erythrocytes contains large amounts of the protein hemoglobin, which is able to temporarily bind gases to itself. It is because of this protein that erythrocytes have the ability to carry oxygen and carbon dioxide.
The total number of erythrocytes in the bloodstream is maintained within relatively narrow limits. The body strives to ensure that the number of erythrocytes is always sufficient to carry oxygen from the lungs to the tissues in appropriate quantities, without impeding blood flow through the blood vessels. Tissue oxygenation is the most important regulator of erythrocyte formation. Any condition in the body that reduces the amount of oxygen in the tissue increases the production of erythrocytes. If a person becomes anemic, due to bleeding or any other reason, the bone marrow immediately begins to produce a large number of erythrocytes. Erythropoietin is a circulating hormone that stimulates the production of erythrocytes, and its production increases in response to hypoxia. Under normal conditions, 90% of erythropoietin is produced in the kidneys and the rest is mostly in the liver. The production of erythropoietin is especially stimulated by adrenaline and noradrenaline, and some prostaglandins. Erythropoietic cells are among the fastest growing and proliferating cells in the human body. Therefore, their maturation and rate of formation are greatly influenced by a person’s general nutrition [31].
Erythrocytes, the main carriers of oxygen in the blood, are thought to play a key role in controlling local blood flow to the tissue. According to the hypothesis proposed by Ellsworth et al. (1995), when erythrocytes encounter an area where metabolic requirements are increased, a signaling mechanism associated with oxygen release is triggered, resulting in the release of ATP from erythrocytes into the vascular lumen. ATP acts on endothelial P2y receptors, triggering the release of nitric oxide, prostaglandins, and/or hyperpolarizing factors derived from the endothelium, which in turn act on surrounding smooth muscle cells causing vasodilation [32].
Poikilocytosis is a term used for abnormally shaped red blood cells (RBCs) in the blood [33]. Poikilocytosis generally refers to an increase in the abnormal shape of red blood cells that make up 10% or more of total red blood cells. Poikilocytes may be flat, elongated, teardrop-shaped, crescent-shaped, may have pointed or thorny protrusions, or may have any other abnormal feature. Examination of the blood smear reveals various forms of erythrocytes. Spherocytes are small round cells that do not have a flat, brightly colored center of regular erythrocytes [34]. The central part of the stomatocyte is incised or elliptical, which differs from the regular round shape of erythrocytes. Dental cells have the shape of a mouth. Podocytes are also known as target cells because they resemble a bull’s eye. Sickle cells, also known as drepanocytes, are crescent-shaped and elongated erythrocytes [35]. Elliptocytes, also known as ovalocytes, are oval or cigar-shaped cells with blunt ends. Droplet cells or dacryocytes are abnormal erythrocytes that have one round and one pointed end. Acanthocytes are erythrocytes that have abnormal spike-like protrusions present on the cell membrane. Echinocytes similar to acanthocytes also have protrusions (spicules) on the cell membrane similar to acanthocytes, but the projections in echinocytes are evenly distributed and more frequently present. Schistocytes are fragmented erythrocytes [36, 37, 38, 39, 40].
Red blood cells usually carry oxygen and many nutrients to tissues and organs. In poikilocytosis, erythrocytes are irregular in shape and may be unable to carry enough oxygen. Poikilocytosis is caused by other medical conditions, such as anemia; red blood cell membrane defects, such as hereditary spherocytosis; many genetic causes, such as sickle cell disease and thalassemia; eating disorders, such as iron deficiency anemia and megaloblastic anemia; and other causes, such as kidney disease and liver [40].
The physiological body temperature of rats is from 35.9 to 37.5°C [41]. The body temperature of 40.9°C is the upper limit before the compensating mechanisms are activated [42]. The development of techniques for the induction of hyperthermia in laboratory animals represents a significant contribution to experimental research. According to the available literature, hyperthermia in an animal model can be induced with dry (high temperature) and moist heat (immersion in heated water). Induction of hyperthermia and temperature measurement are important components in heatstroke studies to determine the degree of progression or regression of heatstroke. The electric thermometric method is more suitable and precise for continuous or consecutive measurements in comparison with a classical mercury thermometer. Common temperature measurement sites are the skin, oral cavity, axilla, rectum, and eardrum [43]. The superiority of tympanic measurement over rectal thermometry has not been demonstrated in animal studies.
Until the 21st century, rectal thermometry was the most appropriate technique for measuring temperature in heatstroke studies. At the beginning of the 21st century, the best indicator of the average core temperature of the body is considered to be the temperature of the blood in the pulmonary artery [44]. Due to the poor accessibility of the pulmonary artery, other anatomical locations (esophagus, rectum, and oral cavity) are most often used in the routine measurement of core temperature today [45]. Rats, dogs, monkeys, baboons, cows, rabbits, and sheep were used in experimental studies that allow manipulation of exposure conditions and experimental methodology. Among these species, rats, rabbits, and sheep are the most suitable models because of their resemblance to humans as a reaction to high temperature and given their availability, price, and ease of handling. Such models can be used to simultaneously study different pharmacological and laboratory parameters and functions.
Rats are used for routine experiments, while sheep are reserved only for large experiments in which several parameters and functions of the organism are examined at the same time. Several studies related to heatstroke in rats have been performed as experimental models [46, 47, 48]. The models were based on the exposure of rats to high temperatures, dry air, or water, until the core temperature reached a predetermined temperature (40.5°C).
A body temperature value of 40.5°C on exposure for 15 minutes was accepted as a reference for the diagnosis of heatstroke. No direct conditional-consequential relationship between hyperthermia and mortality (less than 10% death) was found in rats exposed to lower temperatures during the experiment [49]. Sharm et al. [50] in their study showed that the animal model for the induction of rat hyperthermia is comparable to the clinical situation. The model has proven useful for studying the effects of diseases associated with exposure to high ambient temperatures on changes in various organs and systems, including the central nervous system. Because hyperthermia is often associated with severe brain dysfunction, additional methods have been described to examine some key parameters of brain injury and the development of brain edema [50]. The research was mostly done for the purpose of proving hypo and hyperthermic therapeutic effects in malignant diseases. Several studies are known to go in the direction of the association between hyperthermia and survival time [47].
The first model of hyperthermia was developed on a dog in 1973 and on a rat in 1976 [51]. Hubbard et al. [47] induced rat hyperthermia by heating the cage at a high temperature and measuring rectal temperature [47]. A study by Weshler et al. [52] investigated the development of thermotolerance in the development of hyperthermia in rats in the aquatic environment. Following the historical sequence, more models of hyperthermia have been developed but most of them cause heatstroke by high-temperature dry air. In the animal model of hyperthermia, a study by Suzuki et al. [1] indicates hyperthermia as a cause of death during bathing and the association between high water temperature and survival time.
In the 19th century, an animal model of piglets was developed to investigate disorders caused by hyperthermia. This experimental study was a pioneer in later studies that demonstrated the role that hyperthermia can play in diseases, such as hemorrhagic shock and encephalopathy syndrome, and, in some cases, sudden infant death syndrome [53, 54, 55, 56].
When exposed to high temperatures, the circulating flow from the environment is redirected to the skeletal muscles and skin, to give off heat. Acute cardiogenic shock can also occur, leading to intracranial hypertension, cerebral hypoperfusion, cerebral ischemia, and neuronal injury. Prolonged exposure to elevated ambient temperatures can result in convulsions, exhaustion, and heatstroke. Thermoregulatory mechanisms relax, sweating stops, and body temperature rises. A condition accompanied by arrhythmias occurs, and disseminated intravascular coagulation, skeletal muscle, and myocardial necrosis may occur [57]. Rhabdomyolysis, which occurs in such heatstroke conditions, is characterized by rupture and necrosis of striated muscle cells, which can be caused by trauma under conditions of hyperthermia. If rhabdomyolysis is extensive, circulating myoglobin may produce acute renal failure [58]. The mortality rate for such patients exceeds 50%. Death caused by hyperthermia is diagnosed in a hospital or by autopsy mainly using serological and pathohistological methods. Postmortem diagnosis of death caused by hyperthermia and heatstroke presents certain difficulties [59].
Hyperthermia occurs and the result of thermoregulatory mechanisms is felt in many organs, including the heart, which is the first response in the chain. Cardiac dysfunction and degeneration occur secondarily in relation to the massive increase in catecholamine secretion, as well as hyperkalemia, acidosis, and hypoxia [60]. Thanks to the research that has been done, nonspecific abnormalities are noticeable on the electrocardiogram [61], angiograms [62], and pathohistological analyzes of the myocardium [63]. An increase in heart mass due to the hyperthermic effect is also observed [64].
The study was conducted as a prospective, randomized, controlled, experimental study done on an animal model of causing rat hyperthermia. This study was approved by the Ethical Committee of the Medical Faculty University of Sarajevo under registration number 02–3-4-1253/20, Bosnia and Herzegovina.
The experiment used 40 adult albino Wistar rats, both sexes, weighing 250 to 300 g. All animals were kept under the same laboratory conditions, and 7 days before the experiment for acclimatization and adaptation were kept in a vivarium with a 12-hour light regime day-night and at room temperature (20°C ± 2°C). During the experiment, the animals received commercial feed for laboratory animals and running water ad libitum. The care and care of animals, as well as the implementation of all experimental procedures, were carried out in compliance with the International Guidelines for Biomedical Research on Animals-CIOMS (The Council for International Organizations of Medical Sciences) and ICLAS (The International Council for Laboratory Animal Science) [65, 66].
Hyperthermia model was used on 40 adult Wistar rats that were methodologically divided into three experimental groups, depending on water temperature exposure of 37°C (KG, n = 8), 41°C (G41, n = 16), and 44°C (G44, n = 16). Each of the trial groups exposed to 41°C and 44°C water temperature was further classified according to the time of analysis, as the antemortem group (G41-AM; G44-AM) with exposure time of 20 min and the postmortem group (G41- PM; G44-PM) with exposure until time of death.
The water bath was filled with water and heated to the target water temperature. The water temperature was continuously monitored on the display with additional measurements with a probe immersed in water and readings on a thermometer. A pre-anesthetized rat with a head above water level, fixed on a wooden board, was immersed in preheated water at the target temperature. Survival times were recorded, which included the time from the immersion of the rats in the water of the set temperature (41°C and 44°C) to the time of death. We defined hyperthermia as an increase in internal temperature by 0.5°C, and heatstroke as an increase in internal temperature above 40.5°C [67] (Figure 1).
Experimental procedures in the laboratory of the Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Sarajevo.
To measure heart mass, we used a 0.001 mg sensitivity scale (model GT410V, USA) after dissection and before immersion in formalin.
Blood samples for analysis were taken from the abdominal aorta. At least two blood smears were made using standard laboratory blood staining techniques (May-Grünwald-Giemsa). Stained blood smears were analyzed by two independent researchers, with counting performed on representative single-layer visual fields where blood cells did not overlap or only touched their edges. Two thousand erythrocytes were analyzed on each stained blood smear using a Motic Type 102 M light microscope and a magnification of 1000 times to examine the presence of poikilocyte red blood cells. The average value of two independent measurements was taken for analysis and the percentages of the number and type of poikilocytes were presented. The most representative microscopic images were stored in electronic form using the software Motic Images Plis 2.0 [68, 69].
The body weight of rats in the groups formed according to the length of exposure to elevated temperature ranged from 280.14 g in KG37 to 325.50 g in G44-AM, but there was no statistically significant difference in body weight between groups (p = 0.081) (Table 1).
Body mass (g) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|
Groups | X | ±SD | 95% CI | |
LL | UP | |||
KG37 | 280.14 | 43.71 | 239.71 | 320.57 |
G41-AM | 315.86 | 32.29 | 285.99 | 345.73 |
G41-PM | 286.75 | 29.77 | 261.85 | 311.65 |
G44-AM | 325.50 | 47.27 | 285.98 | 365.02 |
G44-PM | 281.25 | 37.90 | 249.56 | 312.94 |
Mean values of body weight of rats in the experimental groups according to the length of exposure to elevated temperature.
X - mean value; ± SD standard deviation; CI-confidence interval, LL-lower limit; UL-upper limit; KG37-control group of rats exposed to water temperatures of 37°C; G41-AM-antemortem group exposed to water temperature 41°C (exposure length 20 minutes); G41-PM-postmortem group exposed to water temperature 41°C (length of exposure to death); G44-AM-antemortem group of rats exposed to water temperatures of 44°C (exposure length 20 minutes); G44-PM-postmortem group of rats exposed to water temperatures of 44°C (length of exposure to death).
The lowest mean heart weight of rats was 0.99 ± 0.11 g in KG37, and the highest value was found in G41 and was 1.15 ± 0.23 g. No statistically significant difference in rat heart weight was found between the three groups, p > 0.05 (Table 2).
Group | X(g) | ±SD | 95% CI | ||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
LL | UL | P | |||
KG37 | 0.99 | 0.11 | 0.88 | 1.10 | |
G41-AM | 1.01 | 0.07 | 0.94 | 1.08 | |
G41-PM | 1.26 | 0.26 | 1.04 | 1.48 | |
G44-AM | 1.06 | 0.08 | 0.99 | 1.13 | |
G44-PM | 1.15 | 0.21 | 0.98 | 1.33 |
Mean values of rat heart mass in the experimental groups.
X - mean value; ±SD standard deviation; CI-confidence interval, LL-lower limit; UL-upper limit; p-probability; KG37-control group of rats exposed to water temperatures of 37°C; G41-AM-antemortem group exposed to water temperature 41°C (exposure length 20 minutes); G41-PM-postmortem group exposed to water temperature 41°C (length of exposure to death); G44-AM-antemortem group of rats exposed to water temperatures of 44°C (exposure length 20 minutes); G44-PM-postmortem group of rats exposed to water temperatures of 44°C (length of exposure to death).
A statistically significant difference in rat heart weight was found in the experimental groups (p = 0.024). The lowest value was observed in KG37 and was 0.99 ± 0.11 g, and the highest values were found in rats of the G41-PM group, with a mean value of 1.26 ± 0.26 g (Table 2).
The mean values of rat heart weight in the experimental groups differed in the KG37 and G41-PM groups, p = 0.04, and the 41-AM and PM groups, p = 0.08 (Table 3).
Group | Group | p | 95% CI | |
---|---|---|---|---|
LL | UL | |||
KG37 | G41-AM | 1.00 | −0.29 | 0.25 |
G41-PM | −0.53 | −0.00 | ||
G44-AM | 0.33 | −0.15 | 0.61 | |
G44-PM | 1.00 | −0.34 | 0.19 | |
G44-PM | 0.73 | −0.43 | 0.10 | |
G41-AM | G41-PM | −0.51 | 0.01 | |
G44-AM | 1.0 | −0.31 | 0.21 | |
G44-PM | 1.0 | −0.40 | 0.12 | |
G41-PM | G44-AM | 0.27 | −0.05 | 0.45 |
G44-PM | 1.00 | −0.15 | 0.36 | |
G44-AM | G44-PM | 1.000 | −0.34 | 0.16 |
Multiple comparisons of mean rat heart weight values in the experimental groups.
CI-confidence interval; LL-lower limit; UL-upper limit; p-probability; KG37-control group of rats exposed to water temperatures of 37°C; G41-AM-antemortem group exposed to water temperature 41°C (exposure length 20 minutes); G41-PM-postmortem group exposed to water temperature 41°C (length of exposure to death); G44-AM-antemortem group of rats exposed to water temperatures of 44°C (exposure length 20 minutes); G44-PM-postmortem group of rats exposed to water temperatures of 44°C (length of exposure to death)
Table 4 shows the differences in poikilocytotic forms between the antemortem groups (41°C and 44°C) and the control group (37°C).
A: Temperature 37 C | B: Temperature 41 C | C: Temperature 44 C | |||||||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Med | Per 25 | Per 75 | Med | Per 25 | Per 75 | Med | Per 25 | Per 75 | p A v B v C | p A v B | p A v C | p B v C | |
Ovalocytes | 1.0 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 3.50 | 1.00 | 6.00 | 3.00 | 2.00 | 3.00 | 0.155 | |||
Dacryocytes | 1.0 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 8.50 | 1.00 | 12.0 | 5.00 | 2.00 | 9.0 | 0 | 0.793 | ||
Annulocytes | 1.0 | 0.0 | 3.0 | 39.50 | 31.0 | 55.0 | 47.0 | 25.0 | 74.0 | 0.141 | |||
Echinocytes | 0.0 | 0.0 | 1.0 | 2.50 | 0.0 | 38 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 15.0 | 0.079 | 0.28 | ||
Stomatocytes | 1.0 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 10.00 | 4.0 | 22.0 | 17.0 | 6.00 | 35.0 | 0 | 0.402 | ||
Drepanocytes | 0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||||
Schistocytes | 0.0 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 1.00 | 1.0 | 6.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 2.00 | 0.097 | 0.056 | 0.079 | 0.756 |
Leptocytes | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | ||||
Acanthocytes | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.0 | 0.00 | 0.0 | 1.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.00 | 0.687 | 0.536 | 0.636 | 0.867 |
Spherocytes | 1.0 | 0.0 | 2.0 | 1.00 | 1.0 | 8.00 | 2.00 | 1.00 | 15.0 | 0.981 | |||
Reticulocytes | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.0 | 1.50 | 0.0 | 2.00 | 1.00 | 1.00 | 4.0 | 0.685 | |||
Target cells | 1.0 | 0.0 | 1.0 | 24.50 | 20 | 34.0 | 12.0 | 3.0 | 24.0 | 0.375 |
Differences in poikilocytotic forms between antemortem group and control groups.
Variables are represented as median values with an interquartile range. P A v B v C was tested with the Kruskal-Wallis H test, and differences between two groups were tested with the Mann-Whitney U test. P – probability with p < 0.05 deemed as significant.
There is a statistically significant difference between the antemortem group and the control group in ovalocytes, dacryocytes, annulocytes, echinocytes, stomatocytes, spherocytes, reticulocytes, and target cells. Statisticaly significant difference was found between control and antemortem group exposed to 41°C in ovalocytes, spherocytes, reticulocytes, dacryocytes, annulocytes, echinocytes, stomatocytes, and target cells, while the difference between the control group and antemortem at 44°C exposure is in ovalocytes, annulocytes, spherocytes, reticulocytes and target cell. There was no difference between antemortem at 41°C and 44°C (Tables 4 and 5).
Temperature 41°C | Temperature 44°C | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Median | Per 25 | Per 75 | Median | Per 25 | Per 75 | P | |
Ovalocytes | 9 | 4 | 13 | 3 | 1 | 10 | 0.094 |
Dacryocytes | 7 | 5 | 26 | 16 | 8 | 19 | 0.481 |
Annulocytes | 50 | 3 | 55 | 100 | 28 | 123 | 0.110 |
Echinocytes | 8 | 4 | 59 | 7 | 1 | 13 | 0.405 |
Stomatocytes | 10 | 2 | 51 | 15 | 8 | 26 | 0.698 |
Drepanocytes | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.000 |
Schistocytes | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1.000 |
Leptocytes | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1.000 |
Acanthocytes | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0.591 |
Spherocytes | 47 | 40 | 84 | 46 | 25 | 54 | 0.481 |
Reticulocytes | 8 | 3 | 11 | 4 | 1 | 10 | 0.304 |
Target cells | 2 | 1 | 4 | 1 | 1 | 2 | 0.584 |
Differences in poikilocytotic forms between postmortem groups at 41°C and 44°C.
Differences in values are tested with Mann-Whitney U test, p - probability with p < 0.05 deemed as significant.
When comparing rats’ antemortem and postmortem groups exposed to a water temperature of 41°C, there are significant differences in the presence of spherocytes, reticulocytes, and target cells (Table 6).
Antemortem | Postmortem | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temperature 41°C | Temperature 41°C | ||||||
Median | Per 25 | Per 75 | Median | Per 25 | Per 75 | P | |
Ovalocytes | 3.5 | 1 | 6 | 9 | 4 | 13 | ,051 |
Dacryocytes | 8.5 | 1 | 12 | 7 | 5 | 26 | ,295 |
Annulocytes | 39.5 | 31 | 55 | 50 | 3 | 55 | ,731 |
Echinocytes | 2.5 | 0 | 38 | 8 | 4 | 59 | ,445 |
Stomatocytes | 10 | 4 | 22 | 10 | 2 | 51 | ,731 |
Drepanocytes | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1000 |
Schistocytes | 1 | 1 | 6 | 1 | 1 | 2 | ,945 |
Leptocytes | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1000 |
Acanthocytes | 0 | 0 | 1 | 0 | 0 | 1 | ,836 |
Spherocytes | 1 | 1 | 8 | 47 | 40 | 84 | |
Reticulocytes | 1.5 | 0 | 2 | 8 | 3 | 11 | |
Target cells | 24.5 | 20 | 34 | 2 | 1 | 4 |
Differences in poikilocytotic forms between antemortem and postmortem groups at 41°C.
Represents a significant difference between groups.
When comparing rats’ antemortem and postmortem exposed to a water temperature of 44°C, a significant difference in dacryocytes and spherocytes was observed (Table 7).
Antemortem | Postmortem | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Temperature 44°C | Temperature 44°C | ||||||
Median | Per 25 | Per 75 | Median | Per 25 | Per 75 | P | |
Ovalocytes | 3 | 2 | 3 | 3 | 1 | 10 | ,902 |
Dacryocytes | 5 | 2 | 9 | 16 | 8 | 19 | |
Annulocytes | 47 | 25 | 74 | 100 | 28 | 123 | ,165 |
Echinocytes | 0 | 0 | 15 | 7 | 1 | 13 | ,318 |
Stomatocytes | 17 | 6 | 35 | 15 | 8 | 26 | 1000 |
Drepanocytes | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1000 |
Schistocytes | 1 | 1 | 2 | 1 | 1 | 2 | ,535 |
Leptocytes | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1000 |
Acanthocytes | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 0 | 1 | ,383 |
Spherocytes | 2 | 1 | 15 | 46 | 25 | 54 | |
Reticulocytes | 1 | 1 | 4 | 4 | 1 | 10 | ,383 |
Target cells | 12 | 3 | 24 | 1 | 1 | 2 | ,053 |
Differences in poikilocytotic forms between antemortem and postmortem groups at 44°C.
Represents a significant difference between groups.
The aim of the study was to develop and use an animal model of rat hyperthermia and to examine the effect of hyperthermia on erythrocyte shape and heart mass.
The rats included in the study were distributed in groups according to the water temperature to which they were exposed. The bodyweight of rats in groups formed according to the length of exposure to elevated temperature ranged from 280.14 to 325.50 grams (g). Analysis of heart weight by groups did not show a significant difference in the division into three groups according to water temperature, but by division into groups according to water temperature and length of exposure showed that the hearts of postmortem groups had significantly higher mass. The difference between cardiac weight in antemortem and postmortem measurements is due to edema, congestion, and accumulation of blood in the heart cavities as antemortem characteristics and redistribution of blood caused by thoracic dissection during the autopsy, as a postmortem response in cardiac weight [70]. In a study by Michiue et al. [71] in situ cardiac blood volume in cardiac cavities and dilatation index were higher in sudden deaths and lower in cases of bleeding, suffocation, and hyperthermia. In most cases, systolic and/or diastolic function may be reduced in heart failure. Minute volume is also reduced as well as oxygen delivery with vasoconstriction and redistribution of circulating blood. At the same time, due to reduced beating heart volume, renal perfusion is reduced, antidiuretic hormone release is increased, and water and salt retention occur. The result of increased venous pressure is the transudation of fluid into the intercellular space and the appearance of edema. With the gradual development of heart failure, compensatory mechanisms are developed that facilitate the work of the heart and improve the supply of oxygen to the tissues. As a consequence of a long-term compensatory mechanism, the myocardium hypertrophies. This is also a response to the increase in heart weight in groups that have been exposed to hyperthermia for the longest time, and later to heatstroke and experienced death due to exhaustion of compensatory mechanisms. With an increase in body temperature, cardiac output and blood pressure drop drastically and are associated with myocardial oxygen consumption. Hypoxia causes numerous injuries to the heart muscle, from subendocardial hemorrhage, myocardial necrosis, and rupture among fibrin fibers. The effect of hyperthermia on heart weight and erythrocyte shape was studied in rat embryos. An increase in the internal temperature in rats from 37–42°C also causes tachycardia and increases mean blood flow and vascular resistance by 13% [29].
In the state of heatstroke, large amounts of calcium are released from the sarcoplasmic reticulum of the heart muscle, causing a hypermetabolic state. Abnormal forms of red blood cells depending on exposure and length of exposure to higher temperatures have been demonstrated. There is a statistically significant difference between the experimental groups and the control group in ovalocytes, dacryocytes, annulocytes, echinocytes, stomatocytes, spherocytes, reticulocytes, and target cells.
In the antemortem groups (41°C and 44°C) and the control group (37°C), there is a statistically significant difference in almost all poikilocytotic forms, which indicates a direct effect of temperature on erythrocyte shape in 20-minute exposure length in antemortem groups.
Hyperthermia affected changes in the percentage of certain forms of poikilocytes, especially in groups that had longer exposure to high ambient temperatures (aquatic environments). In any case, the thermal process of overheating gives the same effect as a stress reaction that can be caused in different ways and make it a nonspecific reaction.
The lowest temperature at which red blood cells undergo thermal fragmentation is 45°C [72].
In our study, the most pronounced poikilocytotic forms occurred in the postmortem groups at 41°C and 44°C by echinocyte and spherocyte type. In the antemortem group of 41°C, there is a pronounced poikilocytosis for the target cell, which is 100%, while in the antemortem group of 44°C, there is 100% anulocytosis. After statistical analysis between all groups, it is noticed that the number of expressed poikilocytes increased in postmortem groups, that is, with prolonged exposure to high temperatures. In the antemortem groups (41°C and 44°C) and the control group (37°C), there is a statistically significant difference in almost all poikilocytotic forms, which indicates a direct effect of temperature on erythrocyte shape in 20-minute exposure length in antemortem groups.
When comparing antemortem and postmortem rats exposed to a water temperature of 41° C, there are significant differences in some forms of erythrocytes (spherocytes, reticulocytes, and target cells), which suggests that poikilocytosis is more pronounced and associated with the length of exposure to high temperature than temperature between the antemortem and postmortem groups at 41°C. It has been noticed that erythrocytes in organisms that are exposed to heat for a long time are more sensitive and hemolyze very quickly. Their osmotic and mechanical resistance are significantly reduced. The assumption is that the result is damage to the erythrocyte membrane, which becomes permeable, and spherocytes with significantly reduced resistance appear in the blood. Due to erythrocyte damage, hemoglobinemia and hemoglobinuria occur and, consequently, hemolytic anemia. However, unlike erythroptosis, significant hemolysis is activated only at high temperatures with a sharp increase in hemolysis at 41°C and above [73].
When comparing rats exposed to antemortem and postmortem to a water temperature of 44°C, there are significant differences in individual erythrocyte forms (dacryocytes and spherocytes) that agrees with the results of Lucijanović et al. [74]. The higher presence of spherocytes in the blood smear is most commonly associated with anemia and the immune type of hereditary spherocytosis [75]. Mortality can occur at body temperatures of 41°C and above where erythrocytes undergo hemolysis
Optimal erythrocyte functionality is closely related to ambient temperature. Using digital holography in the microscopic configuration, changes in erythrocyte membrane profile, mean corpuscular hemoglobin (MCH), and cell membrane fluctuations (CMF) of healthy erythrocytes under different temperatures were analyzed. Erythrocytes were exposed to an increase in temperature from 17–41°C for a period of less than 1 hour, after which holograms were recorded. Reconstruction of the obtained holograms showed that there are changes in the 3D profiles of erythrocytes. The amplitude of cell membrane fluctuation was correlated with the curvature curve of erythrocytes, and the changes observed in the indentation of erythrocytes were greater at higher temperatures. Regardless of shape changes, no changes in mean corpuscular hemoglobin concentration were observed with temperature variations [77]. In examining the effect of temperature on syringomycin E pores of lipid bilayer erythrocyte membranes, it was found that different temperatures and pore formation were only slightly affected, while inactivation was strongly influenced by elevated temperature [78]. The movement of erythrocytes through blood vessels at elevated temperature is an interesting and useful task in separating blood cells from the buffer in which they are suspended based on their size or density, and for further analysis. It has been found that increasing the temperature increases the cell-free area near the blood vessel wall due to the inertia of the cell flow after the narrowing of the blood vessel [79]. The movement of erythrocytes through the blood vessel at elevated temperature in this way (increased area without cells near the blood vessel wall), enabled the production of a hybrid microfluidic device that uses hydrodynamic forces to separate human plasma from blood cells. The blood separation device includes an inlet that is reduced by approximately 20 times to a small constrictor canal, which then opens toward a larger outlet canal with a small lateral plasma collection canal. When tested, the device separated plasma from whole blood using a wide range of flow rates, between 50 and 200 microl/min, at higher flow rates injected manually and at temperatures ranging from 23 to 50°C, resulting in an increase in the cell-free layer to 250%. It was also tested continuously using between 5% and 40% of erythrocytes in plasma and whole blood without channel blockage or cell hemolysis. The mean percentage of plasma collected after separation was 3.47% from a 1 ml sample. The change in temperature also affected the number of cells removed from the plasma, which was between 93.5 +/− 0.65% and 97.01 +/− 0.3% at 26.9–37°C, respectively, using the flow rate from 100 microl/min. Due to its ability to work in a wide range of conditions, it is envisaged that this device can be used in
During cardiopulmonary bypass surgery, perfusion at low temperatures (33–35°C) is recommended to avoid high-temperature cerebral hyperthermia during and after surgery. Also, high body temperatures (40–41°C) affect proteins in both blood plasma and those involved in building red blood cells. The ideal temperature for uncomplicated cardiac surgery is still an unresolved issue. Precisely because of this, the goal of scientific studies was to establish the effect of both low and high temperatures on blood flow and viscosity through blood vessels.
In a study examining the effects of low temperature on blood viscosity, the aim was to determine the effects of temperature, shear rate, hematocrit, and various volume expanders on blood viscosity in conditions that mimic deep hypothermia in cardiac surgery. Dilutions were prepared to 35%, 30%, 22.5%, and 15% hematocrit using plasma, 0.9% NaCl, 5% human albumin, and 6% hydroxyethyl starch. Viscosity was measured in the range of shear rates (4.5–450 s (−1)) and temperature (0–37°C). A parametric expression for predicting blood viscosity based on the studied variables was developed and its agreement with the measured values was examined. Viscosity was higher at low-shear rates and low temperatures, especially at temperatures below 15°C. Reducing hematocrit, especially to less than 22.5%, reduces viscosity. The theoretical model for blood viscosity predicts independent effects of temperature, shear rate, and hemodilution on viscosity over a wide range of physiological conditions, including thermal extremes of deep hypothermia in an experimental setting. Moderate hemodilution to hematocrit of 22% reduced blood viscosity by 30%–50% at a blood temperature of 15°C, indicating the potential to improve microcirculatory perfusion during deep hypothermia [81]. In a study investigating the effects of elevated temperature, it was investigated at which temperature the breakdown of blood plasma proteins occurs after 2 hours of heat exposure. As a result, blood plasma proteins were exposed to heat in the range of 37–50°C for 2 hours. Protein degradation was first established between 43 and 45°C exposure to heat [82]. The importance of the influence of temperature on the cellular elements of blood, its proteins, and thus on its viscosity, has conditioned a large number of scientific researches that have dealt with this problem. Blood viscosity measurements are widely used to monitor patients during and after surgery, which requires the development of a high-precision viscometer that uses a minimum amount of blood. The devices were also used to construct blood viscosity models based on temperature, shear rate, and anticoagulant concentration.
The model has an R-square value of 0.950. Finally, the protein content of the blood can be altered to simulate disease states. Simulated disease states were clearly detected by comparing the estimated viscosity values using the model and the measured values using the device, which demonstrated the applicability of the setting in anomaly detection and disease diagnosis [83]. Taking into account the influence of temperature on erythrocyte shape, blood plasma proteins, and blood viscosity, the optimal temperature for human life activity was determined, assuming that this parameter corresponds to the most intensive oxygen transport in arteries and the most intensive chemical reactions in cells. It was found that oxygen transport mainly depends on blood oxygen saturation and blood plasma viscosity, with both parameters depending on blood temperature and acid-base balance. Additional parameters that affect the volume of erythrocytes and, accordingly, the temperature of the most intensive oxygen transport are taken into account. It is assumed that erythrocytes affect the shear viscosity of the blood in the same way because the impurity particles change the viscosity of the suspension. It has been shown that the optimum temperature is 36.6°C under normal ambient conditions [84].
In this study, in antemortem groups, water temperature directly affected morphological forms of erythrocytes, while in postmortem groups, the length of body exposure to high temperature was more important than the direct temperature on the morphological characteristics of red blood cells. Hyperthermia affected the changes in the percentage of certain forms of poikilocytes, especially in the groups that had a longer exposure to high temperatures of the aquatic environment. Heart mass varied with the length of exposure and the duration of debilitating compensatory mechanisms.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1594,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"4",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82405",title:"Does Board Structure Matter in CSR Spending of Commercial Banks? 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Also, board meetings do not have any significant connection with CSR spending. For control variables, factors, such as firm size and leverage, tend to promote the CSR spending of commercial banks, while profitability has no such relationship. As for the sectoral distribution of CSR funds, we found that although the absolute amount of CSR expenditures by banks has increased substantially over the years, they are primarily limited to health, education, natural disasters, and humanitarian activities. These findings are expected to have significant policy implications.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Bishnu Kumar Adhikary and Ranjan Kumar Mitra"},{id:"82395",title:"Toward a Better Understanding of Green Human Resource Management’s Impact on Green Competitive Advantage: A Conceptual Model",slug:"toward-a-better-understanding-of-green-human-resource-management-s-impact-on-green-competitive-advan",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105528",abstract:"Today, green human resource management (GHRM) has become a key business strategy where HRM plays an active role in the ongoing green movement. Thus, the topic of GHRM is of growing interest among management scholars. 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Following a collaborative program on social activism, in which students from different sectors worked together via digital platforms and face-to-face encounters, the impact of the program and its pedagogical tools were examined. The program, called Living in a Multicultural Society, reflects the mosaic of different people and communities, living side by side yet separated by religion, culture, and language. Through this program, students who may not have otherwise met worked together to learn, research, and create. This study was conducted using the mixed-method approach, whereby the qualitative data were gathered via interviews, and the quantitative data were collected through questionnaires. The findings show that this project-based learning program led to significant encounters, understandings, and co-operations between different sectors, and to meaningful end-products relating to social activism. This study enhances the concept that significant pedagogical processes increase students’ motivation, in-depth learning, and outcomes.",book:{id:"11481",title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg"},signatures:"Anat Raviv"},{id:"81785",title:"Social Distancing Disbanding Learner Groupings: A Case on Language Development",slug:"social-distancing-disbanding-learner-groupings-a-case-on-language-development",totalDownloads:4,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104893",abstract:"Information sharing is a fundamental aspect in learning an unfamiliar, yet, an additional language, with specific regards to reading comprehension. Language teachers are faced with a task to monitor development, performance, and effectiveness in learner reading proficiencies. This chapter aims to measure if disbanding learner groupings as per the social distancing protocols brought about by COVID-19 restrictions has any impact on language enhancement. Henceforth, there are limited suggestions by literature in relation to disbanding learner groupings, yet improved reading proficiency is one of the crucial language aspects to be mastered for one to be a successful scholar. Nonetheless, this chapter aims to provide teaching strategies applied by English language teachers to necessitate transmitted learning in accordance with information sharing as learners are dependent on one another for language enhancement, thus leading to academic achievement.",book:{id:"10912",title:"Psychosocial, Educational, and Economic Impacts of COVID-19",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10912.jpg"},signatures:"Bulelwa Makena and Thandiswa Mpiti"},{id:"82248",title:"Sustainability and Excellence: Pillars for Business Survival",slug:"sustainability-and-excellence-pillars-for-business-survival",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105420",abstract:"The chapter presents an overview of management models starting with self-assessment (ISO 9004) and continuing with the European Foundation for Quality Management (EFQM) Excellence Model. Stakeholders’ analysis and their needs and expectations diagnostic are the baseline for building sustainable businesses. Sustainability and excellence are connected, and particular details of these approaches’ implementation are presented. Partnership development appears a key principle in the EFQM model. Based on companies’ strategies analysis, a simplified model may be proposed in order to support business survival in changing environments. Some guidelines to allow assessment of excellence fundamentals implementation are given. Based on experience and without seeing as exhaustive, a summary sheet of possible approaches and deployments is given. This may be used as a practical tool to connect actions implemented in organizations with the excellence model enablers, so as to facilitate assessment to explore the performance maturity level. The same sequence of Plan-Do-Check-Act relates approaches stated by ISO 26000 and sustainability initiatives. Embedding excellence and sustainability into business strategic objectives allows the management to define the framework for competitive continuous improvement.",book:{id:"11476",title:"Globalization and Sustainability - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Emerging Issues",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11476.jpg"},signatures:"Irina Severin, Maria Cristina Dijmarescu and Mihai Caramihai"},{id:"82269",title:"CSR Reporting and Blockchain Technology",slug:"csr-reporting-and-blockchain-technology",totalDownloads:2,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105512",abstract:"Blockchain technology is a public ledger that stores data in a chain of blocks which can radically improve the quality of our records from “records that might be trustworthy” to “records that trust is absolute”. This chapter explores one area that blockchain technology can radically transform but has not yet received significant attention. We evaluate the suitability of applying blockchain technology for corporate social responsibility (CSR) reporting. We demonstrate that blockchain technology is suitable in the context of CSR reporting since there is a strong need for an immutable common database shared among various stakeholders with potential trust issues. We also argue that blockchain technology does not completely eliminate existing trusted third parties such as governments, international organizations that provide CSR reporting standards, major CSR reporting assurance companies and major CSR infomediaries. In particular, blockchain technology can be used as a platform that integrates all traditional trusted third parties, transforms their functions, and reduces their drawbacks for advancing CSR reporting. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"
\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. The search for this knowledge grows in importance as rapid increases in population and economic development intensify humans’ stresses on ecosystems. Fortunately, rapid increases in multiple scientific areas are advancing our understanding of environmental sciences. Breakthroughs in computing, molecular biology, ecology, and sustainability science are enhancing our ability to utilize environmental sciences to address real-world problems.
\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.
\r\n\tSustainable development focuses on linking economic development with environmental protection and social development to ensure future prosperity for people and the planet. To tackle global challenges of development and environment, the United Nations General Assembly in 2015 adopted the 17 Sustainable Development Goals. SDGs emphasize that environmental sustainability should be strongly linked to socio-economic development, which should be decoupled from escalating resource use and environmental degradation for the purpose of reducing environmental stress, enhancing human welfare, and improving regional equity. Moreover, sustainable development seeks a balance between human development and decrease in ecological/environmental marginal benefits. Under the increasing stress of climate change, many environmental problems have emerged causing severe impacts at both global and local scales, driving ecosystem service reduction and biodiversity loss. Humanity’s relationship with resource exploitation and environment protection is a major global concern, as new threats to human and environmental security emerge in the Anthropocene. Currently, the world is facing significant challenges in environmental sustainability to protect global environments and to restore degraded ecosystems, while maintaining human development with regional equality. Thus, environmental sustainability with healthy natural ecosystems is critical to maintaining human prosperity in our warming planet.
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After that, he was a postdoc research fellow at the University of British Columbia in Canada to do research on large-scale stream experimental manipulation and watershed ecological survey in temperate rainforests of BC. He was a faculty member at the University of Hong Kong to run ecological research projects on aquatic insects, fishes, and newts in Tropical Asian streams. He also conducted research in streams, rivers, and caves in Texas, USA, to study the ecology of macroinvertebrates, big-claw river shrimp, fish, turtles, and bats. 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