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Volcanoes are geologic manifestations of highly dynamic and complexly coupled physical and chemical processes in the interior of the Earth. Most volcanism on Earth occurs at plate boundaries in places where tectonic plates move apart (e.g. Iceland) and in places where tectonic plates come together with one plate plunging (subducting) below the other into the mantle (e.g. Pacific ring of fire). Conversely, intraplate volcanism is a type of volcanism occurring far from plate boundaries and whose origins are rather controversial.
To know the working mode of a volcano in a given region it is necessary to understand the interplay between tectonics, deformation processes and magma transport through the lithosphere (e.g. Vigneresse, 1999; Petford et al., 2000). Deformation-induced fault-fracture networks have been regarded as efficient pathways through which magma is transported, stored and eventually erupted at the Earth’s surface (e.g. Clemens and Mawer, 1992; Petford et al., 2000). At active volcanoes, magmas rise toward the surface and can stagnate at different levels in the lithosphere, giving rise to magma bodies of different shape and size (Marsh, 2000). Nearly all volcanic eruptions are supplied with magma through dykes and inclined sheets whose initiation and eventual propagation to the surface or, alternatively, arrest at some depth in the volcano, depend on the stress state in the volcano (Gudmundsson, 2006). At the surface of active volcanic edifices, the majority of eruptive fissures have a radial configuration and tangential or oblique fissures are rare. However, within many eroded volcanic edifices, dykes and dyke-fed eruptive fissures commonly have more complex patterns, resulting from regional stresses, magmatic reservoirs, anisotropies or variations in topography (Acocella et al., 2009).
Geophysics can provide information on the geometry of plumbing system and magma chambers, as well as on the mechanisms of emplacement of dykes. Among the different branches of geophysics, seismology is the most powerful tool to obtain information about the inner structure of volcanoes and the geometry of their plumbing systems. Volcanoes generate seismic energy at frequencies ranging from zero (static displacement) to a few tens of Hz. Generally, two different groups of seismic signals can be distinguished in volcanic areas (Chouet, 1996): the former, involving processes originating in the solid, is associated with shear failures in the volcanic edifice and the related seismic events are called volcano-tectonic (VT) earthquakes; the latter (hereafter referred to as seismo-volcanic signals) involves processes originating in the fluid and includes long-period (LP) events and volcanic tremor, sharing the same spectral components (0.5-5 Hz), and very-long-period (VLP) events characterized by dominant period of 2-100 s (Ohminato et al., 1998).
In the last 30 years, the Earth has been widely investigated through a variety of seismic tomographic methods, leading to many interesting results at both regional and global scale. In volcanic environments, several tomographic high-resolution studies, involving the joint use of local VT earthquakes and artificial explosions have led to important discoveries on volcano plumbing systems both in the shallow and deeper zones (e.g. Achauer et al., 1988; Lees and Crosson, 1990). It is noteworthy that, since the ability to resolve feeding conduits, magma chambers, and zones of solidified magmatic intrusion relies on both the distribution of elastic sources at depth and of receivers at the surface, objects smaller than a few km generally cannot be reliably resolved. In this sense, what we can define with seismic tomography is generally a \'\'large\'\' volcanic structure with minimum dimensions of 1-3 km3. Smaller structure composing the shallow portion of the plumbing system can be studied by volcanic tremor and LP and VLP events, which, as aforementioned, are driven by fluid processes. The study of these signals can provide information not only on the geometry of the shallow portion of the plumbing system, but also on the variations in time of the magma batches stored inside it (Chouet, 2003).
This chapter deals with the investigation of the plumbing system at Mt. Etna by using seismic signals with the aim of understanding how Etna volcano structure works and its relationship with the geodynamics of eastern Sicily. In particular, section 2 summarizes the main structural features of Mt. Etna, some theories regarding its origin, as well as some information about the volcano’s recent activity. Section 3 focuses on the investigation of the deep plumbing system by seismic tomography reporting also the previous seismological studies. In section 4 examples of study of the shallow plumbing system by the analyses of the seismo-volcanic signals are shown. Finally, section 5 summarizes the main conclusions.
Mt. Etna is one of the most active volcanoes in the world, located on the densely inhabited eastern coast of Sicily (Italy). It is characterized by almost continuous eruptive activity from its summit craters and fairly frequent lava flow eruptions from fissures opened up on its flanks. Mt. Etna is a composite, quaternary, basaltic volcano set in a region of complex geodynamics, where major regional structural lineaments play an important role in the dynamic processes of the volcano (e.g. Gresta et al., 1998; Fig. 1). It covers an area of about 1,250 km² with a basal circumference of 140 km and reaches a maximum elevation of 3330 m. On the volcano summit four active craters are currently opened: Voragine, Bocca Nuova, South East Crater, and North East Crater (hereafter referred to as VOR, BN, SEC and NEC, respectively; Fig. 2).
Structural setting of central Mediterranean Sea (modified from Lentini et al., 2006) and location of Mt. Etna. 1) Regional overthrust of the Sardinia-Corsica block upon Calabride units; 2) Regional overthrust of the Kabilo-Calabride units upon the Apennine-Maghrebian Chain; 3) External front of the Apennine-Maghrebian Chain upon the Foreland units and the External Thrust System; 4) Thrust front of the External Thrust System; 5) Main normal and strike-slip faults. KCC: Kabilo-Calabride Chain Units; AMC: Appennine-Maghrebian Chain Units; ETF: External Thrust System Units; PBF: Pelagian Block Foreland Units; QV: Quaternary Volcanoes. Redrawn from Lentini et al. (2006)
Mt. Etna lies on the Sicilian continental crust and is located on the external boundary of the Apennine-Maghrebian chain, close to the Gela–Catania Plio-Quaternary foredeep (Bousquet and Lanzafame, 2004). It is bordered by three tectonic domains (Fig. 1): the Apennine-Maghrebian Chain northward and westward; the Hyblean Foreland southward belonging to the Pelagian Block, the northernmost part of the African plate (Lentini et al., 2006); the Ionian Basin eastward, an oceanic basin opened during the middle-late Mesozoic and aborted during the Tertiary (Catalano et al., 2001). The thickness of the crust of eastern Sicily has recently been reinterpreted (Cernobori et al., 1996; Continisio et al., 1997; Hirn et al., 1997; Nicolich et al., 2000) allowing the crustal structure in eastern Sicily and the Moho topography beneath the Ionian Sea to be better defined. The Moho has been located at a depth of 30 km beneath the central Hyblean Plateau, rising to 22 km in the Gela-Catania foredeep and to 21–18 km just offshore Catania (Nicolich et al., 2000).
Mt. Etna is sited in an anomalous external position with respect to the arc magmatism and back-arc spreading zones associated with Apennines subduction (Doglioni et al., 2001).
Structural map of Mt. Etna with the location of the main fault and fissure systems. The location of the summit craters is shown in the inset in the upper left corner (VOR = Voragine, BN = Bocca Nuova, SEC = South-East Crater, NEC = North-East Crater). Redrawn from Azzaro et al (in press)
The structural features of Mt. Etna appear rather complex. On the volcano surface different fault and fissure systems can be recognized (Fig. 2). The most outstanding tectonic features at Mt Etna are clearly recognizable on the east and south-east flanks of the volcano, where the clearest morphological evidence of active faulting exists (Fig. 2). Here, seismogenic faults can be related to the NNW–SSE Malta Escarpment that is the main lithospheric structure in the eastern Sicily. Other seismogenetic faults (Patanè et al., 2005), though not recognizable on the surface, can be linked to the NE–SW, ENE–WSW fault systems that control the tectonic evolution of the northern margin of the Hyblean Plateau (Torelli et al., 1998). The eastern flank of Mt. Etna is characterized by frequent shallow seismic activity (depth <7 km) and by a seismic creep along some faults. Conversely, the western flank of Mt Etna, normally characterized by a deeper seismicity (depth >5 km), is considered the most stable sector of the volcano. In the western sector, there is only slight morphological evidence of faulting, such as some short segments of faults observable on the south-western flank (e.g. Ragalna fault). However, it must be noted that the faults with morphological evidence may represent only a part of the tectonic structures present in the Etnean area and hidden fault segments could be covered by the huge pile of volcanic products (e.g. Azzaro, 1999).
Following, some of the main tectonic features are discussed:
Timpe fault system. The normal faults belonging to this system dip toward the Ionian Sea and represent the most outstanding structural feature of the volcano. They displace a large part of the eastern flank by a 20 km long and 5 km wide belt of mainly extensional structures, striking from N to NW. Running from the coast to the south toward the inner volcano slope to the north, the fault system consists of a series of parallel seaward-facing step-faults segmented into individual steep fault escarpments up to 8 km long and up to 200 m high, that offset late Pleistocene to Holocene volcanics and historical lava flows. Acireale fault to the south and Moscarello fault to the north, represent the main elements of the Timpe fault system, and the N-S trending S. Alfio fault represents its northernmost apex. Timpe fault system is associated with shallow-depth (<7 km) seismicity including the occurrence of several earthquakes with M equal to 4.5 (Azzaro et al., 2000).
Pernicana fault system. It is located in the north-eastern flank of the volcano, trends E-W and can be considered the most active fault in the Etnean area, as testified by the slip rate estimations and geodetic measurements (up to 2.8 cm/y; Rasà et al., 1996; Neri et al., 2004; Bonforte et al., 2011). This system develops eastward from the NE rift (from 1850 m a.s.l.) to the coastline, over a distance of about 20 km. The westernmost part is mainly characterized by normal dip-slip motion, whereas the easternmost one by left strike-slip motion. The Pernicana fault system is partially characterized by a scarp with a maximum morphological height of 70-80 m between 1000 and 1500 m a.s.l. At lower elevations (starting from 800 to 700 m a.s.l.) this system has a less defined morphological expression (Acocella and Neri, 2005). Despite its continuity, Pernicana can be roughly divided into two main portions (western and eastern), characterized by differential times and amounts of displacement as evidenced during the 2002-2003 eruption (Neri et al., 2004). The western Pernicana, about 11 km long (from the NE Rift to Presa), shows the larger displacement even though the long-term slip rates are similar in both portions. Moreover, the western portion is associated with shallow (< 2-3 km) and moderate seismic activity (2<M<3.5; Azzaro et al., 1998). The eastern portion, about 9 km long (from Presa to the coastline), is aseismic and was recognized during the 2002-2003 eruption. These different styles of deformation may be due to the different rheological properties of their substratum (Neri et al., 2004).
Mascalucia-Trecastagni fault system. It is located in the southeastern flank and is composed of NNW-SSE-striking faults displaying prominent linear scarps near the towns of Mascalucia and Trecastagni (Azzaro, 2004). It is mainly characterized by strike-slip motion and by shallow seismicity, with focal depth of 1-2 km (Lo Giudice and Rasà, 1992).
Ragalna fault system. It is located in the southwestern flank of the volcano and comprises two linked structures, the main one extending for as much as 5 km in a roughly N direction towards the summit area of the volcano (Rust and Neri, 1996; Azzaro et. al., in press). Examination of the fault system in the field indicates dominantly dip-slip extensional displacement (Rust and Neri, 1996). The active faults of this system bound a triangular structure like horst (Rust and Neri, 1996).
The volcano is also characterized by a peculiar arrangement of the eruptive fissures that diverge from a radial distribution typical of stratovolcano edifices. The fissures are mainly concentrated on three sectors of the volcano named NE Rift, South Rift and West Rift, as previously indicated by several authors (Kieffer, 1975 and 1985; Lo Giudice et al., 1982; Mcguire and Pullen, 1989; Fig. 2).
NE Rift. It is located on the northeastern flank of the volcano and from the summit forms a 5-km-long, 2-km-wide topographic ridge made up of eruptive fissures, pit craters and pyroclastic cones. The swarm of eruptive fissures have dispersion axes ranging from 15°E to 50°E showing a gradual clockwise rotation along the rift towards NE (Tibaldi and Groppelli, 2002). The northeastern flank shows another smaller swarm of fissures and cones from the northern slope of the Valle del Bove, with dispersion axes ranging from 70°E to 90°E and a main ENE trend.
South Rift. The southeastern flank is characterized by a more scattered distribution of the eruptive fissures and cones. Over a 12 km wide sector the dispersion axes of the fissures range from 200°E to 140°E. The main belt of the rift develops between the SEC and the southwestern rim of the Valle del Bove along a SSE direction, and then continues southeastward as the rim swings to an easterly direction. On the southern slope of the volcano it forms a more diffuse set of N-S to SSW-NNE striking fissures extending from the Montagnola area to Nicolosi, at a distance of about 10 km.
West Rift. On the west flank eruptive fissures and cones are more radially distributed, even if a concentration of these elements appear over a 4.5 km wide sector between 245°E and 280°E marking the so-called West Rift characterized by WSW and W main trends of the eruptive axis (Bellotti et al., 2010).
According to Branca et al. (2004), the beginning of volcanism in Etnean region is due to the northward migration of the Plio-Pleistocene Hyblean magmatic source. Volcanism began at about 500 ka ago through submarine eruptions on the Gela–Catania foredeep basin. About 300 ka ago fissure-type eruptions occurred on the ancient alluvial plain of the Simeto River forming a lava plateau. From about 220 ka ago, the eruptive activity was localized mainly along the Ionian coast where fissure-type eruptions built a shield volcano. Between 129 and 126 ka ago volcanism shifted westward toward the central portion of the present volcano (Branca et al., 2007). This change caused a variation in the volcanic chemical composition (from subalkaline to purely alkaline) as well as in the type of volcanism, which from fissural became central and shifted westward. The stabilization of the plumbing system marked the beginning of the construction of small polygenic edifices (e.g. Trifoglietto volcano) in Valle del Bove from 107 ka to 65 ka ago (De Beni et al., in press). About 57 ka ago, another westward shift of the plumbing system started the building of the stratovolcano (De Beni et al., in press) that represents the main bulk of the Mt. Etna edifice. This volcanic center reached its maximum areal expansion about 40 ka ago, proceeding up to 15 ka when four plinian eruptions formed a large summit caldera, historically named Ellittico Crater (Coltelli et al., 2000). The final evolution of this process took place during the Holocene, when eruptive activity resumed inside the caldera and expanded outside to cover the previous Ellittico edifice forming the volcanic succession of the present active volcanic center (Branca et al., 2004).
The complex geological history and tectonic setting of Mt. Etna have given rise to a great number of models to interpret its origin and the peculiar features for a very active basaltic volcano that is so unusually located in front of an active thrust belt:
Rittmann (1973) interpreted the intersection of three main fault systems, trending ENE, NNW and WNW, as the mechanism that created a weakness zone for magma uprising.
Tanguy et al. (1997) proposed how the upwelling of the asthenosphere first caused extensive melting of a mantle diaper, allowing tholeitic magma to accumulate near the mantle-crust interface. Then, increasingly alkaline basalt was generated and fed the entire volcanism of Mt. Etna by undergoing continuous but limited differentiation in a subcrustal reservoir.
Monaco et al. (1997) infer that the magmatism at Mt. Etna can be related to the dilatational strain on the footwall of an east-facing, crustal scale normal fault located along the Ionian shore. In fact, on the basis of structural, seismological and volcanological studies of 2001 and 2002-2003 eruptions, Monaco et al. (2005) state that the conditions of magma ascent are strongly dominated by extensional structures related to this dilatational strain.
Gvirtzman and Nur (1999) advanced the idea of the “suction” of asthenospheric material from under the neighboring African plate to cause the voluminous melting under Mt. Etna. Such lateral flow is expected when descending slabs migrate backwards in the mantle. A similar model was also developed by Doglioni et al. (2001). According to these Authors, the right lateral transfer along the Malta escarpment is a transtensional “window” between the Sicilian and Ionian segments of the Apennines slab.
According to some Authors, Mt Etna’s magmatism is related to the instability of the eastern flank of the volcano. Indeed, deformation measurements carried out by GPS, SAR and so on, suggest that the eastern flank of the volcano is sliding toward the sea (e.g. Froger et al., 2001; Lundgren et al., 2003; Palano et al., 2008). Some authors believe this sliding motion may cause the decompression of the plumbing system, facilitating the uprise of magma to the surface (Branca et al, 2003; Neri et al., 2004). The location of the sliding surface is open to debate. Lo Giudice and Rasà (1992) postulate a shallow slip surface (0-1 km a.s.l.) consistent with the very shallow seismicity (depth < 1.5 km). Borgia et al. (1992) and Rust and Neri (1996) suggest a detachment as deep as about 5 km occurring within weak sediments of the Gela-Catania Foredeep. Bousquet and Lanzafame (2001) envisage a decollement between the volcanic pile and the sedimentary substratum (1-2 km a.s.l.). Finally, Tibaldi and Groppelli (2002) suggest that both a shallow and a deep decollement surface can characterise, at the same time, the eastward sliding of the volcano. The unstable zone is confined by the Pernicana fault to the northwest, by the NE rift and the fissure systems in the summit area, and by the Ragalna fault system to the southwest. The Trecastagni-Mascalucia fault system is likely originated by differential movements within the collapsing sector of the volcano (Rust and Neri, 1996).
Chiocci et al. (2011), by studying the marine geological and geophysical data of the continental margin facing the volcano, found a large bulge offsetting the margin that is deeply affected by widespread semicircular steps, interpreted as evidence of large-scale gravitational instability. Such features extend inshore to the mobile eastern flank where the larger ground deformations are measured. Both submarine instability and subaerial flank sliding are bounded by two regional tectonic lineaments to accommodate the basinward movement of this large sector of the continental margin topped by the Etna volcanic pile. The Authors infer that the instability process involving the Sicilian continental margin facing Etna volcano during the last 0.1 Ma may be considered a very large mass-wasting phenomenon. This is due to the magmatic intrusion rather than any tectonic process related to a late-orogenic phase of the Apennine Chain thrusting this portion of the continental margin. Indeed, the bulge has no trace of any compressive structures, as previously expected by Borgia et al. (1992) and Rust et al. (2005). Conversely, it is pervaded by extensional and transtensional structures representing the brittle response to a large-scale and long-lasting gravitational instability affecting the continental margin. This model implies that an extensional tectonics induced by the sliding of the volcano eastern flank has been acting continuously over the last 0.1 Ma since the bulge collapse effects are propagating upslope. The continuous decompression at the volcano summit favors the ascent of basic magma without lengthy storage in the upper crust, as one might expect in a compressive tectonic regime. This may be the cause or one of the main contributory causes of the growth of a very active basaltic volcano on top of such an active thrust belt as the Apennine Chain in Sicily.
Two main types of volcanic activity may be distinguished into persistent activity at the summit craters and periodic flank eruptions. The former is characterized by phases of degassing alternating with mild strombolian activity, occasional lava fountains, and lava overflows. Flank eruptions occur from lateral vents usually located along fracture systems. The past decade at Mt. Etna was characterized by different kinds of activity. From 2001 to 2003, two large eruptions characterized by very intense explosive activity took place in the southern and northeastern flanks of the volcano. Successively, Etna remained quiet for about 20 months up to September 2004 when an eruption, differing significantly from the two previous, erupted essentially degassed magma from two vents within Valle del Bove (e.g. Di Grazia et al., 2006). After a 15-month-long period mainly characterized by degassing, the eruptive activity resumed on the eastern flank of SEC in late 2006 with strombolian activity, lava fountaining and lava overflows. During 2007, six episodes of intense lava fountaining/strombolian activity took place at SEC. Finally, after a lava fountain occurring on 10 May 2008 at SEC, a new eruption took place on 13 May from an eruptive fissure that opened east of the summit area (EF; Cannata et al., 2009c; Fig. 10). This eruption, ending on 6 July 2009, was characterized by a strong Hawaiian activity at its beginning and by a long phase of gradually decreasing strombolian activity and lava flows during the following months (Aloisi et al., 2009).
Since 1977, seismic surveys and seismological studies have progressively improved our knowledge of Etna’s structure, but there is still no clear evidence for the presence of a large magma chamber in the crust. In the last two decades, tomographic inversions of P- and S-wave arrival times from local earthquakes have been performed with various techniques allowing a good definition of the P-wave velocity structure beneath the volcano down to 18-24 km depth, more detailed down to 10 km depth (Chiarabba et al., 2000; Laigle et al., 2000; Patanè et al., 2002; Chiarabba et al., 2004; Patanè et al., 2006). However, none of these studies have evidenced the presence of a large anomalous region of relatively low-velocity in the upper crust beneath the volcano. One of the recent ideas about the deep structure of Mt. Etna is the presence of a melted lens capping a mantle upward beneath the volcano (Hirn et al., 1997) with a Moho transition at less than 20 km deep (Nicolich et al., 2000). Following, the main features revealed by Mt. Etna velocity and attenuation tomographies are reported and discussed.
The first noteworthy seismic investigation of the crust and upper mantle in Sicily was performed in 1968 by seismic refraction surveys and covered the whole island with only one profile near Etna, located just to the north (Cassinis et al., 1969). The interpretation of seismic sections revealed a low velocity zone in the eastern Sicily continental crust, close to Mt. Etna between 9 and 24 km depth, interpreted as a region with high temperatures due to the proximity of a deep magma chamber under the volcano. Following this early active seismic exploration, only in 1977 a deep seismic sounding focused on Etna’s structure, with both a detailed survey and deployment of a temporary seismic array (Colombi et al., 1979). Based on data acquired during these experiments, Sharp et al. (1980) investigated Mt. Etna’s structure and the physical properties of the low-velocity anomaly previously observed near the area. They modelled this anomaly as a low-velocity, tri-axial ellipsoid body extending under the entire volcanic area at midcrustal depths (15-25 km), interpreted as a large partially molten magma chamber.
Since the 90’s, seismological studies have progressively improved our knowledge of Etna’s structure and in the last two decades, tomographic inversions of P- and S-wave arrival times from local VT earthquakes have been performed with various techniques (Hirn et al., 1991, 1997; Cardaci et al., 1993; De Luca et al., 1997; Laigle et al., 2000; Chiarabba et al., 2000; Patanè et al., 2002; Patanè et al., 2003; Chiarabba et al., 2004). None of these tomographic studies showed the presence of a large anomalous region of relatively low-velocity within the crust beneath the volcano interpretable as a large magma chamber. Conversely, the most important feature is the presence of a wide central high-velocity body (HVB) embedded in the pre-Etnean sediments, interpreted as a main solidified intrusive body (cooled batches of magmatic intrusions), which is also an almost aseismic volume surrounded by an active seismic region. This HVB shows a roughly ellipsoidal shape in the upper crust (depth ~10 km) with a NNW-SSE horizontal axis and a vertical axis extending between 0 and 9 km below sea level. However, basalt melt rising through the continental intermediate crust may not produce a slow anomaly and the clear large high Vp body observed in the tomographic images can be related to the volumes where the magma is stored in the crust before the eruption. This seems to be supported by the existence of the wide, elongated aseismic zone located just beneath the summit craters (Chiarabba et al., 2000; Patanè et al., 2004) and by results regarding the spatial distribution of b-values (Murru et al., 1999). De Gori et al. (2005) tried to yield insights into the physics of the volcanic plumbing system by determining the three-dimensional Qp structure. This attenuation tomography evidenced the presence of a low Qp body located at shallow depth (0–3 km b.s.l.) beneath the south and southwestern sides of the edifice, where the magma was likely stored during 1994–2001. Since attenuation is a physical parameter sensitive to the thermal state of the crustal volume traveled by seismic wave, this interpretation of the low-Qp anomaly, also confirmed by Martinez-Arevalo et al. (2005) for the 2001 eruption, is consistent with the intense recent volcanic activity (2001 and 2002–2003) that concentrated in the southern part of the summit area. Finally, the Patanè et al. (2006) inversion allowed the improvement of even the most recent velocity tomographic results (Patanè et al., 2002; Patanè et al., 2003; Chiarabba et al., 2004) and a better definition of the shallow structure, down to 7 km depth, and shape and geometry of the upper portion of high-velocity Vp volume. However, the most notable result of this work concerns the detection of anomalous zones with low Vp/Vs values located in the central-southern and northeastern part of the volcanic edifice, where geodetic data modeled the dike intrusions feeding the 2002–2003 eruption, located beneath the eruptive fracture systems.
Mt. Etna’s tomographic models contribute significantly to clarify whether and how tectonic control of magma ascent works at Mt. Etna, revealing a broad complex of intrusive meshes in the upper and middle crust. In particular, we analyze the results obtained by the last tomographic study performed by Patanè et al. (2006) integrating it with previous results and new unpublished data. In summary, the main features revealed by Mt. Etna Vp tomography (Patanè et al. 2006, Fig. 3a) are:
A shallow high Vp anomaly (Vp ranging between 3.5 and 5.5 km/s) beneath the southern craters, the South Rift and mostly beneath the central-southern sector of the Valle del Bove, between 0 and -1 km depth, is interpreted as a solidified intrusive complex (Fig. 3a). Contours for 3.5-5.0 km/s at 0 km show that the high velocity anomaly aligns with the present-day south and northeastern Rifts. The presence of the old shallow plumbing system feeding the past Mt. Etna eruptive centers (e.g. Trifoglietto volcano), located along the central-southern part of the Valle del Bove, is also evidenced both at 0 and -1 km a.s.l.. The analysis of the isosurface image at Vp of 3.5 km/s (Fig. 3b), reveals a complex pattern of solidified magma chambers and conduits with variable dimensions in the very shallow crust (between 0 and -1 km a.s.l.). These higher velocity volumes can be linked to: i) the wide plutonic body mainly located beneath the Valle del Bove (Patanè et al., 2003, 2006); ii) the solidified magma reservoirs feeding the S, NE and ENE Rift zones.
A clear high Vp body (Vp ranging between 5.5 and 6.7 km/s), NNW-SSE to NS trending located beneath the central craters extended toward S and SSE, between -2 and -7 km a.s.l. (wide 5-7 km in longitude and 8-10 km in latitude) is interpreted as high density cumulates, fractionated by the magma during its ascent, stocked and congealed at depth (Fig. 3 a).
Considering now the two different inversions by Patanè et al. (2003) and Chiarabba et al. (2004), extended also to the deep structure although at lower resolution, the main features observed at major depth are:
A narrow high Vp body (Vp ranging between 6.8 and 7.5 km/s), 4-6 km laterally wide, beneath the central-southern part of the volcano between 8 and at least 18 km depth (Fig. 4a), interpreted as the deeper part of the plumbing system.
The presence of a melted lens capping a mantle upward beneath the volcano with a Moho transition at depth less than 20 km (Fig. 4a, b), as suggested by Nicolich et al. (2000), seems to be supported by recent tomographic results at regional scale (Barberi et al., 2006).
Therefore the high Vp intrusion is the main structural feature of the volcano, testifying to its intense past history, and revealing the accumulation of a very large volume of non-erupted volcanic material. Seismicity seems to occur at its borders and defines a main aseismic volume (Fig. 3b).
a) Mt. Etna’s Vp velocity model (Patanè et al. 2006), between 1 a.s.l. and 7 km b.s.l., in the well-resolved regions of the model. The gray lines are elevation isolines (every 1000 m). In the top left square the historical eruptive fissures (orange lines) and major faults (black lines) are shown. b) Isosurface image at Vp of 3.5 km/s for the central-eastern and northern sectors of the volcano. A complex pattern of solidified magma chambers and conduits with variable dimensions is recognizable. At the top, historical eruptive fissures (orange lines) and major faults (black lines) are shown. Major faults are also projected in red in the 3D block. c) Cumulative isosurfaces for different velocities Vp showing the 3D geometry of the HVB down to 10 km depth. The seismicity occurring during 2001-2003 is also shown (red dots), evidencing how the HVB is almost an aseismic volume surrounded by an active seismic region
The bulk of the high Vp body, located to the southeast of the central craters, suggests that the Valle del Bove has been the main site for magma accumulation in the past as confirmed by the presence of the old eruptive centers (e.g. Trifoglietto). The high Vp body NNW-SSE to NS trending between -1 and -5 km depth appear rooted at greater depth. At present, the ascent of magma is controlled by the pervasive high Vp intrusion and seems to occur at its western border. Very shallow dike emplacement at the border of the intrusive body occurs mostly on NNW-trending fracture system, such as those of the 2001 and 2002-2003 eruptions.
a) Regional Vp model of the lower crust and uppermost mantle from Barberi et al. (2006). b) Moho topography (km b.s.l) of the northwestern part of the Ionian basin (redrawn from Nicolich et al., 2000)
Although the VT earthquakes are the key to tomographic studies in volcanoes, they cannot provide precise information about the location and geometry of the shallow magma conduits (Almendros et al., 2002). In fact, the understanding of the complex velocity structure in the shallow part of the volcano requires estimation of both P- and S- waves variations with a spatial resolution of the order of several hundred meters, which is still not yet available at Mt. Etna.
A more useful approach consists of investigating the seismo-volcanic signals, whose variations and features are often closely related to eruptive activity. Indeed, they are generally considered as an indicator of the internal state of activity of volcanoes (Neuberg, 2000). For this reason their investigation can be very useful for both monitoring and research purposes. Because of the peculiar characteristics of the seismo-volcanic signals, different from the tectonic and VT earthquakes in terms of both waveforms and source mechanisms, new techniques have been developed to investigate their features. In Fig. 5 examples of VT earthquake, volcanic tremor, LP and VLP events recorded at Mt. Etna are shown.
According to Murray (1990), shallow reservoirs at Mt. Etna are temporary and are occupied by magma only during short periods preceding a single eruption or an eruptive cycle. Patanè et al. (2008) demonstrated how the locations of the tremor sources and of the long-period seismic events can be used at Mt. Etna to constrain both the area and the depth range of magma degassing, highlighting the geometry of the shallow conduits feeding the central craters. In this work the Authors, by a careful analysis of the seismo-volcanic signals recorded during two powerful lava fountaining episodes taking place on 4–5 September and on 23–24 November, 2007 from SEC, discover the magma pathway geometry feeding the eruptive activity at SEC. The imaged conduits consist of two connected resonating dike-like bodies, NNW-SSE and NW–SE oriented, extending from sea level to the surface. In addition, we show how tremor, long-period (LP), and very- long period (VLP) event locations and signatures reflect pressure fluctuations in the plumbing system associated with the ascent/discharge of gas-rich magma linked to the lava fountains.
Thus, in this section we will focus on the most recent eruptive activity of this volcano taking place in 2008-2009, showing the inferences about the volcano dynamics and the shallow system feeding this eruption drawn by the seismo-volcanic signal investigation. Fig. 6 shows a digital elevation model of Mt. Etna with the locations of the stations used to record the seismic signals during such an eruption. In Fig. 7 the seismic signal acquired by the vertical component of ECPN during 1-13 May 2008, together with the number of LP events and the seismic RMS, is shown.
Waveforms and spectrograms of VT earthquake, volcanic tremor, LP event and VLP events recorded at Mt. Etna. The thick red line plotted over the VLP waveform shows the signal filtered below 0.15 Hz
Digital elevation model of Mt. Etna with the location of the seismic stations used to investigate seismo-volcanic signals (green and blue triangles). The green triangles indicate the stations used to study both volcanic tremor and LP events, while the blue triangles only the volcanic tremor. The red line indicate the eruptive fissure active during 2008-2009
a) Seismogram of the vertical component of ECPN station, (b) histogram of the number of LP events in 4-hour-long windows and (c) RMS time series
A peculiar aspect of volcanic tremor at Mt. Etna is its continuity in time, as also observed at other basaltic volcanoes with persistent activity such as Stromboli (Italy; Langer and Falsaperla, 1996). Most of the energy of volcanic tremor at Mt. Etna is radiated below 5 Hz (e.g., Lombardo et al., 1996; Falsaperla et al., 2005; Cannata et al., 2008, 2009a). Another interesting feature of the volcanic tremor is its close relationship to eruptive activity, highlighted by variations in amplitude, spectral content, wavefield features, and source
a) RMS time series and (b) spectrogram of the seismic signal recorded at the vertical component of ECPN station. (c) Normalised spectrogram and (d) dominant frequencies of the seismic signal recorded at the vertical component of ECPN station
location of volcanic tremor at the same time as changes in volcanic activity (e.g., Gresta et al., 1991; Lombardo et al., 1996; Di Grazia et al., 2006; Alparone et al., 2007; Cannata et al., 2008; Patanè et al., 2008; Cannata et al., 2009a). The volcanic tremor recorded during 1–15 May 2008 was investigated by performing several analyses. First of all, in order to get information about the time changes of tremor energy, the RMS of the seismic signals recorded at the vertical component of ECPN station (see Fig. 6) was calculated within 1-minute-long sliding windows (Fig. 8a). Successively, since changes of source location and/or mechanism of volcanic tremor are generally accompanied by variations of its spectral content, the Short Time Fourier Transform (STFT) was performed. We calculated a spectrum by 40-secong-long sliding windows of the signal recorded at the vertical component of ECPN station. Then, the spectrogram was plotted in Fig. 8b. Moreover, the normalized spectrogram of 11-14 May, together with the dominant frequencies, was also computed and plotted in Fig. 9c,d. Finally, since the seismo-volcanic signals are generally related to dynamics of fluid inside the volcanic edifice, the location of their source is basic information for monitoring of volcanoes. Then, the tremor source locations were retrieved by following the approach described by Patanè et al. (2008) and Di Grazia et al. (2009), inverting the spatial distribution of tremor amplitude in 18 stations (green and blue triangles in Fig. 6) using a grid-search approach (Figs. 9,10). We considered the RMS amplitudes of the 25th percentile instead of average values. This enables us to efficiently remove undesired transients in the signal and consider continuous recordings (Patanè et al., 2008). The source location of tremor is found on the basis of the goodness of the linear regression fit (hereafter referred to as R2) obtained for each point of a 3-D grid centered underneath the craters (Di Grazia et al., 2006). For this grid, we consider a 6 × 6 × 6 km3 volume with a spacing between nodes of 250 m. The centroid position of all the 3-D grid points, whose R2 values do not differ by more than 1% from the maximum R2, was considered the tremor source location.
LP and VLP events, whose sources, similar to volcanic tremor, are related to fluid processes (such as vibration or resonance of fluid-filled cracks; Chouet, 2003), are also recorded at Mt. Etna. A number of papers deal with the relation between eruptive activity and LP events at Mt. Etna (Patanè et al., 2008; Di Grazia et al., 2009; Cannata et al., 2010): it was shown how occurrence rate, energy, spectral content and/or source location of LP events often change before, during and after eruptive activities. LP events recorded during 1 – 15 May 2008 were investigated obtaining several parameters: i) occurrence rate; ii) peak-to-peak amplitude; iii) source location. About 33,000 LP events were detected during the analysed period by STA/LTA algorithm (short time average/long time average; e.g., Withers et al., 1998). Similar to all the triggering algorithms based on dynamic thresholds, the event detection by STA/LTA is affected by the variation of the background noise level: for instance, if the background noise level increases, the threshold in turn will increase, and then the events with lower amplitude will be lost. The LP hourly number and the peak-to-peak amplitudes were calculated and plotted in Fig. 11a,b, respectively. Moreover, since the frequency and damping of a resonant system is strongly influenced by the nature of liquid and gas content (Chouet, 2003 and references therein), also the study of the spectral evolution of LP events in volcanic areas provides very useful information for monitoring purposes. Thus, a value of frequency and quality factor for each LP event were obtained by Sompi analysis (Kumazawa et al., 1990) (Fig. 11c,d). A moving median over 200 samples was calculated for both frequency and quality factor. Indeed, the median values are less affected by outliers than the average values. Finally, a subset of 1700 LP events with high signal to noise ratio at all the six stations nearest to the summit area (green triangles in Fig. 6) was selected to perform location analysis. LP events were located by following a new grid-search method based on the joint computation of two different functions: i) semblance, used to measure the similarity among signals recorded by two or more stations (e.g. Neidell and Taner, 1971; Cannata et al., 2009b); and R2 values, calculated on the basis of the spatial distribution of seismic amplitude (Patanè et al., 2008; Di Grazia et al., 2009). The 3-D grid of possible locations was 6 km×6 km×3.25 km, centered on the volcanic edifice, and with a vertical extent from 0 km a.s.l. to the top of the volcano. The horizontal and vertical grid spacing was 250 m. The space distributions of both semblance and R2 values were determined, the two grids of values were normalised by subtracting the minimum value and dividing by the maximum one. Thus, the values belonging to two grids ranged from 0 to 1, and the same weights were assigned to semblance and R2. Then, the two normalised grids were summed node by node. The source was finally located in the node with the largest composite semblance-R2 value. This joint method takes advantage of both LP waveform comparison among the different stations and space amplitude distribution. The LP location results are reported in Figs. 12 and 13.
Time variations of the location of volcanic tremor recorded during 11-14 May 2008
Map and section of Mt. Etna with the locations of volcanic tremor recorded during 11-14 May 2008
a) Histogram of the number of LP events in 1-hour-long windows. (b) Peak-to-peak amplitude of the LP events. (c,d) Frequency and quality factor of the LP events, calculated by Sompi method with autoregressive order of 2
Time variations of the location of LP events recorded during 1-15 May 2008
Finally, in order to understand the LP source mechanisms, moment tensor inversions were performed. On several volcanoes Moment Tensor Inversion has been achieved to quantify the source processes of LP events (e.g. Ohminato et al., 1998; Chouet et al., 2003; Lokmer et al., 2007). Indeed, due to the link between LP activity and fluid dynamics (Chouet, 2003), the characterization of the LP source mechanism becomes a fundamental tool for understanding processes in magmatic systems. Several studies propose the excitation and resonance of fluid-filled resonator systems as the cause of the source mechanism of these particular events. Different geometries of the resonators were investigated, such as a crack, a spherical inclusion or a conduit simplified to a cylinder. The seismic moment-tensor is a representation of a seismic source by a system of equivalent forces acting at a source point, including the force couples and single forces resulting from mass transport. We performed a moment tensor inversion in the frequency domain (Auger et al., 2006; Lokmer et al., 2007). The Green’s Functions (GF) are calculated for a homogeneous velocity model with DEM Etna topography. Synthetic seismograms were generated by Discrete Elastic Lattice algorithm described by O’Brien and Bean (2004), based on discrete particle scheme. The topography model of Mt. Etna covers an area of 19.2 x 16 x 7 km, with a grid node of 50 m, and its origin (x,y,z) is centred on the volcano summit. In order to avoid reflections from the model boundaries, we employed at the bottom and at the edges of the model 4.8 km wide absorbing boundaries. Moreover we used for the GF computation (i) a Gaussian pulse as source function (STF), with a 7.5 Hz cut-off frequency; (ii) velocities for P and S waves of 2000 ms-1 and 1175 ms-1 respectively, as found by Patanè et al. (2006) and Montellier et al. (2009) in their recent tomographic study of Mt. Etna. Several authors demonstrated how the topography and the velocity model play an important role to correctly reconstruct the moment tensor (e.g. Bean et al., 2008; O’Brien and Bean, 2009). For LP events, which are characterized by frequencies above 5 seconds, uncertainties in the GF can be introduced by a poor knowledge of the velocity structures. This problem can be resolved by using several seismic stations installed very close to the source positions (Bean et al., 2008; Kumagai et al., 2010; De Barros et al., 2011). For this reason, in order to compute the LP moment tensor inversion, we used the LP database recorded by an exceptionally high-density network of 30 temporary broadband stations, installed during the 2008-2009 Etna eruption (De Barros et al., 2011). In order to determine the most reliable mechanism type (crack, pipe, or explosion), the source of the LP is initially modelled performing an unconstrained inversion. Next, starting from the mechanism so obtained, we have constrained the subsequent reversals solution (inversions) found to confirm and refine its characteristics. Once the stability of our results is verified, it was possible to reconstruct the source mechanisms of the LP in 2008 Etna eruption.
The analyses described in the section 4.1 provided information about the volcano dynamics and on the shallow part of the plumbing system involved in magma movements before and during the first days of the eruption.
The 10 May lava fountain and the following 13 May eruption onset were preceded by a change in the volcanic tremor spectral content (from polychromatic to monochromatic with a spectral peak at 1-2 Hz) and by an increase in LP activity (increases in both occurrence rate and amplitude of LP events) taking place roughly on 4 May. Such an energy increase of LP events can be interpreted as increasing overpressure inside the shallow part of the plumbing system. Increases of amplitude and occurrence rate of LP events preceded eruptive activities also at many other volcanoes such as Redoubt (Chouet et al., 1994), St. Helens (Moran et al., 2008) and Colima (Varley et al., 2010). Before the eruptive activity the volcanic tremor was located below the summit area at depth ranging from 1 to 2 km a.s.l. (Figs. 9,10), suggesting an important magma storage volume in this location, as also suggested by previous studies (Allard et al., 2005; Aiuppa et al., 2010). The LP events were located roughly below Bocca Nuova at 2-3 km a.s.l., consistent with the LP location obtained in other papers (Patanè et al., 2008; Cannata et al., 2009b). The lava fountain was accompanied by a sharp increase in the tremor RMS, as observed during other lava fountain activities at Mt. Etna (e.g. Cannata et al., 2008), as well as at other volcanoes (e.g. McNutt, 1994). Because of this increase of tremor amplitude and then of the background noise level, only a few LP events were detected during the lava fountain (Fig. 11a). It is also worth noting that during the whole of 10 May the LP frequency peak decreased, then suddenly increasing on the following day (Fig. 11c). After the lava fountain, the sudden decrease in the seismic dominant frequencies observed during 06.00-11.00 on 12 May was due to the arrival of teleseismic waves of the Sichuan earthquake (M=7.9) that, according to Cannata et al. (2010), played an important role in the 13 May eruption because of the dynamic stress transfer. Focusing on the 13 May eruption, it was preceded by a few hours by a further increase in the LP activity, accompanied by changes in LP spectral content (decrease of frequency peak and increase of quality factor; Fig. 11c,d), and by a northward shift of the sources of both volcanic tremor and LP events (Figs. 10,13). Such a seismo-volcanic source migration was consistent with the dyke intrusion in the northern part of the summit area (towards the NE rift zone; Fig. 2), inferred by earthquake swarm hypocenters (Di Grazia et al., 2009), ground deformation (Aloisi et al., 2009) and a dry fracture field (Bonaccorso et al., 2011). Finally, the onset of the 13 May eruption was characterised by a sharp RMS increase reaching the maximum values of the whole analysed period (Fig. 8a), together with significant changes in spectral content (Figs. 8c,11) and shift of tremor and LP sources moving roughly below the eruptive fissure (Figs. 9,10,12,13). Also in this case the LP number drastically decreased because of the increase of the background noise level (Fig. 11a). All these data suggest the intrusion of a gas-rich magma batch east of the summit area.
Map and section of Mt. Etna with the locations of LP events recorded during three phases (see dashed black lines and “phase I”, “phase II” and “phase III” in Fig. 12). The radii of the red circles are proportional to the number of the locations in each grid node (see black circles and numbers reported in the right lower corner of the maps)
Between 18 June and 3 July 2008, about 30 temporary broadband stations were deployed on Mt. Etna very close to the summit craters. This high-density network permitted to better investigate on the LP activity. De Barros et al. (2009), classifying more than 500 LP events by cross-correlation analysis, obtained two different families with a similar number of events. In agreement with previous studies (e.g. Saccorotti et al., 2007; Cannata et al., 2009b), the LP source positions were located close to the summit craters, and were slightly different for both families. The focal depth hypocentres were found shallow below the summit: from 0 to 800 m for family 1 and from 0 to 400 m for family 2 (De Barros et al., 2009). For both families the inversions show mechanisms with high volumetric components, most likely generated by a crack, striking in the SW-NE direction (De Barros et al., 2011). In particular for family 1 (Fig. 14a) the MT solution shows a subvertical dike striking SSW-NNE; for family 2 the crack solution lies on a plane inclined of 45° and striking SW-NE (Fig. 14b). The orientations of the cracks are consistent with local tectonics, which shows a SW–NE weakness direction, as testified by the orientation of the NE rift. De Barros et al. (2011) hypothesize that these events are not related to the lava flow from the eruptive fracture, instead to the decompression phase following the 10 May lava fountain. The LP events studied here show similar characteristics to the events occurring after a lava fountain in the 2007, analysed by Patanè et al. (2008), which interpreted, in particular, the LP belonging to the family 2 as the response to the volcano deflation. This theory is validated by the temporary cessation of the LP events after 22 June 2008, suggesting a return of equilibrium of the upper part of volcano, where pressure and stress return to a static state. Although the poor knowledge of the velocity model can lead to unambiguous explanations of both moment and forces related to the mechanism found, this study demonstrated how the LP moment tensor inversion is a powerful tool to understand the magmatic processes in the shallow plumbing system of Mt. Etna.
In summary, it was shown how the analysis of seismo-volcanic signals is very effective to reconstruct the geometry of the shallow portion of the plumbing system and to investigate the magma dynamics in it. Such information is very important for both research and monitoring purposes.
Map views (up) and 3-D views (down) of the crack source mechanism obtained for the two families of LP events. The circular areas represent the cracks, the normalized eigenvectors are represented by solid lines, and the longest of these are the normal cracks. A subvertical dike striking SSW-NNE is obtained for family 1, and a crack striking SW-NE that lies on a plane inclined of 45° is computed for family 2. Redrawn from De Barros et al. (2011)
Mt. Etna lies in front of the southeast-verging Apennine-Maghrebian fold-and-thrust belt, where the NNW-trending Malta Escarpment separates the Sicilian continental crust from the Ionian Mesozoic oceanic basin, presently subducting beneath the Calabrian arc (Selvaggi and Chiarabba, 1995). Seismic tomographic studies indicate the presence of a mantle plume beneath the volcano with a Moho transition at depth less than 20 km (Nicolich et al.,2000; Barberi et al., 2006). Geophysical and geological evidences suggest that the Mt. Etna magma ascent mechanism is related to the major NNW-trending lithospheric fault (Doglioni et al., 2001). However, the reason for the Mt. Etna mantle plume draining and channeling the magma from the upper mantle source to the surface is not yet clear. All models proposed in literature (Rittmann, 1973; Tanguy et al., 1997; Monaco et al.; 1997; Gvirtzman and Nur, 1999; Doglioni et al., 2001) do not explain why such a mantle plume has originated in this anomalous external position with respect to the arc magmatism and back-arc spreading zones associated with the Apennines subduction. Some ideas on the subduction rollback must be better developed through the comparison with new regional tomographic studies that are being released. Moreover, tomographic studies reveal a complex and large plumbing system below the volcano from -2 to -7 km a.s.l., wide up to 60 km2 that reduces itself in size down to -18 km of depth close to the apex of the mantle plume. Chiocci et al. (2011) found a large bulge on the underwater continental margin facing Mt. Etna, and suggested that the huge crystallized magma body intruded in the middle and upper continental crust was able to trigger an instability process involving the Sicilian continental margin during the last 0.1 Ma. This phenomenon induces the sliding of the volcano eastern flank observed since the 90s (Borgia et al, 1992; Lo Giudice and Rasà, 1992) because the effects of the bulge collapse are propagating upslope, and the continuous decompression at the volcano summit favors the ascent of basic magma without lengthy storage in the upper crust, as one might expect in a compressive tectonic regime. Taken together, these new evidences (tomographic, tectonic, volcanic) are concerned with the exceptional nature of Mt. Etna and raise the need to explain the origin of the mantle plume that supplies its volcanism. The lower crust and the uppermost mantle need to be better resolved in future experiments and studies. The use of regional and teleseismic events for tomography and receiver function analyses is required to explore a volume that has only marginally been investigated to date. The relation between the magma source in the mantle and the upper parts of the system, as well as the hypothesis above reported on the relation between tectonics and volcanism and the role of lithospheric faults, could be resolved only by applying seismological techniques able to better constrain broader and deeper models.
Finally, although the recent tomographic inversions have progressively improved our knowledge of Etna’s shallow structure, highlighting a complex pattern of magma chambers and conduits with variable dimensions, the geometry of the conduits and the dimensions and shapes of small magmatic bodies still require greater investigation. Their precise definition is crucial to delineate a working model of this volcano in order to understand its behaviour and evolution. For this purpose, at least within the volcanic edifice, the precise locations of the seismo-volcanic signals can be considered a useful tool to constrain both the area and the depth range of magma degassing and the geometry of the shallow conduits. In this work, we furnish evidences that the tremor and LP locations allowed to track magma migration during the initial phase of the 2008-2009 eruption and in particular the initial northward dike intrusion, also confirmed by other geophysical, structural and volcanological observations (Aloisi et al., 2009; Bonaccorso et al., 2011), and the following fissure opening east of the summit area at the base of SEC. All these evidences, obtained by the marked improvement in the monitoring system together with the development of new processing techniques, allowed us to constrain both the area and the depth range of magma degassing, highlighting the geometry of the magmatic system feeding the 2008-2009 eruption.
Nutrition is strongly linked to health, especially when sports are concerned, due to the increase in energy and nutrient demands. It is necessary to know the physiology of the exercise in order to know the different metabolic pathways that coexist during sports practice. In this way, you can predict the changes that occur in the organism during physical effort, in order to achieve some dietary recommendations.
\nThe nutritional practices of athletes are multifactorial and depend on the habits, culture, or nutritional knowledge of the athlete. So the work of a sports nutritionist is to advise the athlete and his environment to make the necessary changes in his intake and thereby improve sports performance (SP).
\nNutrition is determinant in achieving an adequate SP, which is defined by three variables: training, rest, and feeding. However, the main objective of sports nutrition must be preserving the health of the athlete, which can be achieved with an adequate intake adapted to the type of training performed. Optimal nutrition provides the energy necessary to perform physical exercise while reducing injury rate, a factor that together makes the SP increase by itself.
\nTwo of the aspects that can limit the SP are the state of hydration and the energy contribution. Hypohydration states produce alterations in homeostasis, decreased blood volume, increased heart rate, lower rate of sweating, increased organism temperature, and greater perception of effort which translates into SP deterioration. Likewise, a low energy consumption accentuates fatigue, immunosuppression, and predisposition for injuries, which can interfere in the development of SP.
\nNowadays, an exponential increase in the population that performs physical activity has been reported. In the USA, the total number of runners endorsed in marathon events is 541,000 in 2013, which represents 27% more participants than observed in 2008 in the same trend observed in many countries. For example, in Spain the number of participants increased from 28,000 (2008) to 57,931 (2013), which represented an increase of 101%. These increases far from ceasing have continued growing in the last 5 years. Specifically, marathons of Sevilla and Valencia have reached 14,500 and 20,000 runners in 2018, which contrast with the previous participation observed in 2013 (5963 and 9653 participants, respectively).
\nUnfortunately, sports nutrition is often referenced to sports supplements or “magical” strange diets. In fact 40–70% of athletes use sports supplements without even analyzing if their use is really necessary.
\nThe body composition (BC) of the athletes is related to the SP, as it can be modified throughout the season. There is no single BC for each group of athletes; however, it can serve as a guide for athletes and coaches [1].
\nThe season of the athlete will be divided into different phases throughout the competitive period. Competitive season can be divided in preseason, competitive period, transition period, and in the worst case injury period. Due to different intensities, timing, and types of training, the BC is normally different in the competitive season. Therefore, it is vital to know the BC of the athletes in order to determine the adequacy of the current season stage [2].
\nApart from a higher body mass index (BMI), there are several methods for the evaluation of BC [2]. Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) is considered the gold standard for the assessment of body fat, mainly due to its high reproducibility and accuracy. However, DEXA has high economic cost, is not portable, and also emits a small radiation, so its use is not very common [3].
\nAmong the most used methods are bioelectrical impedance analysis (BIA) and anthropometry. Impedance is defined as the opposition shown by biological materials to the passage of an electric flow. Tissues with high impedance offer greater resistance (adipose tissue, bone, air in the lungs) and contain less amount of water [4]. The greater the amount of water, the better this electrical flow, will pass through. Therefore, the hydration sate of the individual is the determinant for the BC measurement by BIA. In addition, in order to standardize previous conditions and dismiss errors, certain protocols must be followed prior to the measurement of BC by BIA. That fact makes BIA a rather imprecise method [5].
\nAnthropometry allows the evaluation of different body dimensions and the overall composition of the body. It consists of the measurement of skinfolds, perimeters of the muscles, and bone diameters. This technique must be carried out by experts qualified by the International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry (ISAK) [4]. It is the most widely used method in the sports field, from which the percentages of fat, muscle mass, and bone mass can be obtained by means of mathematic formulas [5]. The most effective way to monitor an athlete using this technique is performing a sum of six bodyfolds (triceps, subscapular, supraspinal, abdominal, thigh, and medial leg) that gives an absolute value [6]. In summary mode, the values for said summation of folds are estimated in physically active people (75 mm men and 100 mm in women), footballers (<50 mm men and <65 mm women), and endurance athletes (<35 mm men and 50 mm women). The minimum values seen in the healthy sports population were 25 mm for men and 42 mm for women (Table 1).
\nPopulation | \nMen (∑six skinfolds) | \nWomen (∑six skinfolds) | \n
---|---|---|
Physically active people | \n75 | \n10 | \n
Footballers | \n<50 | \n<65 | \n
Runners | \n<35 | \n50 | \n
Minimum value | \n25 | \n42 | \n
Summary of summation folds of the athletes.
However, it must be taken into account that BC is not the only thing that will measure sports performance, but it is one more parameter of the measurements that must be made in the athlete.
\nPrior to establishing requirements regarding quantity and timing of macronutrients, a brief approach about different metabolic pathways that provides energy during exercise is necessary. The energy systems are integrated by a set of metabolic pathways that come into operation during exercise, depending on the intensity and duration. In summary, they can be divided into non-oxidative pathways (phosphogenic and glycolytic pathways) and aerobic pathways (nutrient oxidation) [1].
\nBoth pathways aim to generate ATP that will be consumed during the exercise. The non-oxidative pathways occur in the cellular cytosol, do not require oxygen, and are activated during short-time periods (seconds). Phosphagen route uses ATP and phosphocreatine, lasting between 1 and 10 s, and is a route that does not need oxygen and does not generate lactate. Glycolytic pathways metabolize glucose, muscle, and liver glycogen through glycolysis and occur in high-intensity exercises up to 3 min. These glycolytic pathways generate lactate and hydrogen bonds, generating an acidity in the muscle cell—this acidity being one of its limitations [7].
\nThe aerobic pathway occurs inside the mitochondria, so it requires the presence of oxygen to metabolize fuels. It is typical of resistance exercises with medium-low intensity and long duration. It includes the oxidation of CHOs, fats, and to a lesser extent proteins. This route generates much more ATP than the anaerobic path but more slowly, speed being the limitation of this path [7].
\nThe key to success for any athlete will be to adapt energy intake to energy expenditure, which allows the correct functioning of the organism while improving BC [1]. However, it can be complicated due to multiple changes in periodization of training and competitions.
\nThe energy demands of athletes differ widely depending on the type of sport, duration, intensity, competitive level, and individual variability of each athlete. The more demanding the competitive levels of the athlete are, the greatest increase in the intensity of both training and competition occurs, which will result in a significant reduction energy reserves that must be replaced by an adequate diet [8].
\nThe objectives of the athletes’ diet are the following: provide the necessary energy for exercise, regulate body metabolism, and provide nutrients to maintain and repair tissues [9]. Due to variation among athletes, different available food options, and individual food patterns, there is no single feeding pattern for athletes, so there are a large number of strategies and options to assess [2].
\nCaloric intakes below the basal metabolic rate (BMR) are not recommended because it can compromise organism functions. Depending on the type of training energy requirement, the following recommendations for athletes can be approached: moderate training 1.7 × BMR, intense training 2.1 × BMR, extreme training 3 × BMR, and with the maximum recommended limit being 4 × BMR.
\nAthletes should bear in mind that it is not enough to pay attention to food only on the day of competition, but daily. Appropriate nutritional guidelines will optimize SP, improve recovery, and reduce the risk of injury and illness [2]. For example, in women daily intake below 30 kcal/kg body mass/day can induce damage to metabolic and hormonal functions that affect SP, growth, and health [10].
\nA varied diet is recommended, covering energetic requirements, and is based on foods as fruits, vegetables, legumes, cereals, dairy products, eggs, fish, and lean meat, in order to provide vitamins and minerals. A poor choice of foods cannot be compensated by the use of supplements [2].
\nIn order to establish recommendations for macronutrients, it is preferable taking into account the body weight (BW) of the athlete, instead of giving the typical percentages based on the total caloric intake of the diet [2]. For this purpose the recommendations will be provided by grams of nutrient/kg of BW.
\nMain energy substrates used for physical exercise are carbohydrates (CHO) and lipids, while proteins as energy substrate are reserved for extreme conditions. The use of energy substrate varies depending on the intensity and duration of the exercise, level of training of the athlete, and the state of pre-workout CHO stores. The use of CHO as energy substrate is produced mainly during high-intensity and short-duration exercises. Meanwhile, less intense and long-term exercises use fats’ main energy substrate [11]. However the use of CHO will also have a great impact on exercises of less intensity and longer duration such as resistance test, showing that depletion of CHO together with dehydration is a major limitation of the SP [12].
\nOne of the big differences between CHO and lipids is their storage in the body. While CHOs have a limited reserve which leads to around 1600–2000 kcal, fats suppose a practically unlimited energy reserve close to 70,000 kcal (depending on fat mass) [7, 11].
\nCurrently, there are a large number of myths related to nutrition, which causes great confusion in general population. One of the most widespread errors is the demonization suffered by the CHO, which has generated some carbophobia in society, including the athlete population [13]. This is a mistake, due to the importance of CHO as energy substrate for the brain and central nervous system. Moreover, they can also be used at different intensities both by anaerobic and aerobic pathways [1].
\nCHO are an energy fuel that provides 4 kcal/g of dry weight. They are stores in liver and muscle in the form of glycogen. Although, these deposits are limited to around 400-500 g, providing 1600- 2000 kcal, they can be depleted if the diet does not contain enough CHO. Glycogen stores in the organism are divided into 350–400 g in the muscle, 75–100 g in the liver, and around 5 g in the plasma [14]. In addition to size differences, the liver is really a store of glycogen, responsible for maintaining blood glucose. Meanwhile, the muscle can be considered a “false” store since it only uses glucose for its own needs. In other words, the liver can contribute to the replacement of muscle glycogen in the event of depletion, something that does not happen in reverse, which can lead to hypoglycemia and considerably affect SP due to fatigue [15].
\nIt is vitally important to maintain high levels of glycogen so as not to compromise the physical demands of physical activity, since low availability can be associated with loss of abilities and impaired decision-making and increases risk of injury and decreases SP. Therefore, it is essential to provide CHO before exercise, as well as during, in order to improve the SP and delay the onset of fatigue [14, 16].
\nA good strategy in order to optimize increased glycogen reserves for a competition is the “CHO overload” in the hours or even days before. In athletes with good training status, it is not necessary to deplete these deposits previously, as was believed decades ago. In fact an intake or around 10 g CHO/kg/day during the previous 36–48 h would be enough [17]. Athletes are advised to test how many CHOs are able to inatek without gastric problems. On the other hand, it is also advisable not to try new things on competition days [14].
\nIn general, the CHO recommendations based on the intensity and duration of physical activity can be summarized as follows [1, 18]:
3–5 g/kg/d of low-intensity training such as recovery days or tactical skills
5–7 g/kg/d for moderate intensity training of 1 h duration
6–10 g/kg/d for moderate–high intensity exercises between 1 and 3 h
8–12 g/kg/d for workouts of more than 4–5 h of moderate-high intensity
During competition as well as during high-intensity training, a high intake of CHO between 3 and 4 h before the beginning of the exercise is convenient, in order to complete glycogen levels [14]. In case of CHO overload, the recommendation ranges from 200 g CHO to 300 g CHO of moderate glycemic index. The intake should be light, easily digestible, and low in fat, protein, and fiber, in order not to decrease glycemia. Also, an intake of 1–4 g/kg of CHO between the previous 1 and 4 h would be recommended. However, some athletes should be careful with the intake of simple CHOs in the hour before the competition, which can cause a reactive hypoglycemia that affects the SP [18].
\nThe type of exercise, length, and provisioning are determinant factors for the physical exercise. Depending on all the variables, the nutritional strategies will be adapted to the athlete as personalized as possible. To summarize, the recommendations of CHO during the exercise are [19, 20]:
In an exercise of less than 30 min, CHO intake is not necessary.
In exercise lasting 45–75 min, it seems that the intake of CHOs is not necessary and it would be enough to perform mouth rinses. However, ingesting this liquid can promote hydration.
In exercises lasting 1–2 h, the intake of 30 g/h seems to be sufficient, increasing CHO intake up to 60 g/h in case of more delayed sports.
In exercises lasting more than 2.5 h, the intake of CHO should be 90 g/h. High CHO amounts can cause digestive problems; therefore, a previous intestine training is determinant to tolerate such CHO intake.
The rate of glucose oxidation is estimated at 60 g/h. Therefore, the CHO composition must be formed by a combination of CHOs that use different transporters and increase the oxidation rate, such as maltodextrin or sucrose, among others [20]. Consuming 90 g CHOs/h can cause gastrointestinal problems in sports such as continuous running. These gastrointestinal problems may be due to the redistribution of blood flow to the muscles during exercise. Therefore, strategies for bowel training have been proposed to increase the rate of gastric emptying as well as reduce possible discomfort [21]. When it is proposed to reach recommendations, it seems beneficial to alternate different types of drinks, gels, or bars, so that the taste is not monotonous.
\nThe reposition of CHO is determinant in approaching the following training or competitive sessions. After the completion of physical activity, it is vitally important to replenish CHO stores after the training and competition sessions. These replacements of CHO levels can be approached by different methods, depending on the closeness and intensity of the next sporting event. It will be necessary to rehydrate and to ensure glycogen recovery as well as muscle tissue. The optimum approach is a recovery of 150% of BW lost and a CHO intake between 1 and 2 g/kg/h during the following 6 h after exercise. Moreover, it is advisable to take advantage of the first 2 h afterward where the glycogen resynthesis rate is maximum [14, 22].
\nThe contribution of 1 g/kg BW of CHO after the first hour post-exercise has anticatabolic effect, increases insulin secretion, and increases muscle protein synthesis. Moreover, the addition of protein may also increase the glycogen resynthesis, so a less aggressive pattern can be reached by combining a consumption of 0.8 g kg BW/h of CHO together with protein intake of 0.2–0.4 g/kg BW/h [19].
\nThe appropriate intake of CHO before, during and, after exercise ensures a satisfactory energy intake to face both training and competitions. Most CHOs are found in cereals, fruits, legumes, and vegetables and can be found in smaller quantities in dairy products, unless they could have added sugars. Given the importance of CHO, it is considered essential that athletes ingest enough CHO complexes during the course of the day, leaving simple CHOs during and after exercise [2].
\nHowever, in some circumstances in which physiological adaptations to training are the target, different strategies can be handled to those previously mentioned. For example, training with low availability of glycogen induces mitochondrial biogenesis (increase in the number of mitochondria) and thereby enhances lipid oxidation [23]. This strategy can make the athlete more profitable metabolically, allowing a saving of glycogen reserves during exercise and thereby delaying the onset of fatigue. Another purpose of this strategy can be to accustom the athlete to know the feeling of emptiness that can have at the end of a competition and know in advance how to deal with it [24].
\nBecause a reduction in the availability of CHO will affect the quality of the training, these strategies should be carried out with extreme caution and under the supervision of nutritionist and coach. The performance of training under low availability of CHO will be done during low-intensity sessions due to the perception of effort is greater, the immune system can be affected, and the athlete is at greater risk of injury [24].
\nThe proteins are composed of amino acid (AA) chains. There are 20 types of AA, divide into nonessential AAs (can be synthetized by the organism) and essential AAs (must be contributed by the diet) [2]. Within the essential AAs, there are three types of AAs called branched (leucine, valine, and isoleucine). Among them, leucine stands out as a stimulator of the mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) pathway, which is related to protein synthesis and hypertrophy [25].
\nAlthough proteins can contribute between 5 and 10% to the total energy used during physical activity, they are not considered as energy source. Proteins constitute the base of muscle tissue and of the immune system and are the major component of muscle enzymes and play a large role in SP [14].
\nRegarding sedentary population, the estimated consumption rate is 0.8 g/kg BW/day. In the athlete population, these requirements are increased to repair muscle damage caused by exercise, enhance metabolic adaptations to training, and avoid possible muscle catabolism [2]. The focus of protein consumption is on estimating an adequate protein intake for each given moment [1].
\nThe current recommendations for athlete population range between 1.2 and 2.0 g/kg BW/day depending on the type of sports performed [1]. Moreover, higher amounts may be reached at exceptional times such as injurious period, high-intensity training, or weight loss plans with caloric restriction. The purpose of this increase is to maintain maximum muscle mass integrity [26].
\nAlthough the most important factor in terms of protein consumption is the overall consumption throughout the day, it may be advisable to divide the protein intake into several intakes. For example, four doses of 0.4 g/kg BW ensuring a total of 1.6 g/kg BW a day [25]. Likewise, it is recommended to ensure a contribution of 3 g of leucine every meal [27]. The optimal timing seems to adjust the intake depending on the moment, type of training, as well as availability of the rest of nutrients and energy. It is important to have an adequate energy and CHO consumption, so that dietary amino acid are used for protein synthesis and not oxidized to obtain energy [28].
\nProtein-rich diets are associated with increased risk of dehydration due to elimination of nitrogenous waste products, an increased cardiovascular disease risk due to the association of fat with protein products, or a shift of CHO [2]. However, even at high doses, no negative effects on renal function have been reported in healthy subjects.
\nRegarding timing of protein intake along with exercise, it seems that the most optimal time is the period after exercise. Better doses ranged between 0.25 and 0.3 g/protein/kg BW (approximately 15–25 g protein) [1]. However, high protein intake is discouraged close to physical exercise, due to possible digestive problems as a result of its long time of gastric emptying. However, in very long duration exercise, there is not such limitation.
\nIn order to stimulate muscle protein synthesis, the intake of 30–40 g of casein is beneficial prior to going to bed, promoting nocturnal recovery due to its slow digestion [29].
\nTo choose protein sources, it is important that animal proteins may be of greater interest. In fact, animal proteins are considered as a complete protein due to the presence of all essential AAs [30].
\nThe main protein sources are lean meat products, fish, eggs, dairy products, and legumes that provide vegetable protein and reduce animal consumption.
\nThe use of protein supplements does not seem to be necessary because protein requirements are usually reached with diet in Western population. However, population that may find it difficult to reach such recommendations should be monitored. These groups includes: vegetarian athletes, young athletes in the growth phase, and athletes who restrict their diet due to religious or cultural reason. can be included [2]. If protein supplementation is chosen, the best option is whey protein for its high content on AAs and leucine content.
\nAlong with the CHO, lipids are major energy substrates during exercise [27]. The difference is that fats are not as profitable per unit of time as CHO and high fat consumption is not associated with improvements in SP [31].
\nLipid consumption is important for both energy intake and essential nutrients such as fat-soluble vitamins A, D, E, and K. Both quantity and quality of fats are determinant in the diet. The quality is often referred by its content on inflammatory fatty acids [2].
\nThe recommendation regarding fat consumption in athletes is similar to that of the general population. It is advisable not to make restrictive consumption of fat, as it can lead to deficit of nutrients such as fat-soluble vitamins and omega-3 fatty acids [1].
\nFatty acid requirements, according to the American College of Sports Medicine (ACSM), are 20–35% of the total kcal of the diet, where 7–10% should correspond to saturated fatty acids, 10% to polyunsaturated fatty acids, and 10–15% to monounsaturated fatty acids [32].
\nAdequate intake of omega-3 fatty acids should be ensured due to its anti-inflammatory effects, improvements in the organism’s coagulation, or increase in omega-3/omega-6 ratio [33].
\nIn particular, food as avocado or olive oil is recommended, due to their high content on monounsaturated fatty acids, which have less susceptible to oxidation.
\nIt is recommended to reduce the consumption of fatty meats, substituting them for lean meats, fish, and legumes. It is also advisable to eliminate the consumption of processed products such as sausages [2].
\nAn excess of polyunsaturated fatty acids carries a risk of lipid peroxidation, so a joint intake with vitamin E is recommend. Moreover, the ratio omega-3/omega-6 series should be greater as possible, because of the greater pro-inflammatory character of omega-6. The recommendations regarding the omega-6/omega-3 range oscillate between 2 and 4/1 in favor of the omega-6, something that is far from the inflammatory level that this entails [33]. In order to reduce the omega-6/omega-3 ratio, it is advisable to reduce consumption of meats and increase consumption of blue fish such as sardines, salmon, tuna, anchovy, and mackerel.
\nDuring exercise, increments of energy requirements are associated to larger production of metabolic heat [34]. Human organism dissipates that extra heat mainly by the mechanism of evaporation, which ultimately induces dehydration [35, 36].
\nOne of the greatest limitations of SP is dehydration. It is estimated that each kg of BW lost during exercise corresponds to 1 L of sweat [35]. The sensitivity to dehydration is personal, but generally no losses greater than 2% of the BW are recommended in order not to compromise the SP [37]. In fact, 1% of BW lost leads to SP decrease by 10%. Some authors have raised the possibility of training dehydration, but there is some controversy about it [38, 39].
\nThe consumption of water is the only method to prevent dehydration and will be essential before, during, and after exercise. However, a large number of athletes usually begin the exercise in a state of hypohydration [40]. Therefore, it is necessary to instruct the athlete to acquire correct hydration habits according to the type of sports, so that the SP is affected as little as possible [12].
\nLosses of electrolytes, especially sodium, occur along with water losses. It has been seen that well-trained athletes “sweat more but swear better,” that is, they sweat more water, but the loss of electrolytes is lower [41]. Recent studies have compared both the rate of sweating and the concentration of sodium in tattooed people versus non-tattooed people, concluding that the most tattooed skin presented lower sweating rate and higher sodium concentration [42].
\nIt seems interesting to perform a sweat test to athletes, in order to know their rate of sweating (liters/hour). To accomplish it, weighing the athlete before and after the exercise session is enough. This data reveals the amount of sweat that is lost at the time, so it can serve to adjust the athlete’s water intake (Figure 1). [43]. In general, the rate of sweating is usually greater than that of gastric emptying. However athletes can be trained to increase gastric emptying during workouts and thereby reduce dehydration as possible [21]. In conditions of higher temperature and humidity, this rate of sweating will rise higher. Another simpler way to determine the state of hydration in athletes is controlling the color of urine (darker colors are associated with enhanced dehydration states) [2].
\nHow to calculate sweat rate? [43].
Wherein some cases, athletes must acclimatize to different temperatures they accustomed. It has been reported that among all factors, the most important factor is the previous state of hydration.
\nIn healthy non-athlete population, the sensation of thirst is an ancestral mechanism that informs of the need to ingest liquid. However, in children, elderly people, and athletes, this mechanism is altered and liquid should be ingested before presenting thirst sensation. In the case of athletes, thirst appears when there is a deficit of 2% dehydration [27]. However, special care should be taken to amateur athletes, who increase their water intake above their needs, which can suffer dilutional hyponatremia “leading to serious problems and even lead to death” [44].
\nRegarding the drink to be used for sports, it is advisable to use replacement drinks instead of water, due to the CHO and sodium content. Both salts and CHO improve intestinal transport, which facilitates the arrival of fluid in the blood. Prepositional beverages should present an isotonic composition, with the following characteristics [12]:
80–35 kcal
At least 75% of the kcal should be high glycemic index CHO
No more than 90 g CHO/liter
460–1150 mg sodium/liter
Osmolality 200–330 mOsm/kg of water
As commented before, it is advisable to use drink with different CHOs as glucose, sucrose, and maltodextrinas, in order to facilitate the absorption of liquid due to the use of different intestinal transporters. Moreover, the fructose content should not be very high, due to quantities between 20 and 30% can cause intestinal problems [22].
\nThe hydration guidelines indicated for performing physical exercise are [12, 14]:
Ingest between 400 and 600 ml of water along the 4 h before the start of the exercise.
Just at the beginning of the activity, ingest 200–400 ml of water with CHO (5–8%).
During the exercise, ingest 100–200 ml of water every 15–20 min.
After physical activity consume 150% of the BW lost in the 6 h after.
In low-intensity training and short-duration, the intake of water alone is sufficient
The ideal temperature of drinks oscillates between 15 and 21°C
The taste should be pleasant to the palate of the athlete.
In a situation where the environment is very hot and has high humidity, the recommendations of intake of liquid and sodium will be higher [22]. A good strategy can be to make salted snacks in the hours before the exercise or add more salt content to the meals before and after the exercise. Such increase of sodium has a double purpose, on the one hand to increase the intake of liquid through thirst and on the other to favor the retention of that liquid in the organism.
\nFinally, alcohol consumption is discouraged in both athletes and non-athletes. However, there seems to be a high consumption of this substance in team sports and greater consumption in men than women [45]. Among the harmful effects of alcohol consumption, the following can be highlighted: reduction of SP due to decrease in strength, power, speed, and resistance; diuretic effect that affects hydration [46]; diminution of sleep quality, mood, and immune system [47]; elevation of cortisol concentration; and reduction of muscle synthesis up to 24% even when consumed right at the end of the exercise [48].
\nFirst, the effect of exercise between insulin-dependent (type 1) and insulin-dependent (type 2) diabetes should be differentiated. In type 2, you do the exercise to improve insulin resistance, while in type 1, you should adjust and modify the amount of insulin administered, along with the CHO intake.
\nPhysical exercise is one of the most difficult activities to adapt to diabetes, due to the increase in the frequency of hypoglycemia. People with diabetes who perform physical activity on a regular basis have less need for insulin, but this does not ensure adequate glycemic control. The blood glucose value is of multifactorial origin, and one should take into account the CHO intake and type of sports performed as well as adjust the dose of insulin used [49].
\nIn order to avoid hypoglycemia, during the exercise the dose of insulin will be reduced but in no case will be completely eliminated, because the lack of insulin prevents the entry of a sufficient amount of glucose into the cells for obtaining energy. A greater use of fats as fuel can generate an accumulation of ketone bodies and cause ketoacidosis. In the presence of glucose values (>250 mg/dL), ketone levels should be checked, and if elevated (>0.5 mmol/l), postpone the activity [49].
\nThe type of exercise performed by the athlete should be taken into account, since aerobic exercise increases the risk of hypoglycemia during and after exercise, while anaerobes cause hyperglycemia due to counterregulatory hormones (glucagon, cortisol, and catecholamines) [49].
\nPhysical exercise has some ability to introduce glucose into the muscle cell without the need for insulin action. This effect can occur during the 48 h after exercise, so there is a certain risk of suffering hypoglycemia in that period depending on the sports performed. This is due to the fact that during the physical exercise, the reserves of the muscle and liver glycogen have been emptied. Once the exercise is finished and after the intake of CHO, the glucose will be destined to replace the glycogen reserves instead of the blood, which can cause hypoglycemia, so that the high blood glucose value after a type of anaerobic exercise can be deceptive. Therefore, higher consumption of CHO or decreased insulin dose can prevent such hypoglycemia [49].
\nAn ergonomic aid is a product that contains a nutrient or a group of nutrients that improve the SP without taking into account the harmful effects in athletes, while a supplement is a nutritional aid to complete the diet associated with the practice of physical exercise [50].
\nWhen an athlete seeks to improve in the SP, his ability to tolerate intense workouts and hard competitions is crucial to avoid falling into injury or chronic fatigue. To achieve this purpose, an adequate supply of nutrients is essential. However, many times this does not happen, and the use of dietary supplements is resorted to [50].
\nThese supplements must be prescribed individually according to the needs of each person (sex, age, fitness, intensity and duration of the exercise, season, etc.), in order to maintain both the state of health and the improvement of the SP. Dietary supplements must offer maximum possible safety and have a degree of scientific evidence to support their effect [50].
\nCurrently between 40 and 70% of athletes make use of supplements without previously analyzing if necessary. In addition, a large number of sports supplements have not shown empirical evidence to improve SP. Likewise, there is a certain legal vacuum with the labeling of these substances, where 80% of these products do not contain the quantities declared on the label. In addition, 10–15% of these contain prohibited substances, and this can generate a high risk of committing an offense involuntarily by the athlete [51].
\nAccording to the Australian Institute of Sport, supplements are classified into four groups, based on effectiveness and safety [52]:
Group A: based on the evidence. Recommended for athletes.
Useful and timely source of energy or nutrients in the diet of athlete
Scientifically proven their evidence for the improvement of the SP, when they are used with a protocol and specific situation
In this group we can find:
Food for athletes (gels, bars, electrolytes, isotonic drinks, maltodextrins, whey protein)
Medical supplements (vitamin D, probiotics, iron/calcium supplements)
Substances to improve SP (creatine monohydrate, caffeine, beta-alanine, bicarbonate, beet juice)
Group B: more research deserved and advised under research or monitoring protocol.
Some benefit in non-athlete population or have data that suggest possible benefit of SP.
Of particular interest to athletes and coaches.
In this group we can find (quercetin, HMB, glutamine, BCCA, CLA, carnitine).
Group C: few tests of beneficial effect are not provided to athletes.
Not proven improvement RD despite its widespread use.
Very little or no benefit, and sometimes they even affect the RD in a negative way.
In this group supplements of group A and B may be included when used without an individualized protocol and without a basis in scientific evidence.
Group D: should not be used by athletes.
Are prohibited or have risk of contamination with doping or positive substance by drug
In this group we can find glycerol, ephedrine, sibutramine, and tribulus terrestris.
\nDespite all this information, many athletes believe that supplements are the basis of the athlete’s diet and believe that without that supplement, they will not reach their maximum level. This belief is one of the biggest mistakes in the world of sports nutrition, where the basic diet that is the true pillar on which sports nutrition is based is neglected.
\nThe basis of sports nutrition is a varied diet and individually tailored to the requirements and appetency of each athlete. The athlete should be instructed about the importance of diet, called “invisible training,” which is not only important on competition day. Prior to establishing nutritional guidelines, it is necessary to know and adapt the BC of the athlete in the different periods of the season and make revisions through the sum of six skinfolds.
\nIt is necessary to know some physiology to know the different metabolic pathways that interact during the exercise. In this way depending on the type of sports performed, duration and intensity adapt dietary intake at expense. Macronutrient requirements will be established based on g/kg/BW. With respect to CHOs, recommendations vary between 3 and 12 g/kg/BW to avoid compromising the SP, and protein consumption can vary between 1.2 and 2.0 g/kg/BW, with the total daily intake being more important than the number of intakes. Regarding to fatty acids, quality will prevail, improving the inflammatory profile with an increase in the consumption of omega-3 compared to omega-6.
\nIt is essential to maintain a state of hydration before, during, and after exercise to avoid compromising SP, so it is necessary to instruct the athlete with proper hydration guidelines. It is advisable to train the digestive system during workouts, both for hydration and testing different CHOs doses. It is important not to try new patterns on the day of competition.
\n\n sports performance body composition body mass index dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry bioelectrical impedance analysis International Society for the Advancement of Kinanthropometry carbohydrates basal metabolic rate body weight amino acid mammalian target of rapamycin American College of Sports Medicine
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\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
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\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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