Local tsunamis-only those with wave height > 1.0 m are shown [22].
\r\n\tIn recent decades, numerous studies have been carried out on eukaryotic microorganisms viz., fungi, protozoa and algae to unravel the disease mechanisms caused by them and also their potential use in genetic engineering. The current book will accumulate the latest findings related to eukaryotic microorganisms in order to guide the future research and to uplift this area of microbiology for potential applications in medical and agricultural sciences.
",isbn:null,printIsbn:"979-953-307-X-X",pdfIsbn:null,doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"111dd972fdc98d1968c9f854910f7188",bookSignature:"Dr. Asghar Ali Kamboh",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8963.jpg",keywords:"Mycology, Protozoology, Phycology, Gut eukaryotic microbiota, Antifungal / Antiprotozoal agents, Manipulating the Genes of Eukaryotes, Use of Eukaryotes in genetic engineering",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"August 27th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 17th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 4th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 4th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"225390",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghar Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Kamboh",slug:"asghar-ali-kamboh",fullName:"Asghar Ali Kamboh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225390/images/system/225390.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Asghar Ali Kamboh was born in Mehrabpur, Sindh, Pakistan in 1979. He completed his studies in Veterinary Medicine and Masters in Veterinary Microbiology in 2003 and 2007 respectively, with distinguished grades. In 2009, he was awarded an oversees scholarship by the Government of Pakistan and proceeded to China for doctoral studies. Currently, he is working as an Associate Professor and Chairperson of the Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Sindh Agriculture University, Tandojam. He has published more than 80 research and review articles in national and international peer reviewed journals. He has supervised/co-supervised more than 30 M.Phil students. He is also the author of many books and book chapters. In addition, he is an editor/editorial board member of many scholarly journals in the area of animal health and production.",institutionString:"Sindh Agriculture University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Sindh Agriculture University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Pakistan"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"13",title:"Immunology and Microbiology",slug:"immunology-and-microbiology"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"305835",firstName:"Ketrin",lastName:"Polesak",middleName:null,title:"Mrs.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/305835/images/9351_n.png",email:"ketrin@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8470",title:"Poultry",subtitle:"An Advanced Learning",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"88f09746e2b424573c8dc0bd927e9dbb",slug:"poultry-an-advanced-learning",bookSignature:"Asghar Ali Kamboh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8470.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"225390",title:"Dr.",name:"Asghar Ali",surname:"Kamboh",slug:"asghar-ali-kamboh",fullName:"Asghar Ali Kamboh"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"18357",title:"Reconstructive Endoscopic Myomectomy",doi:"10.5772/17756",slug:"reconstructive-endoscopic-myomectomy",body:'\n\t\tMyomectomy is an old reconstructive gynecologic operation intended to preserve a functioning uterus suitable for a possible subsequent pregnancy. A lot of the published work on endoscopic myomectomy demonstrates the feasibility of the procedure, highlights the possible advantages, and expresses the skills of the surgeons (1). The question now is not whether the procedure is feasible endoscopically, but whether the endoscopic approach is superior and beneficial to a particular patient as well as cost effective for the community at large (2). Modern practice should be focused on evidence-based medicine (EBM) concept (3).
\n\t\tReconstructive surgery aims to put genital organs and tissues back together in a way that makes them more functional, and /or with fewer clinical symptoms. It leads to reduce potential problems and side effects from primary surgery and improve patients\' quality of life. Early discharge within 24 hours after the procedure with an excellent outcome is a common sequel to reconstructive gynaecologic surgery even if done via laparotomy (2). Nevertheless, reconstructive surgery requires high level of expertise, delicate instruments, fine maneuvers, longer time, and fine energy modalities.
\n\t\tIf future fertility is of concern, endoscopic reconstructive gnecologic surgery should follow microsurgical principles (4,5) which include avoidance of serosal insults e.g. tissue trauma, ischemia, hemorrhage, infection, foreign-body reaction, and leaving raw surfaces (6). Other microsurgical principles include minimizing tissue trauma by using atraumatic techniques, meticulous hemostasis, complete excision of abnormal tissues and precise alignment and approximation of tissue planes (7). With this so meticulous reconstruction of the gynecological structures, maximal possibilities of pregnancy without the utilization of other complex procedures of assisted reproduction can be achieved. It has been estimated by some enthusiastic proponents that microsurgery could results in double the pregnancy rate compared conventional macrosurgery (8). However, a recent Cochrane review did not demonstrate any advantage of microsurgery over the conventional approach (6). Laparoscopic microsurgeons should have enough experience in classical microsurgery as well as highly-developed two-handed laparoscopic skills for intracorporeal knotting (9,10).
\n\t\tThe first LM is performed in 1980 when several pedunculated subserous fibroids are removed laparoscopically (11). Since then, several descriptive series (12,13) on LM have been published and these have highlighted several problems associated with the procedure. Long operating times have been reported with some exceeding seven hours (14). This may be related to the need to morcellate the fibroids to facilitate their removal as well as the need for laparoscopic suturing which can be tedious (15). Increased adhesion formation has also been described following this procedure (16). Furthermore, several authors (17-19) have also reported cases of uterine rupture/dehiscence following LM. More attention should be paid to careful uterine repair following this laparoscopic procedure. A large series of pregnancies after LM (20) reported on 100 patients who eventually had deliveries, and recorded only one uterine rupture occurred at the site of the old LM scar (1%; 95% CI, 0.0–5.5%). Although the authors concluded that spontaneous uterine rupture seems to be rare after LM, they caution and re-iterate that particular care must still be given to uterine closure. Data on the risk of recurrence after LM has been published (21) in a series of 622 patients monitored with ultrasonography. They reported a cumulative 10 year recurrence rate of 27%. Although several authors (13,22) have reported pregnancies after LM, there are still no long term data on subsequent fertility following the procedure. Mais et al (23) conducted a prospective RCT comparing early postoperative outcome following LM and laparotomy in 40 patients. They reported less postoperative pain, a shorter hospital stay and a faster rate of recovery after laparoscopy as compared to open surgery. Several authors (11-14,21) have suggested that laparotomy may be preferable to the laparoscopic approach in patients with large multiple myomas, especially in the presence of severe endometriosis. In general, LM is associated with a shorter hospital stay, faster recovery and less blood loss that could be explained in part by the tamponade effect of the pnuemoperitoneum. Patient satisfaction with operative scar after LM is good (24) and as well as fertility satisfaction and reproductive outcome (23).
\n\t\t\tIndications include infertility, recent and significant uterine enlargement and symptoms like pelvic pain, pressure, menometrorrhagia and abnormal bleeding (25). Inclusion criteria include age ≤42 years, the presence of at least one symptomatic myoma >3 cm, and a number of myomas equal or less than seven (26). Some authors (27, 28) suggested that no more than three or four myomas with diameters <7–8 cm are to be removed; Nevertheless, the decision should be individualized according to the surgical skills, facilities, age and the pathologic findings (29,30).
\n\t\t\tWhether to perform LM or open microsurgical minilaprotomic myomectomy is a controversial issue. Added to the well documented advantages of laparoscopy, LM is associated with fewer postoperative complications and since no preoperative or intraoperative factors seem to influence the fertility outcome in women with uterine myomas, it is considered as the treatment of choice in infertile patients (31). Those infertile cases with myomata are mostly hyperestrogenic; so laparoscopy will help treat associated lesions particularly endometriosis.
\n\t\t\tYou should get a consent for either LM or emergency laparotomy whenever required if technical problems or excessive bleeding would be encountered. The size, number, and location of the fibroids as well as the experience of the surgeon all must be factors in the decision to proceed with the laparoscopic approach. Although several suggestions have been made, opinions differ. Whether to use preoperative hormonal preparation or not is still a controversial issue. Some studies reported on significant reduction of the myoma size and introperative blood loss on gonadotrophin-releasing hormone agonist or antagonist. Zullo et al (32) noted that preoperative use of leuprolide acetate decreased estimated blood loss from 172 mL to 132 mL and operating time from 113 minutes to 99 minutes. Felberbaum et al (33) reported on significant preoperative reduction of uterine fibroids in only 16 days by administration of a gonadotrophin-releasing hormone antagonist (Cetrotide). On the other hand, longer operative times, 112 minutes versus 157 minutes, with preoperative GnRH analog use found by Campo and Garcia, are attributed to difficulty in detecting the myoma cleavage plane (34). My practice for a long time is to give patients medorxyprogesterone acetate 15 mg daily for 20 days prior to LM and I notice good surgical field in most of cases.
\n\t\t\tLM is usually performed with a standard technique using three suprapubic ports. The uterus is always cannulated to allow the correct exposure of myomas. For pedunculated myomas, the pedicle are secured using a pre-tied or extracorporeally-tied loop and coagulated and transected with bipolar forceps and scissors. For subserous and intramural myomas, serosal incision should be made vertically over the convex surface of the myoma using a monopolar hook, fine needle or one blade of a scissors (Figure 1).
\n\t\t\t\tUterine incision.
After exposure of the myoma pseudocapsule, grasping forceps is positioned to apply traction to the myoma and expose the cleavage plane (figure 2). An option is to use a 10 mm myoma driller from a midline incision to hold and grasp the myoma firmly against the anterior abdominal wall to facilitate enucleation. Enucleation is carried out by traction on the fibroid and by division with a unipolar hook or needle or mechanical cleavage.
\n\t\t\t\tMyoma enucleation.
Hemostasis during dissection is achieved by bipolar or spray monopolar coagulation. Suturing is usually done along one or two layers including the serosa depending on the depth of incision with interrupted, simple or more frequently cross-stitches tied intracorporeally using 1 or 0 Polyglactin sutures or any delayed absorbable sutures (figure 3).
\n\t\t\t\tClosure of the uterine defect with sutures.
A recent study (35) evaluated the use of bidirectional barbed suture and found it significantly shortens the mean duration of surgery.
\n\t\t\t\tMorcellation of the myoma is followed by irrigation and placement of adhesion barrier. As a trial to reduce bleeding during LM, Zhao et al (36) tested loop ligation of larger myoma pseudocapsule combined with vasopressin before LM and found it very effective in minimizing bleeding in a randomized controlled trial.
\n\t\t\t\tRemoval of the fibroids can be performed using morcellation (figure 4), minilaparotomy, or colpotomy Alternatives to these are to destroy the fibroids in place with cryotherapy, bipolar cautery, or laser. No trials have compared these techniques to determine which is the safest or most effective. Chen et al (37) tried simultaneous enucleation and in situ morcellation of myoma and found it convenient. Don’t forget to leave an intraperitoneal drain for few hours via an auxillary portal.
\n\t\t\t\tMorcellation of the myoma.
Although LM has been shown to be feasible, the technique is fraught with problems. Furthermore, its place in the treatment of infertile patients still needs to be defined. Laproscopic closure of the uterine incision is performed in a rather simplified manner utilizing just few stitches, unlike conventional open myomectomy. There is a need for meticulously studying the healing pattern of the uterine incision following LM. Integrity of uterine scar is an important consideration for women desiring pregnancy. LM is accused to be a procedure that leaves behind insecure uterine scars as evidenced by reported cases of uterine rupture following LM. Although uterine ruptures during pregnancy have been reported after myomectomies via laparotomy, these are usually sporadic reports (14,15,17, 38-40). Risk factors for uterine rupture after LM may be intramural haematoma formation at the incision site, tissue necrosis because of thermal damage leading to defective scar formation, or incorrect approximation of incision edges leading to healing by secondary intention. Uterine rupture and fistula formation after LM have been reported (14,15,17, 40-42). However, none of these investigators closed the uterine defect in layers. In another series (43), no case of uterine rupture has been reported following pregnancies after LM. The authors have emphasized the importance of avoiding excessive thermal damage and of adequate uterine repair using multiple layer suturing techniques. In cases of deeply embedded myomas, larger than six to seven centimetres in size, LM may be replaced with laparoscopic assisted myomectomy (44). Suturing the myometrium in layers during a LM is also necessary to prevent iatrogenic adenomyosis (45).
\n\t\t\tLike any laparoscopic surgery, LM cases should be monitored. Care of the amount of blood loss in the drainage set. Better to prescribe antibiotics and antipyretics whenever required. Instruct you patient to avoid vagina manipulations or douches if posterior colpotomy is performed. Moreover, she has to avoid sexual intercourse for at least 4 weeks if colostomy is performed. I don’t recommend advising pills for contraception as those cases are usually infertile. She has to use a local method for 1-2 months only.
\n\t\t\tOur school since 1992 is to follow up cases by both transabdominal and transvaginal ultrasonography to properly evaluate healing of the scar till complete disappearance of the signs of healing.
\n\t\t\tVarious modalities to assess scar healing and strength in the postoperative period have been suggested (46). Ultrasonography is used to detect haematoma formation in the uterine scar. Doppler studies can be used to assess the uterine scar, possibly recognizing the irregularities in the vascular patterns and haematoma formation, which depict poor quality uterine scar. Velocimetric findings at 30th postoperative day may be able to assess the healing process. A high resistance index may suggest abnormal healing and an area of fibrosis (47,48). Hysterosalpingography, despite being non-specific, may be performed to detect the presence of any fistulae (15). Second-look laparoscopy may be carried out between four to eight weeks postoperatively and a methylene blue test is performed to check any uterine fistula. The place of second look laparoscopy has been particularly emphasized in relation to assessment of any postoperative adhesions and its treatment (48,49).
\n\t\t\tAgain, those cases are usually hyperestrogenic with evidence of adenomyosis uteri, endometrial htperplasia or endometriosis. So, laparoscopy allows proper assessment of those infertile cases. If an office hysteroscopy is performed prior to LM, this would be considered as one of the keys of success regarding future fertility. Therefore, LM would help solve the infertility problem of those cases. Adding the advantages of laparoscopic surgery with definite lower risk of adhesion formation if compared to laparotomy would favor LM.
\n\t\t\tThere is no difference in fertility efficacy outcome if fibroids are removed via laparotomy when compared to laparoscopy (50). Because hematoma formation of measurable size is not normal in wound healing, subsequent uterine rupture may be related to poor wound healing in the presence of hematoma (51). We studied 22 cases that are treated with LM followed by suturing of the incision in two or three layers trying to mimic open myomectomy (52). Moreover, we studied 169 cases treated with conventional open myomectomy with meticulous closure of the incision in multilayers (53). Laparotomy study (53) included many cases with multiple myomata (mean number is 2±0.4) and of varying size (mean size is 216 cm3±61 cm3). Paradoxically, despite having myomata of smaller size with less mean numbers, the laparoscopy study (52) demonstrated higher percentage of hematoma formation in the early postoperative period (74% versus 24% for laparoscopy and laparotomy studies respectively). This highlights the superiority of open microsurgery in terms of meticulous suturing simply because it is technically more feasible than laparoscopic suturing. Continuous training of endoscopists on improving suturing techniques and innovation of easier suturing devices would facilitate thorough laparoscopic multilayer suturing of the myomectomy scar. Nevertheless, the impact of the early postoperative hematoma on wound healing is not clear so far. At 4-6 weeks postoperatively, the incidence of hematoma formation in both studies (52,53) declined markedly (8% at 6 weeks versus 7% at 4 weeks for laparoscopy and laparotomy studies respectively). Thus, the procedure should involve multilayered uterine closure to avoid hematoma formation, weaker scar and subsequent rupture. However, the only way to answer the question as to whether LM can ensure a safe obstetric outcome as open myomectomy, is to perform a large multicenteric comparative trial. LM offers significantly less febrile morbidity, lower transfusion rates, and shorter hospitalization stays if compared to open myomectomy (54). Moreover, it results in shorter operative times and lower postoperative hemoglobin, while hospital stay and pain are less in the laparoscopic group if compared to laparotomic approach (55).
\n\t\t\tSubmucous myoma may cause abnormal vaginal bleeding, pain, &/or infertility. The incidence of myoma in women with otherwise unexplained infertility is estimated to be 1.0–2.4% (56,57). A systematic review of 11 cohort studies suggests that women with submucous myoma have lower pregnancy rates compared with women with other causes for their infertility (RR 0.30, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.70). HM is not associated with an increase in live birth rate (RR 0.98, 95% CI 0.45 to 2.41) but is associated with a higher pregnancy rate (RR 1.72, 95% CI 1.13 to 2.58) (58). Both HM and polypectomy appeared to enhance fertility compared with infertile women with normal cavities in one study (59). HM currently represents the standard minimally invasive surgical procedure for treating submucous fibroids, with abnormal uterine bleeding and reproductive issues being the most common indications (60,61). Nevertheless, this technique is associated with significant risks of excessive bleeding, prolonged operative time required for cutting the myoma into chips of tissues and extractiing them, risks of fluid overload, and the possibility of incomplete resection and perforation (62). To reduce these risks, more effective patient selection and improved techniques are necessary (63).
\n\t\t\tIt is well established and settled that all evidence consider HM as the gold standard and nearly the only line of therapy of submucous myomata of suitable size. The problem is the definition of “suitable size”. Most centers consider 2-4 cm as an optimal size. If larger myoma is diagnosed, HM can be tried either on 2 session bases or utilizing our modified technique (see below). An important issue is the association of adenomyosis or intramural myomata. You can excise more than one myoma on the same setting provided the general condition of the patient can tolerate.
\n\t\t\tPatient selection is essential to achieve resolution of bleeding symptoms, enhance fertility, and reduce surgical risks. Preoperative imaging with MRI, 3-dimensional ultrasonography or saline-infused sonohysterography (SIS) can provide a map of the uterine myomas and identify the intramural component of the fibroids. The European Society of Hysteroscopy designed a classification system for submucosal fibroids based primarily on this concept (64, figure 5).
\n\t\t\t\tType 0 fibroids are pedunculated with no intramural component.
Type I fibroids are sessile submucosal fibroids with less than 50% intramural component.
Type II fibroids have a greater than 50% myometrial invasion.
Classification of submucous myomata.
Incomplete resection of the fibroid is more likely in type II fibroids with more extensive intramural component. Calculated from one study is a 50% chance per procedure of complete resection of type II fibroids, 60% of type I fibroids, and 92% of type 0. After an incomplete resection, the residual intramural component is likely to be expelled into the cavity and a second procedure is often successful. The patient with type II fibroids should be counseled on the risk of failure and the procedure should be performed by experienced hysteroscopic surgeons (65).
\n\t\t\t\tPreoperative hormonal preparation of the myoma is a controversial issue. HM should be performed essentially postmenstrual. Preoperative cervical ripening with a prostaglandin analogue has been demonstrated to facilitate cervical dilation. In a controlled randomized study (66), we succeeded to prove that Misoprostol 200 mcg applied vaginally 8-12 hours prior to surgery is well tolerated and can decrease surgical time and reduce the risk of surgical complications.
\n\t\t\tMyoma resection is usually performed with a loop electrode (figure 6) by shaving the visible portion of the myoma into small pieces. Sometimes, myomas deeply embedded in the myometrium cannot be completely excised. Other techniques for removing the myoma hysteroscopically include using an Nd:YAG laser fiberor electric myoma vaporizer (65).
\n\t\t\t\tVarious sizes of operating hysteroscopes are now available, but they all include a telescope with a fiberoptic light source and camera. The angle of the telescope is either 0º or an acute angle of 12-30º. The straight visual 0º scope might be helpful with fundal myomas but an angled perspective is more commonly used for fibroid resection. The telescope inserts through an external sheath and internal sheath for continuous outflow and inflow of distension media. The working element of the operating hysteroscope is the resecting loop that is available in many sizes and angles. The electrosurgical energy connected to the loop can be monopolar or bipolar. With the monopolar loops, using nonionic distension media such as glycene 5% or sorbitol 1.5% is necessary. With bipolar loops, both electrodes are within the cavity and normal saline can be used for distending solution. For hysteroscopic myomectomy, various laser types and mechanical loops without electrical energy have also been described (65).
\n\t\t\t\tMyoma cutting with the resectoscope.
There are multiple methods of using the electrosurgical loop to optimize fibroid resection (figure 7). To maintain good visualization, fragments of resected fibroid need to be removed during the procedure. The surgeon may transfer fragments out of the field of resection or retrieve them from the cavity by grasping the tissue with the resecting loop. An intrauterine morcellator has recently been introduced that may improve surgical time by aspirating fibroid fragments through the hysteroscope (65). When applying the monopolar loop, currents as high as 75-150 W are required for smooth tissue cutting. Current should only be applied while the loop is being retracted into the hysteroscope or while the entire resectoscope is being pulled away from the fundus. A combination of the 2 movements is used by the surgeon to safely and effectively slice through the tissue.
\n\t\t\t\tResectoscopic myomectomy.
Resection of type 0 fibroids can be accomplished in 1 step by most hysteroscopic surgeons since the border of the fibroid with the endometrium is easily identified (67). Type I and type II fibroids require more surgical expertise as resection of the fibroid extends into the myometrial space. Intraoperative cervical injection of carboprost, a methyl analogue of prostaglandin F2-alpha, has been shown to cause uterine contractions and thereby squeeze the remaining fibroid into the cavity to facilitate a single step. Concomitantly performing laparoscopy with intramuscular injection of prostaglandin F2-alpha is also effective for resection of large fundal fibroids and provides transabdominal visualization (68). In many circumstances, resection of large fibroids with significant intramural component is a 2-step approach since there is often further intracavitary expulsion of the fibroid after the initial surgery. The second procedure can be performed 3-6 weeks later when the residual fibroid has migrated into the submucosal space (69).
\n\t\t\tAll cases should be subjected to office hysteroscopy in the immediate postmenstrual period not preceded by hormonal priming. The objectives are to confirm the sonographic diagnosis of myoma, comment on the number and the size, assess the site of the myoma in relation to the tubal ostia and the uterine walls, detect any pedicle and to estimate the depth of the myoma in relation to the uterine wall. If more than half of the myoma protrudes into the endometrial cavity, the case will be considered a submucous myoma. If the intramural part is more than the intracavitary part, the case will be considered an intramural myoma (type II).
\n\t\t\t\tModified resectoscopic technique starts 8 hours prior to the time of surgery by inserting 200 µg misoprostol intravaginally to allow softening of the cervical canal and the myoma itself. The resectoscope is used to make a deep circumferential incision all around the base of the myoma (figure 7) until complete separation occurs and the myoma became completely free inside the endometrial cavity.
\n\t\t\t\tCircumferential incicion.
This crucial step required changing the angle of the loop electrode into 15 degrees below the horizontal plane to allow easy access to the base. Cutting is made 3-4 mm from the base towards the myoma side to preserve some healthy endometrium for postoperative creeping to cover the row area of the myoma. A specially designed 2 mm myoma driller simulating the laparoscopic myoma driller is introduced alongside the resectoscope under vision. It is a stainless steel wire with a terminal screw. This driller (figure 8) is used to tract the myoma at one side of the endometrial cavity to have an easy access to the base.
\n\t\t\t\tHysteroscopic myoma driller
This step is followed by extraction of the whole myoma through the primed cervical canal using a ring forceps. If some difficulty is encountered, the myoma is longitudinally bisected into 2 parts using resectoscopic knife electrode prior to extraction.
\n\t\t\t\tIf an intramural extension is diagnosed, the following additional steps are done. A vertical linear incision is made over the whole length of the myoma to allow bulging of the myoma into the endometrial cavity i.e. to become a more submucous myoma like opening of the capsule at open myomectomy. IV injection of diluted 0.25 mg ergometrine is given by the anesthiologist to promote uterine contraction in this non-pregnant uterus and to reduce the vascularity. Moreover, minimization of the intrauterine pressure is done to allow most of the myoma to become intracavitary "Myoma shift" as previously described. The base of the myoma is circumfrentially cut with resectoscope using the former mechanical technique.
\n\t\t\t\tPostmyomectomy tissue assessment.
The resectoscope is reinserted after extraction of the myoma to ensure complete excision. Operative hysteroscopy is performed using continuous-flow resectoscope after cervical dilatation up to Hegar’s 10 utilizing 1.5% glycine as a distending medium. Operative notes should include comment on the feasibility of the operation, operating time calculated from the starting myomectomy until complete extraction of all tissues from the endometrial cavity, amount of fluid used for distending the uterine cavity, possible intraoperative or postoperative complications, and the amount of postoperative blood loss estimated by insertion of an intrauterine balloon at the end of the procedure. All the extracted tissues are evaluated (figure 9). Prophylactic antibiotics are prescribed for all cases.
\n\t\t\tNo need for hormonal treatment at all. Sometimes, an intrauterine balloon is left inside the endometrial cavity to control excessive bleeding from the bed of the myoma.
\n\t\t\tIt is the most dangerous hysteroscopic procedure due to possible excessive bleeding, prolonged time consumed for cutting the myoma into chips of tissues and their extraction outside the uterine cavity, the risks of fluid overload, possibility of incomplete resection, and liability to perforation. (71). Moreover, there are some studies concerned with the risk of uterine rupture in the subsequent pregnancy (72,73). Most of complications of HM are encountered with large sized myomas, or those with intramural extension (grade 1 or 2 according to the European Society of Hysteroscopy classification). They represent definite nightmare for hysteroscopists even with sufficient experience to the extent that some studies preferred laparoscopic approach in such cases (74). Hysteroscopically, several studies tried to facilitate one-step complete excision. In a case report, succeeful removal of myoma up to 12 cm in one session is reported (75). A modified hysteroscopic approach for big myoma with or without intramural extension has been introduced by our team (70).This technique has been cited and quoted in subsequent publications (76) and comprehensive review articles (77) on this topic. It comprised combined resectoscopic and mechanical approaches to enucleate the myoma in a shorter time with minimal complication rate if compared to the standard morcellation technique. Moreover, it demonstrated some additive perioperative steps that facilitated the procedure like preoperative usage of misoprostol based on a RCT done by our team (66), intraoperative slow IV ergometrine administration, utilization of a novel hysteroscopic myoma driller, and performing a vertical incision on top of deeply impacted intramural myomata. If compared to a study on 44 cases published in the same year (78), the difference would be clear. They performed only circumferential incision at the level of myoma base followed by morcellation technique. They succeeded to perform this procedure in 41 (93. 1%) of 44 women. Of these, 38 (92.6%) had myomas between 2 and 4 cm in diameter and 3 (7.4%) had myomas exceeding 4 cm. Mean operating time is 27 minutes (range 10-45 min). It seems very risky to perform morcellation of a big myoma with high possibility of fluid overload that would obligate the hysteroscopist to stop the procedure based on the recommendation of the anaesthesia team. As a trial to alleviate this risk, one case report is recently published utilizing our previously recommended basal circumferential incision followed by central vaporization, and intraoperative injection of prostaglandin F2alpha (76). Likewise, laser HM guided by laparoscopically assisted intra-abdominal sonohysterography (LHMY-GLAIS) is described in a preliminary study (79).
\n\t\t\t\tAll these trials would be expected to open the door for more ideas on HM for myomata of considerable size. In this context, innovation of alternative hysteroscopically-guided devices would be promising. Moreover, studies on bipolar resectoscopic myomectomy utilizing saline 0.9% should be encouraged.
\n\t\t\tComplications of hysteroscopic myoma resection include hemorrhage, uterine perforation, damage to the cervix, and excessive absorption of the distention media (usually glycine) into the vascular system, which can cause metabolic disturbances. The most serious potential complication with hysteroscopic myomectomy is excessive absorption of distension media, which can cause pulmonary edema, hyponatremia, cerebral edema, and even death. This is especially true when using nonconducting distension solution with monopolar cautery. A surgeon should also be cautious with saline during resections with bipolar cautery since large volumes of fluid can lead to overload complications. A fluid management system that can accurately calculate the amount of absorbed fluid by measuring the inflow and outflow of distension fluid should be used. Intracervical injection of dilute vasopressin, in addition to reducing the force needed to dilate the cervix, has also been shown to decrease the absorption of distention fluid. In 1991, Corson and Brooks noted 1 case of heavy bleeding that required transfusion and 3 uterine perforations out of 92 patients undergoing hysteroscopic myoma resection. In 1993, Indman noted distension media complications in 2 of 51 women. Intrauterine synechiae can also occur after hysteroscopic myoma resection.
\n\t\t\tMany studies have assessed fertility rates after hysteroscopic myomectomy and have noted pregnancy rates similar to those after abdominal myomectomy, approximately 60% Again, no studies include expectantly managed control groups (65).
\n\t\t\tLaparoscopically-assisted transvaginal myomectomy has been described for posterior and fundal myomas where a posterior colpotomy is done to allow delivery of myomata and the uterus as well. Uterine reconstruction is then performed by conventional suturing performed transvaginally. The uterus is then replaced into its anatomical position and colpotomy is repaired. A final laparoscopic survey and lavage is performed (80,81). Colposcopic myomectomy is first described by Baggish in 1990s. Thereafter, two case reports with cervical fibroids underwent laser CO2 excision under colposcopic guidance (82).
\n\t\t\tThe impact of uterine myoma on the outcome of IVF/ICSI is a very controversial topic. Many centers are overdoing myomectomy for nearly all myomata regardless size and site considerations. Contrary, other investigators have shown that fibroids don\'t exert a deleterious effect. Nevertheless, many studies have provided evidence that uterine myomas have a significant effect on IVF outcomes and there is a large body of evidence that treatment of uterine myomas increases fertility and pregnancy rates, and decreases the rate of pregnancy loss (83). There is no doubt that any cavity-distorting myoma should be removed whether completely submucous or interstitial myoma with submucous encroachment. This highlights the central role of prior hysteroscopy as well as saline infusion solonhysterography (SIS) as previously described (84). Controversy exists for interstitial and subserous myomata. The evidence supports treatment of all very large myomas (>7 cm) (83). Subserosal myomas that are smaller than 7 cm in size and intramural myomas of less than 4–5 cm in diameter appear to have little effect on IVF outcomes. Larger intramural and subserosal myomas present a clinical dilemma and more studies are needed to clarify a definitive plan for management (83). In a prospective controlled study, the distance between the intramural myomas and the endometrial lining did not appear to affect the IVF outcome. An insignificant tendency towards improvement of IVF outcome is found in myomas at more than 5 mm from endometrial lining (85).
\n\t\t\tUterine myoma may affect fertility according to its size, site and associated pathology. Endoscopic approach has a definite role in its management. HM is the gold standard line of management of submucous myoma of suitable size. LM doesn\'t seem to be superior to conventional open myomectomy regarding fertility and is characterized by both short and long term drawbacks. Uterine myomata would affect IVF/ICSI outcome whenever disturbing the endometrial cavity or large sized. The impact of other types of myomata on IVF/ICSI deserves further studies.
\n\t\tA
Following the 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean, there has been a large amount of literature published on several topics associated with tsunami science. For example, research has been conducted on the physics of tsunami waves [12], tsunami’s impact and characteristics [1, 2, 3, 11, 13], tsunami early warning systems [14, 15], tsunami risk assessment [10, 11, 16], geology’s perspective [17, 18, 19], to mention a few.
Recent tsunamis have highlighted the need for an effective early warning system. An early warning is defined as “the provision of timely and effective information, through identified institutions, that allows individuals exposed to a hazard to take action to avoid or reduce their risk and prepare for effective response” [20]. Moreover, the United Nations Inter-Agency Secretariat of the International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN/ISDR) argues that an “effective early warning system” should include the following four key elements: “the knowledge of risks”, “the technical monitoring and warning service”, “dissemination & communication of meaningful warnings to those at risk”, and “the public awareness and preparedness to react to warnings” [20, 21].
The objective of the paper is to highlight the tsunami risk in Mexico. The data presented in the paper are based on previous studies on tsunamis in the country [15, 22]. Further, a preliminary “tsunami early warning” system which aims at integrating, for example, the four key elements proposed by the UNISDR [20] for the case of Mexico is presented.
The “Pacific ring of fire” belt covers a vast area of highly active tectonic plate boundaries where most of the earthquakes originate and active volcanoes (Figure 1). It is believed that three quarters of all the volcanoes in the world are in the ring [23].
The “Ring of fire” [
Further, the “Ring of fire” runs through several countries, such as Canada, USA, Russia, Chile, Peru, Guatemala, New Zealand, Japan, Indonesia, Philippines, Mexico.
Regarding the tsunami risk in Mexico, studies based on tsunami historical data showed that there are two zones of tsunami threat: local (i.e., generation of tsunamis) and remote (i.e., arrival of tsunamis) (Figure 2) [15, 22]. The authors defined these two zones by considering the nature of the faulting and tectonic plate interaction. In the subsequent subsection each of these will be addressed.
Mexico’s local & remote tsunami threat [
According to [15, 22] at the west of the “Rivera plate” and along the “Middle America trench,” the “Cocos plate” subduction beneath the “North American plate” at rates of 2.5 to 7.7 cm/year (Figure 2). Given the fact, that large earthquakes occur in this region; therefore, the zone has been regarded as a generator of tsunamis (Table 1 and Figure 3).
Year Region | Magnitude | Tsunami (places hit, Mexico) | Max. height waves (m) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1732 | Guerrero | — | Acapulco | 4.0 |
1754 | Guerrero | — | Acapulco | 5.0 |
1787 | Guerrero | >8.0 | Acapulco | 3–8 |
1787 | Oaxaca | — | Juquila Pochutla | 4.0 4.0 |
1820 | Guerrero | 7.6 | Acapulco | 4.0 |
1852 | B. C. | — | Río Colorado | 3.0 |
1907 | Guerrero | 7.6 | Acapulco | 2.0 |
1925 | Guerrero | 7.0 | Zihuatanejo | 7.0–11.0 |
1932 | Jalisco | 8.2 | Manzanillo San Pedrito | 2.0 3.0 |
1932 | Jalisco | 7.8 | Manzanillo | 1.0 |
1932 | Jalisco | 6.9 | Cuyutlán | 9.0–10.0 |
1948 | Nayarit | 6.9 | Islas Marias | 2.0–5.0 |
1957 | Guerrero | 7.8 | Acapulco | 2.6 |
1973 | Colima | 7.6 | Manzanillo | 1.1 |
1978 | Oaxaca | 7.6 | Puerto Escondido | 1.5 |
1979 | Guerrero | Acapulco | 1.3 | |
1985 | Michoacán | 8.1 | Lázaro Cardenas Ixtapa Zihuatanejo Playa Azul Acapulco Manzanillo | 2.5 3.0 2.5 1.1 1.0 |
1985 | Michoacan | 7.8 | Acapulco Zihuatanejo | 1.2 2.5 |
1995 | Colima | 8.1 | Boca de Iguanas Barra de Navidad San Mateo Melaque Cuastecomate El Tecuán Punta Careyes Chamela Pérula Punta Chalacatepec | 5.10 5.10 4.90 4.50 4.40 3.80 3.50 3.20 3.40 2.90 |
2003 | Colima | 7.8 | Manzanillo | 1.22 |
2017 | Chiapas | 8.1 | Salina Cruz | 1.10 |
Local tsunamis-only those with wave height > 1.0 m are shown [22].
Local tsunamis in the pacific coast of Mexico [
According to historical data, the generated tsunamis that produced the highest wave heights were those that occurred in 1925 (7–11 m), 1932 (9–10 m), 1995 (2.9–5.10 m), 1985 (1–3 m). For example, the 1985 earthquake of M8.0 of magnitude generated a tsunami that affected several communities in this zone. It is believed that a key infrastructure port was affected with waves of 2.5 m and flooded the area about 500 m inland [15]. Also, several tourist resorts were affected by the tsunami; for example, waves for up to 2.5 m high were observed in Playa Azul [15].
Interestingly, a day after the main earthquake, a M7.5 aftershock hit the zone; it is thought the generated tsunami affected a local fishing community with waves ranging from 2 to 3 m high [15].
More recently, it has been found that instrumentally based assessments of “tsunamigenic” possibility of subduction zones in the Pacific coast have underestimated the frequency and magnitude of great earthquakes and tsunamis [25]. The authors argue that geological evidence shows that in fact great tsunamis (and earthquakes) have occurred in the subduction zone in the past, i.e., the stretch of the coasts of Guerrero and Oaxaca, the southern region of Mexico.
For example, it has been found evidence of two sand tsunami deposits, 1.5 km inland of the coast [25]. Further, it is believed that an earthquake of M8.6 of magnitude occurred in 1787 and produced a giant tsunami that flooded up to 6 km inland. The second tsunami (less documented) occurred in the year 1537. More importantly, the authors conclude that great tsunamis have occurred in the Pacific coast of the country.
On the other hand, it should be highlighted that another geographical region that is not mentioned in the official reports (e.g., in Ref. [22]) in relation to the potential tsunami source is that related to those originating in the Caribbean Sea (Figure 4). It is believed that geological events such as volcanoes and earthquakes are common and therefore the region is geological active [27]. Further, the authors argue that historical data has shown that there has been the occurrence of “tele-tsunamis,” tectonic tsunamis, landslide tsunamis, and volcanic tsunamis in the region [27], p. 60.
The 123 km of Lucea, Jamaica earthquake in 2020 [
That is, there has been twenty-seven “verified tsunamis” and “nine are considered to be very likely true tsunamis” of a total of 97 reported waves that might be tsunamis in the Caribbean region [27]. Moreover, it is believed that one of the deadliest and most recent tsunamis that hit communities in Dominican Republic, Haiti, and Puerto Rico occurred in 1946; the tsunami killed 1790 people [27], p. 84.
More recently, this threat became more apparent with the occurrence of a strong earthquake in the region (Figure 4). That is, on 28 January 2020, an earthquake of M7.7 of magnitude (with a depth of 1o km) hit between the Cayman Islands and Jamaica and Cuba [26]. It is believed that the tremors were felt as far away as Miami, US. However, no causalities have been reported.
The earthquake prompted the issuing of tsunami warnings by the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC) [28]. The PTWC’s warning was: “hazardous tsunami waves are possible; it is thought the warning was for communities living along the coasts located within 300 km from the epicentre; i.e., those include coasts of the following countries: the Caiman Islands, Jamaica, Belize, Cuba, Honduras, and Mexico (i.e., the Caribbean coast of the Yucatan Peninsula, Figure 4). The tsunami warning was lifted off after a few hours.
Overall, it may be argued that a potential threat of tsunamis come from the Caribbean Sea, although it may be regarded as extremely low (i.e., there has not been any data of tsunamis hitting the Caribbean coast of the Yucatan Peninsula); however, tsunamis are unpredictable and communities, governments should always be prepared for the unthinkable, because as usual, this is what happens (see Section 3 for further details about this).
It is believed that on the Northwest of the “Rivera plate” (Figure 2), along the Gulf of California where the Pacific Plate slides north with respect to the North American plate, generation of tsunamis in this zone is unlikely [15, 22]. This is consistent with historical data (Table 2); it can be seen that data on “small” and “moderate” tsunamis generated by remote sources; for example, the two most recent 2010 Chile and the 2011 tsunamis (Figure 5) where the maximum wave heights registered were < 1.0 m. However, it is worth mentioning that the historical data showed that there were two tsunamis that registered the height of waves up to 2.4 and 2.5 m; that is, those generated in Chile (1960) and Alaska (1964), respectively (Table 2).
Date Region | Magnitude | Tsunami (places hit, Mexico) | Max. height waves (m) | |
---|---|---|---|---|
1952 | Kamchatka, USSR | 8.3 | La Paz, BCS Salina Cruz | 0.5 1.2 |
1957 | Aleutian Islands | 8.3 | Ensenada, B.C. | 1.0 |
1960 | Chile | 8.5 | Ensenada, B.C. La Paz, B.C.S. Mazatlán Acapulco Salina Cruz | 2.5 1.5 1.1 1.9 1.6 |
1960 | Peru | 6.8 | Acapulco | 0.10 |
1963 | Kuril, Islands, USSR | 8.1 | Acapulco Salina Cruz Mazatlan La Paz, B.C.S. | <1.0 |
1964 | Alaska | 8.4 | Ensenada, B.C. Manzanillo Acapulco Salina Cruz | 2.4 1.2 1.1 0.8 |
1968 | Japan | 8.0 | Ensenada, B.C. Manzanillo Acapulco | <1.0 |
1975 | Hawaii | 7.2 | Ensenada, B.C. Manzanillo Puerto Vallarta Acapulco | <1.0 |
1976 | Kermadec Islands | 7.3 | San Lucas, B.C.S. Puerto Vallarta Manzanillo Acapulco | <1.0 |
1995 | Chile | 7.8 | Cabo San Lucas | <1.0 |
2004 | Indonesia | 9.0 | Manzanillo Lazaro Cardenas Zihuatanejo | 1.22 0.24 0.60 |
2010 | Chile | 8.8–9.0 | Manzanillo Cabo San Lucas Acapulco | 0.32 0.36 0.62 |
2011 | Japan | 9.0 | Ensenada, B.C. Huatulco Puerto Angel Acapulco | 0.70 0.70 0.29 0.72 |
2018 | Indonesia | 7.5 | — | — |
2018 | Indonesia | AK Vulcano tsunami | — | — |
Remote tsunamis- historical data taken from [22] except for the last two tsunamis that occurred in 2018.
The 2010 Chile tsunami (left) and the 2011 tsunami in Japan (right) [
As mentioned in previous sections, tsunamis (and earthquakes) are unpredictable and can happen any time. Therefore, there is a need for an effective tsunami early warning system (TEWS). A system which should include not only the technical aspect but also the human issue. This section presents a preliminary model for such a system.
In particular, it considers the Pacific and the Caribbean coasts of Mexico (Section 2). However, only those aspects associated with the “structural-organisation” of the proposed model will be discussed in some detail (i.e., the five interrelated subsystems associated with systems 1–5 and its channels of communication as shown in Figure 6). The proposed model is based on previous research on issues related to safety and disaster management systems [30, 31, 32].
A Mexican tsunami early warning system (MTEWS).
In the context of this case study, the overall function of systems 2–5 (MTEW-SMU) is to establish the key tsunami safety policies aiming at maintaining tsunami risk within an acceptable range; this implies allocating the necessary resources, for example, to build response capabilities at national and community levels.
System 1, on the other hand, embraces the following three subsystems: TNZO (Tsunami Northern Zone Operations), TSZO (Tsunami Southern Zone Operations), and TCZO (Tsunami Caribbean Zone Operations) with their associated management units (TNZ-SMU, TSZ-SMU & TCZ-SMU). These three operations of system 1 were considered given the fact that the risk of tsunamis comes from local and remote tsunami sources as mentioned in Section 2.
Further, it is important to highlight that one of the key functions within the MTEW-SMU is that related to System 2, which is associated with what it is called here MTEW-CC (Mexican Tsunami Early Warning-Coordination Centre); its key function is the monitoring, detection of a tsunami through the following coordination centres: TSZ-CC (Tsunami Southern Zone-Coordination Centre), TNZ-CC (Tsunami Northern Zone Coordination Centre), and TCZ-CC (Tsunami Caribbean Zone Coordination Centre), as shown in Figure 6. The process of the flow of key information and decision making process is briefly described in Table 3; Table 4, on the other hand, presents some of the key actors involved in the existing system when compared with the features of the model.
“Action points” | Description |
---|---|
“1”, “6”, “11” | Flow of data on key variables monitored by MTEW-CC through TNZ-CC, TSZ-CC, TCZ-CC (e.g., earthquakes, pressure sensors, tide gauges, etc.). It should also be mentioned that this information is provided by the SSN (National Seismological Service), USGS, the PTWC (Pacific Tsunami Warning Centre), see Table 4. |
“2&2A”, “7&7A” | If a strong earthquake occurs, for example, within TNZO (Tsunami Northern Zone Operations), then in “2”, the tsunami risk is assessed, if the key variable not withing the acceptable criteria (e.g., a tsunami), then it issues the tsunami warning to “2A”, which in turn issues the warning to the TSZ-CC, even if the risk is low (Section 2), through the “action point” “7A”. In the model, the TCZ-CC also receives the warning, although in the context of this scenario, it is not necessary to warn communities within TCZO (Tsunami Caribbean Zone Operations) to take some protective actions for obvious reasons. Nevertheless, the key decision-makers within this zone are on alert. |
“3&4”, “8&9”, “13&14” | “Actions points” “3&4” plan and devise measures to respond to the tsunami emergency, e.g., design of risk maps, plans to conduct drills, evacuation plans; etc. All of these aiming at better prepare the vulnerable communities within TNZO. “Action point” “3” also issues the tsunami warning to MTEW-SMU (i.e., to System 3). In the same vein, “action points” “8&9” and “13&14” perform similar functions into their respective coordination centres (i.e., TSZ-CC & TCZ-CC), see Figure 6 and Table 4. |
“4A”, “9A”, “14″ | Following the scenario herein, “4A” communicates the protective measures taken (e.g., evacuation) to the MTEW-CC, which in turn may devise further actions given its synergistic view of the total system through system 3, as shown in Figure 6. The same rationale applies to “9A” and “14” within their respective coordination centres. |
“5”, “6”, “15″ | “Action point” “5” issues the tsunami warning to the affected communities within this zone (e.g. B.C, B.C.S., Sinaloa, Manzanillo, etc.). Further, it implements all the protective measures to mitigate the impact of the tsunami in the coastal areas, e.g., evacuation to safe areas, etc. Moreover, it also implements plans to relocate the affected people to safe areas if necessary. Similarly, as in “5”, “6” issues the tsunami warning to the affected communities within this zone (e.g. Acapulco, Oaxaca, Manzanillo, Zihuatanejo, etc.). “Action point” “15”, issues the warning to the communities vulnerable to tsunamis within this zone (e.g. Cancun, etc.), see Figure 6. |
Description of the key action points of the model in Figure 6.
Some of the key features of the model | Examples of what perform some of the functions of the existing system (left & Figure 6) | ||
---|---|---|---|
System | Key Components | SMU (“square boxes”) | Operations (‘circles’) |
Systems 2–5 | MTEW-SMU (“Mexican Tsunami Early Warning-SMU”) | - | |
MTEW-CC (“Mexican Tsunami Early Warning Coordination Centre”) | Warning coordination centres within the CAT. | - | |
System 1 | TNZ-SMU (“Tsunami Northern Zone- SMU”) | Same as with 1,2 & 5 above, and local/regional decision-makers, e.g., civil protection, etc. | — |
TNZO (“Tsunami Northern Zone Operations”) | Local communities living in the zone, including tourists & those working in touristic resorts, such as ‘Los Cabos’, etc. | ||
TNZ-CC (“Tsunami Northern Zone- Coordination Centre) | Same as with 1,2 & 5 above, and local/regional decision-makers, e.g., civil protection, etc. | - | |
System 1 | TSZ-SMU (“Tsunami Southern Zone- SMU”) | Same as with 1,2 & 5 above, and local/regional decision-makers, e.g., civil protection, etc. | - |
TSZO (“Tsunami Southern Zone Operations”) | Local communities living in the zone, including tourists & those working in touristic resorts, such as ‘Puerto Vallarta’, ‘Acapulco’, ‘Huatulco’, etc. | ||
TNZ-CC (“Tsunami Southern Zone- Coordination Centre) | Same as with 1,2 & 5 above, and local/regional decision-makers, e.g., civil protection, etc. | - | |
System 1 | TSZ-SMU (“Tsunami Caribbean Zone- SMU”) | Same as with 1,2 & 5 above, and local/regional decision-makers, e.g., civil protection, etc. | - |
TCZO (“Tsunami Caribbean Zone Operations”) | Local communities living in the zone, including tourists & those working in touristic resorts, such as ‘Cancun’, ‘Playa del Carmen’. | ||
TNZ-CC (“Tsunami Caribbean Zone- Coordination Centre) | Same as with 1,2 & 5 above, and local/regional decision-makers, e.g., civil protection, etc. | - |
Examples of the key players that perform some of the functions of the system in place when compared with the model (Figure 6).
In general, communities living in active seismic areas and along coastal regions are vulnerable to tsunamis. These natural hazards are not that common and unpredictable, but powerful and with devastating consequences to those communities in their path. It is believed that tsunamis are the deadliest in terms of the proportion of people being killed [34].
Following the 2004 tsunami in the Indian Ocean, the need for a tsunami warning system (TWS) was more than evident; however, it may be argued that the existing TWS may be deficient in dealing with the mitigation of impacts of such events; moreover, there are still regions worldwide without such systems.
Recent tsunami disasters have highlighted some of these deficiencies; for example, in the case of the 2010 tsunami in Chile, the entity in charge of issuing a tsunami warning failed to do so [5], p. 30 (see “action point” “2”& “7” in Figure 6 and Table 3). The failure to perform this action contributed to fatalities in the coastal communities. More recently, the 28 September Sulawesi tsunami and the 24 December Anak Krakatau (AK) volcano tsunami, both in Indonesia, illustrate deficiencies in TWS too. In the former case, the tsunami warning was issued but the warning was lifted over thirty minutes [4]. However, the city of Palu, located in a narrow bay, was hit hard with waves reaching six metres of height; why were not they warned? the head of the BMKG (Indonesia Agency for Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics) argued that “we have no observation data at Palu…”, “If we had a tide gauge or proper data in Palu, of course it would have been better” [4]. The tsunami (and earthquake) killed over 2000 people [2]. Finally, regarding the AK volcano tsunami, it is thought that there was not a tsunami warning system for the case of volcano-induced tsunamis; however, the tsunami killed 437 people [3].
It may be argued that a TWS should not be only concerned with the technical infrastructure systems (e.g., tidal gauge, network of buoys, etc.), but also the organisational and human components. Further, it may be argued that the most difficult aspect is the human factor; there is a need to better understand human behaviour during these events, so that make these communities less vulnerable and resilient to tsunamis. In other words, there is a need for an effective tsunami early warning system able to consider all these components in a coherent manner, such as the system being proposed herein and elsewhere. Further, these systems should be “people-centred” [21, 35].
The paper has presented the risk of tsunamis in Mexico. The approach has been a review of existing literature on historical data of tsunami occurrence in Mexico. The literature survey showed that the tsunami threat comes from local and remote zones. Overall, the review showed that the highest tsunami risk comes from tsunamis induced by earthquakes occurring in the Southern zone of the country (i.e., local zone). The paper has also put forward a preliminary model of a TEWS (Tsunami Early Warning System) for the case of Mexico. However, it needs further research to design the whole networks of the flows of information not only for the case of tsunamis, but also for the case of earthquake early warning “people-centred” systems.
This research was supported by the following grants: SIP-IPN-20201790; CONACYT-No:248219.
The author declares that he has no competing interests.
License
\n\nBook Chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen maintains a very flexible Copyright Policy that ensures that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher. Therefore, Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0).
\n\n',metaTitle:"Open Access Statement",metaDescription:"Book chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0)",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/open-access-statement/",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Formats
\\n\\nBased on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific Works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\nCosts
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
\\n\\n\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Formats
\n\nBased on your preferences and the stage of your scientific projects, you have multiple options for publishing your scientific research with IntechOpen:
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific Works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing.
\n\n\n\nCosts
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model followed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, thus enabling readers to access research at no cost to themselves. In order to sustain these operations, and keep our publications freely accessible, we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee on all manuscripts accepted for publication to help cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books.
\n\n\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is dedicated to ensuring the long-term preservation and availability of the scholarly research it publishes.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5817},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5282},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1755},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10511},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:906},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15915}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119159},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{topicId:"20"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10672",title:"Nonlinear Optics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cfe87b713a8bee22c19361b86b03d506",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Boris I. Lembrikov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10672.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10674",title:"Topics on Quantum Information Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"d7481712cff0157cd8f849cba865727d",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Sergio Curilef and Dr. Angel Ricardo Plastino",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10674.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"125424",title:"Prof.",name:"Sergio",surname:"Curilef",slug:"sergio-curilef",fullName:"Sergio Curilef"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10852",title:"Electromagnetic Compatibility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f5d2cce3a2adbd5d108d3301ee97025b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Ahmed Kishk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10852.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"150146",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed",surname:"Kishk",slug:"ahmed-kishk",fullName:"Ahmed Kishk"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10921",title:"Plasma Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c45670ef4b081fd9eebaf911b2b4627b",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Aamir Shahzad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10921.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"288354",title:"Dr.",name:"Aamir",surname:"Shahzad",slug:"aamir-shahzad",fullName:"Aamir Shahzad"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10956",title:"Pulsed Lasers",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"88bd906b149fc3d1c5d6fdbd9916826c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10956.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:27},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:11},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:24},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:46},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8445",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e4d2ecbc65d78fa7582e0d2e143906",slug:"dam-engineering-recent-advances-in-design-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Zhongzhi Fu and Erich Bauer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8445.jpg",editors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3951728ace7f135451d66b72e9908b47",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Veganism",subtitle:"a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8e51fc25a379e5b92a270addbb4351d",slug:"veganism-a-fashion-trend-or-food-as-a-medicine",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5314},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8445",title:"Dam Engineering",subtitle:"Recent Advances in Design and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a7e4d2ecbc65d78fa7582e0d2e143906",slug:"dam-engineering-recent-advances-in-design-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Zhongzhi Fu and Erich Bauer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8445.jpg",editors:[{id:"249577",title:"Dr.",name:"Zhongzhi",middleName:null,surname:"Fu",slug:"zhongzhi-fu",fullName:"Zhongzhi Fu"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8937",title:"Soil Moisture Importance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3951728ace7f135451d66b72e9908b47",slug:"soil-moisture-importance",bookSignature:"Ram Swaroop Meena and Rahul Datta",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8937.jpg",editors:[{id:"313528",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ram Swaroop",middleName:null,surname:"Meena",slug:"ram-swaroop-meena",fullName:"Ram Swaroop Meena"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7031",title:"Liver Pathology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"631321b0565459ed0175917f1c8c727f",slug:"liver-pathology",bookSignature:"Vijay Gayam and Omer Engin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7031.jpg",editors:[{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9536",title:"Education at the Intersection of Globalization and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0cf6891060eb438d975d250e8b127ed6",slug:"education-at-the-intersection-of-globalization-and-technology",bookSignature:"Sharon Waller, Lee Waller, Vongai Mpofu and Mercy Kurebwa",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9536.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"263302",title:"Dr.",name:"Sharon",middleName:null,surname:"Waller",slug:"sharon-waller",fullName:"Sharon Waller"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8564",title:"Cell Interaction",subtitle:"Molecular and Immunological Basis for Disease Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"98d7f080d80524285f091e72a8e92a6d",slug:"cell-interaction-molecular-and-immunological-basis-for-disease-management",bookSignature:"Bhawana Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8564.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"315192",title:"Dr.",name:"Bhawana",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"bhawana-singh",fullName:"Bhawana Singh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9629",title:"Electroencephalography",subtitle:"From Basic Research to Clinical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8147834b6c6deeeec40f407c71ad60b4",slug:"electroencephalography-from-basic-research-to-clinical-applications",bookSignature:"Hideki Nakano",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",middleName:null,surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9685",title:"Agroecosystems",subtitle:"Very Complex Environmental Systems",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c44f7b43a9f9610c243dc32300d37df6",slug:"agroecosystems-very-complex-environmental-systems",bookSignature:"Marcelo L. Larramendy and Sonia Soloneski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9685.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"14764",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcelo L.",middleName:null,surname:"Larramendy",slug:"marcelo-l.-larramendy",fullName:"Marcelo L. Larramendy"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9524",title:"Organ Donation and Transplantation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ef47e03cd4e6476946fc28ca51de825",slug:"organ-donation-and-transplantation",bookSignature:"Vassil Mihaylov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9524.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"313113",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Vassil",middleName:null,surname:"Mihaylov",slug:"vassil-mihaylov",fullName:"Vassil Mihaylov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9280",title:"Underwater Work",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"647b4270d937deae4a82f5702d1959ec",slug:"underwater-work",bookSignature:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9280.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"248645",title:"Dr.",name:"Sérgio António",middleName:null,surname:"Neves Lousada",slug:"sergio-antonio-neves-lousada",fullName:"Sérgio António Neves Lousada"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9161",title:"Frailty in the Elderly",subtitle:"Understanding and Managing Complexity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a4f0f2fade8fb8ba35c405f5ad31a823",slug:"frailty-in-the-elderly-understanding-and-managing-complexity",bookSignature:"Sara Palermo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"233998",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Palermo",slug:"sara-palermo",fullName:"Sara Palermo"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8158",title:"Veganism",subtitle:"a Fashion Trend or Food as a Medicine",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d8e51fc25a379e5b92a270addbb4351d",slug:"veganism-a-fashion-trend-or-food-as-a-medicine",bookSignature:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8158.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"268043",title:"Dr.",name:"Miljana Z.",middleName:"Z",surname:"Jovandaric",slug:"miljana-z.-jovandaric",fullName:"Miljana Z. Jovandaric"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"98",title:"Astronomy and Astrophysics",slug:"astronomy-and-astrophysics",parent:{title:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",slug:"earth-and-planetary-sciences"},numberOfBooks:4,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:89,numberOfWosCitations:91,numberOfCrossrefCitations:42,numberOfDimensionsCitations:77,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"astronomy-and-astrophysics",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"7338",title:"Planetology",subtitle:"Future Explorations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d52566a2f61bb3d7021ed630a149e1e6",slug:"planetology-future-explorations",bookSignature:"Bryan Palaszewski",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7338.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8444",title:"Lunar Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f1dcf511a174e8ec89d97ca8c0c6146a",slug:"lunar-science",bookSignature:"Yann H. Chemin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8444.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"270578",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",middleName:"H.",surname:"Chemin",slug:"yann-chemin",fullName:"Yann Chemin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1629",title:"Astrophysics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"95209a68cff9bc045b51611c513b63bd",slug:"astrophysics",bookSignature:"Ibrahim Kucuk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1629.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"102957",title:"Prof.",name:"İbrahim",middleName:null,surname:"Küçük",slug:"ibrahim-kucuk",fullName:"İbrahim Küçük"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1617",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7695d3592f3bb8f5c0a52de901949a74",slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",bookSignature:"Marian Lazar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1617.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107684",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Lazar",slug:"marian-lazar",fullName:"Marian Lazar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:4,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"32544",doi:"10.5772/37359",title:"The Polar Cap PC Indices: Relations to Solar Wind and Global Disturbances",slug:"the-polar-cap-pc-indices-relations-to-solar-wind-and-global-disturbances",totalDownloads:2750,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:14,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Peter Stauning",authors:[{id:"112396",title:"MSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Stauning",slug:"peter-stauning",fullName:"Peter Stauning"}]},{id:"32539",doi:"10.5772/39281",title:"Suprathermal Particle Populations in the Solar Wind and Corona",slug:"suprathermal-particle-populations-in-the-solar-wind-and-corona",totalDownloads:2860,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"M. Lazar, R. Schlickeiser and S. Poedts",authors:[{id:"107684",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Lazar",slug:"marian-lazar",fullName:"Marian Lazar"}]},{id:"32533",doi:"10.5772/37908",title:"Measuring the Isotopic Composition of Solar Wind Noble Gases",slug:"measuring-the-isotopic-composition-of-solar-wind-noble-gases",totalDownloads:2313,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Alex Meshik, Charles Hohenberg, Olga Pravdivtseva and Donald Burnett",authors:[{id:"114740",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Meshik",slug:"alexander-meshik",fullName:"Alexander Meshik"},{id:"115300",title:"Prof.",name:"Donald",middleName:null,surname:"Burnett",slug:"donald-burnett",fullName:"Donald Burnett"},{id:"115301",title:"Prof.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Hohenberg",slug:"charles-hohenberg",fullName:"Charles Hohenberg"},{id:"115302",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Pravdivtseva",slug:"olga-pravdivtseva",fullName:"Olga Pravdivtseva"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"32543",title:"Ground-Based Monitoring of the Solar Wind Geoefficiency",slug:"ground-based-monitoring-of-the-solar-wind-geoefficiency",totalDownloads:2082,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Oleg Troshichev",authors:[{id:"116123",title:"Prof.",name:"Oleg",middleName:null,surname:"Troshichev",slug:"oleg-troshichev",fullName:"Oleg Troshichev"}]},{id:"70129",title:"Introductory Chapter: Planetology",slug:"introductory-chapter-planetology",totalDownloads:261,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"planetology-future-explorations",title:"Planetology",fullTitle:"Planetology - Future Explorations"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"32535",title:"Multifractal Turbulence in the Heliosphere",slug:"multifractal-turbulence-in-the-heliosphere",totalDownloads:2087,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Wiesław M. Macek",authors:[{id:"111245",title:"Prof.",name:"Wieslaw",middleName:null,surname:"Macek",slug:"wieslaw-macek",fullName:"Wieslaw Macek"}]},{id:"65534",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: Lunar Base Issues",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-lunar-base-issues",totalDownloads:548,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"32539",title:"Suprathermal Particle Populations in the Solar Wind and Corona",slug:"suprathermal-particle-populations-in-the-solar-wind-and-corona",totalDownloads:2863,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:10,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"M. Lazar, R. Schlickeiser and S. Poedts",authors:[{id:"107684",title:"Dr.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Lazar",slug:"marian-lazar",fullName:"Marian Lazar"}]},{id:"68357",title:"Solar System Exploration Augmented by In Situ Resource Utilization: System Analyses, Vehicles, and Moon Bases for Saturn Exploration",slug:"solar-system-exploration-augmented-by-in-situ-resource-utilization-system-analyses-vehicles-and-moon",totalDownloads:313,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"planetology-future-explorations",title:"Planetology",fullTitle:"Planetology - Future Explorations"},signatures:"Bryan Palaszewski",authors:[{id:"279275",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Bryan",middleName:null,surname:"Palaszewski",slug:"bryan-palaszewski",fullName:"Bryan Palaszewski"}]},{id:"32546",title:"Turbulence in the Magnetosheath and the Problem of Plasma Penetration Inside the Magnetosphere",slug:"turbulence-in-the-magnetosheath-and-the-problem-of-plasma-penetration-inside-the-magnetosphere",totalDownloads:1976,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"Elizaveta E. Antonova, Maria S. Pulinets, Maria O. Riazantseva, Svetlana S. Znatkova, Igor P. Kirpichev and Marina V. Stepanova",authors:[{id:"108722",title:"Prof.",name:"Elizaveta",middleName:null,surname:"Antonova",slug:"elizaveta-antonova",fullName:"Elizaveta Antonova"},{id:"108731",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria",middleName:null,surname:"Riazantseva",slug:"maria-riazantseva",fullName:"Maria Riazantseva"}]},{id:"67064",title:"Introductory Chapter: A Tipping Point for a Return to the Moon",slug:"introductory-chapter-a-tipping-point-for-a-return-to-the-moon",totalDownloads:309,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"lunar-science",title:"Lunar Science",fullTitle:"Lunar Science"},signatures:"Yann H. Chemin",authors:[{id:"270578",title:"Dr.",name:"Yann",middleName:"H.",surname:"Chemin",slug:"yann-chemin",fullName:"Yann Chemin"}]},{id:"34257",title:"Nuclear Excitation Processes in Astrophysical Plasmas",slug:"nuclear-excitation-processes-in-astrophysical-plasmas",totalDownloads:2067,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"astrophysics",title:"Astrophysics",fullTitle:"Astrophysics"},signatures:"G. Gosselin, P. Mohr, V. Méot and P. Morel",authors:[{id:"109302",title:"Mr.",name:"Gilbert",middleName:null,surname:"Gosselin",slug:"gilbert-gosselin",fullName:"Gilbert Gosselin"},{id:"109409",title:"Dr.",name:"Vincent",middleName:null,surname:"Meot",slug:"vincent-meot",fullName:"Vincent Meot"},{id:"109410",title:"Dr.",name:"Pascal",middleName:null,surname:"Morel",slug:"pascal-morel",fullName:"Pascal Morel"},{id:"112136",title:"Dr.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Mohr",slug:"peter-mohr",fullName:"Peter Mohr"}]},{id:"32540",title:"Impact of the Large-Scale Solar Magnetic Field on the Solar Corona and Solar Wind",slug:"impact-of-the-large-scale-solar-magnetic-field-on-the-solar-corona-and-solar-wind",totalDownloads:1800,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"exploring-the-solar-wind",title:"Exploring the Solar Wind",fullTitle:"Exploring the Solar Wind"},signatures:"A.G. Tlatov and B.P. Filippov",authors:[{id:"109845",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",middleName:"Georgievich",surname:"Tlatov",slug:"andrey-tlatov",fullName:"Andrey Tlatov"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"astronomy-and-astrophysics",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/115065/pascal-colson",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"115065",slug:"pascal-colson"},fullPath:"/profiles/115065/pascal-colson",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()