\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
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In particular, he is interested in: \n- Computational models of neural architectures, mainly in the dorsal stream of the visual cortex.\n- Algorithms for motion and depth computation, exploiting processing techniques based on spatio-temporal, multi-channel and multi-scale filtering. \n- Robotic systems for active vision: functional assessment of anthropomorphic robotic heads for active foveation; sensorimotor coordination in the peripersonal (e.g., reaching and grasping) and extrapersonal (e.g., navigation) space; space-variant vision systems (log-polar mapping).\n- Context sensitive receptive fields: motion analysis and motion interpretation, e.g. the time-to-contact estimation.\n- Software tools for the simulation of robotic systems and for the real-time processing of complex visual descriptors: neuromorphic algorithms for graphics processing units, GPGPU; virtual environments for the simulation of stereo active vision systems.\n- Augmented reality systems for the study of the visuo-motor coordination in the peripersonal space.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Genoa",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"15165",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuela",middleName:null,surname:"Chessa",slug:"manuela-chessa",fullName:"Manuela Chessa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/15165/images/system/15165.jpg",biography:"Manuela Chessa is a Postodoctoral Research scientist at the University of Genoa, Italy. 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Product development is a complex integrated process of several steps starting from design where the market needs are identified and turned into competitive product specifications and different design concepts. In other words, design is about identifying a problem, developing solution proposals, and validating the most feasible solution with real users. Manufacturing technologies, on the other hand, help designers to make those virtual models into physical parts by transforming different types of raw materials. This book on design and manufacturing, written by a number of experts from all over the world, presents a design perspective and different manufacturing applications from various industrial sectors.",isbn:"978-1-78985-866-2",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-865-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-889-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83290",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"design-and-manufacturing",numberOfPages:266,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29172b8e746a303c2c48f39292fd4c10",bookSignature:"Evren Yasa, Mohsen Mhadhbi and Eleonora Santecchia",publishedDate:"July 29th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9288.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:3056,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:7,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 14th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"August 28th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 27th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 15th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 15th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"219594",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Evren",middleName:null,surname:"Yasa",slug:"evren-yasa",fullName:"Evren Yasa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219594/images/9465_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Evren Yasa graduated with her degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Istanbul Technical University and completed\nher master degree at the University of British Columbia on\nvolumetric error modeling and compensation. She received her\nPh.D. degree with her thesis on “Combined Process of Selective\nLaser Melting and Selective Laser Erosion/Laser Re-melting” at\nthe Catholic University of Leuven, and won the “Emerald Outstanding Doctoral Study-Highly commended” award with her doctoral dissertation.\nAfter her Ph.D. study, she worked as a senior engineer at TEI, a GE-joint venture\ncompany specializing in manufacturing aero-engine parts, where she led Additive\nManufacturing projects. Later, she joined Eskisehir Osmangazi University as an\nassistant professor. 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by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"63342",title:"HIV-Associated Cardiovascular Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.80483",slug:"hiv-associated-cardiovascular-disease",body:'
By end of 2017, about 37 million people worldwide were living with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) [1]. Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) is the region of the world most severely affected by HIV infection, where 69% of the global population of people living with HIV reside [2]. South Africa has the largest population of HIV infected persons: an adult prevalence of 18.9% and an estimated 7.1 million people living with HIV in 2016 [2]. At the end of 2016, the country had 270,000 new infections while 110,000 South Africans died from AIDS-related illnesses [3].
The connection between HIV infection and cardiovascular disease (CVD) was established quite early in the history of the AIDS pandemic [4]. Early studies in Africans with HIV infection reported that CVD, involving predominantly the myocardium and pericardium, occurred in up to 60% of patients studied [5]. The frequency and pattern of CVD in HIV infected persons is determined by geography, access to combination antiretroviral therapy (ART) and degree of immunosuppression [6]; and several studies have reported the incidence of HIV-associated CVD to be much higher in SSA compared to high-income countries [7, 8].
The risk of CVD in HIV infected individuals is influenced not only by traditional cardiovascular risk factors, genetics and family history, but also by the effect of ART and the effect of HIV itself [9]. Common HIV-associated CVD manifestations include HIV-associated cardiomyopathy (38%), pericardial disease (13%) and pulmonary hypertension (8%) [10]. Approximately 50% of asymptomatic HIV infected persons without known CVD have been found to have diastolic dysfunction on echocardiography [11]. Studies from Africa have found the prevalence of diastolic dysfunction in HIV infected patients to be much higher and to be more severe in patients with AIDS at autopsy, where up to 40% of HIV infected patients were found to have histological evidence of interstitial fibrosis [12]. Despite effective suppression of viral replication, treated HIV infection is associated with persistent inflammation, tissue fibrosis, suboptimal immune recovery and organ damage [13].
Heart failure, a regular consequence of cardiac disease, appears to be more common among HIV patients. The global prevalence of heart failure in HIV infected patients in the pre-ART era was between 4 and 5 million cases [13]. Heart failure remains a significant problem in HIV infected patients; the incidence of HIV/AIDS related heart failure is on increase, and current evidence suggests that diastolic, rather than systolic dysfunction is the predominant form of heart failure in the era of ART [14, 15]. Risk factors for systolic dysfunction included elevated high-sensitivity C-reactive protein, tobacco use and prior myocardial infarction (MI); for diastolic dysfunction, risk factors were hypertension and older age [16, 17, 18]. In 2242 HIV infected patients on ART from 11 contemporaneous studies, systolic and diastolic dysfunction were in 8.3% and 43.4% of study subject, respectively [16].
Several mechanisms may be responsible HIV-associated heart failure, as shown in Figure 1, including direct HIV infection, toxicity of HIV components and ART, opportunistic infections and abnormal autoimmune responses to viral infection [19, 20]. HIV associated myocarditis, malignancy, myocardial fibrosis, myocardial steatosis, arterial stiffness, endothelial dysfunction capillary leak syndrome and abnormal coagulation have been considered in the pathogenesis [21, 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27]. Also, traditional risk factors such as hypertension, diabetes, dyslipidaemia and smoking are more common in HIV infected people [28].
Mechanisms of cardiovascular involvement in HIV infection.
At autopsy, myocarditis was reported in up to 50% of AIDS patients who had not died from cardiac reasons [29]. Direct invasion of cardiomyocytes by HIV has been described, however, the virus affects the myocardial cells in a haphazard fashion with no clear association between viral load and extent of myocardial involvement [30]. The invasion of cardiomyocytes in HIV infection can be through other microorganisms, including fungi (Candida, Histoplasma capsulatum [31], Cryptococcus neoformans [32], Aspergillus [32]); viruses (Herpes simplex [33], cytomegalovirus [30], Coxsackievirus B3 [34], Parvovirus [33]); bacteria (Mycobacterium tuberculosis [35], Mycobacterium avium [36]) and parasites (Toxoplasma gondii [37]).
Myocarditis with lymphocytic infiltration was reported in 40–52% of patients who died of AIDS in the pre-ART era, although no specific pathogen was reported in most affected patients and clinical presentation was heterogeneous with most remaining asymptomatic despite ongoing subclinical myocardial oedema and inflammation (Figure 2) [30]. In different study of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy, endomyocardial biopsy (EMB) of almost cases revealed myocarditis with cardiotropic viral infections [38]. The prevalence of myocarditis and cardiotropic viral genomes in HIV-associated cardiomyopathy, HIV uninfected idiopathic dilated cardiomyopathy (DCM) patients and orthotopic heart transplant recipients was compared using EMB and the immunohistological criteria of the World Heart Federation in 33 patients. Myocarditis was present in 44% of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy, 36% of heart transplant recipients and 25% of participants with idiopathic DCM. Multiple viruses were identified in most cases. Cardiotropic viral infection was present in all HIV-associated cardiomyopathy patients, with HIV-associated cardiomyopathy, heart transplant recipients and idiopathic DCM patients having an average of 2.5, 2.2 and 1.1 viruses per individual, respectively [39].
CMR T2-weighted short-tau inversion recovery image showing elevated myocardial: Skeletal muscle signal intensity ratio of the lateral wall (white arrows) in a patient with HIV-associated acute myocarditis. Regions of interest drawn in blue.
Viral and opportunistic infections trigger myocarditis in the setting of uncontrolled HIV infection. Direct invasion of cardiac myocytes by cardiotropic viruses, including HIV, leads to a local cytokine release and subsequent infiltration of the myocardium with clonal expansion of B cells [40]. Reduction in opportunistic infections in patients on ART may be responsible for the impressive drop in myocarditis rates and declining prevalence of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy [15, 41, 42].
The most commonly reported cardiac manifestations of HIV/AIDS in SSA are cardiomyopathy, pericardial disease (related to tuberculosis), and pulmonary hypertension [10]. Initial descriptions of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy have evolved since the 1980s [43]. The pathogenesis of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy is multifactorial and can be direct action of HIV on myocardial tissue or from proteolytic enzymes and cytokine mediators induced by HIV alone or in conjunction with cardiotropic viruses [44]. There has been a marked reduction in incidence of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy after the introduction of ART [15, 26, 41].
HIV-associated cardiomyopathy was showed manifestations of systolic dysfunction associated with a dilated left ventricle and indicated a poor prognosis [4]. The clinical presentation of HIV-associated cardiomyopathy is similar to that of DCM in HIV uninfected persons, and pathological features include dilated cardiac chambers with endocardial fibrosis and mural thrombus (Figure 3) [45]. Histologically, it manifests as myocyte hypertrophy and degeneration with increased interstitial and endocardial fibrin collagen and evidence of prior myocarditis [45]. However, more recent reports indicate that HIV-associated cardiomyopathy more commonly manifests with subclinical diastolic dysfunction, particularly in individuals with well controlled HIV infection [46]. Contemporaneous series of significant systolic dysfunction in treated HIV infection have been associated with prior myocardial infarction [47].
CMR balanced steady state free precession images showing (A) 4-chamber view, (B) 2-chamber view, and (C) a mid-ventricular short-axis image; and (D) late gadolinium enhancement image showing linear mid-wall enhancement in a patient diagnosed with HIV-associated cardiomyopathy.
A phenotype of HIV-associated heart muscle disease with normal chamber size and mildly impaired systolic function increases risk of heart failure, even in the absence of coronary artery disease [48].
Left ventricular dysfunction associated with HIV is often clinically silent but may progress to symptomatic heart failure. Many studies have reported high incidence of diastolic dysfunction in HIV (Figure 4) [11, 12, 16, 17, 18, 22, 23, 47, 49, 50]. In addition, diastolic dysfunction is considered an early marker of coronary artery disease in HIV uninfected patients without cardiac symptoms and preserved systolic function [51]. Diastolic dysfunction in HIV is associated with longer duration of HIV infection, higher body mass index and exposure to zidovudine [52, 53]. In different echocardiographic screening studies of asymptomatic HIV infected individuals, diastolic dysfunction was seen in 26–48% [46, 47, 49, 54]. In these studies, diastolic dysfunction has been associated with elevated body mass, total cholesterol, hypertension, smoking and viral load.
CMR cine tagging using spatial modulation of magnetisation in a short axis image through the mid left ventricle at end-diastole (a) and at end-systole (B) in a patient infected with HIV. Tagging for strain and strain rate imaging in circumferential, longitudinal and radial directions is one of the main techniques for assessment of diastolic dysfunction with CMR.
Myocardial fibrosis an important reason of development and progression systolic and diastolic cardiac failure [55]. There is histological evidence of interstitial fibrosis at autopsy in 40% of subjects with HIV infection [29]. CMR studies have demonstrated a prevalence of focal fibrosis in asymptomatic HIV infected individuals of close to 80% (Figure 5) [22, 23, 25, 56]. Diffuse myocardial fibrosis estimated by extracellular volume (ECV) calculation was also found to be elevated in HIV infected individuals [56].
Late post gadolinium images showing mid-wall focal fibrosis in the basal inferolateral wall in (a) 3-chamber view and in the lateral wall in (B) short-axis (white arrows depict the fibrosis).
Cardiovascular magnetic resonance spectroscopy studies have reported increased incidence of myocardial lipidosis in HIV infected patients receiving ART, even in the absence of cardiovascular symptoms [22, 25]. In these studies, steatosis was associated with elevated serum lipid levels, duration of ART use and impaired strain.
Primary pulmonary arterial hypertension is rare in HIV infected persons, with a prevalence of 0.5% [57]. The use of ART has not impacted on the epidemiology of HIV-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension [58]. There is no correlation between HIV-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension and CD4 cell count, HIV viremia, or duration since HIV diagnosis [47]. The pathogenesis of HIV-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension is poorly understood, with inflammatory and genetic factors both implicated [59]. Pulmonary hypertension in HIV occurs without documented thromboembolic disease, intravenous drug use or pulmonary infections [57, 58]. In a study of 47 patients in the Swiss Cohort Study, patients receiving ART had a significantly decreased median right ventricular systolic pressure over right atrial pressure gradient compared to patients who did not receive ART [60]. ART has also been reported to improve the 6 minute walk test in HIV infected patients with pulmonary hypertension, but with no effect on haemodynamic parameters [61]. Histologically, HIV-associated pulmonary arterial hypertension manifests most commonly as a plexogenic pulmonary arteriopathy, but thrombotic pulmonary arteriopathy and pulmonary veno-occlusive disease also described [62].
Pericardial effusion and pericarditis are encountered frequently in patients with HIV infection. The prevalence of symptomatic pericardial effusions before the advent of ART was up to 11% of patients with AIDS [63]. However, in the ART era, the incidence of pericardial effusions in HIV is much less: in a multicentre cohort study of treated HIV patients, only 2 of 872 HIV infected patients had pericardial effusions, neither clinically important [64]. Using CMR with greater resolution, our group has demonstrated the prevalence of small, asymptomatic pericardial effusions to be much higher [23]. While generally nonspecific, pericardial effusions may indicate active inflammation and may be associated with subclinical myocarditis or disseminated tuberculosis, particularly in patients with low CD4 cell counts. In patients with large pericardial effusions, Mycobacterium tuberculosis is likely pathogen, especially in tuberculosis endemic regions [65]. In prospective study of patients with a large pericardial effusion, tuberculosis was identified as cause in 85% of cases [66]. In HIV, tuberculous pericarditis is commonly associated with heart failure [67]. HIV is associated with reduced incidence of pericardial constriction [68].
Mortality of pericardial effusions in HIV-infected patients is based on the severity and aetiology of the disease, especially if associated with tuberculosis [69]. We have demonstrated more frequent myocardial fibrosis in HIV-associated pericardial constriction when compared to those without HIV infection [35]. Prednisone does not reduce mortality in tuberculous pericarditis, but has been shown to be associated with reduced hospitalisation and constriction, but with increased risk of malignancies in those with HIV infection [70]. Other causes of pericarditis and pericardial effusions in HIV include HIV itself, bacterial infections, Kaposi’s sarcoma and lymphoma [71, 72].
The epidemiology and clinical profile of infective endocarditis in HIV infection are the same as in uninfected individuals [73]. The one setting where HIV is associated with increased risk of infective endocarditis is intravenous drug abuse. Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus viridans and Salmonella species are the most common organisms and the tricuspid valve is most involved in intravenous drug users developing infective endocarditis [74, 75]. Nonbacterial (marantic) endocarditis has been described in HIV, usually clinically silent and manifests with large, friable, sterile vegetations on the cardiac valves, which can lead to pulmonary embolization [75]. Patients with low CD4 counts have a poorer prognosis when they develop infective endocarditis [76]. Rates of infective endocarditis have decreased with the advent of ARV therapy [76]. When intravenous drug use is excluded, HIV infection has not been shown to be a risk factor for infective endocarditis [77].
HIV-infected patients are known to be at risk for premature coronary artery disease (CAD) [78]. Different factors related to HIV can lead to development atherosclerosis, including immune dysfunction, proliferation of T-cells, inflammation, endothelial dysfunction, and lipid abnormalities [79, 80]. During atherogenesis, HIV promotes monocyte penetration of the vascular intima to promote secretion of cytokines and expression of endothelial cell adhesion molecules [81]. The process of endothelial dysfunction in HIV patients may be driven by HIV transcription factors [82]. Increased risk of CVD in HIV infected patients is directly related to lower CD4 T-cell counts [83]. Higher number of activated CD8 T-cells is observed in relation to increased rates of coronary artery plaque and carotid artery stiffness [84].
In the early stage of HIV infection both total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol are decreased [85]. Lower levels of apolipoprotein B and smaller low-density lipoprotein cholesterol have been reported in more advanced stages of HIV infection [86]. In addition, deleterious metabolic effects such as dyslipidaemia and insulin resistance after exposure to certain ART treatments have been reported [79]. Recent studies observed that HIV infected patients presented with large thrombus burden than atherosclerotic plaques suggesting de novo arteriothrombosis and thrombophilia as possible causes of CAD events [87, 88].
Cardiac malignancy usually manifests late in HIV disease. Kaposi’s sarcoma and cardiac lymphoma are the main malignancies associated with HIV [89]. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma occurs 25–60 times more in HIV infected patients [90]. Cardiac lymphoma can infiltrate the myocardium, the subendocardial layer or be located within pericardial effusion [90]. Clinical features include dyspnoea, right-sided heart failure, heart failure, chest pain and arrhythmia. Presentations range from asymptomatic to cardiac tamponade, myocardial infarction, heart failure or conduction abnormalities [91].
In the pre-ART era, the prevalence of Kaposi’s sarcoma from autopsy studies ranged from 12 to 28%, however, cardiac sarcomas were rare [6, 62]. In Kaposi’s sarcoma, the coronary arteries are not affected. The incidence of non-Hodgkin lymphoma is not related to the level of immunosuppression and has not changed with ART use [92].
Two third of those infected with HIV reside in SSA. Currently, 17 million people globally receive ART for HIV infection. This widespread use of ART has been associated with a dramatic reduction in HIV-related mortality. CVD and heart failure are on the increase in HIV: the mechanisms responsible for HIV-associated CVD are manifold and incompletely understood. Diastolic dysfunction has emerged as the dominant form of HIV-associated CVD in the era of ART. HIV-associated CVD encompasses heterogeneous disorders and has the propensity to involve every segment of the cardiovascular axis. We have described important recent developments and perspectives based on a systematic analysis of the important advances in this field.
None.
Funding
This manuscript is not funded. Dr. Ntusi gratefully acknowledges support from the American Heart Association, the National Institutes of Health/National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, National Research Foundation and the Medical Research Council of South Africa, as well as the Harry Crossley Foundation.
AIDS | acquired immunodeficiency syndrome |
ART | antiretroviral therapy |
CAD | coronary artery disease |
CD | cluster of differentiation |
CMR | cardiovascular magnetic resonance |
CVD | cardiovascular disease |
DCM | dilated cardiomyopathy |
EMB | endomyocardial biopsy |
HIV | human immunodeficiency syndrome |
SSA | sub-Saharan Africa |
Today, information has become the main component of what we produce, do, buy, and consume. Having an economic value in almost all products and services that meet the needs of today’s societies, it has been now obligatory for individuals and organizations to obtain information technologies and to actively use them in both work and social life domains. Hence, in the current information age, where information is seen as power, this situation has made it imperative for organizations to become increasingly information-based and to benefit from information technologies in many processes and activities.
The intensive use of information technologies in many functions and processes has also required some changes in organizations [1]. This is due to the fact that information technologies, unlike traditional technologies, do not only change the technical fields but also affect the communication channels, decision-making functions and mechanisms, control, etc. [2]. Consequently, one of the most striking developments is on organizational structures that are becoming increasingly flattened and horizontal. Relatedly, information technologies have begun to take over the role of middle management, which supports decision-making processes of senior management and has reduced the importance of this level [3, 4, 5]. Similarly, while information technologies enable managers to obtain faster, more accurate, and more information [6, 7, 8], it also provides lower-level managers with more information about the general situation of the organization, the nature of current problems, and important organizational matters [9, 10, 11, 12].
Moreover, information technologies also have an important potential in determining whether organizations have a mechanical or an organic structure [13]. Within the mechanical organizational structures, people do not have much autonomy, and behaviors expected from employees are being careful and obedience to upper authority and respect for traditions. In such organizations, predictability, consistency, and stability are desirable phenomena. In contrast, people in organic structures have more freedom in shaping and controlling their activities, and being enthusiastic, creative, and taking risks have important places among the desired behaviors [14].
Accordingly, information technologies begin to influence the cultural values of the organization over time, through these transformations they create on organizational structures, processes, and operations. In other words, the fact that organizational structures are mechanical or organic causes the formation of diverse cultural values in organizations [15]. Therefore, the desired cultural values in mechanical organizations are quite different from those in organic structures [1, 16, 17]. In this context, this chapter deals with the influences of information technologies on cultural characteristics of organizations along with the reflections of the use of these technologies on organizational structures and their functioning.
When we look at studies on the relations between organizational culture and information technologies, we generally see the studies on the effects of culture on technology adaptation or use [18, 19, 20, 21], as well as on the effects of certain specific information technologies and applications (e.g., e-mail use, group support practices, etc.) on some aspects of any organizational culture [22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 29, 30, 31]. However, the number of studies that consider the use of information technologies as a “whole” and that address “why” and “how” its effects on organizational culture occurred is still limited. And so, this chapter aims to examine and discuss the overall effects of the usage and intensity of information technologies established in organizations on the cultural life within.
In this context, the chapter plan is as follows: Firstly, the basic concepts related to information and information technologies are included. Emphasis is placed on the meaning differences between knowledge and information, and their connections to information technologies are tried to be explained briefly. Secondly, the effects of information technologies on organizational structure are given particular attention. The reason for this is that as a system of values, beliefs, assumptions, and practices [32], organizational culture encompasses many features closely related to structures of organizations. Thirdly, possible links between organizational structure and organizational culture are included. Fourthly, important theoretical approaches and studies on the relationships between information technologies and organizational culture are provided. Finally, by deepening a bit more and by emphasizing key points, some important arguments are discussed.
In the literature, the concepts of information and knowledge are sometimes expressed by a single term, “information.” However, although the concepts of knowledge and information are intertwined, they are two different concepts that have different meanings and describe different phenomena. The reason for this is that knowledge is also included in the concept of information as it is transformed into a commodity when it begins to be processed, stored, and shared by information technologies.
Becoming the basic elements of today’s economic, social, and cultural systems, information is obtained in a certain hierarchy. The images are at the beginning of the process, and the process is completed with a hierarchical staging in the form of data, information, and knowledge, respectively [33]. Image is located in the first step of the process. Humans copy the picture of any object and event they previously perceived by sensory organs. When faced with a similar phenomenon in the later stages of life, these pictures in the mind are redesigned. We call these pictures of realities occurring in the human mind as images [33]. The next stage, the data, contains symbols that represent events and their properties. For this reason, data are expressed as figures and/or facts without content and interpretation [34]. Information that constitutes the next stage of the process and is mixed with knowledge and used interchangeably is expressed as a reporting of one system’s own status to another system [33]. In information, associated data are combined for a specific purpose. Therefore, we can explain information as meaningful data [35]. Knowledge, on the other hand, is defined as personalized information that allows people to fully and accurately grasp what is happening around them and manifests itself in the form of thoughts, insights, intuition, ideas, lessons learned, practices, and experiences [36]. According to Kautz and Thaysen [37] who stated that knowledge is found only in the people’s minds, knowledge is, therefore, a subjective formation. In other words, knowledge is the form of information enriched with interpretation, analysis, and context [38]. However, here, it should be emphasized again by highlighting a very important issue that knowledge is also accepted as information when this knowledge begins to be processed, stored, shared, and used over information technologies. Therefore, after this, when talking about information, one should consider not only the information created by the data brought together in a meaningful way but also the knowledge shared and used over information technologies.
On the other hand, information technologies, used as the most important tool of generating value today, are defined as the technologies that enable processes such as recording and storing data, producing information through certain operational processes, and accessing, storing, and transmitting this produced information effectively and efficiently [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46]. The term information technologies is used to cover computer and electronic communication technologies, as they are now inseparably intertwined in literature and everyday use and are generally used in this way [47]. In this context, data processing systems, management information systems (MIS), office automation systems, executive support systems, expert systems, intranet and extranet, electronic mail (e-mail), group applications (groupware), database management systems, decision support systems, artificial intelligence, and telecommunication systems can be given as examples of information technologies [33, 48, 49].
Towards the end of the twentieth century, the rapid changes with the impact of developments in information technologies led to the emergence of customer satisfaction-based, learning, knowledge-based, and constantly changing organizations [50]. The fact that organizations have become considerably information-based and benefit from information technologies intensively in their activities and processes has made also the changes in their organizational structures mandatory [1]. Accordingly, the effects of information technologies on organizational structure will be summarized under the subtitles of differentiation, centralization, and standardization/formalization, which are the three main components of organizational structure [15].
Differentiation within an organization occurs in three ways: Specialization/division of labor, horizontal and vertical differentiation, and hierarchy and size [15]. Specialization refers to the amount of different expertise or types of work [51, 52]. Specialization generally increases the number of subunits and makes it harder to understand the larger structure that people contribute to with their skills and expertise [53]. Information technologies have the potential to reduce this tendency by providing more access to information and experts at this point. In this way, access to information resources provides synergy [54].
Vertical and horizontal differentiation refers to the amount of hierarchical levels in an organization [55]. Information technologies, with the support of problem solving and decision-making, lead to the emergence of more flattened organizational structures as they require fewer levels within the hierarchy [56]. Since information technologies give employees in lower positions more autonomy to harmonize their activities, this can allow them to find and try better methods while performing their work. In this context, we can increasingly see that organizational structures have become horizontal and strengthened and that virtual organizations have begun to emerge as the most cost-effective structure [17].
In terms of hierarchy and size, Heinze and Stuart [4] argue that the mid-level management staff is unnecessary, increases bureaucracy, reduces efficiency, and has no function in organizations any more. Since most of the tasks performed by mid-level executives can be fulfilled by computers, both less costly and faster, information technology has begun to take over the role of mid-level management, which supports the decision-making process of senior management [5]. Sharing the same opinion, Fulk and DeSanctis [57] also stated that the largely witnessed situation in modern organizational designs is the reduction of intermediate-level managers and administrative support.
Centralization points to the extent to which decision-making power within an organization is scattered or centered [58]. Due to increasing local and global competition, many companies have started to leave their strategic decision-making task further down the organization to benefit from the expert people with more precise and timely local knowledge [10]. Information technologies affect these efforts directly in two ways. Firstly, information technologies increase local knowledge by contributing to obtaining closer information about market trends, opportunities, and customers. Secondly, information technologies can create synergies for organizations because, thanks to information technologies, communication and coordination between distributed decision makers, central planners, and senior managers can be realized more effectively and efficiently [59].
However, whether information technologies will lead to centralization or decentralization is a very controversial question. Regarding centralization, it enables managers to acquire faster, more accurate, and more information, reduces uncertainty, and allows them to make decisions that they cannot make before [6, 7, 8]. Conversely, by the use of other forms of information technologies (e.g., electronic bulletin boards), decentralization provides more information to lower- and mid-level managers about the general situation of the organization and the nature of current matters and problems [9, 10, 11, 12]. Raymond et al. [60] argued that because information technologies facilitate the use and transmission of information by all levels and units in the organization, it enables top management, which is the decision authority, to be disabled in certain areas and the decentralization of control. Thach and Woodman [61] maintained that this is due to the fact that as a result of sharing information at lower levels with the help of information technologies, this power of senior management has decreased to a certain extent, and the knowledge and participation of the staff in organizational matters have increased.
The literature shows that information technologies allow both centralization and decentralization. Researchers are in the agreement that information technologies make it possible for organizational managers to leave their decision-making power to a large part of the hierarchical levels without compromising the quality and timeliness of the decision [62, 63]. Keen [64] combined the concepts of centralization and decentralization and used the term “federated organization” in which organizations do not have to choose either because information technologies simultaneously allow centralization-decentralization [64, 65].
Formalization is the process of detailing how activities are coordinated for organizational purposes in order for employees and organizational units to respond routinely to recurring situations [51, 66]. Formalization involves rules, instructions, shared values, and norms [67]. In fact, formalization is based on the objective of more efficiency and less uncertainty [13].
Information technologies provide the ability to reduce the negative effects of formalization by facilitating the documenting and retrieving of information on organizational occurrences and endeavors that make behaviors and processes more consistent through formalization [63]. The more information technologies assist in reducing search times and preventing downtime, the more the administrative cost of formalization decreases and the productivity increases, which ultimately benefits the path to innovation [68].
Different organizational structures lead to the development of different cultural values [15]. The fact that the structure which an organization has established to control its activities and is defined as a formal system consisting of duties and authority relations is mechanical or organic causes the emergence of completely different cultural values, rules, and norms [69]. While mechanical structures are vertical, highly centralized, and almost everything in them are standardized, organic structures are horizontal, decentralized, and based on mutual adaptation [14]. People feel relatively less autonomous in vertical and centralized organizations, and being careful, obeying the upper authority, and respecting traditions are among the desired behaviors. Therefore, in a mechanical organizational structure, there are cultural values where predictability and stability are important [69]. In contrast, in horizontal and decentralized organizations, people can freely choose their own activities and control them. Creativity, courage, and risk-taking are given importance as desired behaviors. Therefore, organic structures contribute to the formation of cultures that value innovation and flexibility [15].
Organizational structure is also important for the development of cultural values that support integration and coordination. In a structure with stable task and role relations, sharing of rules and norms is more since there will be no communication problems and the information flow will be fast [70]. In organizations where the sharing of cultural values, norms, and rules is at a high level, the level of performance also increases [15]. Particularly in team or matrix structures where face-to-face communication is intense, the sharing of these cultural values and common reactions to the problems develop more rapidly [9].
Whether an organization is centralized or not causes different cultural values to emerge. In decentralized structures, authority is divided into subordinate levels, and an environment is created for the formation of cultural values in which creativity and innovation are rewarded [13]. Employees are allowed to use the organization’s resources and work in projects that they want, by spending some of their time in these projects, thus contributing to the production of innovative and creative products and services [15]. The structures of such organizations constitute the cultural values that give their employees the message “as long as it is in the interest of the organization, it is okay to do things in an innovative and the way you want.”
Conversely, in some organizations, it may be more important for employees not to decide on their own and all activities to be followed and controlled by their superiors. In such cases, a centralized structure is preferred to create cultural values that will ensure accountability and obedience [71]. Through norms and rules, all employees are expected to behave honestly and consistently and inform their superiors about wrongs or mistakes, because this is the only acceptable form of behavior within these structures [72].
Since working on the factors that determine the consequences of the adoption and use of information technologies, researchers have focused on people’s beliefs, values, assumptions, and codes of conduct. As a result, they have given names to this research field such as “socio-technical systems,” “social system,” “social structure,” and most recently “culture” [73]. For example, Markus and Robey [23] using “social elements” and Barley [26] using “social system” or “social structure” tried to explain this phenomenon. When examined more closely, it is seen that the details that these authors emphasize while depicting the case are the assumptions, beliefs, and values that exist in common among the group members, and this corresponds to the definition of organizational culture.
Research examining the relationships between information technologies and values, beliefs, and norms belonging to a particular group has gone through certain stages and used rich and complex research models to explain the relationships in each of these stages [74]. In the first studies on information technology applications, it has been suggested that information technologies cause changes in various organizational phenomena including structural features and thus have certain effects on organizations [74]. For instance, in some studies on adoption of groupware software, several researchers have used this deterministic approach to describe how groupware use affects communication and collaboration among employees and their productivity [27, 28]. These studies assume that certain results will certainly emerge after the adoption of information technologies, without considering the motives or activities that shape the use of information technologies by managers and employees. Like much more deterministic studies, these authors often assumed that information technologies would have predetermined influences on the adoption of information technologies, regardless of the environment in which information technologies were applied, how they were applied, and the users’ specific behaviors and particular purposes.
The second group of views concerning the relationships between organizational culture and information technologies includes the fact that information technologies are seen as a tool that can be used for any change that managers desire to make in organizational practices [22]. In studies in this approach, researchers believe that there is a wide range of possibilities to identify changes in organizational culture, structure, processes, and performance [22, 75]. Researchers from this tradition presume that with the right choice of information technologies and appropriate system design, managers can achieve whatever goals they desire.
These works were mostly adopted in the 1980s and reflect a perspective that managers think can manipulate organizational culture in the way they want. Often called “management and control,” “a functional or instrumental approach” to organizational culture, this methodology has caused serious debate in the literature [76]. This approach attributes great powers to the management level in this regard, which conflicts with anthropologists’ views that culture cannot be consciously controlled and goes much deeper to understand it [76]. Robey and Azevido [77] also do not accept the rational thought on the assumption that culture can be manipulated directly in this way.
Studies with this rational perspective in the information technology literature assume that managers can use information technologies as a leverage to make changes in the norms of behavior, strategy, structure, and performance among members within the organization. For example, in studies on group support systems (GSS), we find managers’ beliefs that they can use collaborative technologies to create a more cooperative organizational culture. This perspective was not accepted by Karsten [78] and some experimental research on GSS [30, 79]. Organizational necessity is no longer accepted, as it is viewed by information technology researchers as an overly simple approach [23, 80].
Researchers who take another approach suggest that information technologies and organizational culture can interact with each other to produce various results [22, 23]. These results can be in the form of adoption and effective use of information technologies (if there is a harmony between organizational culture and information technologies) or user reluctance, refusal, or sabotage (if no fit). Researchers who have been working on information systems since the 1980s have focused on understanding information technology features and functionality that cause effective or problematic information technology applications and the interaction between users’ values, assumptions, and other elements of organizational culture. In this regard, Romm et al. [81] argued that many forms of information technologies comprise cultural assumptions embedded within themselves and these assumptions may conflict with existing values of a particular organization. The authors argued that these embedded assumptions present information technologies as a “cultural boundary” and that a cultural analysis should be made to predict compliance or incompatibility. The authors in this approach warn managers to think of organizational culture as a binding limitation in information technology applications. In a warning by Pliskin et al. [76], managers are advised not to try to change the culture of the organization. Regarding this issue, Orlikowski [30] cites Lotus Notes (a group software) application at Alpha Corporation, a consultancy company. In this example, this system, which was established by the CEO of the company only with the benefits to be obtained, did not create the expected effects, became unsuccessful, and disappointed due to reasons such as no cultural analysis and inadequate training. Employees responded to the use of Notes with resistance and refrained from using it. The reason for this was that the employees in this organization, which had a competitive culture where information was seen as a power, avoided sharing information with others. As a result, this incompatibility between the collaborative culture that Notes had in itself and the competitive culture of the organization in question had failed this application of information technologies.
In a different approach, it is stated that information technologies and culture are not fixed and they are more flexible in terms of change [23, 75]. Managers in this approach may set specific goals for the use of information technologies, but actual results of the use of information technologies are not deterministic, and results cannot be predicted or controlled even under the best conditions [23]. The effects of information technologies are not deterministic because technology has interpretable flexibility considering that it can have different meanings for different employees. Similar technology can be interpreted in a different way by distinct people, based on certain assumptions, beliefs, and values. Robey and coauthors [24, 25], for instance, showed that it would be an empty attempt for organizational managers to try to intentionally manipulate the effects of these technologies, since there are many ways that diverse employees can configure a particular technology in different social environments.
Gopal and Prasad [31] also achieved similar results in their work on group support system (GSS), claiming that for researchers seeking fixed laws or regulations on how information technologies affect user behaviors, this would be an impossible goal to pursue. Conversely, the results of using information technologies depend on the symbolic meanings that information technologies have for a particular user. This work of Gopal and Prasad [31] expresses similar results with the work of Barley [26] and Robey and Sahay [25]. The authors stated that the symbolic meanings of certain technologies for users affect their perceptions of information technologies and their specific behaviors.
In the light of the above-mentioned approaches, arguments, and important studies in the literature, it will be useful to discuss some important points by deepening a little more and by emphasizing the key features related to the concepts of information, information technologies, and organizational culture.
First, organizational culture is a complex phenomenon that develops and changes in a historical process [32, 82, 83]. Thus, although it might seem like a plain and simple concept, organizational culture includes many subdimensions and processes. When considered as a complex pattern of these interactions of many factors with each other, it is also a difficult process to identify the direct and indirect effects of information technologies on organizational culture within this cluster of relationships and interactions. Moreover, culture is not a phenomenon that changes and develops in a short time and is therefore open to manipulations of managers. On the contrary, from this point of view, it is not possible to easily achieve control over cultural changes, and it is necessary to go much deeper [76]. So, it is not rational to expect that the rapid developments and changes in information technologies will cause changes in cultural characteristics at the same speed. In this sense, it could be inaccurate to seek direct relationships between two phenomena in question, whose rates of change are quite different.
Second, for cultural changes, there must also be changes in the basic assumptions, beliefs, and values on which the culture is built [84]. It would be misleading to expect little or intensive use of information technologies to cause changes in these rooted assumptions. For the desired changes in these basic assumptions, beliefs, and values, it is necessary to design the structure accordingly, to recruit employees who are qualified for the targeted culture, and to set ethical values and property rights to employees in accordance with this culture [15]. In this sense, information technologies may only catalyze the contribution of organizational structure to organizational culture.
Third, there are many and different types of hardware and software that fall under the scope of information technologies. It is not logical to accept all of them as homogeneous technologies in all aspects (with the same functions and features, similar usage areas, standard conditions they are applied, similar intentions, and behaviors of all users), and it can be, therefore, misleading to carry out research under a single “IT” concept from this perspective. The reason for this is that, as stated in the sections above, cultural features of each information technology application or product embedded in it might be different. The interactions between the cultural characteristics of the environment in which information technologies are applied and the unique cultural contents of information technologies may cause different results on the culture of the organization.
Fourth, contrary to what is believed, some of cultural features that we anticipate to support information technology applications and products may be interpreted otherwise by diverse people contingent on different assumptions, beliefs, and values. In fact, Robey et al. [24, 25] showed that managers cannot control the effects of these technologies, since different users can configure a particular technology in numerous ways in different social environments. Also, Gopal and Prasad [31] argued that this would be an impossible achievement for researchers looking for fixed laws or regulations on how information technologies affect user behaviors.
Fifth, information technologies were defined above as technologies that enable processing, storage, and sharing of information. The key concept in this definition is “knowledge-based” information and not the technology itself. Therefore, what makes information technologies essential and important is the information itself. According to the definition of knowledge, the most significant characteristic that differentiates it from information is its being a product of the human mind [37]. Because knowledge is the interpretation of information and expresses the value produced from it, qualifying information technologies as good-bad, useful-useless, and necessary-unnecessary can be a meaningless evaluation. So, the basic thing that creates value-added for organizations is not the technology used but the information itself, which is processed, stored, and shared on this technology. In this context, even if it is the latest, most advanced, and most expensive technology in the world, if the organization does not have a qualified human resource capable of producing knowledge that will create value-added, an appropriate organizational structure and culture that will activate this creative potential, and a management approach, all investments in these technologies will also be wasted.
This chapter has aimed to examine the impacts of information technologies on organizations’ cultures, and for this purpose, a special emphasis is given to the concept of “organizational structure” within the theoretical framework presented above. The most important reason for this is that relevant literature shows that organizational culture and organizational structure are in a very close relationship. Indeed, when the question items in the Denison organizational culture scale [85], which is the most frequently used in the literature, are examined, it is possible to see that most of these items point to many features of organizational structure concerning centralization, formalization, and differentiation dimensions. Therefore, it is a very rational approach to expect that information technologies can have direct and indirect effects on organizational cultures based on the influences of information technologies on structures of organizations. However, it should be underlined that different and controversial approaches and findings in the literature mentioned above on the relations between information technologies and organizational culture generate question marks in the minds as well.
In this regard, it is already quite difficult to draw a clear picture of the impacts of information technologies on cultural characteristics of organizations. The number of studies on the subject in the literature is still very limited. Accordingly, it is necessary to underline the great need for interdisciplinary studies in this field. But still, this study argues that the main factor that determines the actual impact and value of information technologies, which have become an integral part of human life in today’s world, is the information itself rather than technology, and it should be kept in mind that information technologies can only function as a means or tool in this knowledge-based social, economic, and cultural life. In other words, the determinant of the benefits, meaning, and importance of information technologies might be the conditions created by organizational factors such as cultural environment and organizational structure where knowledge is created, developed, and used and human resources have become the most important capital element and source of wealth.
The author declares no conflict of interest.
IntechOpen implements a robust policy to minimize and deal with instances of fraud or misconduct. As part of our general commitment to transparency and openness, and in order to maintain high scientific standards, we have a well-defined editorial policy regarding Retractions and Corrections.
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\\n\\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
\\n\\nIn the case of Retraction or removal of the Work, the publisher will be under no obligation to refund the APC.
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\n\n4. FINAL REMARKS
\n\nIntechOpen wishes to emphasize that the final decision on whether a Retraction, Statement of Concern, or a Correction will be issued rests with the Academic Editor. The publisher is obliged to act upon any reports of scientific misconduct in its publications and to make a reasonable effort to facilitate any subsequent investigation of such claims.
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