Magnitude frequency response error comparison.
\r\n\t
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Her research focuses on multimodal neuroimaging integration including MRI/PET and EEG/MEG instrumentation that makes the best use of multiple modalities to help interpret underlying disease mechanisms. She has authored six monograph books, and edited several books for well-known publishers including IntechOpen and Nova Science. She has published more than 100 papers and presentations in many reputed international journals and conferences, and served as reviewer and editor for several well-known associations.",institutionString:"University of Southern California",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"3",institution:{name:"University of Southern California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"247041",firstName:"Dolores",lastName:"Kuzelj",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/247041/images/7108_n.jpg",email:"dolores@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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For this purpose, several illustrative examples are presented, where each design method is implemented by MATLAB programs.
A fractional delay filter is a filter of digital type having as main function to delay the processed input signal a fractional of the sampling period time. There are several applications where such signal delay value is required, examples of such systems are: timing adjustment in all-digital receivers (symbol synchronization), conversion between arbitrary sampling frequencies, echo cancellation, speech coding and synthesis, musical instruments modelling etc. (Laakson et al., 1996).
In order to achieve the fractional delay filter function, two main frequency-domain specifications must be met by the filter. The filter magnitude frequency response must have an all-pass behaviour in a wide frequency range, as well as its phase frequency response must be linear with a fixed fractional slope through the bandwidth.
Several FIR design methods have been reported during the last two decades. There are two main design approaches: time-domain and frequency-domain design methods. In first one, the fractional delay filter coefficients are easily obtained through classical mathematical interpolation formulas, but there is a small flexibility to meet frequency-domain specifications. On the other hand, the frequency-domain methods are based on frequency optimization process, and a more frequency specification control is available. One important result of frequency-domain methods is a highly efficient implementation structure called Farrow structure, which allows online fractional value update.
The chapter is organized as follows. Next section gives the formal definition of fractional delay filter. In the third section, some design methods are briefly described. Two efficient implementation structures for wideband fractional delay filter, as well as description of recently reported design methods for such structures, are illustrated in fourth section. MATLAB designed examples and concluding remarks are presented in fifth and sixth sections, respectively.
The continuous-time output signal ya(t) of a general signal delay system is defined by:
where x(t) is the continuous-time input signal and tl the obtained time delay value. In a discrete-time system, the input-output relationship of a signal delay system is expressed as:
where the delay value is given by DT, y(lT) and x(nT) are the discrete-time versions of output and input signals, respectively, and T is the sampling period time.
A signal delay value equal to a multiple of the sampling period, D as an integer N, can be easily implemented in a discrete-time system by memory elements storing the signal value for a time of NT:
In this case, the signal delay value is limited to be only N time the sampling period, tl=NT. For instance in telephone quality signals, with a sampling frequency of 8 KHz, only delays values multiple of 125μseconds are allowed.
Let us introduce the FDF function using time-domain signals sketched in Fig 1. The FDF output y(lT), squared samples, is obtained a delay time tl after input x(nl), with a delay value μlT given as a fraction of the sampling period time, 0<μl<1. As shown in Fig. 1, the fractional delay value μl may be variable; this way, it can be changed at any desired time.
The fundamental design problem of a FDF is to obtain the FDF unit impulse response hFD(n,μ), in such a way that the obtained output value y(lT) = ya(DT) be as close as possible to ya(tl) for 0<μl <1. The simplified block diagram for a FDF is shown in Fig. 2, which output for a no causal FIR FDF filter is given by the discrete-time convolution:
where NFD is the even length of the FDF. The system function H(z) of the FDF can be expressed as:
FDF time-domain behaviour.
Simplified block diagram for a FDF.
where the delay value is given as: D = Dfix+μl, Dfix is a fixed delay value and μl is the desired fractional delay value. As a consequence, the ideal frequency response of a FDF Hid(ω,μl) is:
Hence the ideal FDF frequency response has an all-band unity magnitude response:
and a linear frequency phase response with a constant phase delay given, respectively, by:
The main goal of all existing FDF design methods, based on a frequency design approach, is to obtain the FDF filter coefficients through approximating this ideal frequency performance.
Applying inverse discrete Fourier transform to the ideal FDF frequency response, the ideal FDF filter unit impulse response hid(n,μ) is obtained as:
Given a desired factional delay value, the FDF coefficients can be easily obtained with this infinite length delayed sinc function. Due to this infinite length, it is evident that an FIR FDF will be always an approximation to the ideal case.
As an illustrative example, the ideal FDF unit impulse responses for two delay values D= 3.0 (Dfix=3.0 and μ = 0) and D=3.65 (Dfix=3.0 and μ = 0.65) are shown in Fig. 3 and 4, respectively. The unit impulse responses were obtained using MATLAB function sinc. The FDF unit impulse responses are shown as solid lines, and the delayed sinc function as dot line. In the first case, only one three-sample delay is needed, which can be easily implemented with memory components as described above. However, the FDF unit impulse response for the second case has an infinite number of nonzero coefficients (IIR) and it is a no causal sequence, which makes it impractical for implementing in real-time applications.
Ideal FDF unit impulse response for D=3.0.
Ideal FDF unit impulse response for D=3.65.
The existing design methods for FIR FDF use a large range of strategies to approximate as close as possible the ideal FDF unit impulse response hid(n,μ). It is possible to highlight three main strategies:
Magnitude frequency response approximation: The FDF unit impulse response is obtained such that its frequency magnitude response is as close as possible to the ideal FDF one, accordingly to some defined error criterion.
Interpolation design method: The design approach is based on computing FDF coefficients through classical mathematical interpolation methods, such as Lagrange or B-spline. The design is a completely time-domain approach.
Hybrid analogue-digital model approach: The FDF design is accomplished through the use of an analogue-digital model. The design methods using this strategy are based on a frequency-domain approach.
A concise description of each one of these strategies is presented in the following.
The design method goal is to obtain the FDF unit impulse response hFD(n,μ) based on comparing its magnitude frequency response with the ideal one. The frequency response of the designed FDF with even-length NFD is given by:
One of the criterions used for the magnitude frequency response comparison is the least squares magnitude error defined as:
The error function e2(ω) is minimized by truncating the ideal unit impulse response to NFD samples, which can be interpreted as applying a delayed M-length window w(n) to the ideal IIR FDF unit impulse response:
where ω(n) is equal to unity in the interval 0≤n≤NFD-1 and zero otherwise.
The windowing process on the ideal unit impulse response causes not-desired effects on the FDF frequency response, in particular the Gibbs phenomenon for rectangular window (Proakis & Manolakis, 1995).
In general, the performance of a FDF obtained by truncating the sinc function is usually not acceptable in practice. As a design example, the FDF frequency magnitude and phase responses for D=3.65, using a rectangular window with NFD=50, are shown in Fig 5. We can see that the obtained FDF bandwidth is less than 0.9π and although the IIR sinc function has been truncated up to 50 taps, neither its frequency magnitude nor its phase response are constant.
The windowed unit impulse response hFD(n,μ) has a low-pass frequency response, in this way it can be modified to approximate only a desired pass-band interval (0,απ) as follows:
FDF frequency response for D=3.65 with rectangular window, NFD=50.
The magnitude and phase responses of a FDF with NFD= 8 and α=0.5 are shown in Fig. 6, which were obtained using MATLAB. The phase delay range is from D=3.0 to 3.5 samples with an increment of 0.1. More constant phase delay responses and narrower bandwidth is achieved.
FDF frequency responses using windowing method for D=3.0 to 3.5 with ΝFD = 8 and α =0.5.
In principle, window-based design is fast and easy. However, in practical applications it is difficult to meet a desired magnitude and phase specifications by adjusting window parameters. In order to meet a variable fractional delay specification, a real-time coefficient update method is required. This can be achieved storing the window values in memory and computing the values of the sinc function on line, but this would require large memory size for fine fractional delay resolution (Vesma, 1999).
The smallest least squares error can be achieved by defining its response only in a desired frequency band and by leaving the rest as a “don’t care” band. This can be done using a frequency-domain weighting as follows (Laakson et al., 1996):
where ωp is the desired pass-band frequency and W(ω) represents the weighting frequency function, which defines the corresponding weight to each band. In this way, the error is defined only in the FDF pass-band, hence the optimization process is applied in this particular frequency range.
In Fig. 7 are shown the FDF frequency responses designed with this method using W(ω)=1, ΝFD = 8 and α =0.5. We can see a notable improvement in the resulting FDF bandwidth compared with the one obtained using the least square method, Fig. 6.
There is another design method based on the magnitude frequency response approach, which computes the FDF coefficients by minimizing the error function:
The solution to this optimization problem is given by the minimax method proposed by (Oetken, 1979). The obtained FDF has an equiripple pass-band magnitude response. As an illustrative example, the frequency response of an FDF designed through this minimax method is shown in Fig. 8, where NFD=20 and ωp=0.9π.
FDF frequency responses using weighted least square method for D=3.0 to 3.5 with ΝFD = 8 and α =0.5.
FDF Frequency responses using minimax method for D=9.0 to 9.5 with ΝFD = 20 and α =0.9.
Instead of minimizing an error function, the FDF coefficients are computed from making the error function maximally-flat at ω=0. This means that the derivatives of an error function are equal to zero at this frequency point:
the complex error function is defined as:
where HFD(ω,μl) is the designed FDF frequency response, and Hid(ω,μl) is the ideal FDF frequency response, given by equation (Eq. 6). The solution of this approximation is the classical Lagrange interpolation formula, where the FDF coefficients are computed with the closed form equation:
where NFD is the FDF length and the desired delay
The FDF frequency responses, designed with Lagrange interpolation, with a length of 10 are shown in Fig. 9. As expected, a flat magnitude response at low frequencies is presented; a narrow bandwidth is also obtained.
FDF Frequency responses using Lagrange interpolation for D=4.0 to 4.5 with ΝFD = 10.
The use of this design method has three main advantages (Laakson et al., 1994): 1) the ease to compute the FDF coefficients from one closed form equation, 2) the FDF magnitude frequency response at low frequencies is completely flat, 3) a FDF with polynomial-defined coefficients allows the use of an efficient implementation structure called Farrow structure, which will be described in section 3.3.
On the other hand, there are some disadvantages to be taken into account when a Lagrange interpolation is used in FDF design: 1) the achieved bandwidth is narrow, 2) the design is made in time-domain and then any frequency information of the processed signal is not taken into account; this is a big problem because the time-domain characteristics of the signals are not usually known, and what is known is their frequency band, 3) if the polynomial order is NFD; then the FDF length will be NFD, 4) since only one design parameter is used, the design control of FDF specifications in frequency-domain is limited.
The use of Lagrange interpolation for FDF design is proposed in (Ging-Shing & Che-Ho, 1990, 1992), where closed form equations are presented for coefficients computing of the desired FDF filter. A combination of a multirate structure and a Lagrange-designed FDF is described in (Murphy et al., 1994), where an improved bandwidth is achieved.
The interpolation design approach is not limited only to Lagrange interpolation; some design methods using spline and parabolic interpolations were reported in (Vesma, 1995) and (Erup et al., 1993), respectively.
In this approach, the FDF design methods are based on the hybrid analogue-digital model proposed by (Ramstad, 1984), which is shown in Fig. 10. The fractional delay of the digital signal x(n) is made in the analogue domain through a re-sampling process at the desired time delay tl. Hence a digital to analogue converter is taken into account in the model, where a reconstruction analog filter ha(t) is used.
Hybrid analogue-digital model.
An important result of this modelling is the relationship between the analogue reconstruction filer ha(t) and the discrete-time FDF unit impulse response hFD(n,μ), which is given by:
where n=-NFD/2,-NFD/2+1,…., NFD/2-1, and T is the signal sampling frequency. The model output is obtained by the convolution expression:
This means that for a given desired fractional value, the FDF coefficients can be obtained from a designed continuous-time filter.
The design methods using this approach approximate the reconstruction filter ha(t) in each interval of length T by means of a polynomial-based interpolation as follows:
for k=-NFD/2,-NFD/2+1,…., NFD/2-1. The cm(k)’s are the unknown polynomial coefficients and M is the polynomials order.
If equation (Eq. 22) is substituted in equation (Eq. 21), the resulted output signal can be expressed as:
where:
are the output samples of the M+1 FIR filters with a system function:
The implementation of such polynomial-based approach results in the Farrow structure, (Farrow, 1988), sketched in Fig. 11. This implementation is a highly efficient structure composed of a parallel connection of M+1 fixed filters, having online fractional delay value update capability. This structure allows that the FDF design problem be focused to obtain each one of the fixed branch filters cm(k) and the FDF structure output is computed from the desired fractional delay given online μl.
The coefficients of each branch filter Cm(z) are determined from the polynomial coefficients of the reconstruction filter impulse response ha(t). Two mainly polynomial-based interpolation filters are used: 1) conventional time-domain design such as Lagrange interpolation, 2) frequency-domain design such as minimax and least mean squares optimization.
Farrow structure.
As were pointed out previously, Lagrange interpolation has several disadvantages. A better polynomial approximation of the reconstruction filter is using a frequency-domain approach, which is achieved by optimizing the polynomial coefficients of the impulse response ha(t) directly in the frequency-domain. Some of the design methods are based on the optimization of the discrete-time filter hFD(n,μl)) and others on making the optimization of the reconstruction filter ha(t). Once that this filter is obtained, the Farrow structure branch filters cm(k) are related to hFD(n,ml) using equations (Eq. 20) and (Eq. 22). One of main advantages of frequency-domain design methods is that they have at least three design parameters: filter length NFD, interpolation order M, and pass-band frequency ωp.
There are several methods using the frequency design method (Vesma, 1999). In (Farrow, 1988) a least-mean-squares optimization is proposed in such a way that the squared error between HFD(ω,μl) and the ideal response Hid(ω,μl) is minimized for 0≤ω≤ωp and for 0≤μl<1. The design method reported in (Laakson et al., 1995) is based on optimizing cm(k) to minimize the squared error between ha(t) and the hFD(n,μl) filters, which is designed through the magnitude frequency response approximation approach, see section 3.1. The design method introduced in (Vesma et al., 1998) is based on approximating the Farrow structure output samples vm(nl) as an mth order differentiator; this is a Taylor series approximation of the input signal. In this sense, Cm(ω) approximates in a minimax or L2 sense the ideal response of the mth order differentiator, denoted as Dm(ω), in the desired pass-band frequencies. In (Vesma & Saramaki, 1997) the designed FDF phase delay approximates the ideal phase delay value μl in a minimax sense for 0≤ω≤ωp and for 0≤μl<1 with the restriction that the maximum pass-band amplitude deviation from unity be smaller than the worst-case amplitude deviation, occurring when μ=0.5.
As were described in section 3.3, one of the most important results of the analogue-digital model in designing FDF filters is the highly efficient Farrow structure implementation, which was deduced from a piecewise approximation of the reconstruction filter through a polynomial based interpolation. The interpolation process is made as a frequency-domain optimization in most of the existing design methods.
An important design parameter is the FDF bandwidth. A wideband specification, meaning a pass-band frequency of 0.9π or wider, imposes a high polynomial order M as well as high branch filters length NFD. The resulting number of products in the Farrow structure is given by NFD(M+1)+M, hence in order to reduce the number of arithmetic operations per output sample in the Farrow structure, a reduction either in the polynomial order or in the FDF length is required.
Some design approaches for efficient implementation structures have been proposed to reduce the number of arithmetic operations in a wideband FDF. A modified Farrow structure, reported in (Vesma & Samaraki, 1996), is an extension of the polynomial based interpolation method. In (Johansson & Lowerborg, 2003), a frequency optimization technique is used a modified Farrow structure achieving a lower arithmetic complexity with different branch filters lengths. In (Yli-Kaakinen & Saramaki, 2006a, 2006a, 2007), multiplierless techniques were proposed for minimizing the number of arithmetic operations in the branch filters of the modified Farrow structure. A combination of a two-rate factor multirate structure and a time-domain designed FDF (Lagrange) was reported in (Murphy et al., 1994). The same approach is reported in (Hermanowicz, 2004), where symmetric Farrow structure branch filters are computed in time-domain with a symbolic approach. A combination of the two-rate factor multirate structure with a frequency-domain optimization process was firstly proposed in (Jovanovic-Docelek & Diaz-Carmona, 2002). In subsequence methods (Hermanowicz & Johansson, 2005) and (Johansson & Hermanowicz &, 2006), different optimization processes were applied to the same multirate structure. In (Hermanowicz & Johansson, 2005), a two stage FDF jointly optimized technique is applied. In (Johansson & Hermanowicz, 2006) a complexity reduction is achieved by using an approximately linear phase IIR filter instead of a linear phase FIR in the interpolation process.
Most of the recently reported FDF design methods are based on the modified Farrow structure as well as on the multirate Farrow structure. Such implementation structures are briefly described in the following.
The modified Farrow structure is obtained by approximating the reconstruction filter with the interpolation variable 2μl -1 instead of μl in equation (Eq. 22):
for k=-NFD/2,-NFD/2+1,…., NFD/2-1. The first four basis polynomials are shown in Fig. 12. The symmetry property ha(-t)= ha(t) is achieved by:
for m= 0, 1, 2,…,M and n=0, 1,….,NFD/2. Using this condition, the number of unknowns is reduced to half.
The reconstruction filter ha(t) can be now approximated as follows:
where cm(n) are the unknown coefficients and g(n,m,t)’s are basis functions reported in (Vesma & Samaraki, 1996).
Basis polynomials for modified Farrow structure for 0≤ m ≤ 3.
The modified Farrow structure has the following properties: 1) polynomial coefficients cm(n) are symmetrical, according to equation (Eq. 27); 2) The factional value μl is substituted by 2μl -1, the resulting implementation of the modified Farrow structure is shown in Fig. 13; 3) the number of products per output sample is reduced from NFD(M+1)+M to NFD(M+1)/2+M.
The frequency design method in (Vesma et al., 1998) is based on the following properties of the branch digital filters Cm(z):
The FIR filter Cm(z), 0≤m≤M, in the original Farrow structure is the mth order Taylor approximation to the continuous-time interpolated input signal.
In the modified Farrow structure, the FIR filters C’m(z) are linear phase type II filters when m is even and type IV when m is odd.
Each filter Cm(z) approximates in magnitude the function Kmwm, where Km is a constant. The ideal frequency response of an mth order differentiator is (jω)m, hence the ideal response of each Cm(z) filter in the Farrow structure is an mth order differentiator.
In same way, it is possible to approximate the input signal through Taylor series in a modified Farrow structure for each C’m(z), (Vesma et al., 1998). The mth order differential approximation to the continuous-time interpolated input signal is done through the branch filter C’m(z), with a frequency response given as:
Modified Farrow structure.
The input design parameters are: the filter length NFD, the polynomial order M, and the desired pass-band frequency ωp.
The NFD coefficients of the M+1\n\t\t\t\t\tC’m(z) FIR filters are computed in such a way that the following error function is minimized in a least square sense through the frequency range [0,ωp]:
where:
Hence the objective function is given as:
From this equation it can be observed that the design of a wide bandwidth FDF requires an extensive computing workload. For high fractional delay resolution FDF, high precise differentiator approximations are required; this imply high branch filters length, NFD, and high polynomial order, M. Hence a FDF structure with high number of arithmetic operations per output sample is obtained.
A two-rate-factor structure in (Murphy et al., 1994), is proposed for designing FDF in time-domain. The input signal bandwidth is reduced by increasing to a double sampling frequency value. In this way Lagrange interpolation is used in the filter coefficients computing, resulting in a wideband FDF.
The multirate structure, shown in Fig. 14, is composed of three stages. The first one is an upsampler and a half-band image suppressor HHB(z) for incrementing twice the input sampling frequency. Second stage is the FDF HDF(z), which is designed in time-domain through Lagrange interpolation. Since the signal processing frequency of HDF(z) is twice the input sampling frequency, such filter can be designed to meet only half of the required bandwidth. Last stage deals with a downsampler for decreasing the sampling frequency to its original value. Notice that the fractional delay is doubled because the sampling frequency is twice. Such multirate structure can be implemented as the single-sampling-frequency structure shown in Fig. 15, where H0(z) and H1(z) are the first and second polyphase components of the half-band filter HHB(z), respectively. In the same way HFD0(z) and HFD1(z) are the polyphase components of the FDF HFD(z) (Murphy et al, 1994).
The resulting implementation structure for HDF(z) designed as a modified Farrow structure and after some structure reductions (Jovanovic-Dolecek & Diaz-Carmona, 2002) is shown in Fig. 16. The filters Cm,0(z) and Cm,1(z) are the first and second polyphase components of the branch filter Cm(z), respectively.
FDF Multirate structure.
Single-sampling-frequency structure.
Equivalent single-sampling-frequency structure.
The use of the obtained structure in combination with a frequency optimization method for computing the branch filters Cm(z) coefficients was exploited in (Jovanovic-Dolecek & Diaz-Carmona, 2002). The approach is a least mean square approximation of each one of the mth differentiator of input signal, which is applied through the half of the desired pass-band. The resulting objective function, obtained this way from equation (Eq. 32), is:
The decrease in the optimization frequency range allows an abrupt reduction in the coefficient computation time for wideband FDF, and this less severe condition allows a resulting structure with smaller length of filters Cm(z).
The half-band HHB(z) filter plays a key role in the bandwidth and fractional delay resolution of the FDF filter. The higher stop-band attenuation of filter HHB(z), the higher resulting fractional delay resolution. Similarly, the narrower transition band of HHB(z) provides the wider resulting bandwidth.
In (Ramirez-Conejo, 2010) and (Ramirez-Conejo et al., 2010a), the branch filters coefficients cm(n) are obtained approximating each mth differentiator with the use of another frequency optimization method. The magnitude and phase frequency response errors are defined, for 0≤w≤wp and 0≤μl≤1, respectively as:
where HFD(ω) and ϕ(ω) are, respectively, the frequency and phase responses of the FDF filter to be designed. In the same way, this method can also be extended for designing FDF with complex specifications, where the complex error used is given by equation (Eq. 18).
The coefficients computing of the resulting FDF structure, shown in Fig. 16, is done through frequency optimization for global magnitude approximation to the ideal frequency response in a minimax sense. The objective function is defined as:
The objective function is minimized until a magnitude error specification δm is met. In order to meet both magnitude and phase errors, the global phase delay error is constrained to meet the phase delay restriction:
where δp is the FDF phase delay error specification. The minimax optimization can de performed using the function fminmax available in the MATLAB Optimization Toolbox.
As is well known, the initial solution plays a key role in a minimax optimization process, (Johansson & Lowenborg, 2003), the proposed initial solution is the individual branch filters approximations to the mth differentiator in a least mean squares sense, accordingly to (Jovanovic-Delecek & Diaz-Carmona, 2002):
The initial half-band filter HHB(z) to the frequency optimization process can be designed as a Doph-Chebyshev window or as an equirriple filter. The final hafband coefficients are obtained as a result of the optimization.
The fact of using the proposed optimization process allows the design of a wideband FDF structure with small arithmetic complexity. Examples of such designing are presented in section 5.
An implementation of this FDF design method is reported in (Ramirez-Conejo et al., 2010b), where the resulting structure, as one shown in Fig. 16, is implemented in a reconfigurable hardware platform.
The results obtained with FDF design methods described in (Diaz-Carmona et al., 2010) and (Ramirez-Conejo et al., 2010) are shown through three design examples, that were implemented in MATLAB.
Example 1:
The design example is based on the method described in (Diaz-Carmona et al., 2010). The desired FDF bandwidth is 0.9π, and a fractional delay resolution of 1/10000.
A half-band filter HHB(z) with 241 coefficients was used, which was designed with a Dolph-Chebyshev window, with a stop-band attenuation of 140 dBs. The design parameters are: M=12 and NFD=10 with a resulting structure arithmetic of 202 products per output sample.
The frequency optimization is applied up to only ωp=0.45π, causing a notably computing workload reduction, compared with an optimization on the whole desired bandwidth (Vesma et al., 1998). As a matter of comparison, the MATLAB computing time in a PC running at 2GHz for the optimization on half of the desired pass-band is 1.94 seconds and 110 seconds for the optimization on the whole pass-band. The first seven differentiator approximations for both cases are shown in Fig. 17 and Fig. 18.
The frequency responses of the resulted FDF from μ=0.008 to 0.01 samples for the half pass-band and for the whole pass-band optimization process, are shown in Fig. 19 and Fig. 20, respectively.
The use of the optimization process (Vesma et al., 1998) with design parameters of M=12 and NFD=104 results in a total number of 688 products per output sample. Accordingly to the described example in (Zhao & Yu, 2006), using a weighted least squares design method, an implementation structure with NFD=67 and M=7 is required to meet ωp=0.9π, which results in arithmetic complexity of 543 products per output sample.
Frequency responses of the first seven ideal differentiators (dotted line) and the obtained approximations (solid line) in 0≤ω≤0.45π with NFD=10 and M=12.
First seven differentiator ideal frequency responses (dotted line) and obtained approximations (solid line) in 0≤ω≤0.9π with NFD=104 and M=12.
FDF frequency responses using half band frequency optimization method for μl=0.0080 to 0.0100 with ΝFD = 10 and M=12.
FDF frequency responses, using all-bandwidth frequency optimization method for μl=0.0080 to 0.0100 with NFD=104 and M=12.
In order to compare the frequency-domain approximation achieved by the described method with existing design methods results, the frequency-domain absolute error e(ω,μ), the maximum absolute error emax, and the root mean square error erms are defined, like in (Zhao & Yu, 2006), by:
The maximum absolute magnitude error and the root mean square error obtained are shown in Table 1, reported in (Diaz-Carmona et al., 2010), as well as the results reported by some design methods.
Method | emax(dBs) | erms |
(Tarczynski et al., 1997) | -100.0088 | 2.9107x10-6 |
(Wu-Sheng, & Tian-Bo, 1999) | -100.7215 | 2.7706x10-6 |
(Tian-Bo, 2001) | -99.9208 | 4.931x10-4 |
(Zhao & Yu, 2006) | -99.3669 | 2.8119x10-6 |
(Vesma et al., 1998) | -93.69 | 4.81x10-4 |
(Diaz-Carmona et al., 2010) | -86.17 | 2.78x10-4 |
Magnitude frequency response error comparison.
Example 2:
The FDF is designed using the explained minimax optimization approach applied on the single-sampling-frequency structure, Fig. 16, according to (Ramirez et al., 2010a). The FDF specifications are: ωp = 0.9π, δm = 0.01 and δp =0.001, the same ones as in the design example of (Yli-Kaakinen & Saramaki, 2006a). The given criterion is met with NFD = 7 and M = 4 and a half-band filter length of 55. The overall structure requires Prod = 32 multipliers, Add = 47 adders, resulting in a Δm = 0.0094448 and Δp = 0.00096649. The magnitude and phase delay responses obtained for μl = 0 to 0.5 with 0.1 delay increment are depicted in Fig. 21. The results obtained, and compared with those reported by other design methods, are shown in Table 2. The design described requires less multipliers and adders than (Vesma & Saramaki, 1997), (Johansson & Lowenborg, 2003), the same number of multipliers and nine less adders than (Yli-Kaakinen & Saramaki, 2006a), one more multiplier and three less adders than (Yli-Kaakinen & Saramaki, 2006b), and two more multipliers than (Yli-Kaakinen, & Saramaki, 2007).
Method | Arithmetic complexity | |||||
NFD | M | Prod | Add | Δm | Δp | |
(Vesma & Saramaki, 1997) | 26 | 4 | 69 | 91 | 0.006571 | 0.0006571 |
(Johansson, & Lowenborg, 2003) | 28 | 5 | 57 | 72 | 0.005608 | 0.0005608 |
(Yli-Kaakinen & Saramaki, 2006a) | 28 | 4 | 32 | 56 | 0.009069 | 0.0009069 |
(Yli-Kaakinen & Saramaki, 2006b) | 28 | 4 | 31 | 50 | 0.009742 | 0.0009742 |
(Yli-Kaakinen & Saramaki, 2007) | 28 | 4 | 30 | - | 0.009501 | 0.0009501 |
(Ramirez-Conejo et al.,2010) | 7 | 4 | 32 | 47 | 0.0094448 | 0.0009664 |
Arithmetic complexity results for example 2.- Not reported
FDF frequency responses, using minimax optimization approach in example 2.
FDF frequency response errors, using minimax optimization approach in example 2.
Example 3:
This example shows that the same minimax optimization approach can be extended for approximating a global complex error. For this purpose, the filter design example described in (Johansson & Lowenborg 2003) is used, which specifications are ωp = 0.9π, and maximum global complex error of δc = 0.0042. Such specifications are met with NFD = 7 and M = 4 and a half-band filter length of 69. The overall structure requires Prod = 35 multipliers with a resulting maximum complex error Δc = 0.0036195. The results obtained are compared in Table 3 with the reported ones in existing methods. The described method requires less multipliers than (Johansson & Lowenborg 2003), (Hermanowicz, 2004) and case A of (Hermanowicz & Johansson, 2005). Reported multipliers of (Johansson & Hermanowicz, 2006) and case B of (Hermanowicz & Johansson, 2005) are less than the obtained with the presented design method. It should be pointed out that in (Johansson & Hermanowicz, 2006) an IIR half-band filter is used and in case B of (Hermanowicz & Johansson, 2005) and (Johansson & Hermanowicz, 2006) a switching technique between two multirate structures must be implemented. The resulted complex error magnitude is shown in Fig. 23 for fractional delay values from D =17.5 to 18.0 with 0.1 increment, magnitude response of the designed FDF is shown in Fig. 24 and errors of magnitude and phase frequency responses are presented in Fig 25.
Method | Arithmetic complexity | ||
NFD | M | Prod | |
(Johansson & Lowenborg 2003) | 39 | 6 | 73 |
(Johansson & Lowenborg 2003)a | 31 | 5 | 50 |
(Hermanowicz, 2004) | 11 | 6 | 60(54) |
(Hermanowicz & Johansson, 2005) | 7 | 5 | 36 |
(Hermanowicz & Johansson, 2005)b | 7 | 3 | 26 |
(Johansson & Hermanowicz, 2006) | - | 6 | 32 |
(Johansson & Hermanowicz, 2006)b | - | 3 | 22 |
(Ramirez-Conejo et al., 2010) | 7 | 4 | 35 |
Arithmetic complexity results for example 3.a. Minimax design with subfilters jointly optimized.
FDF frequency complex error, using minimax optimization approach in example 3.
FDF frequency response using minimax optimization approach in example 3.
FDF frequency response errors using minimax optimization approach in example 3.
The concept of fractional delay filter is introduced, as well as a general description of most of the existing design methods for FIR fractional delay filters is presented. Accordingly to the explained concepts and to the results of recently reported design methods, one of the most challenging approaches for designing fractional delay filters is the use of frequency-domain optimization methods. The use of MATLAB as a design and simulation platform is a very useful tool to achieve a fractional delay filter that meets best the required frequency specifications dictated by a particular application.
Authors would like to thank to the Technological Institute of Celaya at Guanajuato State, Mexico for the facilities in the project development, and CONACYT for the support.
Increasing world population has resulted in higher consumption of goods and services that has driven a substantial increase of organic wastes originating from households, industry, and agriculture [1]. Much of the organic wastes are highly infectious as they contain a variety of pathogenic microorganisms. Dumping of organic wastes in open areas generates serious environmental issues such as the accumulation of heavy metals in soil, pollution of ground and surface waters due to leaching and run-off of nutrients. These organic wastes when applied directly to agricultural fields cause soil environment-related problems including phytotoxicity [2]. These wastes represent a valuable organic resource, which could be recycled and transformed into nutrient rich fertilizer and/or soil conditioner [3, 4, 5]. Moreover growing awareness about adverse effects of agricultural chemicals on human health has increased interest in organic agriculture [6]. Organic agriculture also promotes ecological conservation due to judicious use of natural resources [7, 8, 9]. In demand for safe and sustainable strategies to treat organic wastes includes best known practices of composting and vermicomposting for biological stabilization of solid organic wastes by transforming them into a safer and more stabilized material that can be used as a source of nutrients and soil conditioner in agricultural applications [10, 11, 12]. Vermicomposting is one of the most efficient means to mitigate and manage environmental pollution problems [13]. Recently, many studies are being done to establish vermicompost as one of the preferred organic substitutes to chemical fertilizers [14, 15]. Vermicompost is more rich in NPK, micronutrients and beneficial soil microbes (nitrogen fixing and phosphate solubilizing bacteria and actinomycetes), an excellent growth promoter and protector for crop plants [16, 17] than compost [18, 19].
\nVermicomposting (vermis from the Latin for worm) is a mesophilic process [20] which involves a joint action of earthworms (active at 10–32°C) and mesophilic microbes [21] for the conversion of organic wastes into a valuable end product known as vermicompost. Whereas, composting involves the degradation of organic waste by microorganisms under controlled conditions, in which the organic material undergoes a characteristic thermophilic stage that allows sanitization of the waste by elimination of pathogenic microorganisms [22]. Composting is also used to treat manures, green wastes or municipal solid wastes [23]. However, vermicomposting gives a higher-quality end product than composting due to joint action of enzymatic and microbial activities that occur during the process [24]. This process is faster than traditional composting as the material passes through the earthworm gut, whereby the resulting earthworm castings are rich in microbial activity and plant growth regulators, and fortified with pest repellence attributes as well [25, 26]. Compared to traditional composting method, vermicomposting also results in mass reduction, shorter processing time, and high levels of humus with reduced phytotoxicity [27]. Thus, vermicompost is considered an ideal manure for organic agriculture as it is nutrient rich and contains high quality humus, plant growth hormones, enzymes, and substances that are able to protect crops against pests and diseases [28, 29]. Moreover, vermicompost has high porosity, aeration, drainage, and water-holding capacity [20]. In addition to increased N availability, C, P, K, Ca and Mg plant nutrient availability in the earthworm casts are also found [30]. Plant growth hormones namely cytokinins and auxins are found in organic wastes processed by earthworms [31]. They also release certain metabolites, such as vitamin B, vitamin D and similar substances into the compost [32]. Thus, earthworms accelerate the mineralization rate and convert the manures into casts with higher nutritional value and degree of humification than traditional method of composting [33]. The composition of commonly available nutrients in vermicompost is as follows: Organic carbon 9.5–17.98%, Nitrogen 0.5–1.50%, Phosphorous 0.1–0.30%, Potassium 0.15–0.56%, Sodium 0.06–0.30%, Calcium and Magnesium 22.67–47.60 meq/100 g, Copper 2–9.50 mg/kg, Iron 2–9.30 mg/kg, Zinc 5.70–11.50 mg/kg, Sulfur 128–548 mg/kg [34]. Hence, vermicomposting enables biological transformation of wastes into a valuable organic fertilizer [35, 36]. Vermicompost is popularly called as black gold and has become one of the major components of organic farming system [26].
\nEarthworms are invertebrates belonging to the phylum Annelida, class Oligochaeta and family Lumbricidae. The earthworms are long, elongated, cylindrical, soft bodied animals with uniform ring like structures consisting of segments along the length of their body outwardly highlighted by circular grooves called annuli. On the ventral surface of sides of the body each segment bears four pairs of short, stubby bristles, or setae used for its movement. Earthworms have an opening at the anterior end is mouth and the one at the posterior is anus. Earthworms possess both male and female gonads, so are called as hermaphrodites. They deposit their eggs in a cocoon without any larval stage. At the time of egg laying, the sexually mature worms contain a distinctive epidermal ring just beneath the anterior segments called, clitellum, which has gland cells to form a viscid, girdle like structure known as cocoon. The number of fertilized ova in each cocoon has 1–20 lumbricid worms.
\nThere are about 3320 species of earthworms all over the world [37], but hardly 8–10 species are suitable for vermicompost preparation. Earthworms have been extensively utilized for the recycling of a variety of organic wastes like municipal solid wastes [38] wheat straw [39], sewage sludge [40], forestry waste [41], vegetable waste [42], farmyard manure [43], sorghum stalk, wheat straw, paddy straw [44], coir pith [45]. Renowned scientists, Charles Darwin called earthworms as the ‘unheralded soldiers of mankind’, and Aristotle described them as the ‘intestine of earth’, as they could digest a wide range of organic materials [46, 47]. On the basis of morpho-ecological characteristics, earthworms have been classified into three categories [48]; Anecic (Greek word “out of the earth”) – these are burrowing worms that only come to the surface at night to drag food down into their permanent burrows deep within the mineral layers of the soil. Endogeic (Greek word “within the earth”) – these are also burrowing worms but their burrows are typically more shallow and they feed on the organic matter inside the soil, so they come to the surface only rarely. Epigeic (Greek word “upon the earth”) – these worms live on the surface litter and feed on decaying organic matter. They do not have any permanent burrows. These “decomposers” are the type of worm used in vermicomposting. Two tropical species, African night crawler, Eudrilus eugeniae (Kinberg) and Oriental earthworm, Perionyx excavates (Perrier) and two temperate ones, red earthworm, Eisenia andrei (Bouche) and tiger earthworm, Eisenia fetida (Savigny) are extensively used in vermicomposting [49, 50, 51]. Most vermicomposting facilities and studies are using the worms E. andrei and E. fetida due to their high rate of consumption, digestion, and assimilation of organic matter, tolerance to a wide range of environmental factors, short life cycles, high reproductive rates and endurance and resistance during handling [52]. A few other species Drawida nepalensis, Lampito mauritrr. Dichogaster spp., Polypheretima elongate, Amynthas spp. Dendrobaena octaedra, Eisenia hortensis [53] have also been used for composting under specific conditions.
\nEarthworms promote the growth of “beneficial decomposer aerobic bacteria” in organic waste material and also act as a grinder, crusher, chemical degrader and a biological stimulator of waste material [54, 55]. Earthworm hosts millions of decomposer (biodegrader) microbes [56], hydrolytic enzymes and hormones that helps in rapid decomposition of complex organic matter into vermicompost in a relatively smaller duration of 1–2 months [57] as compared to traditional composting method which takes nearly 5 months [58]. The mechanism of formation of vermicompost by earthworms occurs in following steps; organic material consumed by earthworm is softened by the saliva in the mouth of the earthworms. Food in esophagus is further softening and neutralization by calcium and physical breakdown in muscular gizzard results in particles of size <2 μ, thereby giving an enhanced surface area for microbial processing. This finally ground material is exposed to various enzymes such as protease, amylase, lipase, cellulase and chitinase secreted in lumen by stomach and small intestine [12]. Moreover, microbes associated with intestine facilitate breaking down of complex biomolecules into simple compounds. Only 5–10% of the ingested material is absorbed into the tissues of worms for its growth and the rest is excreted as vermicast. The vermicast is a good organic fertilizer and soil conditioner. High-quality vermicast can be produced by worms such as the red wrigglers (E. fetida) as it contains humus with high levels of nutrients that has good potential for the production of organic fertilizer. Vermiwash is a liquid fertilizer and used as a foliar spray produced by passing water through columns of vermiculture beds [59].
\nOptimum conditions of temperature 15–20°C (limits 4–30°C), Moisture content 80–90% (limits 60–90%), Oxygen – Aerobicity, Ammonia content of the waste Low: <1 mg·g–1 (0.016 oz.1b–1), Salt content Low < 0.5% and pH of 5–9 are preferred for stable life cycle of earthworm.
\nTo attain the desired earthworm population their starter food includes 1:1 mixture of cow dung and decaying leaves in a cement tank/wooden box/plastic bucket with proper drainage facilities and on attaining sufficient number of earthworms, subsequently other sources of organic wastes can be provided. Compost worms being voracious feeders, consume in excess of their body weight each day but they prefer some foods to others. Manures are the most commonly used worm feedstock, with dairy and beef manures generally considered the best natural food for E. fetida [60]. The unit should be kept in shade. Sufficient moisture level should be maintained by occasional sprinkling of water. Within 1–2 months, the worms multiply 300 times, which can be used for large scale vermicomposting.
\nEarthworms are used to convert organic waste material into dark brown nutrient rich humus that is a good source of manure for plants. Worms can also degrade specific pollutants and might allow community formation of useful microorganisms. Three commonly used methods for vermicomposting are discussed below:
Bin composting: The most common method for small scale composting is bin composting method. The bin can be constructed of several materials such as wooden/plastic/recycled containers like bathtubs and barrels. A vermicompost bin may be in different sizes and shapes, but its average dimensions are 45 × 30 × 45 cm. Around 10 holes with 1–1.5 cm in diameter holes in bottom, sides and cap of bin is useful for aeration and drainage.
Pit composting: For large scale composting, pits of sizes 2.5 m × 1 m × 0.3 m under thatched sheds with sides left open are advisable. The bottom and sides of the pit should be made hard with a wooden mallet.
Pile composting: Pile method is mostly used for vermicomposting in larger scale. The piles can be made in porch place like greenhouse or in a floor with some facilities for drainage in warm climate. The pile size may vary in length and width, however, its height is average height of bin used for bin composting.
Prior to the vermicomposting process, it is preferred to assign pre-composting of organic waste (thermophilic composting), which comprises a short period of high temperature for facilitating mass reduction, waste stabilization, and pathogen reduction [61, 62]. Thermophilic composting results in sanitization of organic wastes and elimination of toxic compounds [63]. Although pathogen removal occurs during transit in the worm gut [64] but thermophilic composting prior to vermicomposting is advisable to avoid the earthworm mortality. Then, after some days of high temperature, pre-mature compost is cooled by spreading it as thin layers on vermicomposting beds. Vermicomposting can be done either in containers, pits or piles.
Materials required for vermicomposting: Carbon and nitrogen-rich organic materials, spade, ground space, stakes, hollow blocks, plastic sheets or used sacks, water (according to the season) and water sprinklers, shading materials, nylon net or any substitute to cover the beds, and composting earthworms.
Site Selection: Vermicompost production can be done at any place which is having shades, cool and has high humidity. For instance, abandoned cattle shed, or poultry shed or unused buildings or artificial shading could also be provided.
Shredding of organic waste material: The collected organic waste material should be processed for shredding along with mechanical separation of the metal, glass and ceramics that should be kept aside.
Pre-digestion of organic waste material: Pre-digestion of organic waste should be done for at least 20–25 days prior by mixing the waste material along with raw material (e.g., cattle dung slurry). Regular watering is required for partially digesting it and making it fit for earthworm consumption. Raw material to be used includes for composting – cow dung, crop residues, farm wastes, vegetable market wastes and fruit wastes. Cow dung should be at least 20–25 days old to avoid excess heat generation during the composting process. Moreover addition of higher quantities of acid-rich substances such as citrus wastes should be avoided. It is important to mix carbonaceous with nitrogenous organic materials at the right proportions to obtain a C: N ratio of about 30:1, as it results in product of highest stability, the best fertilizer-value and with lowest potential for environmental pollution. For example, rice straw and fresh manure are mixed at about 25:75 ratio by weight. When the material with higher carbon content is used with C:N ratio exceeding 40:1, it is advisable to add nitrogen supplements to ensure its effective decomposition.
Earthworm bed preparation: An hospitable living environment for worms called bedding is prepared. Bedding is a material that provides the worms with a relatively stable habitat with following characteristics:
High absorbency: As earthworms breathes through their skins and therefore bedding must be able to absorb and retain water fairly well. Worms dies if its skin dries out.
Good bulking potential: Worms respire aerobically and different bedding materials affect the overall porosity of the bedding, including the range of particle size and shape, the texture, and the strength and rigidity of its structure. If bedding material is too dense or packs too tightly, then the flow of air is reduced or eliminated. This overall effect is referred as the material’s bulking potential.
Low protein and/or nitrogen content/high Carbon: Earthworms consume their bedding as it breaks down and it is very important for this process to be slow. High protein/nitrogen levels can result in rapid degradation of bedding and its associated heating, creating inhospitable or fatal conditions. High carbon content is required as earthworms and microbes in the feed mixtures activate microbial respiration and degradation of organic wastes, thereby increasing the loss of organic carbon during the vermicomposting process [65, 66]. Various bedding material according to absorbency, bulking potential and C:N are enlisted in Table 1.
Vermiculture bed: Vermiculture bed can be prepared by placing a first layer of saw dust, newspaper, straw, coir waste, sugarcane trash etc. at the bottom of tub/container. Newspaper is one of bedding material that high in absorbency whereas for the sawdust the level of absorbency is poor to medium. A second layer of moistened fine sand of 3 cm thick should be spread over the culture bed followed by a layer of garden soil (3 cm). The floor of the unit should be compacted to prevent earthworm’s migration into the soil.
Loading of organic waste mixture in bed: Third layer of the pre-digested organic waste prepared is added. Thereafter a thin layer of cow dung mixture is placed on the surface of waste material as starter food for compost worms. Then compost worms are to be added without spreading them out. Earthworms consume various organic wastes and reduce the volume by 40–60%. Earthworm eats waste equivalent to its body weight, and produce cast about 50% of the wastes, it consumes in a day.
Composting process: After addition of compost worms wait for at least 15 days for the thermophillic process to end. During this process there is a rapid increase in temperature followed by a gradual decrease. During this period turning to the material 2–3 times at 4–5 days interval is required. Its temperature should be maintained at 30°C, when temperature approaches ambient temperature (<35°C) covering is to be removed and for temperature maintenance, upturning and regular sprinkling of water is advisable. Prominent precautionary measures include; Composting pit should be covered with nylon net or any substitute material to serve as barrier against predators like ants, birds, lizards as it may disturb the activity of earthworm, Blockage of side air vents should be avoided as it can quickly lead to putrefaction and extreme weather conditions such as frost, heavy rainfall, drought and overheating should be avoided. No smell comes out of composting site if the right products or bedding and feed are used. The vermicompost once formed completely will give the smell of moist soil. Maturity could be judged visually also by observing the formation of granular structure of the compost at the surface of the tank. Next step is to make a heap in sunlight on a plastic sheet and keep it for 1-2 hours. The worms will gather at the bottom of heap. After removing vermicompost on top, the worms settled down at the bottom can be carefully collected for use in the next batch of vermicomposting.
Bedding Material | \nAbsorbency | \nBulking Pot. | \nC:N Ratio | \n
---|---|---|---|
Horse manure | \nMedium-good | \nGood | \n22–56 | \n
Peat moss | \nGood | \nMedium | \n58 | \n
Corn silage | \nMedium-Good | \nMedium | \n38–43 | \n
Hay–general | \nPoor | \nMedium | \n15–32 | \n
Straw–general | \nPoor | \nMedium-Good | \n48–150 | \n
Straw–oat | \nPoor | \nMedium | \n48–98 | \n
Straw–wheat | \nPoor | \nMedium-Good | \n100–150 | \n
Paper from municipal waste stream | \nMedium-Good | \nMedium | \n127–178 | \n
Newspaper | \nGood | \nMedium | \n170 | \n
Bark–hardwoods | \nPoor | \nGood | \n116–436 | \n
Bark–softwoods | \nPoor | \nGood | \n131–1285 | \n
Corrugated cardboard | \nGood | \nMedium | \n563 | \n
Lumber mill waste–chipped | \nPoor | \nGood | \n170 | \n
Paper fibre sludge | \nMedium-Good | \nMedium | \n250 | \n
Paper mill sludge | \nGood | \nMedium | \n54 | \n
Sawdust | \nPoor-Medium | \nPoor-Medium | \n142–750 | \n
Shrub trimmings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n53 | \n
Hardwood chips, shavings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n451–819 | \n
Softwood chips, shavings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n212–1313 | \n
Leaves (dry, loose) | \nPoor-Medium | \nPoor-Medium | \n40–80 | \n
Corn stalks | \nPoor | \nGood | \n60–73 | \n
Corn cobs | \nPoor-Medium | \nGood | \n56–123 | \n
Paper mill sludge | \nGood | \nMedium | \n54 | \n
Sawdust | \nPoor-Medium | \nPoor-Medium | \n142–750 | \n
Shrub trimmings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n53 | \n
Hardwood chips, shavings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n451–819 | \n
Softwood chips, shavings | \nPoor | \nGood | \n212–1313 | \n
Leaves (dry, loose) | \nPoor-Medium | \nPoor-Medium | \n40–80 | \n
Corn stalks | \nPoor | \nGood | \n60–73 | \n
Corn cobs | \nPoor-Medium | \nGood | \n56–123 | \n
List of some of the commonly used earthworm bedding material.
The most important abiotic factors which affect vermicomposting process include moisture, pH, temperature, aeration, pH value, ammonia and salt content.
Moisture: A strong relationship exists between the moisture content of organic wastes and the growth rate of earthworms. In a comparative study on vermicomposting process and earthworm’s growth at different temperature and moisture ranges showed that 65–75% is most suitable range of moisture at all ranges of vermicomposting temperature [67]. The bedding used for vermicomposting must be able to hold sufficient moisture as earthworms respire through their skins and moisture content in the bedding of less than of 45% can be fatal to the worms. Although epigenic species, E. fetida and E. andrei can survive moisture ranges between 50% and 90%, but they grow more rapidly between 80% and 90% [20, 68]. The bacteria also plays vital role in vermicomposting. Its activity decreases in moisture content lower than 40% and it almost stops in lower than 10% [69].
Temperature: Earthworm’s activity, metabolism, growth, respiration and reproduction are greatly influenced by temperature [70]. The temperature for the stable development of earthworm population should not exceed 25°C [71]. Although E. fetida cocoons survive extended periods of deep freezing and remain viable [72] but they do not reproduce and do not consume sufficient food at single digit temperatures. It is generally considered necessary to keep the temperatures preferably 15°C for vermicomposting efficiency and 20°C for effective reproductive vermiculture operations. Temperatures above 35°C will cause the worms to leave the area or if they cannot leave, they will quickly die. Bacterial activity is also greatly depended on temperature as it multiplies by two per each 10°C increase in temperature and is quite active around 15–30°C.
Aeration: Earthworms are oxygen breathers and cannot survive in anaerobic conditions. They operate best when compost material is porous and well aerated. Earthworms also help themselves by aerating their bedding by their movement through it. E. fetida have been reported to migrate in high numbers from oxygen depleted water saturated substrate, or in which carbon dioxide or hydrogen sulfide has accumulated.
pH value: The pH value is also one of the important factors affecting the vermicomposting process [73]. Epigenic worms can survive in a pH range of 5–9 [74]. The pH of worm beds tends to drop over time. If the food source/bedding is alkaline, than pH of bed drop to neutral or slightly alkaline and if the food source is acidic than the pH of the beds can drop well below 7. The pH can be adjusted upwards by adding calcium carbonate or peat moss for adjusting pH downward can be introduced into the mix. Although microorganisms which are active in vermicomposting which can maintain their activity even in lower pH of around 4 but recommended pH range for compost is around 6.5–7.5.
Ammonia and salt content: Earthworms cannot survive in organic wastes containing high levels of ammonia. Worms are also very sensitive to salts and they prefer salt contents less than 0.5% [75]. However, many types of manures have high salt contents and if they are to be used as bedding, they should be leached first to reduce the salt content, it is done by simply running water through the material for a period of time [60].
The vermicompost is ready within 60–90 days and ultimately the material becomes black, granular, lightweight, moderately loose, crumbly and humus-rich. Watering must be avoided two to three days before emptying the beds to facilitate the separation of worms from the compost. Common procedures for harvesting the vermicompost are briefly described below. Any method may be adopted exclusively by preference. Moreover, two or more methods may be applied on the same pile. Except for the first method, the rest are intended for bulk harvesting.
\nThis method is practiced if one wants to collect small amounts of vermicast just a few days after the compost pile is stocked with composting worms. In this case only top layer is covered with a thin layer of vermicast and rest of pile has not fully decomposed. The vermicast on top of the pile are simply gathered by hand/trowel and transferred directly into a container. This method is recommended if there is need of organic soil amendment in preparing a fertile potting mix. With time, as vermicompost is collected at the bottom of the pile it is further collected by hand.
\nThe vermicompost is first gathered to form a pyramid like heap within the composting enclosure provided that the heap is exposed to light or it is transferred on to a flat surface elsewhere in open sun on a plastic sheet or a sack. This method of harvesting vermicompost takes the advantage of the earthworm’s sensitivity towards light as they will tend to move deep into the pyramid. Vermicompost from the bottom, sides, and top surface of the heap is then collected by hand or with a trowel. After the first cycle of vermicompost collection, a few minutes are passed to provide sufficient time for the earthworms to move deeper and another cycle is commenced. For faster rate of harvesting vermicompost, the original heap is divided into several smaller heaps.
\nThis method of vermicompost harvesting is done manually with tool consists of mesh wire nailed on wood called sieve. A small portion from vermicompost pile spread on flat floor is transferred into a sieve and it is shaken so that fine vermicompost falls on the ground. Any undecomposed subtrates and earthworms are retained in the screener and the worms are separated manually.
\nThis method of harvesting vermicompost is based on earthworms’ ability to detect sources of food. Earthworms have the habit of abandoning the pile exhausted of food and moving towards fresher palatable source. Despite many modifications in this technique, but the basic principle is the same to provide fresh or more palatable food to cause the migration of earthworms from the exhausted pile to the new food source.
\nThe harvested vermicompost should be stored in dark and cool place as sunlight will lead to loss of moisture and nutrient content. Moreover, harvested vermicompost material should be stored in open rather than packed in sacs. Packing should be done at the time of selling and laminated sac is always advisable. During compost storage in open place, periodical sprinkling of water should be done to maintain moisture level and beneficial microbial population. Vermicompost can be stored for longer periods of one year without loss of its quality, if its moisture is maintained at 40% level.
\nThe key role of vermicompost is change in physical, chemical and biological properties of soil by earthworm activities and they thus called as soil managers [59]. It substantially improves soil structure, texture, aeration and prevents soil erosion. It increases the macropore space ranging from 50 to 500 μm, resulting in improved air-water relationship in the soil thereby favorably affecting plant growth [76]. It also favorably affects soil pH, its microbial population and soil enzyme activities [77]. Moreover, vermicompost is rich source of nutrients such as nitrates, phosphates and exchangeable calcium and soluble potassium [30]. Apart from adding mineralogical nutrients, vermicompost is also rich in beneficial micro flora such as N-fixers, P-solubilizers, cellulose decomposing micro-flora, etc. It also reduces the proportion of water soluble chemical, which causes possible environmental contamination [78]. Mucus excreted by earthworm’s digestive canal produces some antibiotics and hormone-like biochemicals thereby boosting plant growth [70] and enhancing the decomposition of organic matter in soil [79]. Vermicompost has been reported to have favorable influence on the growth and yield parameters of several crops like paddy, sugarcane, brinjal, tomato, and okra [59]. Thus, vermicompost acts a soil conditioner [80] and a slow-release fertilizer [81] that ultimately improves soil structure, soil fertility, plant growth and suppresses diseases caused by soil-borne plant pathogens, increases crop yield [82, 83, 84].
\nChemical fertilizers are produced from “vanishing resources” of earth and crops grown on chemical fertilizers have low and contaminated nutrient value in comparison to grown naturally or organic way. To preserve the agro-ecosystem and protect human health from the harmful chemical fertilizers ‘Ecological Agriculture and Organic Farming’ has to be promoted as the new emerging concept of “Organic Farming” focuses mainly on production of chemical free foods. Organic farming with use of organic fertilizers like “vermicompost” could substitute the chemical fertilizers and can reduce the economic cost and may also lead to organic products which fetches higher price in the market.
\nNo conflict of interest is indulged.
IntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\\n\\n1. DEFINITIONS
\\n\\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\\n\\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\\n\\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\\n\\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\\n\\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\\n\\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\\n\\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\\n\\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n\\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:"
The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
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