Phenolic compounds appointed as EDCs and their related products.
\r\n\t
\r\n\t-production; advances in decline curve analysis, determining of optimal well spacing, parent-child wells relation, frat hit, stress shadowing, well interference,
\r\n\t-completion; determining optimal fracture spacing, optimal pad volume, optimal proppant volume, size and type, fiber optics,
\r\n\t-environmental aspects; produced water management, environmentally sustainable operation, footprint, and water consumption,
\r\n\t-improved oil recovery; Huff and Puff gas injection, surfactant injection, pilot tests, upscaling of lab-results to pilot-scale and field-scale,
\r\n\t-economics; integration of gas utilization, reducing operational costs, and water treatment.
Chemical sensors and biosensors are devices used in detection and quantification of an analyte by converting its concentration into an analytical signal. Advances in sensor technology have been important for the enrollment of sensing methods in several applications. Chemical sensor operates based on chemical principles, where the analytical signal emerges as a result of a chemical reaction between the analyte and a specific sensitive layer. Electrochemical sensors are able to detect H2, consisting of Pt, Pd, Au, Ag, and metal oxides, as reported by Korotcenkov et al. [1]. These capabilities are expected to be performed by biosensors as well, which are sensors that present a biological recognition element integrated with the transducer. The most popular biosensors are the enzymatic-based ones, successfully represented by the glucose biosensors. Biosensors have become an attractive analytical instrument for environmental monitoring because there still severe barriers through an effective, fast, and low-cost monitoring of harmful pollutants. Among the hazardous contaminants, phenolic compounds and pesticides represent potential human health and environmental risks. Regarding this, there are several studies reporting the use of horseradish peroxidase (HRP) for phenolic compounds and hydrogen peroxide detection [2]. Enzyme-based biosensors operate by indirectly detecting analytes, through detection of consumption or production of specific compounds in the biochemical reaction progress [3]. Phenolic pollutants are important due to their extensive use in several industrial products and their resulting negative environmental impacts. Also, enzymatic biosensors are applied to detect pesticides, particularly organophosphorus and carbamates. The operation of these devices, primarily designed to quantify those pesticides, is based on the inhibition of enzyme activity by these toxic compounds. Distinctly, the use of enzymes in biosensors for environmental monitoring brings considerable advantages, such as high selectivity and specificity, enhanced sensitivity, catalytic activity, and fast performance [4]. Nevertheless, they present some drawbacks associated with the high costs of obtainment and manipulation processes (extraction, isolation, and purification), denaturation during immobilization on transducer, and activity loss after a period (short shelf life) [4]. However, when enzymatic biosensors are compared to other sensing devices, such as immunosensors, they show superior characteristics because antibodies are more expensive, they do not present catalytic activity, and their binding ability depends on conditions of the assay, such as temperature and pH. Due to their advantages, the use of enzymatic biosensors to monitor environmental pollutants, as well as their applications in pharmacology and in pesticides monitoring will be discussed in this chapter.
Phenolic compounds are present in daily activities, since they are frequently found in vegetables, materials, waste, and water, not mentioning their relevance to several applications, due to their pharmacological and antioxidant properties [4]. Beyond the natural phenolic compounds, the synthetic ones are used in many daily products, such as fragrances, moisturizers, makeup, drugs, processed foods, and plastics, among others [5]. The manufacture and use of these products result in their accumulation in the environment, mostly in water.
Several phenolic compounds have been appointed as endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs), defined as “chemical substances or mixtures that interfere in any aspect of the hormonal action of living organisms” [6]. EDCs comprise many chemicals used in industrial activities, such as natural and synthetic hormones, pharmaceuticals, pesticides, and surfactants. Some examples of phenolic compounds appointed as EDCs and related products are shown in Table 1.
Product class | EDC examples |
---|---|
Drugs (human and animal uses) | Acetaminophen, tetracyclines, salbutamol, morphine |
Antimicrobials (food and cosmetics) | Chlorophenols, parabens, triclosan, propyl gallate, tert-butylhydroquinone |
Plastics | Bisphenol A (BPA), bisphenol F (BPF) |
Steroids | Estradiol, estrone, estriol |
Surfactants | Alkylphenols |
Phenolic compounds appointed as EDCs and their related products.
Phenolic pollutants are worldwide dispersed; they can be transported at long distances by water flows and show high persistence and penetrability [7]. Exposure of aquatic animal species, including fishes and amphibians, to EDCs has been related to be responsible for the observed feminization of many species, which in contrast, diminishes the population of these species. Studies of the exposure effects of humans to EDCs suggest a relation between the development of chronic diseases, such diabetes mellitus type II, obesity, thyroid dysfunction, poor quality sperm in males, and fertility issues [8]. Although, until now, there is no effective confirmation of the effect of EDC exposure to these metabolic anomalies, monitoring the environmental concentration of such substances had been the actual concern of the scientific community. Due to their low cost, selectivity, sensitivity, and fast response, biosensors have been considered a promising alternative to classic analytical methods, such chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance.
Due their complex structures, enzymes exhibit high selectivity to substrates, being able to detect one substance in multicomponent matrices. This behavior is exploited in analytical devices that present high reproducibility, sensibility, and selectivity, making use of low time-consuming analysis, low-cost equipment, and few or any sample preparation steps [9]. These advantages combined with electrochemical transducers result in cheaper portable and miniaturized biosensors, when compared to other types of transducers, such as optical and piezoelectric [10], which is a great feature for environmental applications.
The electrochemical enzymatic biosensors operate based on the electron transfer between the enzyme active site and the substrate, which is, then, transduced to generate an analytical signal. The electrochemical signal can be of three distinct types: (i) amperometric, in which the electrical current generated in the electron transfer process is measured [11], (ii) conductimetric, in which the change in the electrical conductivity of the environment is measured [12], and (iii) potentiometric, in which the electrochemical potential in the absence of measurable current is measured [13]. The amperometric biosensors are the most used ones, due to their high sensibility. These biosensors require the enzyme immobilization on the electrode surface. The most frequently used methods for enzyme immobilization are noncovalent adsorption, covalent bonding, entrapment, cross-linking, and affinity, and they are discussed below [14].
The noncovalent adsorption immobilization consists of enzyme adsorption on the electrode surface by physical interactions, such as van der Waals forces, hydrogen bonds, and electrostatic interactions [14]. In contrast, in the covalent bonding immobilization, the enzyme is anchored on the electrode surface by multiple covalent bonds between support functional groups and enzymes. The entrapment immobilization on the electrode is the enzyme inclusion in a framework, such as a polymer network, which can be organic or inorganic polymeric matrices. An additional method for enzyme immobilization that provides high stability is the application of a metal-organic framework (MOF) [15]; nevertheless, small cavities of MOFs usually result in decreased substrate affinity. Therefore, the enzymatic activity of the immobilized enzyme is decreased, when compared to native enzyme activity [15]. Cross-linking immobilization is an alternative, which requires the reaction between cross-linking protein molecules and a chemical cross-linker, usually glutaraldehyde [14]. The diversity of immobilization techniques allows the immobilization of enzymes in distinct materials, such as carbon nanostructures, (carbon black, nanotubes, and graphene and derivatives, among others), ceramic or polymeric matrices, and nanoparticles [16, 17]. It is noteworthy that the performance of an enzymatic biosensor is strongly dependent of the enzyme immobilization, which affects important parameters such as response time, stability, reproducibility, and sensitivity [18].
Another element that interferes in enzymatic biosensor response is active site location. Since proteins are molecules with a giant structure, the active center often can be closed in the molecule’s center, making it a very inaccessible site and less susceptible for electron transfer processes. In these cases, a mediator can be used to facilitate the electron transfer between the active site of the enzyme and the modified active electrode. There are several mediators for that, but some are specific for only one enzyme. Regarding Barsan et al. [19], several electrodes modified by functionalized carbon nanotubes act as an alternative to promote the increase of interaction between enzymes and modified electrodes. In addition, they improve the electron transfer rate, besides the fact that phenolic molecules can be used as mediators in these processes. On the other hand, it is also common to use organic dyes such as methylene blue, safranine O, and neutral red [20] and metal complexes, for example, ferrocene [21], as mediators.
Some enzymes that can be used in phenolic biosensing are peroxidases and polyphenol oxidases. Peroxidases (E.C. 1.11.1) comprise a large family of heme-containing enzymes that react with their substrates using peroxide of hydrogen (H2O2) as a proton acceptor, generating water (H2O) and the oxidized substrate. These enzyme families have been widely used in clinical diagnostics, biosensing, and degradation of pollutants in water [22]. Polyphenol oxidase (E.C. 1.10.3.1) is another enzyme family that includes laccases and tyrosinases, also known as blue-copper oxidases. Laccase enzymes catalyze the oxidation of many phenolic substrates (most commonly ortho- and para-diphenols) with the concomitant reduction of molecular oxygen to water [23], while tyrosinases are enzymes that catalyze two distinct oxygen-dependent subsequent reactions: the hydroxylation of monophenols to ortho-diphenols and the subsequent oxidation of ortho-diphenols to ortho-quinones [24]. These enzymes are very much used in biosensor construction, being often purchased at their active lyophilized form. In the cited cases, the common commercial peroxidases are extracted from Horseradish (Armoracia rusticana) roots, while laccases and tyrosinases are extracted from fungi [24].
Oxidoreductases are widely distributed in the plant kingdom, being found in many vegetables. The vegetable crude extracts represent a good alternative to replace manufactured enzymes in biotechnological applications. Commercial enzymes have the advantage of exhibiting high purity levels, which is responsible for a significant increase in selectivity of the analytical device; however, they are very expensive. The crude extracts as enzymatic sources show some advantages such as abundant and easy enzyme obtainment, low cost, and bioavailability of cofactors when necessary to enzymatic activity [25].
Usually, the crude extracts are prepared by processing vegetal tissues in a buffer solution, close to physiological pH, followed by separation of solids by centrifugation. Peroxidases and polyphenol oxidases are found in cell membranes of many vegetables and detergent solutions, such as sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), which are dissolved by phenolic compounds to perform the extraction and at the same time that activates the enzyme latent forms [26]. Phenolic compounds are common in vegetables and they react with peroxidases or polyphenol oxidases in the crude extract preparation. In order to preserve enzyme reactivity, phenol scavenger polymers, such as polyvinylpyrrolidones (PVPs) and their derivatives, are added to the extract. These polymers work as phenol adsorbents, interacting with phenolic compounds via hydrogen bonds, preventing these reactions [27].
Several examples of biosensors prepared with crude extracts as enzyme sources were reported [28, 29, 30]. Many studies aim to obtain less expensive biosensors with higher durability, since crude extracts mimic the natural enzyme environment. In addition, cofactors and coenzymes can be present in the crude extract. Martins et al. [28] reported the preparation of a biosensor using the crude extract of the pumpkin Cucubita pepo for paracetamol detection in aqueous solution, and Benjamin et al. [29] reported a biosensor prepared with a crude extract, which was a source of the polyphenol oxidase, anchored with cerium nanoparticles for rutin detection in solution, showing a limit of detection of the 0.16 μmol L−1.
The biosensor for phenolic compounds from drugs and industrial wastewater was proposed by Antunes et al. [30]. They used the crude extract from vegetal issue sources of polyphenol oxidase, which was anchored on the electrode surface, and the analysis was carried out in an electrochemical cell. The biosensor was evaluated for the quantitative determination of acetaminophen, acetylsalicylic acid, methyldopa, ascorbic acid, and phenolic compounds in a real sample. The limit of detection achieved was 7 μmol of phenol, which is compared to the limit of detection of 8 μmol for polyphenol oxidase for pharmacological samples.
There are several electrochemical biosensors to determine the pharmacological properties of phenolic compounds. Tyrosinase-based biosensor is widely used for detection of phenolic compounds [31, 32]. Its construction is based on the same approaches, such as electropolymerization and sol-gel and polymer entrapment [33]. Aranganathan et al. [33] reported the use of tyrosinase for detection of 3,4-dihydroxy-
Peroxidase-based biosensors are alternatives to determine phenol and phenolic compounds. The need for a peroxidase-based material that would be more stable in aqueous media, with lower costs, leads to the use of hemoglobin in the biosensor processing [31]. Highly sensitive hemoglobin-based biosensor was obtained by the modification of a carbon-paste electrode with hemoglobin and multiwalled carbon nanotubes. It was tested in the detection of methylparaben, present in real samples of urine and human serum. It reached a detection limit of 25 nM [37]. In their work, Haijan et al. [37] also showed that the immobilization of hemoglobin onto cuprous sulfide nanorods/Nafion® nanocomposite film is an effective way to construct a biosensor for polyphenol detection. In addition to the hemoglobin immobilization, the polyphenol detection was also enhanced.
Rodríguez-Delgado et al. [23] developed laccase-based biosensors that presented high sensitivity and reproducibility for phenolic compounds in situ and environmental monitoring. Several others pollutants, that can be easily dissolved in water and, therefore, are considered environmental pollutants, must be monitored. It is the case of several compounds used by the food and textile industries. With this regard, tartrazine, a synthetic organic food azo dye, has its use controlled due to its potential harmfulness to human health. The first work on the use of laccase-based biosensor for the determination of tartrazine dye was recently developed by Mazlan et al. [38], which is a biosensor consisting of laccase enzyme immobilized on methacrylate-acrylate microspheres and composites with gold nanoparticles [38].
The adverse use of drugs based on morphine and narcotics causes several illnesses around the world. The development of efficient methods to detect illicit drugs in biological samples, such as urine and blood plasma, is, therefore, much required. Gandhi et al. [39] reported the advances in the field of biosensors for narcotic drug detection. Among them, they showed that the double-stranded DNA (ds-DNA) immobilized onto mercaptobenzaldehyde-modified Au electrode is an advantageous and promising biosensor to morphine detection, since it presents the advantage of no need of additional steps of extraction, cleansing, and derivatization [40].
Regarding drug detections, yet Alvau et al. [41] proposed a biosensor for therapeutic drug monitoring based on acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and choline oxidase. These are promising biosensors because they also present the possibility of distinct application, for instance, AChE-based biosensors can find application in environmental monitoring, since they can be used for the electrochemical detection of organophosphate and carbamate pesticides. The global concern over pesticide level increase rose the last decade due to the high toxicity and bioaccumulation effects of such compounds, and the significant risks that they represent to the environment and human health. Therefore, monitoring pesticide residues by sensitive analytical techniques is indispensable. In view of the harmful effects associated with pesticides, a legislative framework has been established worldwide which defines rules for the approval of active chemicals and maximum residue levels (MRLs) allowed in food and water. The legal limits for the amount of pesticides allowed in food and drinking water are set by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) in USA and for the European Environment Agency in European Union (EEA). These government agencies establish the appropriate pesticides levels, according to the type of crops and substance. For instance, the pesticide methomyl has the maximum tolerance established at 2.0 ppm (parts per million) in lemon in USA, whereas EEA established a MRL lower than 0.01 ppm for the same pesticide in lemon. However, in the case of the pesticide chlorpyrifos in apples, both agencies authorize the same MRL in 0.01 ppm for apples. Commonly, the MRLs are in the range of ppm to ppb (parts per billion); nevertheless, there are some pesticides that are forbidden and are illegally used. In contrast, in Brazil, the legislation regarding the use of pesticides in crops as well as the detection limit in food and water is much more permissive. For instance, it allows a level of glyphosate in water up to 5000 times greater than that allowed in the European Union. Over the years, several biomolecules have been used as a biorecognition element in biosensors for pesticide detection, such as cells, antibodies, aptamers, and enzymes. In this section, we will focus on enzymatic biosensors for organophosphate (OP) and carbamate quantification based on electrochemical transducer. These devices use acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), in addition to alkaline phosphatase (ALP) and organophosphorus hydrolase (OPH) for OP detection, specifically. AChE-based biosensors are among the most popular electrochemical sensing platforms for the aforementioned types of pesticides [42]. AChE is susceptible to be inhibited by OPs as well as carbamate pesticides. The working mechanism of an electrochemical AChE-based biosensor is based on inhibitory effects. In the absence of OPs and carbamates (analytes), the substrate acetylthiocholine is converted into thiocholine and acetate. Afterwards, thiocholine is oxidized by the applied potential. When the analyte is present in the solution, AChE has its activity decreased by the pesticide inhibition. Consequently, the conversion of acetylthiocholine is partial or totally reduced, and the pesticides are indirectly detected [43]. Figure 1 shows the working principle of AChE biosensor.
Scheme of the general reaction mechanism of an electrochemical biosensor based on AchE.
Selectivity is the most significant hallmark of enzymatic biosensors. In the case of AChE-based biosensors, it is only possible to detect an assortment of pesticides in a complex matrix, and no qualitative or quantitative information is obtained for a single inhibitor. Besides, AChE can be inhibited by heavy metals, drugs, and nerve agents. Therefore, the inhibition strategy to detect pesticides towards AChE implies in poor selectivity [44]. An important consideration is that AChE inhibition by pesticides may diverge according to the source of enzyme. Studies have demonstrated that AChE extracted from electric eel exhibited greater sensitivity in comparison to those from bovine and human erythrocytes [45]. On the other hand, genetically modified AChE from Drosophila melanogaster revealed superior results [45]. In order to address these limitations, numerous approaches have been developed, involving nanomaterial technologies to improve the transducer performance in addition to genetic engineering [46].
The design of novel AChE-based biosensors for pesticide detection concerns the application of nanomaterials offering transducing platforms with outstanding electrochemical behavior. The advantages provided by nanomaterials in electrochemical sensing are associated with large surface-to-volume ratio, controlled morphology, electrocatalytic properties, immobilization of biomolecules, and possibilities of system miniaturization [47].
Currently, the employment of screen printed electrodes (SPEs) has boosted the scenario of AChE-based biosensors. Those electrodes promote the system miniaturization addressing the sample volume issues, combining cost effectiveness and simple manipulation. Therefore, several strategies of modification have been applied to achieve high sensitivity and low limit of detection. A smart AChE biosensor approach used homemade SPE modified with single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWCNT) derivatized with cobalt phthalocyanine to detect thiocholine at a lower overpotential in comparison to bare SPE and SPE modified with nonfunctionalized SWCNT in only 80 μL of sample [48]. Remarkably, the performance of an AChE-based biosensor was improved due to electrode modification with N-carbamoylmaleimide-functionalized carbon dots (N-MAL-CDs) as a nanostabilizer [49]. The initial electrochemical signals of thiocholine were obtained without signal loss, as a result of the Michael addition reaction functionalizing CDs with N-MAL. Then, N-MAL-CDs can react with thiol group from thiocholine, forming a thiol containing compound. The aforementioned compound cannot be easily oxidized during the detection process, avoiding the signal loss. For the fabrication of AChE/N-MAL-CDs/SPE biosensor, they used a commercial SPE in which all electrochemical measurements were performed in a droplet of 50 μL. One significant breakthrough offered by SPE is the simultaneous analysis performed by an array of electrodes [50]. The multiplexed analysis integrated into an automated system enables the rapid detection of OP pesticides being convenient for commercial and routine applications. Hence, an array with 12 SPEs deposited in sequence side by side on a ceramic substrate in which the working electrode was printed with a carbon ink containing cobalt phthalocyanine and Ag/AgCl/KClsat was used as reference/counter electrode. By means of using six types of recombinant AChE, it was possible to acquire qualitative and quantitative information through inhibition assay since the enzyme becomes selective among the OP pesticides, such as dichlorvos, malaoxon, chlorpyrifos-oxon, chlorpyrifos-methyl-oxon, chlorfenvinphos, and pirimiphos-methyl-oxon.
Despite all exceptional SPE properties, they present certain drawbacks, such as the dissolution of conductive and insulating inks due to use of organic solvents, lack of reproducibility, and need of pretreatment procedure.
The continuous progress in biosensing area leads to the development of paper-based analytical devices (PADs) with electrochemical detection. The PADs have emerged as a powerful analytical tool integrating the convenience of SPEs, i.e., portability, simplicity with easy manufacturing of paper, availability, and reduced cost. Furthermore, the PADs provide singular advantages since they can be scalable manufactured from renewable sources, biocompatibility, biodegradable, and low cost. A pioneering research involving a paper-based amperometric sensor for AChE determination was based on screen printed graphene electrodes fabricated by a wax printing method to obtain the detection area. The approach was applied for blood sample analysis, but it has potential to be used for pesticide detection.
Numerous immobilization strategies and fabrication methods have brought new perspectives to AChE-based biosensors. The investigations have focused on enzyme stability, reproducibility, miniaturization, and mass production [51]. The usage of smartphones in biosensing has played new horizons in environmental monitoring; however, it remains a challenge [52]. The electrochemical biosensors on smartphone use portable electrical detectors for amperometric, potentiometric, and impedimetric measurements, but environmental analyses are still scarce. Although great progress has been made with wireless biosensors, there is a lack of applications in pesticide detection.
In this chapter, we presented the state of the art of biosensors to detect phenolic compounds, with environmental and pharmacological applications. Monitoring the negative environmental impacts of phenolic compounds uses has attracted researchers’ attention since these compounds are widely applied in several industrial sectors. Among the biosensors developed for environmental monitoring, enzymatic ones are the most prominent used for phenolic compound detection. By combining enzymes with electrochemical transducers, cheaper devices had been developed, which is a great advantage to environmental analytical methods. The immobilization of enzymes on the electrode surface consists in physical and chemicals interactions. The location of actives sites is important to biosensor response; nevertheless, mediators can be used to transpose this barrier and facilitate the electronic transfer needed for the detection process. Tyrosinase-based biosensor is the most common biosensor for phenolic compound detection, which is a precursor for drugs for the treatment of Parkinson’s disease, as morphine-based drugs. Also, acetylcholinesterase-based biosensors are widely employed because they present high efficiency to detect organophosphate and carbamate compounds, which are used as pesticides. The design of novel AChE-based biosensors for pesticide detection concerns the application of nanomaterials offering transducing platforms with outstanding electrochemical behavior. The employment of screen printed electrodes promotes the system miniaturization, which is a new perspective to electrochemical biosensor application.
The authors thank Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico (CNPq), grant number 554569/ 2010-8, and Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) for financial support and scholarships, grant number 88882.306480/2018-01.
The authors state that there is no conflict of interest associated with this work.
Estimating risk requires sufficient knowledge of the frequency with which mycotoxins occur and the levels that can be expected. However, sufficiently detailed information on the actual levels of contamination in fish feeds is often not available. In addition, there is a high degree of variability between mycotoxins due to differences in fungal distribution and climatic conditions worldwide. Nevertheless, the following sections will summarize our current knowledge of mycotoxin occurrence in feed ingredients, fish feeds, and fish tissues in order to compile sufficient evidence to prove that some mycotoxins pose a considerable risk for consumers due to their high prevalence, incidence, toxicity, and/or stability as they pass into the food chain.
Fish production in aquaculture has increased rapidly over the previous decades. Consequently, increasing numbers of fish have to be fed in aquaculture, which requires an increasing amount of fish feed. Since the global availability of fishmeal, which is a major ingredient in fish feed, is limited, cereals are common alternatives. Based on recent estimations, it has been determined that fishmeal is still a major component in fish feed in Europe [1], despite the fact that its percentage in commercial feeds has decreased over the last decades. The disadvantage of plant-based ingredients is that there is a higher probability of them being contaminated with mycotoxins. The second most prominent feed ingredient in aquaculture feeds in Europe is wheat flour [1], followed by soybean products. Other feed ingredients are often present in fish feeds at average percentages of less than 10%, and these ingredients may also contain considerable amounts of mycotoxins. One example of such a problematic feed ingredient may be distillers’ grain with solubles (DDGS) [1, 2].
The most important mycotoxins in feed ingredients in terms of risk to fish and consumers, since they are either known to be toxic and/or occur at high concentrations, include aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), deoxynivalenol (DON), nivalenol (NIV), zearalenone (ZEN), ochratoxin A (OTA), T-2 toxin (T2), fumonisin B1 (FB1), moniliformin (MON), enniatins (ENNs), and beauvericin (BEA). Nevertheless, there are a number of reasons why mycotoxin contamination levels in feed ingredients can vary widely, for example, different fungal species or strains often grow on specific feed ingredients. Especially, high OTA levels have been found in corn (up to 1850 μg/kg, [3]), followed by wheat (up to 1024 μg/kg, [4]), soybean, and sunflower products (up to 350 and 240 μg/kg, respectively, [3]). Furthermore, Fusarium mycotoxins can contaminate peas and soybeans [5], and FB1 can be found in significant amounts in corn [6].
The occurrence of mycotoxins in feed ingredients is also known to vary as a result of climate effects and differences in the distribution of various fungal species and strains that have differing abilities to form toxins [7, 8, 9]. The problem with mycotoxin contamination in feed ingredients is thought to have increased as a result of climate changes and the shipping of commodities on a global scale, which has led to the world-wide distribution of many fungal species, often resulting in higher contamination in cereals [9, 10, 11]. However, the presence of mycotoxins in feed ingredients does not mean that these substances will also be present in compounded animal feeds, since a number of mycotoxins have been reported to possess different degrees of stability when thermally processed and extruded [12]. Furthermore, the processing of feed ingredients, which includes cleaning, sorting, milling, and the application of thermal processes, also influences the mycotoxin load in the final products [13, 14, 15, 16]. Nevertheless, the extent of the reduction in mycotoxin contamination during these procedures differs widely for each mycotoxin [15, 17, 18, 19, 20]. Generally, mycotoxins that are most stable and widely distributed and, in most cases, occur at high concentrations in certain feed ingredients are problematic for fish production. Two mycotoxins that are already problematic at relatively low concentrations in fish feeds and will be reviewed in the section on fish toxicity are AFB1 and OTA due to their high toxicity.
The most prominent member of the fumonisins in naturally contaminated animal feeds is FB1 [21], which often occurs at high concentrations in feed ingredients (e.g., [22, 23]). However, since fumonisins are relatively unstable and easily affected by feed production processes, they are assumed to be less problematic than other mycotoxins. Nonetheless, feed processing may yield mycotoxin metabolites, in some cases resulting in increased toxicity [24].
ZEN is a mycotoxin that commonly occurs after crops have been infected have been infected with Fusarium species in the field, but this toxin can also develop during the storage of the cereals [25, 26]. ZEN contamination appears to be common in commercial fish feeds [27, 28], which raises concerns about the effects of chronic exposure to this mycotoxin, since besides exhibiting toxic characteristics, it is also a potent natural estrogen [29].
The trichothecenes include some very important mycotoxins, such as T-2 toxin, DON, and NIV. Recent research has focused on DON since it is known for its high prevalence and incidence in feed ingredients and animal feeds in Europe [30]. However, Fusarium fungi are also known to produce some less commonly described mycotoxins, known as emerging mycotoxins, which include BEA, ENNs, and MON [31, 32]. Although ENNs and BEA have been reported to be extremely prevalent in cereals [33], there has not been enough detailed research into their presence in feed components, compounded animal feeds, or farmed animals that have been exposed to these mycotoxins. The other important Fusarium-related mycotoxin is MON. Up to 1.2 mg/kg MON has been detected in feeds for higher vertebrates [34], whereas the levels present in commercial fish feeds remain unknown.
As mentioned above, mycotoxin contamination often occurs on crop fields, but improper storage of feed ingredients and feeds also contributes to the final toxin levels in fish diets. Toxin production depends on the fungi’s ability to produce certain chemical compounds as well as environmental factors, such as physical, chemical, and biological factors [35]. Accordingly, similar to the aflatoxins, the occurrence of OTA seems to be connected to temperature and humidity in the environment during growth and harvesting of crops, and the storage of feed ingredients and feeds. However, for most investigated fish feeds, low OTA levels have been observed [28]. In contrast, recent research has shown that inappropriate storage over a period of 6 weeks of a commercial feed for salmonids can lead to the development of considerable amounts of OTA (up to 400 μg/kg feed, unpublished results, C. Pietsch).
Although dietary contamination is the main route of exposure for fish in aquaculture, mycotoxins may also be introduced to aquatic environments directly. For example, levels of 90 μg/L OTA have been reported in waste water originating from wine production. Furthermore, ZEN can be found in surface waters and in waste-water treatment plants at ng/L levels, which may be environmentally relevant due to the estrogenic effects of this mycotoxin [36, 37, 38]. Thus, the stability of mycotoxins in water may also have an effect on relevant exposure concentrations in aquatic environments [39].
When data on contamination levels and incidence in common feed ingredients are compiled, there may be significant uncertainties due to the fact that these studies use different methodologies for mycotoxin detection and quantification. Another problem when compiling data from scientific studies is that several studies have not reported accuracy and reliability parameters for their methods, meaning the measured toxin values probably contain uncertainties, since the sample preparation and detection procedures differed. Furthermore, actual mycotoxin concentrations in feed components, animal feeds, and animal tissues are often underestimated, since matrix effects and the problems of detecting masked mycotoxins, which can often not be detected by routine measurement techniques. Since research is continuously improving detection methods for mycotoxins, an increased number of comparative studies addressing the advantages and disadvantages of detection methods for more commonly and emerging mycotoxins, such as can be found in the study by Pascale [40], should be conducted.
Another problem with estimating actual contamination levels in feeds and animal tissues is that metabolites of even commonly occurring mycotoxins are often not analyzed together with their parent compound, although metabolites may occur in significant amounts as has been shown for DON [41]. Furthermore, toxin levels in the control diets used in experimental fish studies have often been reported to contain no mycotoxins, despite the fact that the necessary toxin analyses were rarely performed to provide proof for this assumption. This may lead to an underestimation of the actual toxin levels in both control diets and experimental diets if only a restricted number of mycotoxins are measured. As a result, actual mycotoxin exposure data for fish contain various uncertainties. Therefore, more complete feed contamination databases are required so that risk assessments can be improved.
If the risk to humans by consuming fish products is to be calculated, the first step would be to estimate the uptake and retention of mycotoxins in different fish species and in different parts of the fish (Figure 1). Therefore, the following sections will summarize what is known about chemical characteristics in fish bodies and the toxicity in the animals resulting from the most important mycotoxins.
Exposure routes and factors influencing mycotoxin retention in fish.
DON has a mean lowest-observable effect level (LOEL) in fish of 3541 ± 776 μg/kg (±SEM; Figure 2), whereas the contamination levels in commercial fish feeds range from 0 to 825 μg/kg [27, 28, 41]. Similar to findings in chickens, DON appears to be excreted rapidly by carp (Cyprinus carpio), leaving no relevant residues in the edible parts [42, 43]. FB1 metabolization also occurs quickly in chicken and the remaining values in tissues stay low. However, exact information on the kinetics or biotransformation of fumonisins in fish is not available [44, 45]. Due to this and the large differences in the toxicity of fumonisins in fish (Figure 2), no exact risk can be calculated for farmed fish [1]. Typical disorders in higher vertebrates resulting from FB1 exposure have often been linked to the disruption of the sphingolipid metabolism [46], and similar effects have also been observed in fish [47]. Nevertheless, a low potential risk has been assumed for most vertebrates, with the exception of pigs [45]. Despite the fact that the guidance values for fumonisins in complete fish feeds have been set by the European Commission and the US to 10 mg/kg based, some countries have chosen to set different guidance levels [48, 49]. Although FB1 can affect fish at low concentrations, for example in carp (exposed to 500 μg/kg [50, 51]), the concentration range of the lowest-observable effects in fish is relatively broad, with a mean range of 26,480 ± 7124 μg/kg (±SEM; Figure 2), a level that is not achieved for either actual or estimated natural contamination of fish feeds [1, 52].
Variability in mycotoxin toxicity for fish, as shown by the differences in the lowest-observable effect levels (LOEL) in different fish species. References: 92 studies for AFB1 [63, 64, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74, 75, 76, 77, 78, 79, 80, 81, 82, 83, 84, 85, 86, 87, 88, 89, 90, 91, 92, 93, 94, 95, 96, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101, 102, 103, 104, 105, 106, 107, 108, 109, 110, 111, 112, 113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118, 119, 120, 121, 122, 123, 124, 125, 126, 127, 128, 129, 130, 131, 132, 133, 134, 135, 136, 137, 138, 139, 140, 141, 142, 143, 144, 145, 146, 147, 148, 149] comprising 21 different fish species, 7 studies for OTA [56, 57, 58, 94, 150, 151, 152] comprising 5 fish species, 15 studies for FB1 [47, 50, 51, 153, 154, 155, 156, 157, 158, 159, 160, 161, 162, 163, 164, 165] reporting levels for 7 fish species, 12 studies for DON [42, 144, 166, 167, 168, 169, 170, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175] yielding information for 5 different fish species, 10 studies for ZEN [144, 176, 177, 178, 179, 180, 181, 182, 183, 184] reporting LOEL for 5 different species, 10 studies [185, 186, 187, 188, 189, 190, 191, 192, 193] reporting effects of different levels of T-2 toxins on 4 different fish species, and 3 studies [162, 194, 195] for 3 different species exposed to MON.
Previous studies have reported lethal concentrations of OTA that lead to 50% mortality (LC50) ranging from 2 to 58 mg/kg body weight in various higher vertebrate species [53, 54]. Fish species appear to be particularly sensitive to OTA, and since disposition appears to mainly take place in the kidneys of fish and not in muscles [55], this not only affects its toxicity, but is also relevant for food safety. High sensitivity to OTA in fish has been demonstrated in several studies. The LC50 value for OTA in adult seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) was found to be 280 μg/kg body weight [56], 360 μg/l for zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos [57], and 5.53 mg/kg body weight in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) [58]. However, the route of exposure may play a role when comparing these different studies. Furthermore, the absorption efficiency in the gut also determines the bioavailability of the mycotoxins in fish, as has been demonstrated for oral exposure to OTA in common carp [59]. If the LOEL for exposure of fish to OTA are summarized (Figure 2), the mean range is 1077 ± 566 μg/kg (±SEM), which indicates that the currently recommended guidance value for OTA in cereals and cereal products intended for animal feed of 250 μg/kg does not protect fish from potential damage [48]. This is in stark contrast to the guidance level of 20 μg/kg that exists in some non-EU countries [49].
ZEN has a mean toxicity value of 2389 ± 1285 μg/kg (±SEM), based on the LOEL calculations for five different fish species shown in Figure 2. Although the number of studies reporting effects of ZEN in fish is very limited, they may indicate that fish are more sensitive to water-borne ZEN than to dietary ZEN, which is why the mean LOEL level, including both, dietary and water-borne exposure for fish, shows quite a high standard error of the mean. ZEN concentrations above the LOEL levels in water samples have not been reported for aquatic environments [36, 37, 38]. Although the actual ZEN contamination of commercial fish feeds appears not to exceed the current guidance level for this mycotoxin in cereals and cereal products in the EU of 2000 μg/kg [27, 48], dietary exposure to this mycotoxin may still do harm to farmed fish. The guidance values in other countries that recommend maximum ZEN levels of 20–1000 μg/kg have a higher probability of protecting fish from damage [49], since the ZEN levels in fish feeds often do not exceed concentrations of 200 μg/kg [27, 60]. Nevertheless, more exact reports on ZEN toxicity in fish and the actual contamination levels in commercial fish feeds are needed to support these assumptions.
T-2 toxin has a mean toxicity of 3201 ± 1236 μg/kg (±SEM) in fish, based on the currently available LOEL for different fish species (Figure 2). This level is considerably higher than the actual contamination level found in salmonid fish feed in South America [28], and much lower than the guidance levels of 250 mg/kg for T-2 toxin set by the European Commission for cereal products in compound feeds [61] and individual recommendations in other countries (max. 80–100 mg/kg) for T-2 toxin in complete feed and all grains [49]. From these data, it can be assumed that fish do not regularly suffer from T-2 toxicity, and there have been no reports of accumulation of this mycotoxin in edible parts of the fish.
The situation for AFB1 is, however, quite different. The mean LOEL for fish has been calculated to be 1248 ± 275 μg/kg (±SEM) (Figure 2). However, AFB1 appears to be readily absorbed by the intestine [62] and a LOEL of less than 1 μg/kg has been observed in Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) and rainbow trout [63, 64], which shows that this mycotoxin can be a problem for farmed fish. In commercial fish feeds, AFB1 levels are commonly less than 10 μg/kg [65, 66], but may be considerably higher in some cases [67, 68, 69]. Critical levels for fish have been estimated to be a mean of 4.30 μg/kg in commercial feeds [1], which indicates that farmed fish are exposed to a risk from AFB1 intoxication.
Less information is available on the toxicity of ENNs and BEA in fish, but from initial experiments it can be assumed that at least some ENN toxins have toxic effects on zebrafish embryos (unpublished results, C. Pietsch). However, how relevant this toxicity is in comparison to the actual ENN contamination in commercial feeds remains unclear. Similar to other emerging mycotoxins, these substances have already been detected in the plasma of pigs after exposure to ENNs [196], indicating that the uptake of these substances occurs in vertebrates. In addition, it has been shown that food processing affects the presence on ENNs and BEA in bread [197, 198], and thermal processes, in particular, also appear to influence the ENN content in fish tissue [199]. Finally, the presence of high ENN and BEA levels in feed ingredients appears to overestimate the actual risk of fish feed contamination and the potential effects on farmed fish [1]. Thus, more research is needed on the toxicology and the biotransformation of ENNs and BEA in vertebrates.
An issue that also makes mycotoxin research difficult is the fact that we do not know enough about mycotoxin mixtures and their effects. Natural contamination of feed ingredients leads to the occurrence of several mycotoxins at the same time and their interactions remain mostly unknown.
Exposure assessments are often based on a deterministic approach, which obtains the estimated daily intake (EDI) levels by assuming a human body weight of 60 kg for an adult. The EDI of each mycotoxin is commonly calculated as μg/kg body weight per day for each mycotoxin. Accordingly, the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee and Food Additives and Scientific Committee on Food have established a tolerable weekly intake (TWI) levels for humans for OTA of 120 ng/kg body weight and tolerable daily intake (TDI) levels of 250 ng/kg body weight for ZEN, 100 ng/kg body weight for T-2 and HT-2 toxins together, and 1000 ng/kg body weight for DON [200, 201]. For aflatoxins, no tolerable intake levels have been set since these toxins are listed as human carcinogens. The tolerable intake levels should be compared to the actual contamination levels found in fish products. However, the frequency of mycotoxin occurrence in fish products has not been investigated in detail. Recent studies indicate that less than 10% of fish and meat food samples are contaminated with mycotoxins, with DON contamination occurring in 17% of the 29 fish samples [202]. In addition, the accuracy of the reports also strongly depends on the accuracy and the number of samples that were analyzed.
Even if fish are exposed to feed-borne mycotoxins, and the resulting effects are not great, possible retention of these toxins in edible parts of the fish may pose a risk for human consumption. A risk to humans is assumed when the toxin concentrations in food exceed the safety limits. For AFB1, this level has been set at 2 μg/kg by the European Union for food designated for human consumption [49]. However, the exact risk to humans is difficult to predict, since the behavior of the chemicals in the fish strongly depends on the chemical structures of the mycotoxins. In addition, toxin concentration in the feeds and duration of exposure also play an important role, therefore different studies may lead to different results. One example is the absence of accumulation of aflatoxin in the musculature of common carp in the study by Svobodova and Piskac [136], which contradicts the findings of Akter et al. [91]. The AFB1 content in the hepatopancreas of gibel carp (Carassius auratus gibelio) was found to be considerably higher than in their muscle tissues (2.4–11.8 μg/kg) after 12 weeks of oral exposure [104]. An extrahepatic deposition of AFB1 has also been confirmed in trout [62, 203], but the detection of this toxin in kidneys is more relevant from a toxicological point of view than from a food safety point of view. The study by Selim et al. [121] showed that exposure to 200 μg/kg AFB1 for 2 weeks was sufficient to lead to detectable toxin residues in fish musculature (>20 μg/kg AFB1), which increased to levels of more than 90 μg/kg AFB1 after 10 weeks of exposure. Furthermore, feeding European seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax L.) with 18 μg/kg body weight AFB1 resulted in toxin concentrations of 2.5 μg/kg AFB1 in the fish musculature after 28 days of feeding, and even higher levels of 4.25 μg/kg AFB1 after 42 days of exposure [94]. Compared to this, oral exposure of lambari fish (Astyanax altiparanae) to AFB1 increased the body residues after feeding for at least 90 days [204]. In addition, this study showed that feeding an AFB1 concentration of 50 μg/kg feed for 120 days also resulted in aflatoxin accumulation in muscle and liver tissues that were as high as in the feed. In other fish species, residues exceeding the safety limit were detected in the liver but not in the fish musculature [89, 104]. From these studies, it can be concluded that aflatoxin contamination can be a threat to humans after fish have been fed AFB1 contaminated diets for certain duration. These values show that consuming fish can considerably add to the toxicological burden that can already be expected from consuming cereals, for which the daily intake through consumption of cereal-based products has been reported to reach levels of up to 7.9 ng/kg body weight [205] and 3 ng/kg body weight if peanuts are consumed [206]. An interesting finding was described in a study using walleye (Sander vitreus) which had been exposed to considerable amounts of AFB1 that had accumulated in their edible parts. The accumulation of AFB1 in the musculature may be reversible by feeding mycotoxin-free diets for 2 weeks [107], which also confirms similar findings in other fish species [104].
Fish muscle did not contain OTA in a Polish study [207]. In seabass (Dicentrarchus labrax) and sea bream (Sparus aurata) muscles, only low OTA levels have been detected [208]. It has already been reported that contaminated cereals and feed ingredients lead to the introduction of OTA into the food chain, posing a risk for humans [209]. Consuming fish appears to contribute to the presence of OTA in the food chain and also adds to the detectable levels of OTA in humans [2]. However, compared to the daily intake through direct consumption of cereal-based products that has been reported to be up to 22.2 ng/kg body weight for OTA [205], the amount that fish products may contribute to the toxicological burden appears to be lower. Nevertheless, this adds to the earlier assumption that naturally contaminated feeds also lead to the introduction of this mycotoxin into the food chain which may pose a risk to human consumers [210, 211]. The knowledge presented here on the presence and toxicity of this toxin in fish supports this assumption. The potential risk due to OTA exposure is probably caused by the fact that OTA is even more stable in the environment than aflatoxins [212, 213].
In contrast, the presence of fumonisins in fish appears not to be relevant for consumers, since they rarely occur in farmed fish (e.g., in a survey in Switzerland in only one fillet sample containing less than 0.06 μg/kg FB1 + FB2, personal communication C. Pietsch). In addition, it was not possible to identify a high risk to humans as a result of consuming fish products contaminated with other mycotoxins, such as ZEN and DON, since no relevant toxin levels could be detected in the musculature of DON- or ZEN-treated rainbow trout and common carp [42, 214, 215]. Interestingly, ZEN exposure did result in retention in the ovaries of farmed trout [184]. Furthermore, the study by Nácher-Mestre et al. [216] found no detectable mycotoxin levels in gilthead sea bream or Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) after 8 months of dietary exposure to DON levels of up to 79.2 μg/kg and fumonisins at levels of up to 754 μg/kg. A study into fish as food reported mean DON levels of 1.19 μg/kg [202]; and since DON was the major mycotoxin in the fish samples analyzed in this study, it was also assumed to be the main contributor to the daily human mycotoxin exposure. ZEN retention in human breast milk has already been related to consuming meat, fish, dry fruits, and spices [217]. However, compared to the presence of Fusarium toxins in cereals, it can still be assumed, based on the fact that rapid metabolization takes place in fish, that the retention of DON and ZEN in fish is low. Therefore, there can be no assumption of a higher risk to humans of consuming these mycotoxins in fish compared to the risk of exceeding the toxicological reference values by consuming cereal products directly [202, 206, 218].
In the 29 fish samples in the study by Carballo et al. [202], mean ENN A concentrations of 0.89 μg/kg were observed. ENNs were also detected in 20% of the salmon flesh samples and 10% of rainbow trout samples in the study by Tolosa et al. [199], but further processing including cooking or smoking appears to mitigate the toxin content [219]. In contrast, fish from Egypt contained predominant xerophilic molds with Aspergillus species being the major ones (58.2%), followed by Penicillium species (32.7%) in salted products and also in smoke-cured bonga shad and African catfish (Ethmalosa fimbriata and Clarias gariepinus) [220, 221]. However, a study in Kenya only showed aflatoxins in dried fish, and not in fresh ones [222]. Smoked-dried fish from Nigeria may also contain potential mycotoxin producing fungi and aflatoxins [223, 224, 225, 226]. Similar results from Egyptian smoked fish confirmed that the moisture and salt concentrations that occur during food processing influence the OTA and AFB1 contents in the fish products, possibly exceeding the permissible limits for both mycotoxins [227].
Mycotoxins can also occur in sun-dried fish products, which are typically found in tropical and subtropical regions where high temperatures and humidity considerably influence fungal growth and toxin formation. Accordingly, samples of dried seafood contained high levels of ZEN and OTA (317.3 and 1.9 μg/kg, respectively). Furthermore, low amounts of AFB2 (1.2 μg/kg) were also observed in the muscle of crucian carp (Carassius carassius), even after storage for 3 months at room temperature [228], emphasizing the high stability of aflatoxins.
Taken together, mycotoxin contamination in feed ingredients and fish feeds is an increasing problem that will have to be addressed by crop farmers, feed producers, and researchers. One step that could be taken is to prevent heavily contaminated raw materials being introduced into the feed production processes, which would lower potential mycotoxin contamination levels. Nevertheless, other mycotoxins are still formed during storage, and improved guidelines and recommendations for storage of feed ingredients and animal feeds should be published. Since mycotoxins are present in animal feeds, in some cases at toxicological relevant levels, this may cause health problems in fish and limit production in aquaculture. More data on the presence of mycotoxins in fish would allow better risk assessments for human consumers to be carried out. Furthermore, the data sets for some mycotoxins indicate that more strict guidance levels are needed for fish feeds to protect farm animals from harm and prevent accumulation of potentially problematic mycotoxins such as AFB1 and OTA in the food chain.
Darren Mace’s (ZHAW, Wädenswil, Switzerland) work on checking the language in the entire manuscript is highly appreciated.
The author declares that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this chapter.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
",metaTitle:"Publishing Process Steps and Descriptions",metaDescription:"This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with InTechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Publishing Process Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"page/publishing-process-steps",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"1. SEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\\n\\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\\n\\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\\n\\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\\n\\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\\n\\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\\n\\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\\n\\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\\n\\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\\n\\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\\n\\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\\n\\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\\n\\nYour manuscript will be sent to SPi Global, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\\n\\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\\n\\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\\n\\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
\\n\\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\\n\\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\\n\\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\\n\\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\\n\\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'1. SEND YOUR PROPOSAL
\n\nPlease complete the publishing proposal form. The completed form should serve as an overview of your future Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book. Once submitted, your publishing proposal will be sent for evaluation, and a notice of acceptance or rejection will be sent within 10 to 30 working days from the date of submission.
\n\n2. SUBMIT YOUR MANUSCRIPT
\n\nAfter approval, you will proceed in submitting your full-length manuscript. 50-130 pages for compacts, 130-500 for Monographs & Edited Books.Your full-length manuscript must follow IntechOpen's Author Guidelines and comply with our publishing rules. Once the manuscript is submitted, but before it is forwarded for peer review, it will be screened for plagiarism.
\n\n3. PEER REVIEW RESULTS
\n\nExternal reviewers will evaluate your manuscript and provide you with their feedback. You may be asked to revise your draft, or parts of your draft, provide additional information and make any other necessary changes according to their comments and suggestions.
\n\n4. ACCEPTANCE AND PRICE QUOTE
\n\nIf the manuscript is formally accepted after peer review you will receive a formal Notice of Acceptance, and a price quote.
\n\nThe Open Access Publishing Fee of your IntechOpen Compacts, Monograph or Edited Book depends on the volume of the publication and includes: project management, editorial and peer review services, technical editing, language copyediting, cover design and book layout, book promotion and ISBN assignment.
\n\nWe will send you your price quote and after it has been accepted (by both the author and the publisher), both parties will sign a Statement of Work binding them to adhere to the agreed upon terms.
\n\nAt this step you will also be asked to accept the Copyright Agreement.
\n\n5. LANGUAGE COPYEDITING, TECHNICAL EDITING AND TYPESET PROOF
\n\nYour manuscript will be sent to SPi Global, a leader in content solution services, for language copyediting. You will then receive a typeset proof formatted in XML and available online in HTML and PDF to proofread and check for completeness. The first typeset proof of your manuscript is usually available 10 days after its original submission.
\n\nAfter we receive your proof corrections and a final typeset of the manuscript is approved, your manuscript is sent to our in house DTP department for technical formatting and online publication preparation.
\n\nAdditionally, you will be asked to provide a profile picture (face or chest-up portrait photograph) and a short summary of the book which is required for the book cover design.
\n\n6. INVOICE PAYMENT
\n\nThe invoice is generally paid by the author, the author’s institution or funder. The payment can be made by credit card from your Author Panel (one will be assigned to you at the beginning of the project), or via bank transfer as indicated on the invoice. We currently accept the following payment options:
\n\nIntechOpen will help you complete your payment safely and securely, keeping your personal, professional and financial information safe.
\n\n7. ONLINE PUBLICATION, PRINT AND DELIVERY OF THE BOOK
\n\nIntechOpen authors can choose whether to publish their book online only or opt for online and print editions. IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books will be published on www.intechopen.com. If ordered, print copies are delivered by DHL within 12 to 15 working days.
\n\nIf you feel that IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs or Edited Books are the right publishing format for your work, please fill out the publishing proposal form. For any specific queries related to the publishing process, or IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs & Edited Books in general, please contact us at book.department@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5766},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5227},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1717},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10366},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:897},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15789}],offset:12,limit:12,total:118187},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10652",title:"Visual Object Tracking",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"96f3ee634a7ba49fa195e50475412af4",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10652.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10653",title:"Optimization Algorithms",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"753812dbb9a6f6b57645431063114f6c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10653.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10655",title:"Motion Planning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"809b5e290cf2dade9e7e0a5ae0ef3df0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10655.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10657",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f81b9eea6eb3f9af984031b7af35588",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10673",title:"The Psychology of Trust",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1f6cac41fd145f718ac0866264499cc8",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10673.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10675",title:"Hydrostatics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c86c2fa9f835d4ad5e7efd8b01921866",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10675.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85eac84b173d785f989522397616124e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f63db439474a574454a66894db8b394c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10679",title:"Mass Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2dae91102099b1a07be1a36a68852829",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10679.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10684",title:"Biorefineries",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"23962c6b77348bcbf247c673d34562f6",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10684.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:14},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:29},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:1}],offset:12,limit:12,total:193},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9043",title:"Parenting",subtitle:"Studies by an Ecocultural and Transactional Perspective",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d21066c7438e459e4c6fb13217a5c8c",slug:"parenting-studies-by-an-ecocultural-and-transactional-perspective",bookSignature:"Loredana Benedetto and Massimo Ingrassia",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9043.jpg",editors:[{id:"193200",title:"Prof.",name:"Loredana",middleName:null,surname:"Benedetto",slug:"loredana-benedetto",fullName:"Loredana Benedetto"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5221},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8985",title:"Natural Resources Management and Biological Sciences",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c2e219a6c021a40b5a20c041dea88c4",slug:"natural-resources-management-and-biological-sciences",bookSignature:"Edward R. Rhodes and Humood Naser",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8985.jpg",editors:[{id:"280886",title:"Prof.",name:"Edward R",middleName:null,surname:"Rhodes",slug:"edward-r-rhodes",fullName:"Edward R Rhodes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9027",title:"Human Blood Group Systems and Haemoglobinopathies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d00d8e40b11cfb2547d1122866531c7e",slug:"human-blood-group-systems-and-haemoglobinopathies",bookSignature:"Osaro Erhabor and Anjana Munshi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9027.jpg",editors:[{id:"35140",title:null,name:"Osaro",middleName:null,surname:"Erhabor",slug:"osaro-erhabor",fullName:"Osaro Erhabor"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7841",title:"New Insights Into Metabolic Syndrome",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef5accfac9772b9e2c9eff884f085510",slug:"new-insights-into-metabolic-syndrome",bookSignature:"Akikazu Takada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7841.jpg",editors:[{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8558",title:"Aerodynamics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db7263fc198dfb539073ba0260a7f1aa",slug:"aerodynamics",bookSignature:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy and Aly-Mousaad Aly",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8558.jpg",editors:[{id:"35542",title:"Prof.",name:"Mofid",middleName:null,surname:"Gorji-Bandpy",slug:"mofid-gorji-bandpy",fullName:"Mofid Gorji-Bandpy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9668",title:"Chemistry and Biochemistry of Winemaking, Wine Stabilization and Aging",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5484276a314628acf21ec1bdc3a86b9",slug:"chemistry-and-biochemistry-of-winemaking-wine-stabilization-and-aging",bookSignature:"Fernanda Cosme, Fernando M. Nunes and Luís Filipe-Ribeiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9668.jpg",editors:[{id:"186819",title:"Prof.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Cosme",slug:"fernanda-cosme",fullName:"Fernanda Cosme"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7847",title:"Medical Toxicology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"db9b65bea093de17a0855a1b27046247",slug:"medical-toxicology",bookSignature:"Pınar Erkekoglu and Tomohisa Ogawa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7847.jpg",editors:[{id:"109978",title:"Prof.",name:"Pınar",middleName:null,surname:"Erkekoglu",slug:"pinar-erkekoglu",fullName:"Pınar Erkekoglu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8620",title:"Mining Techniques",subtitle:"Past, Present and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b65658f81d14e9e57e49377869d3a575",slug:"mining-techniques-past-present-and-future",bookSignature:"Abhay Soni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8620.jpg",editors:[{id:"271093",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",middleName:null,surname:"Soni",slug:"abhay-soni",fullName:"Abhay Soni"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9660",title:"Inland Waters",subtitle:"Dynamics and Ecology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"975c26819ceb11a926793bc2adc62bd6",slug:"inland-waters-dynamics-and-ecology",bookSignature:"Adam Devlin, Jiayi Pan and Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9660.jpg",editors:[{id:"280757",title:"Dr.",name:"Adam",middleName:"Thomas",surname:"Devlin",slug:"adam-devlin",fullName:"Adam Devlin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9122",title:"Cosmetic Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"207026ca4a4125e17038e770d00ee152",slug:"cosmetic-surgery",bookSignature:"Yueh-Bih Tang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9122.jpg",editors:[{id:"202122",title:"Prof.",name:"Yueh-Bih",middleName:null,surname:"Tang",slug:"yueh-bih-tang",fullName:"Yueh-Bih Tang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9550",title:"Entrepreneurship",subtitle:"Contemporary Issues",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b4ac1ee5b743abf6f88495452b1e5e7",slug:"entrepreneurship-contemporary-issues",bookSignature:"Mladen Turuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9550.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"319755",title:"Prof.",name:"Mladen",middleName:null,surname:"Turuk",slug:"mladen-turuk",fullName:"Mladen Turuk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10065",title:"Wavelet Theory",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8868e332169597ba2182d9b004d60de",slug:"wavelet-theory",bookSignature:"Somayeh Mohammady",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10065.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109280",title:"Dr.",name:"Somayeh",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammady",slug:"somayeh-mohammady",fullName:"Somayeh Mohammady"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9313",title:"Clay Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6fa7e70396ff10620e032bb6cfa6fb72",slug:"clay-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9313.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"7153",title:"Prof.",name:"Gustavo",middleName:null,surname:"Morari Do Nascimento",slug:"gustavo-morari-do-nascimento",fullName:"Gustavo Morari Do Nascimento"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9888",title:"Nuclear Power Plants",subtitle:"The Processes from the Cradle to the Grave",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c2c8773e586f62155ab8221ebb72a849",slug:"nuclear-power-plants-the-processes-from-the-cradle-to-the-grave",bookSignature:"Nasser Awwad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9888.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145209",title:"Prof.",name:"Nasser",middleName:"S",surname:"Awwad",slug:"nasser-awwad",fullName:"Nasser Awwad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8098",title:"Resources of Water",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d251652996624d932ef7b8ed62cf7cfc",slug:"resources-of-water",bookSignature:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran, Muhammad Salik Javaid, Aftab Sadiq",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8098.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"167917",title:"Dr.",name:"Prathna",middleName:null,surname:"Thanjavur Chandrasekaran",slug:"prathna-thanjavur-chandrasekaran",fullName:"Prathna Thanjavur Chandrasekaran"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9644",title:"Glaciers and the Polar Environment",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8cfdc161794e3753ced54e6ff30873b",slug:"glaciers-and-the-polar-environment",bookSignature:"Masaki Kanao, Danilo Godone and Niccolò Dematteis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9644.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51959",title:"Dr.",name:"Masaki",middleName:null,surname:"Kanao",slug:"masaki-kanao",fullName:"Masaki Kanao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10432",title:"Casting Processes and Modelling of Metallic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2c5c9df938666bf5d1797727db203a6d",slug:"casting-processes-and-modelling-of-metallic-materials",bookSignature:"Zakaria Abdallah and Nada Aldoumani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10432.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"201670",title:"Dr.",name:"Zak",middleName:null,surname:"Abdallah",slug:"zak-abdallah",fullName:"Zak Abdallah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9671",title:"Macrophages",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b00fdc5f24b71d1ecdfd75076bfde6",slug:"macrophages",bookSignature:"Hridayesh Prakash",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9671.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"287184",title:"Dr.",name:"Hridayesh",middleName:null,surname:"Prakash",slug:"hridayesh-prakash",fullName:"Hridayesh Prakash"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8415",title:"Extremophilic Microbes and Metabolites",subtitle:"Diversity, Bioprospecting and Biotechnological Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"93e0321bc93b89ff73730157738f8f97",slug:"extremophilic-microbes-and-metabolites-diversity-bioprospecting-and-biotechnological-applications",bookSignature:"Afef Najjari, Ameur Cherif, Haïtham Sghaier and Hadda Imene Ouzari",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8415.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196823",title:"Dr.",name:"Afef",middleName:null,surname:"Najjari",slug:"afef-najjari",fullName:"Afef Najjari"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9731",title:"Oxidoreductase",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"852e6f862c85fc3adecdbaf822e64e6e",slug:"oxidoreductase",bookSignature:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9731.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"224662",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmoud Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Mansour",slug:"mahmoud-ahmed-mansour",fullName:"Mahmoud Ahmed Mansour"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"121",title:"Mechanical Engineering",slug:"mechanical-engineering",parent:{title:"Engineering",slug:"engineering"},numberOfBooks:100,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:2360,numberOfWosCitations:2169,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1443,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3322,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"mechanical-engineering",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"9865",title:"Tribology in Materials and Manufacturing",subtitle:"Wear, Friction and Lubrication",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"45fdde7e24f08a4734017cfa4948ba94",slug:"tribology-in-materials-and-manufacturing-wear-friction-and-lubrication",bookSignature:"Amar Patnaik, Tej Singh and Vikas Kukshal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9865.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"43660",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Amar",middleName:null,surname:"Patnaik",slug:"amar-patnaik",fullName:"Amar Patnaik"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10025",title:"Numerical and Experimental Studies on Combustion Engines and Vehicles",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"44d31c0f408772b0e50d89e029f4b14d",slug:"numerical-and-experimental-studies-on-combustion-engines-and-vehicles",bookSignature:"Paweł Woś and Mirosław Jakubowski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10025.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"119441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Paweł",middleName:null,surname:"Woś",slug:"pawel-wos",fullName:"Paweł Woś"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9266",title:"Machine Tools",subtitle:"Design, Research, Application",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3def867e2d654b757bb101201bc6d1e6",slug:"machine-tools-design-research-application",bookSignature:"Ľubomír Šooš and Jiri Marek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9266.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"141212",title:"Prof.",name:"Ľubomír",middleName:null,surname:"Šooš",slug:"ubomir-soos",fullName:"Ľubomír Šooš"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7615",title:"Fracture Mechanics Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"eadc6edddc10fbeac471e10ff7921b75",slug:"fracture-mechanics-applications",bookSignature:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen and H. Ersen Balcioglu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7615.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"198122",title:"Dr.",name:"Hayri Baytan",middleName:null,surname:"Ozmen",slug:"hayri-baytan-ozmen",fullName:"Hayri Baytan Ozmen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8457",title:"New Challenges in Residual Stress Measurements and Evaluation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"884c1522185476729c2eec9adfba4f86",slug:"new-challenges-in-residual-stress-measurements-and-evaluation",bookSignature:"Caterina Casavola, Claudia Barile, Vincenzo Moramarco and Giovanni Pappalettera",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8457.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"214432",title:"Dr.",name:"Caterina",middleName:null,surname:"Casavola",slug:"caterina-casavola",fullName:"Caterina Casavola"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8884",title:"Modeling of Turbomachines for Control and Diagnostic Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c6dbeb78336e757a9b2bd79c80df28d2",slug:"modeling-of-turbomachines-for-control-and-diagnostic-applications",bookSignature:"Igor Loboda and Sergiy Yepifanov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8884.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"179551",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Loboda",slug:"igor-loboda",fullName:"Igor Loboda"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9265",title:"Strength of Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1ec891200aebef4dc2b19461e0ee4068",slug:"strength-of-materials",bookSignature:"Héctor Jaramillo S., Julian Arnaldo Avila and Can Chen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9265.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255849",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Hector",middleName:"Enrique",surname:"Jaramillo S.",slug:"hector-jaramillo-s.",fullName:"Hector Jaramillo S."}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8756",title:"Truss and Frames",subtitle:"Recent Advances and New Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"00e7e78de5960f0ba908fa07fb641683",slug:"truss-and-frames-recent-advances-and-new-perspectives",bookSignature:"Aykut Kentli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8756.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"109235",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Aykut",middleName:null,surname:"Kentli",slug:"aykut-kentli",fullName:"Aykut Kentli"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8369",title:"Creep Characteristics of Engineering Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"810e34ac2596856d53111a3b50fd2542",slug:"creep-characteristics-of-engineering-materials",bookSignature:"Tomasz Ta?ski, Marek Sroka, Adam Zieli?ski and Grzegorz Gola?ski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8369.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"15700",title:"Prof.",name:"Tomasz Arkadiusz",middleName:null,surname:"Tański",slug:"tomasz-arkadiusz-tanski",fullName:"Tomasz Arkadiusz Tański"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8879",title:"Emerging Trends in Mechatronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"382fa5b9568d15939b7249bd46f2d09c",slug:"emerging-trends-in-mechatronics",bookSignature:"Aydin Azizi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8879.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"234387",title:"Prof.",name:"Aydin",middleName:null,surname:"Azizi",slug:"aydin-azizi",fullName:"Aydin Azizi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7766",title:"Rotating Machinery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4a5842ccd2018c329ea55e152e1545fc",slug:"rotating-machinery",bookSignature:"Getu Hailu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7766.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"250634",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Getu",middleName:null,surname:"Hailu",slug:"getu-hailu",fullName:"Getu Hailu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:100,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"35261",doi:"10.5772/34233",title:"Anisotropic Mechanical Properties of ABS Parts Fabricated by Fused Deposition Modelling",slug:"anisotropic-mechanical-properties-of-abs-parts-fabricated-by-fused-deposition-modeling-",totalDownloads:6659,totalCrossrefCites:71,totalDimensionsCites:176,book:{slug:"mechanical-engineering",title:"Mechanical Engineering",fullTitle:"Mechanical Engineering"},signatures:"Constance Ziemian, Mala Sharma and Sophia Ziemian",authors:[{id:"89554",title:"Dr.",name:"Mala",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"mala-sharma",fullName:"Mala Sharma"},{id:"98759",title:"Dr.",name:"Constance",middleName:null,surname:"Ziemian",slug:"constance-ziemian",fullName:"Constance Ziemian"},{id:"137165",title:"Ms.",name:"Sophia",middleName:null,surname:"Ziemian",slug:"sophia-ziemian",fullName:"Sophia Ziemian"}]},{id:"21928",doi:"10.5772/20790",title:"Tribological Aspects of Rolling Bearing Failures",slug:"tribological-aspects-of-rolling-bearing-failures",totalDownloads:17603,totalCrossrefCites:34,totalDimensionsCites:58,book:{slug:"tribology-lubricants-and-lubrication",title:"Tribology",fullTitle:"Tribology - Lubricants and Lubrication"},signatures:"Jürgen Gegner",authors:[{id:"40520",title:"Dr.",name:"Jürgen",middleName:null,surname:"Gegner",slug:"jurgen-gegner",fullName:"Jürgen Gegner"}]},{id:"44858",doi:"10.5772/55860",title:"Titanium and Titanium Alloys as Biomaterials",slug:"titanium-and-titanium-alloys-as-biomaterials",totalDownloads:5915,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:46,book:{slug:"tribology-fundamentals-and-advancements",title:"Tribology",fullTitle:"Tribology - Fundamentals and Advancements"},signatures:"Virginia Sáenz de Viteri and Elena Fuentes",authors:[{id:"154811",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Virginia",middleName:null,surname:"Sáenz De Viteri",slug:"virginia-saenz-de-viteri",fullName:"Virginia Sáenz De Viteri"},{id:"155536",title:"Ms.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Fuentes",slug:"elena-fuentes",fullName:"Elena Fuentes"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"62059",title:"Types of HVAC Systems",slug:"types-of-hvac-systems",totalDownloads:8532,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"hvac-system",title:"HVAC System",fullTitle:"HVAC System"},signatures:"Shaimaa Seyam",authors:[{id:"247650",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"},{id:"257733",title:"MSc.",name:"Shaimaa",middleName:null,surname:"Seyam",slug:"shaimaa-seyam",fullName:"Shaimaa Seyam"}]},{id:"51959",title:"New Processes and Technologies to Reduce the Low‐Frequency Noise of Digital and Analog Circuits",slug:"new-processes-and-technologies-to-reduce-the-low-frequency-noise-of-digital-and-analog-circuits",totalDownloads:1401,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"advances-in-noise-analysis-mitigation-and-control",title:"Advances in Noise Analysis, Mitigation and Control",fullTitle:"Advances in Noise Analysis, Mitigation and Control"},signatures:"Philippe Gaubert and Akinobu Teramoto",authors:[{id:"181697",title:"Dr.",name:"Philippe",middleName:null,surname:"Gaubert",slug:"philippe-gaubert",fullName:"Philippe Gaubert"},{id:"182487",title:"Prof.",name:"Akinobu",middleName:null,surname:"Teramoto",slug:"akinobu-teramoto",fullName:"Akinobu Teramoto"}]},{id:"53939",title:"Closure Models for Lagrangian Gas Dynamics and Elastoplasticity Equations in Multimaterial Cells",slug:"closure-models-for-lagrangian-gas-dynamics-and-elastoplasticity-equations-in-multimaterial-cells",totalDownloads:1073,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"lagrangian-mechanics",title:"Lagrangian Mechanics",fullTitle:"Lagrangian Mechanics"},signatures:"Yury Yanilkin",authors:[{id:"181004",title:"Prof.",name:"Yury",middleName:"Vasilyevich",surname:"Yanilkin",slug:"yury-yanilkin",fullName:"Yury Yanilkin"}]},{id:"54521",title:"Basic Design Methods of Heat Exchanger",slug:"basic-design-methods-of-heat-exchanger",totalDownloads:5597,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"heat-exchangers-design-experiment-and-simulation",title:"Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Design, Experiment and Simulation"},signatures:"Cüneyt Ezgi",authors:[{id:"187086",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Cüneyt",middleName:null,surname:"Ezgi",slug:"cuneyt-ezgi",fullName:"Cüneyt Ezgi"}]},{id:"48647",title:"Modeling and Design of Plate Heat Exchanger",slug:"modeling-and-design-of-plate-heat-exchanger",totalDownloads:8063,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:5,book:{slug:"heat-transfer-studies-and-applications",title:"Heat Transfer",fullTitle:"Heat Transfer Studies and Applications"},signatures:"Fábio A.S. Mota, E.P. Carvalho and Mauro A.S.S. Ravagnani",authors:[{id:"35110",title:"Prof.",name:"Mauro",middleName:null,surname:"Ravagnani",slug:"mauro-ravagnani",fullName:"Mauro Ravagnani"}]},{id:"66638",title:"Alternative Fuels for Internal Combustion Engines",slug:"alternative-fuels-for-internal-combustion-engines",totalDownloads:2106,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"the-future-of-internal-combustion-engines",title:"The Future of Internal Combustion Engines",fullTitle:"The Future of Internal Combustion Engines"},signatures:"Mehmet Ilhan Ilhak, Selim Tangoz, Selahaddin Orhan Akansu and Nafiz Kahraman",authors:null},{id:"45114",title:"Micro Gas Turbine Engine: A Review",slug:"micro-gas-turbine-engine-a-review",totalDownloads:10024,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:43,book:{slug:"progress-in-gas-turbine-performance",title:"Progress in Gas Turbine Performance",fullTitle:"Progress in Gas Turbine Performance"},signatures:"Marco Antônio Rosa do Nascimento, Lucilene de Oliveira\nRodrigues, Eraldo Cruz dos Santos, Eli Eber Batista Gomes, Fagner\nLuis Goulart Dias, Elkin Iván Gutiérrez Velásques and Rubén Alexis\nMiranda Carrillo",authors:[{id:"47177",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Rosa Nascimento",slug:"marco-antonio-rosa-nascimento",fullName:"Marco Antonio Rosa Nascimento"},{id:"56448",title:"Dr.",name:"Eraldo",middleName:"Cruz Dos",surname:"Santos",slug:"eraldo-santos",fullName:"Eraldo Santos"},{id:"153776",title:"MSc.",name:"Rubén Alexis",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda Carrillo",slug:"ruben-alexis-miranda-carrillo",fullName:"Rubén Alexis Miranda Carrillo"},{id:"154317",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucilene De Oliveira",middleName:null,surname:"Rodrigues",slug:"lucilene-de-oliveira-rodrigues",fullName:"Lucilene De Oliveira Rodrigues"},{id:"154318",title:"MSc.",name:"Fagner Luis Goulart",middleName:null,surname:"Dias",slug:"fagner-luis-goulart-dias",fullName:"Fagner Luis Goulart Dias"},{id:"154319",title:"MSc.",name:"Elkin Iván Gutiérrez",middleName:null,surname:"Velásquez",slug:"elkin-ivan-gutierrez-velasquez",fullName:"Elkin Iván Gutiérrez Velásquez"},{id:"154572",title:"Dr.",name:"Fagner",middleName:"Luis Goulart",surname:"Dias",slug:"fagner-dias",fullName:"Fagner Dias"}]},{id:"44858",title:"Titanium and Titanium Alloys as Biomaterials",slug:"titanium-and-titanium-alloys-as-biomaterials",totalDownloads:5917,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:46,book:{slug:"tribology-fundamentals-and-advancements",title:"Tribology",fullTitle:"Tribology - Fundamentals and Advancements"},signatures:"Virginia Sáenz de Viteri and Elena Fuentes",authors:[{id:"154811",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Virginia",middleName:null,surname:"Sáenz De Viteri",slug:"virginia-saenz-de-viteri",fullName:"Virginia Sáenz De Viteri"},{id:"155536",title:"Ms.",name:"Elena",middleName:null,surname:"Fuentes",slug:"elena-fuentes",fullName:"Elena Fuentes"}]},{id:"42327",title:"Design Methodology for a Quick and Low-Cost Wind Tunnel",slug:"design-methodology-for-a-quick-and-low-cost-wind-tunnel",totalDownloads:10783,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:12,book:{slug:"wind-tunnel-designs-and-their-diverse-engineering-applications",title:"Wind Tunnel Designs and Their Diverse Engineering Applications",fullTitle:"Wind Tunnel Designs and Their Diverse Engineering Applications"},signatures:"Miguel A. González Hernández, Ana I. Moreno López, Artur A. Jarzabek, José M. Perales Perales, Yuliang Wu and Sun Xiaoxiao",authors:[{id:"43510",title:"Prof.",name:"Miguel",middleName:"Angel",surname:"Gonzalez",slug:"miguel-gonzalez",fullName:"Miguel Gonzalez"}]},{id:"52929",title:"Industrial Heat Exchanger: Operation and Maintenance to Minimize Fouling and Corrosion",slug:"industrial-heat-exchanger-operation-and-maintenance-to-minimize-fouling-and-corrosion",totalDownloads:2270,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"heat-exchangers-advanced-features-and-applications",title:"Heat Exchangers",fullTitle:"Heat Exchangers - Advanced Features and Applications"},signatures:"Teng Kah Hou, Salim Newaz Kazi, Abu Bakar Mahat, Chew Bee Teng,\nAhmed Al-Shamma’a and Andy Shaw",authors:[{id:"93483",title:"Dr.",name:"Salim Newaz",middleName:null,surname:"Kazi",slug:"salim-newaz-kazi",fullName:"Salim Newaz Kazi"},{id:"187135",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Kah Hou",middleName:null,surname:"Teng",slug:"kah-hou-teng",fullName:"Kah Hou Teng"},{id:"194347",title:"Prof.",name:"Abu Bakar",middleName:null,surname:"Mahat",slug:"abu-bakar-mahat",fullName:"Abu Bakar Mahat"},{id:"194348",title:"Dr.",name:"Bee Teng",middleName:null,surname:"Chew",slug:"bee-teng-chew",fullName:"Bee Teng Chew"},{id:"194349",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Al-Shamma'A",slug:"ahmed-al-shamma'a",fullName:"Ahmed Al-Shamma'A"},{id:"194350",title:"Prof.",name:"Andy",middleName:null,surname:"Shaw",slug:"andy-shaw",fullName:"Andy Shaw"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"mechanical-engineering",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/115595/provvidenza-villari",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"115595",slug:"provvidenza-villari"},fullPath:"/profiles/115595/provvidenza-villari",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()