Cases of Bacillus cereus contamination in rice (rice-based food).
\r\n\t
\r\n\tRecently in 2019, International Council on Systems Engineering (INCOSE) has released the latest version of the “Guidelines for the Utilization of ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 in the Context of System of Systems (SoS) Engineering” to industry for review and comments. The document was developed under the Partner Standards Development Organization cooperation agreement between ISO and IEEE, as it was approved by Council Resolution 49/2007. This document provides guidance for the utilization of ISO/IEC/IEEE 15288 in the context of SoS in many domains, including healthcare, transportation, energy, defense, corporations, cities, and governments. This document treats an SoS as a system whose elements are managerially and/or operationally independent systems, and which together usually produce results that cannot be achieved by the individual systems alone. This INCOSE guide book perceives that SoS engineering demands a balance between linear procedural procedures for systematic activity and holistic nonlinear procedures due to additional complexity from SoS perspectives.
\r\n\tThe objective of this book is to provide a comprehensive reference on Systems-of-Systems Engineering, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis (MS&A) for engineers and researchers in both system engineering and advanced mathematical modeling fields.
\r\n\tThe book is organized in two parts, namely Part I and Part II. Part I presents an overview of SOS, SOS Engineering, SOS Enterprise Architecture (SOSEA) and SOS Enterprise (SOSE) Concept of Operations (CONOPS). Part II discusses SOSE MS&A approaches for assessing SOS Enterprise CONOPS (SOSE-CONOPS) and characterizing SOSE performance behavior. Part II focuses on advanced mathematical application concepts to address future complex space SOS challenges that require interdisciplinary research involving game theory, probability and statistics, non-linear programming and mathematical modeling components.
\r\n\tPart I should include topics related to the following areas:
\r\n\t- SOS and SOS Engineering Introduction
\r\n\t- Taxonomy of SOS
\r\n\t- SOS Enterprise (SOSE), SOSE CONOPS, Architecture Frameworks and Decision Support Tools
\r\n\tPart II should address the following research areas:
\r\n\t- SOS Modeling, Simulation & Analysis (SOS M&SA) Methods
\r\n\t- SOS Enterprise Architecture Design Frameworks and Decision Support Tools
\r\n\t- SOS Enterprise CONOPS Assessment Frameworks and Decision Support Tools.
TRANSMIT project is a Marie Curie Initial Training Network (ITN), funded under the EU FP7 framework [1]. The programme vision is to act as the enabler of the IPDM network [2] which will deliver the state-of-the-art to protect the range of essential systems vulnerable to ionospheric threats.
TRANSMIT’s primary mission is to provide Europe with the next generation of researchers, equipping them with skills, through a multi-disciplinary, inter-sectorial, comprehensive, coordinated, industry-led training programme. The training offered, should enable the new researchers to understand in depth, the threats that ionosphere poses on modern technological systems, and more importantly on GNSS Precise Point Positioning (PPP) value chain [3], and respond to the needs of various stakeholders for robust counter-measures to deal with these threats. The secondary mission of TRANSMIT project is to develop real-time integrated state-of-the-art tools to mitigate the ionospheric threats, and make these tool available and accessible to the various stakeholders, via the “TRANSMIT Prototype.
In this chapter we concentrate on the definition of the “data management strategy” or in simpler terms a plan for data management. In theory, data management (hereinafter DM) is defined as a function that includes “the planning and execution of policies, practices and projects”, with aim of “acquiring, controlling, protecting, delivering and enhancing the value of data and information assets” [4].
DM is typically organized into ten basic components or functions, each consisting of a family of activities that belong to one of four groups [4]; planning activities (P) that set strategic and tactical course for other DM activities, development activities (D), undertaken within the system development lifecycle, creating data deliverables through analysis, design, building, testing, preparation and deployment, control activities (C) or supervisory activities performed on an on-going basis and, finally, operational activities (O) to include service and support activities performed on an on-going basis.
At the heart of any data related activity is Data Governance (DG). DG is the core function of DM that guides how all other functions are performed and it can be defined as “the exercise of authority and control over the management of data assets” [4]. DG consists of two groups of activities, namely planning and controlling. There are seven planning activities that comprise the DG function, and are typically implemented sequentially. The first two are relevant to our discussion, which are to understand the data/information needs, i.e. of the IPDM prototype, and based on these needs to\n\t\t\t\tdevelop a data management strategy. Moreover, the execution of the DG planning activities, and thus the definition of data strategy, should be driven by both business and IT strategies [4]. In Figure 1, we present a novel framework that captures this dependency by depicting the different components of the overall TRANSMIT project’s strategy and the relationship between them. This novel framework is based on a proper combination of the framework for IT, Business and Data strategies’, described in [4], with the IT, IS (Information System) and Business Strategies’ framework in [5].
TRANSMIT project overall strategy approach
In sections 2, 3, 4 the TRANSMIT Business and IT/S strategies are described since are required inputs for the definition of data strategy. Finally, in section 5 we formulate the TRANSMIT data strategy, and provide in the closing section the state of art regarding the implementation status of this strategy.
The TRANSMIT business strategy presented in this section focuses on four themes which are the identification of the relevant business area and process, assessment of the business problem, a solution strategy and expected competitive advantage from the TRANSIT project, that can be further exploited by the future IPDM system, based on that strategy. The selection of appropriate business services (see section III) to support the given business problem is determined by the chosen business strategy and also drive the DG planning activities by providing the required data/information needs for which the data strategy is being developed.
The TRANSMIT project focuses on GNSS precise positioning business area. From a business perspective, PPP is a business process that outputs positions with high accuracy anywhere on the globe using a single GNSS receiver. To achieve that, a GNSS receiver on PPP mode relies on typical GNSS observables as well as input data products, i.e. precise orbits and clocks, provided by external entities, such as the International GNSS Service (IGS) [6]. More detailed information about PPP, can be found in [7] and [8].
In both single-(L1) and dual-frequency (L1+L2) PPP modes, and after the permanent removal of Service Availability (SA), the ionosphere has become the largest source of error that can potentially degrade the quality of the estimated user position. More specifically, and as described in [9], ionospheric scintillation, which is produced by ionospheric irregularities, affects GNSS signals in two ways, broadly classified as refraction and diffraction. A more thorough treatment of the effects of ionosphere on wideband GNSS signals can be found in [10].
At the application level, the refractive effect manifests as a group delay and phase advancement of the GNSS signal. A slower group delay velocity produces ranging errors while a faster phase velocity causes unexpected phase shifts. If the phase shifts are rapid enough, they can challenge the tracking loops in the receivers. In dual-frequency mode, the linear combination of observations and the formation of the so-called ionospheric-free observable, eliminates the biggest part, almost 99%, of this kind of ranging-error, however for very precise positioning, the remaining, higher-order terms need to be considered and compensated [11]. For the case of a single-frequency PPP mode, this ionospheric delay is typically corrected using available ionospheric models such as the Klobuchar, IRI and NeQuick ones [12], [13].
As far as the diffraction effect of the ionosphere is concerned, the situation is more complicated and influences the GNSS service availability. Compensation of the effect cannot be achieved, but only mitigation is possible. It should be stressed that in situations of severe diffraction, a total loss of signal at the receiver site can be caused, which make any mitigation technique useless. In these cases prompt warning of forthcoming strong signal scintillations, can provide valuable time to businesses to alter their service delivery strategy, e.g. switching from GNSS to other means of providing precise positioning.
There are different ways that TRANSMIT project could support GNSS service providers in dealing with the ionosphere as a potential risk. Here we refer to the lesson learned by collaborating with FUGRO Intersite B.V. [14], one of the biggest GNSS service providers which carries activities worldwide, focused on four key areas, namely Geotechnical, Survey, Subsea Services and Geoscience, and targeting markets such as the oil and gas, building and infrastructure, mining, renewable energy and other public and private sectors.
One of its main requirements towards the TRANMSIT project can be phrased as “a business continuity planning (BCP) under severe scintillation regime”. This practically means the development of a plan which begins by firstly assessing Fugro’s exposure to ionospheric threats, then requires the provision of effective prevention and recovery from them, while maintaining competitive advantage and value system integrity. An ionospheric risk management initiative should be part of such BCP, and as far as the TRANSMIT is concerned the chosen strategy was to mitigate ionospheric scintillation, targeting the PPP value chain, both at the hardware (receiver tracking) and software (stochastic model) levels, by incorporating into the process unique business services, enabled by the research conducted in two different fronts, as will be further discussed in the Information System strategy. Whether or not a full BCP will be finally realized by the TRANSMIT consortium is a decision which has not be made at the time of writing of this article.
To ensure the sustainability of the TRANSMIT endeavor, a clear differentiation of the TRANSMIT approach with respect to competitors have to be foreseen. In Figure 2, the primary strategic direction [15] that was chosen is the “customer intimacy” or “customer focus”. This practically means that the business improvements offered in the form of services or products are tailored to the needs and processes of individual customers (i.e. Fugro) by solving their business problem. Product leadership, which implies continuous and rapid introduction of new products and services, was difficult to be achieved given the complexity of the business problem, the existing competition, such as NASA, ESA and NOAA just to name a few, and the nature of TRANSMIT project. In the next two sections however we will see how the operational excellence can be targeted/supported by the IS, IT and Data strategies, as a secondary improvement dimension, which in principle requires improvement/optimization of business performance.
TRANSMIT overall strategy orientations in order to create added value to the end-user and achieve a competitive advantage, based on the three dimensions defined in [15].
In broad terms, information systems (IS) strategy defines what kind of system is necessary to cover the business needs for the foreseeable future. It is based on proper analysis of the business, its environment and the general business strategy [16]. In this section we focus and outline some key features of the required TRANSMIT IS, and we outline the application portfolio [17] which contains the currently developing business services.
TRANSMIT IS will be realised as an “internet-based, web-enabled, distributed system” with the aim of providing “decision support about selected ionospheric-related risks for the PPP business processes”. The above definition captures many features of the system, is compatible with the business needs, i.e. BCP, and for more details on decision support systems (DSSs) the reader is directed to reference [18].
As far as the TRANSMIT IS is concerned the functionality has been split into 4 layers following the multi-tier architectural paradigm. The data and presentation layers consist of one tier each while the business layer consists of various tiers, deployed on the premises of the Institutions partners of the TRANSMIT project [1].
The TRANSMIT IS will act as the demonstrator of the capabilities (business services) developed from the research base of the programme. The “prototype” term implies that the system will be intentionally incomplete, i.e. will capture only the essential features of IPDM [2], and is to be modified, supplemented, or supplanted [19] in order to realize the desired future state. For its development various methodologies exist [20], however the one that represents more adequately the philosophy of TRANSMIT project, is the evolutionary [20] presentation [21] prototyping. This iterative methodology allows flexibility in the software development process so that it can adapt to changing requirements, and also convince end-users of the feasibility of the system, as shown schematically in Figure 3 below. TRANSMIT IS prototype is based on a consortium that brings together some of the biggest GNSS Rx manufactures and precise positioning service providers, to act as the end-users (e.g. Fugro) as well as leading research institutes and universities around the Europe to lead the system development and provide the different services as well as the initial system and user requirements.
IPDM prototype system development methodology
For what concerns the application portfolio, i.e. business services, hereafter few examples are given as current services developed as part of the TRANSMIT IS with potential value in PPP business area for the end customers (e.g. Fugro). The first service aims to deliver improved estimation, after interference cleansing, and prediction of amplitude scintillation parameter, S4. The second concentrates on providing improved ionospheric delay estimation for different geomagnetic conditions. These services generally needs support and contributions from the TRANSMIT partners in terms of data (e.g. measurements from various ground-based and space-borne instruments, such as GNSS, ionosondes, and radio occultation) and modeling (e.g. advanced 3D tomographic techniques, forecasting, etc.
The IT strategy for TRANSMIT is split into two sections as shown in Figure 1: internal and overall. The internal is responsibility of the TRANSMIT partners participating to the TRANSMIT IS via a service [22]. The overall is defined by the developers of the prototype presentation layer. It is beyond the scope of this article to expand further on the overall IT strategy, however SOA (Service Oriented Architecture) is briefly recalled as one of the best practices that are used within the IT strategy and is known to generate real business value. Moreover SOA supports the so-called “Workflow Systems” (WSs) which allows for “...building of software applications from a number of loosely coupled, heterogeneous, distributed services...” [23] which is the case of TRANSMIT IS needs.
SOA represents a paradigm shift in applications design, which includes decomposing business functions and application features into a set of independent but cooperative subsystems or services. This helps businesses to gain flexibility, reuse, and interoperability [24], which in turn implies reduction of operational costs, acceleration of the development of new application by leveraging shared service capabilities, minimization of operating errors and reduction of risks and disruptions to business [25]. Finally, SOA can demonstrate business value and at the same time assess/fine-tune performance and model/modify processes through Key Performance Indicators (KPIs) [26].
No matter what the overall IT is going to be, SOA philosophy can be still applied for the development of various data services within the data layer. However it should be stressed that the development of the presentation and business layers dictated by the overall IT strategy, influences the developed of the data system which will realize the data layer, since it can pose unique requirements on the data system or require the design of new data services.
The strategy adopted for data management in the frame of TRANSMIT is broad in scope to allow flexibility given the evolutionary prototyping development methodology of the TRANSMIT IS (see Figure 3). Such choice will also benefit the IPDM prototype development by providing the capacity to the data layer to accommodate further business and application layers needs in terms of data management services. We begin this section by discussing the data and information needs of the TRANSMIT IS which capture the state of the IPDM prototype at the time of writing of this article. These needs should be frequently re-evaluated and the data strategy should be kept up-to-date.
The initial survey conducted shows that the prototype system relies on a variety of proprietary data files in ASCII & Binary format, originating mainly from GPS and Radio occultation satellites as well as other Space-borne instruments. The input and output products have either spatial (e.g. global TEC maps) or temporal dimensions (e.g. complex GPS RF-data) or in some cases both (global TEC maps, predicted over time). Regarding the complex GPS data per se, the size of data files can generate a huge bottleneck, if data movement is scheduled during the operation of the distributed system. Finally, outputs from theoretical models, implemented in different programming languages, have to be also provided (such as the ionospheric models IRI and NeQuick2, just to name a few).
Based on the above needs we have developed a general data management strategy that includes, among the others [4]:
A compelling vision for DM.
The mission and long-term directional goals of DM.
Strategy statement.
Short-term SMART (Specific Measurable Actionable Realistic Time-bound) DM objectives.
The TRANSMIT DM vision and mission is to realize an intelligent DM system that will offer benefits to the enterprise and its customers and leverage existing IT/DM activities. The main mission of the DM function is to meet and exceed the data/information needs of all stakeholders in terms of data/information availability, security and quality. To pursuit our vision and fulfill our mission, our strategy is to establish the following data management initiatives:
Data Architecture (DA) function
Data Development (DD) function
Data Operations (DO) function
Content Management (CM) function
Meta-data Management (MdM) function
Data Security Management (DSM) function
Data Quality Management (DQM) function
Finally, the short-term SMART DM objectives are listed below for each of the above-mentioned function.
Data Architecture (DA) objectives
Define the “data model”
Analyze and align with “business models”
Define data technology architecture
Define meta-data architecture
Data Development (DD) objectives
Analyze information requirements
Develop conceptual, logical and physical data models
Design physical databases
Design information products
Design access services
Implement development/test database changes
Create test data
Migrate and convert data
Build and test information products
Build and test data access services
Validate information requirements
Prepare for data deployment
Data Operations (DO) objectives
Implement and control database environments
Obtain externally sourced data
Plan for data recovery
Backup and recover data
Set database performance service levels
Monitor and tune database performance
Plan for data retention
Archive, retain and purge data
Support specialized databases
Content Management (CM) objectives
Implement management systems for acquisition, storage, access and security controls of unstructured data
Backup and dispose unstructured data
Retain and dispose unstructured data
Data Security Management (DSM) objectives
Understand data security needs and regulatory requirements
Define data security policy
Define data security standards, controls and procedures
Manage users, passwords and group memberships
Manage data access views and permissions
Monitor user authentication and access behavior
Meta-data Management (MdM) objectives
Implement a managed meta-data environment
Create and maintain meta-data
Integrate meta-data
Manage meta-data repositories
Distribute and deliver meta-data
Query meta-data
Data Quality Management (DQM) objectives
Define data quality requirements
Define data quality metrics
Define data quality business rules
Test and validate data quality requirements
Set and evaluate data quality service levels
Design, implement and monitor operational data quality procedures
In this paper we introduce the data management strategy formulated for the TRANSMIT project case. We hope that we achieved to clearly underline the overall requirements for both the IS/IT and data/information, and proposed feasible strategies to be implemented in TRANSMIT prototype in order to support the future GNSS services. To achieve the technical goals of TRANSMIT project, it is needed a flexible, secure, reliable, data system layer to be aligned with the business strategy and generate added value via operational excellence. The current development effort regarding the data system development is on the realization of meta-data repository, as well as on archiving of the necessary test-data, to be later on loaded on the database management system and become accessible from application developers. The data security function, has been implemented and its user interface can be accessed via [28]. Finally, data access services have been developed and tested for different application regimes.
Eleftherios Plakidis is one of the three Experience Researchers in TRANSMIT project [1]. The authors would like to thank Dr. Kees de Jong, and the rest personnel of Fugro Intersite B.V., for their valuable suggestions during Eleftherios Plakidis placement at the company’s offices and the insights they offered regarding the business needs of the company of ionospheric related services. This interaction contributed very constructively towards steering the business strategy of the TRANSMIT programme into the right direction.
Most of the world’s population, especially Asia, use rice as the primary source of carbohydrates in their daily menu. Rice, as a staple food, is usually served with side dishes to complement the taste and also complement one’s nutritional needs. Rice can process with other food ingredients into new dishes, such as fried rice, yellow rice, or uduk rice.
Rice can be a source of food poisoning because it contaminated with dangerous pathogens. In general, food poisoning can cause by contaminant bacteria such as Bacillus cereus, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella group (except Salmonella typhi), Shigella, Vibrio, Escherichia coli, Campylobacter, Yersinia enterocolitis, Clostridium [1]. Rice-based food poisoning more often caused by Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus based on several cases in the world [2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15]. Besides, Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus are significant sources of microbiological harm from cereal grains and related products [16].
Bacillus cereus can found in soil, plants, and the intestinal tract of insects and mammals. In poor environmental conditions, bacteria can turn into spore forms. Bacillus cereus in spore form can found hiding in raw rice. The bacteria move from the soil to the paddy fields, their spores persist for years, even surviving during cooking due to their resistance to extreme temperatures. However, if rice left at room temperature, in warm and humid conditions, the spores can turn into bacteria and produce toxins that can cause vomiting and diarrhea [17].
Staphylococcus aureus is naturally present in the human body, so these bacteria are one of the essential agents causing food poisoning that often occurs in society. The most significant cause of Staphylococcus aureus entry into the food chain (which then causes staphylococcal poisoning) is the low sanitation of workers handling food [18].
According to the Food Standards Agency (FSA), there are nearly 900,000 food poisoning cases each year. The lifestyle that has changed in recent years has resulted in an increasing dependence on ready-to-eat food, eating out more than cooking, busyness results in having less time to prepare and cook food. This habit is the reason that increases the number of cases of food poisoning [19]. Apart from that, environmental factors also influence the level of contamination. Food prepared under unfavorable conditions and environment implies a higher incidence of food poisoning than others [18]. Food poisoning occurs more frequently in developing countries than in developed countries. This situation is due to differences in the level of sanitation between developed and developing countries [18].
Bacillus cereus is a spore-forming bacteria that produces a toxin that causes vomiting or diarrhea. Symptoms are generally mild and short-lived (up to 24 h). Bacillus cereus commonly found in the environment (e.g., soil) and various foods. Spores are able to withstand harsh environments, including average cooking temperatures. Bacillus cereus is a Gram-positive, motile (flagellated), spore-forming, rod-shaped bacterium belonging to the genus Bacillus. Species in this genus include Bacillus anthracis, Bacillus cereus, Bacillus mycoides, Bacillus thuringiensis, Bacillus pseudomycoides, and Bacillus weihenstephanensis [17, 20].
Bacillus cereus is widespread and easy to find in the soil, where it adopts a saprophytic life cycle, germinate, grow, and sporulate in this environment [21]. Spores are more resistant to environmental stress than vegetative cells because of their metabolic dormancy and hard physical properties [22].
Bacillus cereus causes two types of diseases, namely emetic syndrome and diarrhea syndrome. Emetic syndrome causes by emetic toxins produced by bacteria during the growth phase in food, a diarrheal syndrome caused by diarrheal toxins produced during bacterial growth in the small intestine [23].
Bacillus cereus has a mesophilic or psychrotrophic strain. Mesophilic strains grow well at 37°C but do not grow below 10°C, whereas psychrotrophic strains grow well at cold temperatures but grow poorly at 37°C [24]. All Bacillus cereus isolates associated with emetic toxin production have found to be mesophilic [25]. Bacillus cereus growth is optimal in the presence of oxygen, although it continues to grow under anaerobic conditions. Bacillus cereus cells grown in aerobic conditions were less resistant to heat and acid than Bacillus cereus cells that grew anaerobically or microaerobically [26]. Bacillus cereus’ mesophilic strains have shown to have higher acid resistance than psychotropic strains [25].
Spores are more resistant to dry heat than humid heat, with heat resistance usually higher in foods with lower water activity. Spores are also more resistant to radiation than vegetative cells [22]. Nisin is a preservative that used to inhibit germination and spore growth. Antimicrobials that inhibit the growth of Bacillus cereus include benzoic, sorbic, and ethylenediaminetetraacetic acids [22].
Symptoms of Bacillus cereus disease cause two types of foodborne illness, namely emetic syndrome (vomiting) and diarrhea. Vomiting syndrome is poisoning caused by the ingestion of a cyclic peptide toxin called cereulide that has been pre-formed in food during growth by Bacillus cereus. This syndrome has a short incubation period and recovery time. Symptoms of nausea, vomiting, and stomach cramps occur within 1–5 h after ingestion, with recovery usually within 6–24 h [27].
The diarrheal syndrome caused by enterotoxins produced by Bacillus cereus in the host body, the incubation period before the onset of the disease is 8–16 h, and infection usually lasts 12–14 h. However, it can continue for several days. Symptoms are generally mild, with stomach cramps, watery diarrhea, and nausea [28]. In a small number of cases, both toxins produced, and vomiting and diarrhea develop [17].
No form of the disease is considered life-threatening for normal healthy individuals, with few fatal cases reported [22]. Bacillus cereus has been associated with the non-food-related illness, although this is rare. These bacteria have been found in postoperative and traumatic wounds and can cause opportunistic infections, especially in individuals with immune system disorders, such as septicemia, meningitis, and pneumonia. Bacillus cereus has also known to occasionally cause localized eye infections in humans [29].
The pathogenic mechanisms for Bacillus cereus emetic disease are well known. Emetic toxins (cereulide) cause vacuole formation in HEp-2 cells in the laboratory [29]. Cereulide in experimental animals caused vomiting, potentially by binding to 5-HT3 receptors in the stomach/small intestine to stimulate the vagus nerve and brain [30]. Cereulide produced by the Non-Ribosomal Peptide Synthetase Complex (NRPS) [31]. All NRPS clusters have characterized [23], resulting in a precise method for detecting cereulide-producing Bacillus cereus strains [32]. Emetic toxin production has shown to occur in skim milk in the temperature range of 12–37°C, with more toxins produced at 12 and 15°C than at higher temperatures [33]. Emetic toxins are highly resistant to environmental factors, exhibiting stability from a pH of 2–11 and heating to 100°C for 150 min (pH 8.7–10.6) [22].
Three types of enterotoxins are associated with a form of diarrhea syndrome, namely three components of the enterotoxin Hemolysin BL (HBL), three parts of Non-Hemolytic Enterotoxin (NHE) and one element of cytotoxin K. Enterotoxins are released into the small intestine by the surviving vegetative cells of Bacillus cereus [34]. Diarrheal enterotoxins are stable at pH 4–11 and deactivated by heating to 56°C for 5 min [22].
Up to 26% of the vegetative cells of Bacillus cereus can survive as they travel through the stomach. Diarrheal enterotoxins are unstable at low pH in the stomach and degraded by digestive enzymes. Any previously formed enterotoxins in food are destroyed during passage through the stomach so that they do not cause disease if ingested [22]. In contrast, Bacillus cereus spores can pass unaffected by the gastric barrier. Spores need to be triggered by nutrients and intestinal epithelial cells to initiate germination. In the small intestine, spores germinate, grow and produce enterotoxins [35].
A vital virulence factor required to cause diarrhea symptoms is the ability of vegetative cells and Bacillus cereus spores to adhere to the small intestine’s epithelial cell walls. Spore and cell adhesion efficiency show to be low, around 1% [35]. Enterotoxins’ ability to damage tissue and damage the plasma membrane of small intestinal epithelial cells plays a role in causing diarrhea [27].
The pattern of transmission Bacillus cereus food poisoning can be caused by ingesting large numbers of bacterial cells and spores in contaminated food (diarrhea type) or by ingesting food contaminated with pre-formed toxins (emetic type). Transmission of this disease caused by the consumption of contaminated food, improper handling/storage of food, and inadequate cooling of cooked food [36].
Cases of contamination of Staphylococcus aureus on rice, either in the form of raw rice or cooked rice and other processed rice products, are found in several countries. Further explanations can see in Table 1.
Year | Food | Country | Findings | Article title |
---|---|---|---|---|
2009 | Brown rice and glutinous rice | Korea | 15 (37%) of 83 samples of brown rice, 23 (37%) of 63 samples of glutinous rice | Prevalence, Genetic diversity, and Antibiotic Susceptibility of Bacillus cereus Strains Isolated from Rice and Cereals Collected in Korea [2] |
2009 | Raw rice | Amerika | Bacillus species spores found in 94 (52.8%) rice samples with an average concentration of 32.6 CFU/g | Detection of Toxigenic Bacillus cereus and Bacillus thuringiensis in US Rice [3] |
2012 | Cooked rice (white rice, fried rice) | Belgia | The concentration of cereulide found in rice dishes is around four ng/g | Prevalence and Levels of Bacillus cereus Emetic Toxin in Rice Dishes Randomly Collected from Restaurants and Comparison with the Levels Measured in a Recent Foodborne Outbreak [4] |
2012 | Cooked and raw rice | Pakistan | All rice samples showed the presence of Bacillus cereus, the highest number: 3.34 × 101 CFU/ml | Microbial Assessment of Uncooked and Cooked Rice Samples Available in Local Markets of Lahore [5] |
2013 | Baby food (made from rice) | Iran | Bacillus cereus and its enterotoxigenic genes have found in infant diets in Iran | Bacillus cereus in Infant Foods: Prevalence Study and Distribution of Enterotoxigenic Virulence Factors in Isfahan Province, Iran [6] |
2018 | Local unhulled (coarse) rice | Malaysia | The number of Bacillus cereus bacteria in all samples found to be more than 1100 MPN/g | Presence of Bacillus cereus from Local Unhusked (Rough) Rice Samples in Sarawak, Malaysia [7] |
2019 | Cooked rice (yellow rice) | Indonesia | 21% of yellow rice contaminated with Bacillus cereus | Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus in Yellow Rice [8] |
2020 | Rice/noodles | China | 59 out of 119 rice/noodle samples (50%) were positive for Bacillus cereus | A Study on Prevalence and Characterization of Bacillus cereus in Ready-to-Eat Foods in China [9] |
Cases of Bacillus cereus contamination in rice (rice-based food).
Precautions for contamination of Bacillus cereus in rice:
Processing (thoroughly cooked and quickly cooled) is one of the easiest ways to prevent foodborne illness associated with Bacillus spp. [37].
Hot foods should store at 140°F/60°C or higher [37].
Reheating cooked food should be stored at 165°F/74°C [37].
If frozen food is allowed to thaw, it must remain at 41°F/5°C or lower [37].
Steaming under pressure, roasting, frying, and grilling foods will destroy the vegetative cells and spores if temperatures within foods are ≥ 145ºF/63ºC [38].
Foods that contain emetic toxins need to be heated to 259°F/126°C for more than 90 min—reheating food until steaming is not sufficient to kill emetic toxins [38].
Staphylococcus aureus is one of the bacteria that cause food poisoning. Staphylococcus aureus is commonly found in the environment (soil, water, and air) and located on humans’ nose and skin. Staphylococcus aureus is a spherical, Gram-positive, non-spore bacteria. The genus Staphylococcus divided into 32 species and subspecies. Staphylococcus aureus causes food poisoning by producing Staphylococcal Enterotoxin (SE) [39, 40].
Staphylococcus aureus’s growth and survival depend on several environmental factors such as temperature, water activity (aw), pH, presence of oxygen, and food composition. These physical growth parameters varied for different strains of Staphylococcus aureus [41]. The temperature range for Staphylococcus aureus growth is 7–48°C, with an optimum temperature of 37°C. Staphylococcus aureus is resistant to freezing and does well in foods stored below −20°C; however, viability is reduced at −10 to 0°C. Staphylococcus aureus easily killed during pasteurization or cooking. Staphylococcus aureus growth occurs in the pH range 4.0–10.0, with an optimum of 6–7 [41].
Staphylococcus aureus is a facultative anaerobe so it can grow in both aerobic and anaerobic conditions. However, growth occurs at a much slower rate under anaerobic conditions [41]. For non-sporing mesophilic bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus has relatively high heat resistance [41]. A highly heat resistant Staphylococcus aureus strain (D-value at 60°C > 15 min in broth) has identified from foodborne outbreaks in India [42].
Several chemical preservatives, including sorbate and benzoate, inhibit the growth of Staphylococcus aureus. The effectiveness of this preservative increases as the pH decreases. Methyl and propyl parabens are also useful [41, 43].
Symptoms of staphylococcal food poisoning generally have a rapid onset, appearing approximately 3 h after ingestion (range 1–6 h). Common symptoms include nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps, and diarrhea. The individual may not show all the signs associated with the disease. In severe cases, headaches, muscle cramps, and temporary changes in blood pressure and pulse may occur. Recovery is usually between 1 and 3 days [39, 41]. Death is rare (0.03% for the general population) but occasionally reported in children and the elderly (death rate 4.4%) [40]. Staphylococcus aureus can cause various health problems not related to food such as skin inflammation (e.g., ulcers and style), mastitis, respiratory tract infections, wound sepsis, and toxic shock syndrome [40, 41].
Staphylococcal food poisoning caused by the ingestion of foods containing pre-formed SE [44], there are several types of SE; enterotoxin A is most commonly associated with staphylococcal food poisoning. Enterotoxins D, E, and H, and to a lesser extent B, G, and I have also associated with staphylococcal food poisoning [45, 46].
SE produced during the exponential phase of Staphylococcus aureus growth in a strain-dependent quantity. Typically, the disease-inducing dose of SE occurs when at least 105–108 CFU/g of Staphylococcus aureus are present [45, 40]. Most of the genes for SE located in plasmid or prophage elements. Thus, transfer between strains can occur, modifying the ability of Staphylococcus aureus strains to cause disease and contributing to pathogen evolution [44, 46].
As the temperature decreases, the SE production rate also decreases. However, SE remained stable under frozen storage. SE is highly resistant to heating and can withstand the processes used to sterilize low-acid canned foods. SE production can occur in the pH range 4.5–9.6, with an optimum of 7–8. SE production can occur in anaerobic and aerobic environments; however, toxin production is optimal under aerobic conditions [41].
Staphylococcal food poisoning occurs when the food consumed contains SE produced by Staphylococcus aureus. Food handlers carrying enterotoxin-producing Staphylococcus aureus in their nose or hands are considered a significant source of food contamination through direct contact or respiratory secretions [44].
It estimated that in the US, Staphylococcus aureus accounts for 2.6% of foodborne diseases caused by 31 significant pathogens [47]. The incidence of staphylococcal food poisoning is seasonal. Most cases occur in late summer when temperatures are warm, and food is stored incorrectly [40].
Foods associated with the staphylococcal food poisoning outbreak include meat and meat products, poultry and egg products, milk and dairy products, salads, cream sandwich products, and sandwich stuffing. Foods that require extensive handling during preparation and stored above refrigeration temperature (4°C) for a long time after development frequently implicated in staphylococcal food poisoning [39]. Foods high in starch (such as rice) and protein believed to support SE production [41].
Cases of contamination of Staphylococcus aureus on rice, either in the form of raw rice or cooked rice and other processed rice products, are found in several countries in the world. Further explanation can see in Table 2.
Year | Food | Country | Findings | Article title |
---|---|---|---|---|
2001 | Rames rice | Indonesia | The number of Staphylococcus aureus in the rice sample: 3.21 Log CFU/g | Study of Microbiological Safety of Snack Food at the FATETA-IPB Canteen, Bogor [10] |
2003 | Rice at the restaurant | Brazil | Rice containing Staphylococcus aureus: 100 CFU/g | An outbreak of staphylococcal food poisoning in the Municipality of Passos, MG, Brazil [11] |
2004 | Rice cake | Korea | 19.3% of rice cakes were contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus | Occurrence of Toxigenic Staphylococcus aureus in Ready-to-Eat Food in Korea [12] |
2010 | Uduk rice | Indonesia | The frequency of isolation of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureus in uduk rice samples was 6.67%, and not all were found in sufficient amounts to form enterotoxins. | Risks of Staphylococcus aureus in Traditional Ready-to-Eat Food and Evaluation of Its Presence in uduk Rice [13] |
2014 | Kerala matta rice | India | Kerala matta rice samples contained coagulase-positive Staphylococcus aureus. | Outbreak of Staphylococcal Food Poisoning [14] |
2019 | Yellow rice | Indonesia | 7% of yellow rice contaminated with Staphylococcus aureus | Staphylococcus aureus and Bacillus cereus in yellow rice [8] |
2019 | Jollof rice | Nigeria | Staphylococcus aureus found in jollof rice samples at the campus cafeteria. | Identification and anti-bacterial Testing of Staphylococcus aureus Isolated from Jollof Rice sold at selected Cafeterias in Federal University [15] |
Cases of Staphylococcus aureus contamination in rice (rice-based food).
Precautions for contamination of Staphylococcus aureus in rice:
The permissive temperature for growth and toxin production by Staphylococcus aureus is between 6 and 46°C. Thus, the ideal cooking and cooling temperatures should be above 60°C and below 5°C, respectively, is below the recommended temperature [48].
Serving food quickly when stored at room temperature, wearing gloves, masks, hairpins during food handling and processing, washing hands frequently, maintaining personal hygiene for food handlers can help prevent Staphylococcus aureus contamination [49].
Other precautions such as raw material control, proper handling and processing, adequate cleaning, and disinfection of equipment used in food processing and preparation must take [50].
Environmental factors that can play an essential role in the proliferation of bacteria and the production of Staphylococcus aureus enterotoxins are the storage of rice at room temperature for an extended period between preparation and consumption [14].
It knows that pathogens transmitted through contaminated rice can cause food poisoning, which occurs due to consuming rice containing pathogenic bacteria. Several cases of contamination of Bacillus cereus and Staphylococcus aureus in rice occurred in Indonesia, Pakistan, India, Malaysia, Belgium, America, Australia, Korea, Iran, China, Nigeria. In general, prevention by proper handling of raw materials, controlling the temperature of cooking and storing rice, and personal hygiene of food handlers.
Thanks go to students and lecturers of the Medical Laboratory Technology Poltekkes Kemenkes Banjarmasin, Indonesia who have supported the writing of this manuscript and to all parties who did not directly play a role in the writing process.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
HBL | hemolysin BL |
NHE | non-hemolytic enterotoxin |
SE | staphylococcal enterotoxin |
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
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\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
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\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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