Chronology table of maxillary permanent central incisor.
\r\n\t
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Mammalian dentition is characterized by heterodonty, in which both the upper and lower teeth are differentiated morphologically into four types: flat, chisel-shaped incisors, conical canines, bicuspid premolars and multicuspid molars in the mesiodistal direction [2]. The dental formula for the permanent dentition in human beings consists of two incisors, a canine, two premolars and three molars in each half of the jaw [3]. There are four incisors per arch, two per quadrant. The first or the central incisor is next to the midline. The second or the lateral incisor is distal to central [4]. The importance of the recognition of morphological and anatomical-functional characteristics of teeth, seeking adaptation to individual conditions, has been acknowledged [5].
The word incisor is derived from the Latin word incidere, “to cut.”
They are the front teeth existing in most heterodont mammals.
They are located in the premaxilla above and the mandible below.
Maxillary incisors exist in the premaxilla; mandibular incisors are the teeth that occlude with them.
They are eight in number; four maxillary and four mandibular, two on each side of the middle line, one central and one lateral.
The maxillary and mandibular central incisors are the first teeth centralized in both sides of the midline, with the mesial of each one is on contact with the mesial surface of the other.
In some individuals, the two maxillary central incisors are separated by a space called diastema.
The maxillary and mandibular lateral incisors are the teeth located distally from either maxillary or mandibular central incisors and mesially from either maxillary or mandibular canines.
The maxillary central is larger in all dimensions than the maxillary lateral, but the reverse is the true for the mandibular central and lateral.
The mesiodistal dimension is greater than the labiopalatal dimension in the maxillary incisors, while the labiolingual dimension is greater than the mesiodistal dimension in mandibular incisors.
They developed from four lobes, three labially and one lingually (palatally), the lingual (palatal) lobe being represented by the cingulum. Each labial lobe of the incisor terminates incisally in rounded eminence known as mamelon.
Unworn, newly erupted incisors have three small mamelons forming the incisal ridge. These mamelons are worn down with use to flat edge.
All incisors except the mandibular central incisor have rounded distoincisal angle compared to the mesioincisal angle as the mandibular central incisor has almost symmetrical anatomy.
The geometric outlines of the labial and lingual (palatal) surfaces are trapezoid while those for the proximal surfaces are triangular in shapes.
In some instances, they have vertical mesial and distal developmental depressions on the root surfaces to prevent tooth rotation and provide tooth anchorage.
The incisal tip from the proximal aspects is on one line with the root apices (root axis) in maxillary incisors, while there is a lingual tilting in mandibular incisors as the incisal tip is lingually positioned in relation to the root apices.
Maxillary incisors overlap the mandibular incisors, vertically and horizontally producing what is called overjet and overbite.
The mesial surfaces of the maxillary and mandibular central incisors are on one line at the median plane. With the exception of mandibular central incisor, each incisor occludes with two antagonists from the opposite arch.
They have lingual (palatal) convergence as the mesiodistal dimension of the lingual (palatal) surface less than the labial one.
The eruption date of the incisors ranges from 6 to 9 years. The specific sequence within this range is centrals preceding laterals, and mandibular incisors precede maxillary incisors.
They have only one root. The root canal systems of these single-rooted teeth often have three pulp horns and a single root canal. Over 40% of the mandibular incisors have two canals, but only just over 1% has two separate foramina.
The socket border of the maxillary central incisor is regular and rounded; its interior is evenly cone-shaped, accommodating the shape of the conical root. The upper later incisor socket is smaller in cross section but deeper than the socket of the upper central incisor. Meanwhile, the socket of mandibular central is flattened on its mesial surface and is somewhat concave distally to accommodate the developmental depression on the root. The socket of mandibular lateral is similar to that of central incisor with two variations; the socket is larger and deeper.
Anterior superior dental branch that arises from the infraorbital artery supplies maxillary incisors. Incisive branch of the inferior dental artery supplies the mandibular incisors. The infraorbital artery and inferior dental artery are the branches of the maxillary artery which is a terminal branch from the external carotid artery.
Anterior superior dental nerve originates from the infraorbital nerve. A branch from the maxillary nerve supplies the maxillary incisors, while the incisive nerve originates from the inferior dental nerve and a branch of the mandibular nerve supplies the mandibular incisors. The maxillary and mandibular nerves are the second and third divisions of the trigeminal nerve.
The venous drainage for maxillary incisors is to the anterior superior dental vein, while that for mandibular incisors is to the inferior dental vein. The anterior superior and the inferior dental veins drain to the maxillary vein, to the retromandibular vein and finally to the external jugular vein.
The maxillary and mandibular incisors drain the lymph into submental and upper deep cervical lymph nodes.
The major function of the incisors is biting, shearing or cutting food material during mastication by their incisal ridges or edges. They play important roles in speech and aesthetic.
The mandibular incisors differ from the maxillary ones in the followings:
Mandibular incisors are smaller than maxillary incisors in all dimensions.
They have smaller mesiodistal dimension than any other teeth.
Their crowns labially are fan-shaped.
The mesiolabial and distolabial developmental grooves are less prominent in mandibular incisors.
Mandibular incisors have less developed lingual anatomy.
Lingual pit and fissure are less common in mandibular incisors compared to maxillary ones.
Their contact areas are near the incisal ridges mesially and distally.
Attrition occurs on the incisal ridge, labially and not lingually as the maxillary incisors.
Their roots are flattened mesiodistally and are longer in proportion to the crown. The roots are frequently grooved on the mesial and distal surfaces with distal groove being more marked.
This is the most noticeable tooth in the mouth. The general crown size exceeds that of any other incisor in either arch. The mesiodistal crown dimension is the greatest of any anterior tooth. The mesial curvature of cervical line toward the incisal is the greatest of any tooth. The incisal ridge is centralized labiopalatally (see Figure 1).
Diagram showing the labial, palatal, mesial, distal and incisal aspects of the maxillary permanent central incisor.
The maxillary central incisors are the two teeth which are adjacent to the midline in the maxillary arch. They share a mesial contact with each other and have a distal contact with the lateral incisors.
The main function is biting, cutting, incising and shearing the food materials. They also play an important role in the aesthetic and phonetic functions of the human teeth.
It developed from four lobes, three labially and one palatally, the palatal lobe being represented by the cingulum. Each labial lobe of the incisor terminates incisally in rounded eminence known as mamelon [6] (Table 1). The mesiodistal and labiopalatal measurements for maxillary permanent central incisor (mm) are shown in Table 2.
Appearance of dental organ | 5 months intrauterine life (I.U.L.) |
---|---|
Beginning of calcification | 3–4 months |
Crown completed | 4–5 years |
Eruption | 7–8 years |
Root completed | 10 years |
Chronology table of maxillary permanent central incisor.
Crown length | Root length | MD at contact area | MD at cervical line | LP at crest of curvature | LP at cervical line | Curvature of CL | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | D | ||||||
10.5 | 13.0 | 8.5 | 7.0 | 7.0 | 6.0 | 3.5 | 2.5 |
Measurements in millimeter of maxillary permanent central incisor.
Labial aspect of maxillary permanent central incisor.
It is trapezoidal in shape with the shortest uneven side toward the cervix and the longest one toward the incisal ridge.
Cervical line: it is line that demarcates the anatomical crown and the anatomical root. This line is a semicircle and convex root wise. It is found at the center of the tooth aspect and closer to the apex of the root.
Mesial outline: is straight or slightly convex from the cervical line to the mesial contact area (the point furthest away from the central axis of the tooth).
Distal outline: more convex than the mesial outline.
Incisal outline: after the mamelons are worn away, the incisal edge of the maxillary central incisor is straight mesiodistally.
Contact areas: the mesial contact is in the incisal third near the mesioincisal angle, while the distal contact is more cervically positioned at the junction between the incisal and middle thirds.
Angles: the distoincisal angle is not as sharp as the mesioincisal angle.
Root: from this aspect, the root has a cone shape with blunt apex. Although there is a numerous variation between populations, the length of the root is usually longer than the length of the crown by about 3 mm.
The labial surface is generally convex in mesiodistal and incisocervical dimensions. The convexity is normally greatest in the cervical third (cervical ridge) and tends to be more closely to approach flatness toward the incisal third. The mesiolabial and distolabial developmental grooves that denote the union of the three labial lobes are straight, shallow depressions, which extend from the incisal edge toward the cervical, and fade out, in the middle third. Faint imbrication curved lines (preikymata), which roughly parallel the cementoenamel junction in the cervical third, are always present in the newly erupted incisors (see Figure 2).
Palatal aspect of maxillary permanent central incisor.
It is trapezoidal in shape with the smallest uneven side toward the cervix.
Cervical line: the cervical outline has a slightly greater depth of curvature apically than on the labial surface and is asymmetrical, with its area of maximum curvature offset to the distal.
Mesial outline: is similar to its labial counterpart.
Distal outline: is similar to its labial counterpart.
Incisal outline: the incisal margin is also similar to that of the labial aspect.
Contact areas: are similar in position to their labial counterparts.
Angles: are similar to their labial counterparts.
Root: the root tapers more than the crown toward the palatal side.
The palatal side of the maxillary central incisor has a smooth rounded convexity, called cingulum near the cervical line, and has a large concavity, called the palatal fossa. Along the mesial and distal sides of the palatal fossa are little elevated linear prominences called marginal ridges. The height of the palatoincisal ridge is raised as well to the height of the marginal ridges. The borders of the palatal fossa are the palatoincisal ridge, incisally; the mesial marginal ridge, mesially; the distal marginal ridge, distally; and the cingulum, cervically. Occasionally, developmental linear grooves are found over the cingulum that extended into the palatal fossa. The mesiodistal dimension of the palatal side is less than of the labial one, and thus, the tooth tapers toward the palatal, accommodating the shape of the dental arch. As a result, the mesial and distal sides of the tooth can be easily seen from the palatal side than the labial one (palatal convergence). Moreover, the tooth cross section at the cervix has a triangular appearance. The sides of the triangle are the labial outline, the mesial outline and the slightly shorter distal outline. On occasion, there may also be a palatal pit located between the cingulum and fossa. This palatal pit may be found near the center of the palatocervical groove, if that structure is present. The palatocervical groove and palatal pit are much more commonly found on maxillary laterals than on maxillary centrals. However, neither structure is a usual finding on the crown of any permanent incisors (see Figure 3).
Mesial aspect of maxillary permanent central incisor.
It is triangular in shape with the wide base at the cervix and narrow apex at the incisal tip.
Cervical line: curves evenly toward the incisal. It exhibits the greatest depth of curvature of any tooth surface in the mouth. The marked curvature of the cervical line also is greater in this aspect compared to the distal one.
Labial outline: convex at the cervical one-third representing the cervical ridge then becomes slightly convex to the incisal tip. The incisal tip is on one line with the root apex.
Palatal outline: convex at the cervical one-third representing cingulum then becomes concave in the middle one-third, representing the palatal fossa, and then becomes convex again to follow the palatoincisal tip. The entire outline may be described as a shallow “S.”
Incisal outline: it is usually pointed or slightly rounded in newly erupted incisors. In teeth with incisal wear, the outline is straight and slopes down from labial to palatal.
Crest of curvatures: the labial crest (the point furthest away from the central axis of the tooth) is at the cervical third near the cervical line, while the palatal one is found at the middle of the cervical one-third at the prominence of the cingulum.
Note: the incisal ridge is the projection of enamel on newly erupted teeth, which is the incisal termination of the tooth. In a proximal view, it is normally pointed or slightly rounded. After the tooth enters into occlusion, this ridge becomes blunted and flattened, resulting in a sloping, straight outline from the proximal aspect. This flattened area is termed the incisal edge (Table 4).
Appearance of dental organ | 5 months I.U.L. |
---|---|
Beginning of calcification | 10–12 months |
Crown completed | 4–5 years |
Eruption | 8–9 years |
Root completed | 11 years |
Chronology table of maxillary permanent lateral incisor.
Crown length | Root length | MD at contact area | MD at cervical line | LP at crest of curvature | LP at cervical line | Curvature of CL | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | D | ||||||
9.0 | 13.0 | 6.5 | 5.0 | 6.0 | 5.0 | 3.0 | 2.0 |
Measurements in millimeter of maxillary permanent lateral incisor.
Root: cone-shaped with a rounded blunted end, square at the cervical one-third then gradually tapered to the root apex. The labial outline is convex, while the palatal one is more convex.
The crown surface is somewhat flattened with the mesial contact located in the incisal third, near the incisal margin, and is centralized labiopalatally. It is roughly ovoid, long incisocervically and narrow labiopalatally. It is the only proximal area in the maxillary arch where mesial surface contacts mesial surface (see Figure 4).
Distal aspect of maxillary permanent central incisor.
It is triangular in shape.
Cervical line: the curvature of the cervical line is less distally than mesially.
Labial outline: similar to the labial outline of the mesial surface.
Palatal outline: similar to the palatal outline of the mesial surface.
Incisal outline: the crown appears somewhat thicker at the incisal third.
Crest of curvatures: are similar in position to their mesial counterparts.
Root: the surface of the root is convex, and does not have a depression.
The distal view describes the surface of the tooth distant from the middle line of the face. This side closely resembles the mesial one. A greater part of the tooth surface is seen from this aspect compared to the mesial one as the labial surface of the crown steeped palatally, accommodating the horseshoe shape of the dental arch. Because it contacts the lateral incisor, which is a smaller tooth, the distal contact area is accordingly smaller in size. Its shape is still ovoid, but it is more nearly round than on the mesial. It is also located farther cervically, still in the incisal third, but very near the junction of the incisal and middle thirds (see Figure 5).
Incisal aspect of maxillary permanent central incisor.
The incisal view of this tooth considers the portion of the tooth visible from the side where the incisal ridge is located. From this angle, only the crown of the tooth is visible, and overall, the tooth looks bilateral. The outlines are roughly triangular with the labial surface appears broad and flat, and the palatal surface tapers toward the cingulum. The distance between the mesioincisal angles to the cingulum is slightly longer than the distance between the distoincisal angles to the cingulum. The incisal edge is centrally situated in a labiopalatal direction. The palatal fossa is seen as broad concavity between the two marginal ridges and incisal to the cingulum [7, 8] (see Figure 6).
Pulp cavity for the mesiodistal, labiopalatal, midroot and cervical sections of maxillary permanent central incisor.
The mesiodistal measurement of the pulp chamber is wider compared to the labiopalatal one. The outlines of the pulp cavity follow the general shape of the tooth. If the mamelons are well developed, three definite pulp horns are found at the incisal portion of the tooth. The pulp cavity tapers gradually and evenly along its whole length until the apical constriction of the root is reached. The apical foramen may be located slightly off center to the root tip.
Appearance of dental organ | 5 months I.U.L. |
---|---|
Beginning of calcification | 3–4 months |
Crown completed | 4–5 years |
Eruption | 6–7 years |
Root completed | 9 years |
Chronology table of mandibular permanent central incisor.
The pulp cavity follows the general outline of the crown and root. The pulp chamber is very narrow in the incisal region. Cervically, the pulp chamber widens to its largest labiopalatal width. Then, the root canal tapers gradually and evenly ending in a constriction at the root tip. The apical foramen may be located a little bit to the palatal or labial aspect of the root, near the very tip of the root.
At the cervical level, the pulp cavity mimics the external shape of the tooth. It is the widest in dimension compared to the other cross sections and centralized within the root dentin.
In newly erupted teeth, the outline of the pulp chamber is roughly triangular in shape with the base of this triangle at the labial surface. As the amount of physiologic secondary dentin increases, the pulp cavity becomes more rounded in shape. The root and pulp canal tend to be rounder at midroot level than at the cervical level. The anatomy at the midroot level is essentially the same as that found at the cervical level, just smaller in all dimensions [9] (see Figure 7).
The first socket right or left of the median line is that of the maxillary central incisor. The periphery of the socket often dips down palatally, labially, mesially and distally to accommodate the shape of the root. The central incisor socket is flattened on its mesial surface and is usually somewhat concave distally [10].
Like all upper front teeth and when the mouth is closed, the central incisors are ordinarily positioned labially to the mandibular ones. In some instances, the upper front teeth are positioned palatally to the lower ones and in such case the condition is referred as anterior crossbite. When the teeth are biting down, the upper central incisors occlude with the lower central and lateral incisors. The contact point of the lower teeth is in the palatal fossa of the upper central incisor about 2 mm cervically from the incisal edge. The anterior open bite occurs when the upper and lower incisors do not contact even when the mouth is fully closed. This incorrect arrangement of teeth may result from some habits, such as thumb sucking. On the other hand, the deep bite occurs when the contact of the lower incisors to the upper incisors is near or completely on the gingiva. When upper anterior teeth are located too far in front of the lower teeth, this is termed as large overjet [11].
Considered to be a common variation in Asian populations, shovel-shaped incisors derive their name from the prominent marginal ridges and the deeper palatal fossa of the teeth. When seen from palatal view, the tooth is said to resemble a shovel.
When space exists between maxillary central incisors, the condition is referred to as a diastema. One frequent cause of the space is the presence of a large labial frenum from the upper lip extending near the teeth.
The maxillary incisors are the most likely teeth to have a talon cusp, which is an extra cusp on the lingual surface.
Also, the permanent maxillary incisors are the most likely teeth to have a dilacerations, which is a sharp curve on a tooth.
When the root is exceptionally short, in conjunction with an abnormal contour of the crown, this anomalous condition is referred to as dwarfed root, and the lack of root support may endanger the tooth\'s longevity in the mouth.
In the cases affected by congenital syphilis, a notch forms on the incisal edges of all incisors. When such notch is found, the teeth are described as screwdriver-shaped and they are called Hutchinson\'s incisors.
The alveolar bone between the roots of the two central incisors is occasionally the site of supernumerary teeth or extra teeth, known as mesiodens [1].
The general shape is similar to maxillary central incisor except that they are shorter and narrower. The mesiodistal crown dimension is the smallest of any maxillary teeth. The mesioincisal and distoincisal angles are more rounded than the corresponding angles of maxillary central incisor. On the palatal aspect, the marginal ridges and cingulum are more prominent. It has the most cervically located contact area of any incisor. Next to third molars, maxillary lateral incisors are the teeth that show most variation in crown size, shape and form (see Figure 8).
Diagram showing the labial, palatal, mesial, distal and incisal aspects of the maxillary permanent lateral incisor.
The maxillary lateral incisor is the tooth located distally from both maxillary central incisors and mesially from both maxillary canines.
Like all the incisors, their function is for shearing or cutting food material during mastication.
It is developed from four lobes, three labially and one palatally, the palatal lobe being represented by the cingulum. Each labial lobe of the incisor terminates incisally in rounded eminence known as mamelon. Mamelons are better seen on the central incisors as compared to the lateral incisors [6] (Table 3). The mesiodistal and labiopalatal measurements for maxillary permanent lateral incisor (mm) are shown in Table 4.
It is trapezoidal in shape with the shortest uneven side toward the cervix.
Cervical line: curves in a regular arc apically, with only slightly less depth than in the central incisor.
Mesial outline: this margin resembles that of the central incisor, but usually is more convex and has a more rounded mesioincisal angle. The contact area is located farther cervically in the incisal third, quite near its junction with the middle third.
Distal outline: the distal margin is always more rounded than the distal outline of the central incisor, with a more cervically located contact area. The distoincisal angle is noticeably more rounded than its central incisor counterpart, and also more rounded than its own mesioincisal angle.
Incisal outline: the incisal outline resembles the central incisor, but it is not so straight, partially because of the greater rounding of the two incisal angles. It exhibits the greatest rounding of any incisor. The number and prominence of mamelons is variable, but two are the most common finding.
Contact areas: the mesial contact at the junction between middle and incisal on-third ewhile the distal contact at the center of the middle third.
Angles: the distoincisal angle being more rounded than the mesioincisal angle.
Root: the root tapers toward the pointed apex. The root apex is inclined distal to midline. It is narrow mesiodistally than that of maxillary central and usually as long as or somewhat longer than that of the central.
The labial surface itself is more convex both mesiodistally and incisocervically than the maxillary central. Labial developmental grooves, and imbrication lines are often present, similar to those of the central incisor but are less prominent. The labial height of contour is located at the cervical third (see Figure 9).
Labial aspect of maxillary permanent lateral incisor.
It is trapezoidal in shape with the smallest uneven side toward the cervix.
Cervical line: it curves toward the apical, but is offset to the distal.
Mesial outline: is similar to its labial counterpart.
Distal outline: is similar to its labial counterpart, and the distoincisal angle is much more rounded than the mesioincisal angle.
Incisal outline: is similar to the labial aspect.
Contact areas: are similar in position to their labial counterparts.
Angles: are similar in position to their labial counterparts.
Root: the root tapers more than the crown toward the palatal side.
The mesial and distal marginal ridges, as well as the cingulum, are relatively more prominent, and the palatal fossa is deeper, when compared to the same structures of the central incisor. A palatocervical groove is a more common finding in maxillary lateral incisors than in central incisors. A palatal pit, near the center of this groove, is also more common, and when present, is a potential site for caries. The palatocervical groove usually originates in the palatal pit and extends cervically, and slightly distally, onto the cingulum. It might be helpful to think of the palatocervical fissure as running in a more or less vertical direction, while the palatocervical groove extends in a roughly horizontal direction (see Figure 10).
Palatal aspect of maxillary permanent lateral incisor.
It is triangular in shape with the wide base at the cervix and narrow apex at the incisal tip.
Cervical line: exhibits less depth of curvature than it does on the mesial surface of the central incisor.
Labial outline: convex at the cervical one-third representing the cervical ridge then becomes slightly convex to the incisal tip. The incisal tip is on one line with the root apex.
Palatal outline: convex at the cervical one-third representing cingulum then becomes concave in the middle one-third, representing the palatal fossa, and then becomes convex again to follow the palatoincisal tip. The entire outline may be described as a shallow “S.”
Crest of curvatures: the labial crest is at the cervical third near the cervical line, while the palatal one is found at the middle of the cervical one-third at the prominence of the cingulum.
Incisal outline: the incisal portion is on one line with root apex.
Root: the root appears longer but narrower than that of the central.
The crown is shorter, and the labiopalatal measurement of the crown is smaller. The contact area is also similar in shape to the contact of the central incisor. It is found in the incisal third very near the junction of the incisal and middle thirds, centered labiopalatally (see Figure 11).
Mesial aspect of maxillary permanent lateral incisor.
It is triangular in shape with the wide base at the cervix and narrow apex at the incisal tip.
Cervical line: shows less curvature incisally than on the mesial surface.
Labial outline: similar to the labial outline of the mesial surface.
Palatal outline: similar to the palatal outline of the mesial surface.
Crest of curvatures: are similar in position to their mesial counterparts.
Incisal outline: rounded in newly erupted teeth and flat in worn out teeth.
Root: the distal surface of the root is slightly more convex than mesial.
The distal surface is smaller and more convex in all dimensions than the mesial surface. The contact area is shorter and not as incisally placed, when compared to the mesial contact. It is normally located at middle of the middle one-third and centered labiopalatally (see Figure 12).
Distal aspect of maxillary permanent lateral incisor.
In incisal view, this tooth resembles the central incisor to varying degrees. The tooth is narrower mesiodistally than the maxillary central incisor; however, it is nearly as thick labiopalatally. The incisal outline is more rounded labially and palatally than the central incisor. When palatal pit is present; it is located in the depth of the palatal fossa [7, 8] (see Figure 13).
Incisal aspect of maxillary permanent lateral incisor.
The pulp cavity nearly follows the external shape of the tooth. When viewed from the labial aspect of the tooth, the pulp horns appear to be blunted. The pulp chamber and root canal taper evenly and gradually toward the root apex. In the apical portion, the root often shows a significant curvature.
The anatomical feature is almost identical to that of the central incisor. Generally, the pulp cavity of the lateral incisor closely resembles the outline form of the crown and the root. The pulp projections are usually well developed and prominent. In the incisal region, the pulp chamber is narrow, and at the cervical level of the tooth it may become very wide. When the cervical enlargement of the pulp chamber is lacking, the root canal tapers slightly to the apical constriction at the root tip. Many of the apical foramina exit on the labial or palatal aspect of the root.
The cervical cross section shows the pulp chamber to be centered within the root. The root form of this tooth shows a large variation in shape. The outline form of this tooth may be triangular, oval or round. The pulp chamber generally follows the outline form of the root, but secondary dentin may narrow the canal significantly [9] (see Figure 14).
Pulp cavity for the mesiodistal, labiopalatal, midroot and cervical sections of maxillary permanent lateral incisor.
The second socket from the midline is that of the lateral incisor. It is generally conical and egg-shaped, or ovoid, with the widest portion to the labial. It is smaller on cross section, although it is often deeper than the central alveolus. Sometimes, it is curved at the upper extremity [10].
The upper lateral incisors are usually located labially to the mandibular teeth when the mouth is closed. The upper lateral incisor occludes with the distolabial half of the mandibular lateral and with the mesiolabial inclined plane of the mandibular canine [11].
The incisal portion of the cingulum may exhibit a tubercle.
Palatocervical fissure may extend all the way onto the root surface from the adjacent cingulum.
Distorted crowns and unusual root curvatures are more commonly seen than with any other incisor.
A diminutive peg-shaped crown form, which is relatively common, and is due to a lack of development of the mesial and distal portions of the crown.
Maxillary laterals sometimes are congenitally missing, that is, tooth buds do not form.
The palatal pit of the maxillary lateral may be the entrance site where enamel and dentin have become invaginated in the tooth\'s pulp cavity, due to a developmental aberrancy called dens in dente [1].
The crown dimensions are the smallest of any tooth, it has bilaterally symmetrical crown, and the line angles are the sharpest of any tooth. The proximal contact areas are at the same level. The incisal edge is lingual to labiolingual bisector. It shows the shallowest labial developmental grooves, smoothest lingual surface contour and the least developed cingulum. As the smallest tooth in the dentition, the mandibular central incisor has only one antagonist. This tooth and the maxillary third molar are the only teeth that have one antagonist (see Figure 15).
Diagram showing the labial, lingual, mesial, distal and incisal aspects of the mandibular permanent central incisor.
It occupies the position adjacent to the midline in each mandibular quadrant. They share a mesial contact area with each other, while the distal contact is with the permanent lateral incisor.
These teeth function in biting, cutting, incising and shearing, just as do their maxillary counterparts.
It developed from four lobes (three mamelons and one cingulum). Shortly after eruption, mamelons are usually worn away by attrition and the incisal edges of all incisors are straight [6] (Table 5). The mesiodistal and labiolingual measurements for mandibular permanent central incisor (mm) are shown in Table 6.
Crown length | Root length | MD at contact area | MD at cervical line | LL at crest of curvature | LL at cervical line | Curvature of CL | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | D | ||||||
9.0 | 12.5 | 5.0 | 3.5 | 6.0 | 5.3 | 3.0 | 2.0 |
Measurements in millimeter of mandibular permanent central incisor.
It is trapezoidal in shape with the shortest uneven side toward the cervix.
Cervical line: the cervical line is symmetrically curved toward the root.
Mesial outline: the mesial margin normally tapers evenly toward the cervical part in a nearly straight line.
Distal outline: the outline is straight and almost exactly like the mesial outline.
Incisal outline: In newly erupted teeth, three mamelons most always be seen. After incisal wear has obliterated the mamelons, the incisal outline is straight, and at right angles to the long axis of the tooth.
Contact areas: mesially, the height of contour is associated with the contact area in the incisal third, very close to the incisal margin. The height of contour is also in the incisal third and in the same level, distally.
Angles: the mesioincisal angle is quite sharp with a similarly sharp distoincisal angle, normally more so than any of the incisal angles of maxillary incisors.
Root: a straight single root, tapering at the apical third. The labial surface is narrow and convex. The mesial and distal outlines are straight down to the apical portion. Its apical third ends in a pointed apex, which tends to curve distally. The root appears longer compared to the crown length.
The labial surface is generally convex both mesiodistally and incisocervically, but not to the extent of the maxillary incisors, especially the maxillary lateral. However, like the maxillary incisors, the convexities are much greater in the cervical third. In fact, in some specimens the labial surface may be quite flat incisal to the height of contour. Developmental grooves and imbrication lines are not normally present. Occasionally, there are very faint grooves which only occur near the incisal margin of the labial surface (see Figure 16).
Labial aspect of mandibular permanent central incisor.
It is trapezoidal in shape with the smallest uneven side toward the cervix.
Cervical line: curves evenly toward the root, but is located farther from the incisal ridge than the labial surface counterpart.
Mesial outline: closely resembles the mesial outline of the labial aspect.
Distal outline: closely resembles the distal outline of the labial aspect.
Incisal outline: closely resembles the incisal outline of the labial aspect.
Contact areas: are similar in position to their labial counterparts.
Angles: are similar to their labial counterparts.
Root: is slightly narrower on the lingual side than on the labial side.
The crown is narrower on the lingual surface (lingual convergence). The lingual surface is relatively smooth, and its structures are generally less prominent than those of the maxillary incisors. There is usually a slight concavity, or lingual fossa, bordered by indistinct marginal ridges on the mesial and distal. There are normally no grooves, fissures or pits on the lingual surface. A cingulum is normally present, although it is not as prominent as in the maxillary incisors. The height of contour is located in the cervical third of the surface, associated with the greatest convexity of the cingulum (see Figure 17).
Lingual aspect of mandibular permanent central incisor.
It is triangular in shape with the wide base at the cervix and narrow apex at the incisal tip.
Cervical line: there is a marked, even curvature incisally of the cervical margin.
Labial outline: slopes in a straight to slightly convex line from the incisal ridge to the crest of curvature and is then convex in the remainder of the cervical third.
Lingual outline: concave in the incisal two-thirds and convex in the cingulum area, or cervical third.
Incisal outline: normally rounded, but can be straight and is located lingual to the center of the root. The profile of the incisal edge has downward inclination toward the labial, which is opposite to the lingual slope of the maxillary incisors. This is due to the wear pattern between the upper and lower incisors.
Crest of curvatures: the labial crest is at the cervical third near the cervical line while the lingual one is found at the middle of the cervical third at the prominence of the cingulum.
Root: the root outlines are nearly straight from the cervical line to the middle third and then taper to the rounded apex. The mesial surface of the root is flat with a deep longitudinal developmental depression
The mesial surface is roughly triangular, or wedge-shaped, like all other anterior teeth. Unlike the maxillary incisors, the crown appears to be slightly offset toward the lingual. The contact area is located about half way from labial to lingual, and in the incisal third, very close to the incisal edge. It has an ovoid shape, which is long incisocervically and narrow labiolingually (see Figure 18).
Mesial aspect of mandibular permanent central incisor.
It is triangular in shape.
Cervical line: curves slightly less toward the incisal.
Labial outline: similar to the labial outline of the mesial surface.
Lingual outline: similar to the lingual outline of the mesial surface.
Incisal outline: similar to the incisal outline of the mesial surface. It is located lingual to the center of the root.
Crest of curvature: are similar in position to their mesial counterparts.
Root: similar to the mesial but with a deeper longitudinal developmental depression and groove at its center.
Even the contact area has a similar location, a fact which is unique among incisors (see Figure 19).
Distal aspect of mandibular permanent central incisor.
The most notable features from the incisal aspect are the symmetry of the mesial and distal portions, and the straight incisal edge. Unlike the maxillary central, this tooth is roughly four sided, or diamond-shaped, from this aspect, and the tooth is normally wider labiolingually than mesiodistally. Because the crown is offset toward the lingual, more of the labial surface than the lingual surface is visible from this aspect. Even though the central incisor is described as symmetrical from the incisal aspect, careful scrutiny will reveal that the cingulum is very slightly offset toward the distal, an important feature when attempting to distinguish right from left mandibular central incisors [7, 8] (see Figure 20).
Incisal aspect of mandibular permanent central incisor.
The mesiodistal section of the mandibular central incisor demonstrates the narrowness of the pulp cavity. The pulp horns are usually less prominent. The canal also appears narrow, having a gentle taper from the pulp chamber to the apical constriction. The canal may exit at the apex, or mesially or distally to the apex of the root.
The mandibular central incisor is the smallest tooth in the mouth, but its labiolingual dimension is very large. This tooth usually has one canal, but two canals may be found quite frequently. The pulp chamber may be very small in size, intermediate in size or very large. In the apical 3 or 4 mm of the root, the pulp canal may taper gently to the apex or narrow abruptly. The apical foramen may exit at the root apex or on the labial aspect of the root.
The cervical cross section demonstrates the proportions of the root dimensions. The mesiodistal dimension is small, whereas the labiolingual dimension is very large, the external shape is variable; some are round, oval or elliptical. Two separate canals may be present, or a dentinal island may make it appear as though two canals are present [9] (see Figure 21).
Pulp cavity for the mesiodistal, labiolingual, midroot and cervical sections of mandibular permanent central incisor.
The central incisor socket is flattened on its mesial surface and is usually somewhat concave distally to accommodate the developmental groove on the root [10].
The labioincisal ridge of the lower central incisor strikes the palatal surface of the upper central incisor at the junction between the incisal and middle thirds. Its mesial outline is in line with the midline and the mesial outline of upper central incisor, while its distal outline is blow the junction of the mesial two-thirds and distal thirds of the upper central [11].
There is great variability in the lingual inclination of the labial surface of mandibular central incisor specimens.
Anomalies are very rare. Occasionally, a bifurcated root is found which, in mandibular incisors, has labial and lingual locations [1].
The crown of this tooth is similar to that of the mandibular central incisors, but not bilaterally symmetrical. The labial surface has more fan-shaped appearance compared to lower central incisor. The incisal ridge is straight and slopes downward toward the distal. The crown of the mandibular lateral incisor twisted distolingually slightly on its root in order to allow the incisive ridge to follow the curve of the dental arch. The cingulum is shifted to the distal (see Figure 22).
Diagram showing the labial, lingual, mesial, distal and incisal aspects of the mandibular permanent lateral incisor.
The lateral incisors contact mesially with the distal surface of the central incisors and distally with the mesial surface of the canines.
This tooth has the function of incising food as well as aesthetic.
It developed from four lobes (three mamelons and cingulum) [6] (Table 7). The mesiodistal and labiolingual measurements for mandibular permanent lateral incisor (mm) are shown in Table 8.
Appearance of dental organ | 5 months I.U.L. |
---|---|
Beginning of calcification | 3–4 months |
Crown completed | 4–5 years |
Eruption | 6–7 years |
Root completed | 9 years |
Chronology table of mandibular permanent lateral incisor.
Crown length | Root length | MD at contact area | MD at cervical line | LL at crest of curvature | LL at cervical line | Curvature of CL | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
M | D | ||||||
9.5 | 14.0 | 5.5 | 4 | 6.5 | 5.3 | 3.0 | 2.0 |
Measurements in millimeter of mandibular permanent lateral incisor.
Crown outline is trapezoidal. It has a more fan-shaped appearance from the labial aspect as the cervical portion is narrower, while the incisal portion is wider compared to the mandibular central incisor.
Cervical line: the cervical line is symmetrically curved toward the root.
Mesial outline: the mesial outline of the crown is often longer than the distal outline.
Distal outline: shorter than the mesial outline.
Incisal outline: the incisal ridge is slightly wider mesiodistally. The incisal ridge slopes downward in a distal direction.
Contact areas: the distal contact area is more cervically positioned than the mesial contact area. The mesial contact is found at the incisal third, near the incisal ridge. The distal contact is found also at the incisal third, but more cervical to the level of the mesial contact area.
Angles: the distoincisal angle of the lower lateral incisor is relatively more rounded and obtuse than the sharp mesioincisal angle of the mandibular central incisor.
Root: it is similar to that of the central incisor, but is slightly longer.
The labial face of the mandibular lateral incisor crown is smooth, with a flattened at the incisal third; the middle third is more convex, narrowing down to the convexity of the root at the cervical portion (see Figure 23).
Labial aspect of mandibular permanent lateral incisor.
Crown outline is trapezoid in shape.
Cervical line: semicircular more curved root wise compared to its labial counterpart. The curvature of cervical line is also offset distally.
Mesial outline: closely resembles the mesial outline of the labial aspect.
Distal outline: closely resembles the distal outline of the labial aspect.
Incisal outline: closely resembles the incisal outline of the labial aspect.
Contact areas: are similar in position to their labial counterparts.
Angles: are similar in position to their labial counterparts.
Root: is slightly narrower on the lingual side than on the labial side.
It has faint mesial and distal marginal ridges as well as cingulum, which are less developed. The mesial marginal ridge is longer than the distal marginal ridge. The cingulum is deviated distal to the center of the lingual surface (see Figure 24).
Lingual aspect of mandibular permanent lateral incisor.
It is triangular in shape with the wide base at the cervix and narrow apex at the incisal tip.
Cervical line: there is a marked, even curvature incisally of the cervical margin.
Labial outline: slopes in a straight to slightly convex line from the incisal ridge to the crest of curvature and is then convex in the remainder of the cervical third.
Lingual outline: concave in the incisal two-thirds and convex in the cingulum area, or cervical third.
Incisal outline: normally rounded, but can be straight and is located lingual to the center of the root.
Crest of curvatures: the labial crest is at the cervical third near the cervical line, while the lingual one is found at the middle of the cervical third at the prominence of the cingulum.
Root: the root form is similar to that of the mandibular central incisor, including the presence of developmental depression, mesially.
The mesial side of the crown is often longer than the distal side; this causes the incisal ridge, which is straight, to slope downward in a distal direction. The mesial contact area centered labiolingually and at the incisal third near the mesioincisal angle, incisocervically (see Figure 25).
Mesial aspect of mandibular permanent lateral incisor.
It is triangular in shape.
Cervical line: curves slightly less toward the incisal.
Labial outline: similar to the labial outline of the mesial surface.
Lingual outline: similar to the lingual outline of the mesial surface.
Incisal outline: normally rounded but can be straight and is located lingual to the center of the root.
Crest of curvature: is similar in position to their mesial counterparts.
Root: the root form is similar to that of the mandibular central incisor, including the presence of developmental depression, distally.
The distal surface is shorter incisocervically. The distal contact area is more cervical than the mesial one. The concavity immediately above the cervical line on the distal surface of the mandibular lateral incisor is deeper than that of the lower central incisor (see Figure 26).
Distal aspect of mandibular permanent lateral incisor.
The incisal ridge is tilted distally and lingually. The crown of the lower lateral incisor twisted distolingually slightly on its root in order to allow the incisive ridge to follow the curve of the dental arch. The cingulum is shifted to the distal. It is interesting to note that the labiolingual root axes of mandibular central and lateral incisors remain almost parallel in the alveolar process, even though the incisal ridges are not directly in line [7, 8] (see Figure 27).
Incisal aspect of mandibular permanent lateral incisor.
Similar to that of the mandibular central incisor.
Similar to that of the mandibular central incisor.
The socket of the mandibular lateral incisor is similar to that of the central incisor. It usually has the following variations; the socket is larger and deeper to accommodate a larger and longer root [10].
Labioincisal ridge contacts both maxillary central and lateral incisors at the junction of their incisal and middle thirds. The cingulum is free of contact. The mesial outline is identical with the junction of the distal and middle thirds of maxillary central. The distal outline is centered below maxillary lateral incisor [11].
Anomalies are rare, but occasionally a bifurcated root is found [1].
Great thanks to Dr Rami Rabie, a postgraduate student in Oral Biology Department, Faculty of Dentistry, Mansoura University, Egypt, and thanks for Rana Ahmed Ezzat Edris, a level 3 student at Faculty of Oral and Dental Medicine, Delta University for Science and Technology, for their valuable contributions providing the original diagrams for the different teeth aspects and different dental pulp sections.
Urban agriculture (UA) can be defined as the growing of plants and rearing of livestock within a city (intra-urban) or on the areas surrounding the cities (peri-urban agriculture), involving input provision and processing of raw materials into edible forms followed by marketing activities [1, 2].
\nThe proportion of the world’s population living in cities is increasing dramatically. It is predicted that by 2030, the worldwide population of urban dwellers will be nearly 5 billion [3], and by 2050 it may reach 9 billion [4]. The increased rate of urbanization has important economic, social, and political implications: A large number of people residing in the cities can approach toward education and employment easily; they can trust the healthcare industry and can see cultural evolution. But this rapid growth of population is often integrated with communal challenges and also climate change: cities may fail to provide the basic facilities resulting in communal riots leading to inferior and undesirable living conditions. Therefore, in order to deal with the challenges of rapid urbanization, urban agriculture is in demand nowadays.
\nThe need or importance of urban agriculture is broadly discussed with the following advantages associated with it [5].
\nToday, cities consume more than two-thirds of the world’s energy and are responsible for 70% of global CO2 emissions. Recently, UA is considered to deal with the difficult situations like climate change as it plays sufficiently in greening the metros and improving the warmer city climate while encouraging the reuse of organic wastes that reduces the urban energy footprint [2].
\nThe World Meteorological Organization (WMO) suggested that more urban farming should take place as a response to climate change and as a way to build more resilient cities.
\nUA helps cities to improve the urban environment and become more resilient by [2, 6]:
UA reduces the weakness of specific urban groups and diversifies urban food sources and income opportunities of the urban poor and forms a source of innovation and learning about new strategies/technologies for land- and water-efficient food production.
UA helps in keeping the open areas covered with greeneries that might reduce the severity of the climatic conditions. UA also makes the microclimate worth living and also forbids the construction of buildings on risky areas, and by this not only flooding, landslides, and other disasters are reduced but also urban biodiversity and living conditions are improved. Such open green spaces also help to control storm water flows by allowing water storage and increased infiltration of excess storm water [7]. In these open green spaces in and around urban areas, food production can be combined with other services to city dwellers, such as agro-tourism or park and landscape maintenance, e.g., “productive parks.”
UA produces fresh green foods that reduces the green-house gas emission and also uses limited energy in the process of getting food from the farm to the plate in industrially developed countries [8].
Productive reuse of waste water in UA helps to combat the freshwater crisis and also saves rivers, canals, and other water bodies from being polluted by the waste water. On the other hand, waste water as a source of irrigation might decrease the risk of water scarcity [9]. Use of urban waste water as a source of irrigation will help to adapt to risks of drought and flood. Urban waste water can be recycled for irrigation/fertilization of horticultural crops, i.e., floriculture and fruit crops, as well as for irrigation of forest plantations that provide wood for fuel.
UA contributes to enhance urban food security and nourishment of the poor class. Families that are involved in UA are exposed to better quality and variety of diet. They consume more herbs and greens than the others. Production of food by urban families can supply up to 20–60% of their total food consumption especially in green vegetables, medicinal and aromatic plants, eggs, and milk and meat from small animals. Involvement in UA may also cause better mitigation of diseases as it has better nutritional and medicinal properties in homegrown medicinal plants, it causes more physical exercise, and people do not have to depend on gifts and food aid which may enhance their self-esteem. UA also increases the accessibility of fresh and affordable food for other urban consumers, as most of the food produced by urban farmers is bartered or sold locally. UA also ensures food requirement during natural calamities and wars. In Sierra Leone, the residents devoted themselves in UA in order to meet their daily foods during the civil war that lasted for about 10 years. UA acts as a survival strategy for the refugees and helps them to live in a state of being worthy for honor [1, 2, 6].
\nThe world’s urban population is expected to reach 6–9 billion by 2050. It is estimated that poverty will progress from villages to the metro cities by 2030 as 60% of the Earth’s population will reside in the cities. Moreover, in most developing countries, urbanization has led to the growth of slum population which has almost doubled in the past 15 years [3]. Also this rapid urbanization in developing countries created difficulty in making sufficient employment opportunities creating very poor living conditions in the slum areas. The presence of UA can definitely meet the requirement of employment to some extent in the cities of developing countries. The effects of UA on poverty alleviation vary with the type of participants involved, the products produced, and the degree of market orientation, among other things. UA often plays an important role in the survival strategies of the urban dwellers, who might be benefited from UA in various ways: Firstly, when a household produces edible crops, their food expenses are reduced and they can do a huge amount of savings. Moreover, the surplus produce can be sold by them in order to make a profitable business [2, 6].
\nIn addition to climate change and urbanization, food production is confronted with decrease in productive agricultural land. Large-scale urban food production could provide opportunities and take the pressure off agricultural land. Consequently, researchers and practitioners are aiming to separate arable land from production and produce food on a larger scale in and on buildings in high-density urban areas. Scientists visualized the “edible city” and introduced the concept of continuous productive urban landscape (CPUL), recommending the coherent introduction of interlinked productive landscapes into cities as an essential element of sustainable urban infrastructure. One major challenge of urban food production is land availability and access. Principally, there might be large resources of land that could be made accessible for agricultural purposes, but for densely built-up areas and where availability of space often limits the area of production unit, no-space or low-space technologies provide opportunities for space-confined growing [5, 10, 11].
\nBesides its so many advantages, there are some disadvantages of UA associated with potential health risks [2]:
Reuse of contaminated, untreated irrigation water from urban streams gives rise to potential health risks. This can be managed through complementary health risk reduction measures as explained in the 2006 WHO guidelines for safe use of excreta and waste water.
Insufficient or improper management of livestock leads to health risks. Proper management of animals, manure, urine, and slaughterhouse procedures will reduce the rate of the associated health risks.
Intensive use of fertilizers, pesticides, and fungicides in UA may lead to residues of agrochemicals in crops or in the groundwater. The risk mainly occurs in areas with commercial urban farming. In subsistence and semicommercial urban farming, this risk is limited because the producers rarely apply agrochemicals due to poverty. They use composted organic wastes as they prefer a clean product for self-consumption.
With rapid worldwide population growth, there is scarcity of agricultural lands. It increases the demand for both more food and more land to grow food. But some entrepreneurs and farmers are beginning to find a solution to this problem, one of which can be found in the abandoned warehouses in our cities, in new buildings built on environmentally damaged lands, and even in used shipping containers from ocean transports. This solution is called vertical farming, which is an UA technology involving growing crops in controlled indoor environments, with precise light, nutrients, and temperatures.
\nIn vertical farming, growing plants are arranged in layers that may reach several stories high. Although small-scale, residential vertical gardening (including window farms) is under practice for several years, commercial-scale vertical farms have become an important topic of discussion for the past few years in the United States. This new farming technology is growing rapidly, and entrepreneurs in many cities are taking an interest in this innovative farming system [12].
\nVertical farming is gaining its importance throughout several urban cities around the world due to the beneficial role it plays in the field of agriculture. Vertical farming can reduce the transportation costs due to its adjacency to the buyer; planned production of herbs and their growing conditions can be enhanced by adjusting the temperature, humidity, lighting conditions, etc. Indoor farming in a controlled environment needs much less amount of water than outdoor farming because it involves recycling of waste water. Because of these features, vertical farming is widely implemented initially in desert and drought-stricken regions, such as some Middle Eastern countries, Africa, Israel, Japan, and the Netherlands [13].
\nIt is the predominant growing system used in vertical farms, involving growing plants in nutrient solutions that are devoid of soil. The plant roots are submerged in a nutrient solution, which is frequently examined and circulated to ensure that the correct chemical composition is maintained [12].
\nUrban hydroponics is not a recent invention. The Hanging Gardens of Babylon and the Floating Gardens of the Aztecs were beautifying the cities for quite a long period of time. Also, fruits and vegetables were cultivated in those areas. Nowadays, modern cities use urban hydroponics for physical and psychological relaxation. It is also plays an important role in managing the urban environment. In areas with arid climate, it increases humidity and lowers temperatures. It also captures dust and polluted air by the foliage of the plants. It contributes to the reduction of the overall discharge of CO2, hence preventing global warming to some extent. Hydroponics gardens are usually constructed vertically because city space is limited. Apart from immediate improvement in the environmental quality, vertical farms on top of traditional buildings serve as large heat sinks that radiate heat and increase ambient air temperature; hydroponic systems thermoregulate buildings by trapping heat in the winter and cooling buildings in the summer. The air quality inside the house can also be improved by growing plants on interior walls. In some modern cities, for example in Bangkok, the concrete roads and railway overpasses are covered with hydroponically grown ornamentals. Also commercial centers are decorated with indoor hydroponics for an improved air quality inside [14].
\nThe hydroponic system is taken one step forward by another system called aquaponics which combines plants and fish in the same ecosystem. The nutrient-rich wastes produced by the indoor-grown fish serve as feed source of the plants present in the vertical farm. On the other hand, the plant filters and purifies the waste water which is then recycled into the fish tanks [12].
\nThis combination of systems is cheaper and easier as mineral nutrients are not be purchased and the plants are growing totally organically and moreover no additional expenses are required to clean the fish tanks and there is no scene of pesticides harming the fish. Thus, aquaponics is not only cost-effective but also diseases in the systems can be reduced and a very suitable urban farming technology can be formed. Canadian scientist Savidov explained that possibly the organic components in the system make the trace elements readily available to the plant for proper growth and thus recirculating aquaponic system decreases root diseases in the crop with increased crop yield from aquaponics compared with conventional hydroponics. Also fruits and vegetables grown in aquaponic system qualify for organic product certification very easily since no pesticides and fertilizers are used in this system. Some scientists are planning to construct vertical farms in skyscrapers and have created the name sky farming. Such buildings may also incorporate aquaponics to ensure a good source of fresh fish [14].
\nThis innovative indoor growing technique was first developed by the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA). In the 1990s, NASA started finding efficient ways to grow plants in space and coined the term “aeroponics.” Aeroponic systems are still in a growing phase in the vertical farming world, however gaining interest gradually. It is an efficient plant-growing system in vertical farms, using up to 90% less water than other efficient hydroponic systems. Plants grown in these aeroponic systems take up more minerals and vitamins, making the plants healthier and more nutritious [12].
\nIn tropical hot and humid climate, it is difficult to grow temperate vegetables like lettuce. Geoff Wilson, an agricultural journalist and Australia’s representative of a group of 16 national organizations for an international Green Roofs organization, has reported in an article that a new aeroponic system originated in Singapore can provide a solution to this difficulty. Traditional aeroponic method involved cold nutrient mixture that used to be sprayed onto the plant roots, thereby lowering the temperature causing wilting and ultimately death of the plant. But this type of cooling is expensive, even for rich cities like Singapore. To overcome this limitation, in the year 2004, Gregory Chow, lecturer at the Ngee Ann Polytechnic of Singapore invented the air dynaponics—a much less costly way of maintaining low root-zone temperatures for commercially successful aeroponics. This system gave positive outcomes. Researchers stated that the nutrients infused with oxygen “energized” the entire root system and improved the plant top biomass. Air dynaponics uses the cooling methods of Venturi nozzle effect in an air-powered operation that lowers the temperature of the nutrient mixture and supplies air from the dissolved oxygen. In Singapore, this method is used to produce valuable greens like butterhead lettuce, Batavia lettuce, and Romaine lettuce for moneymaking purposes [14].
\nThese are the types of vertical farms constructed in abandoned buildings in urban areas. For example, Chicago’s “The Plant” vertical farm was constructed in an old pork-packing plant. Vertical farms are also constructed in new buildings. A new multistory vertical farm is built to an existing parking lot structure in downtown Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Here, vegetables are grown throughout the year in the 13,500-square-foot hydroponic greenhouse for sale to restaurants, to local grocery stores, and also directly to consumers [12].
\nThese types of vertical farms are becoming popular day by day. They use 40-foot shipping containers that carry goods around the world and house vertical farms with LED lights, drip irrigation systems, and vertically stacked shelves for growing a variety of plants. It contains computer-controlled growth management systems that allow users to examine all systems from a smartphone or computer. The three leading companies producing shipping-container vertical farms are Freight Farms, CropBox, and Growtainers [12].
\nDespommier mentioned a number of environmental and social advantages in his book called “The Vertical Farm: Feeding the World in the 21st Century.” The advantages are summarized below [15]:
Vertical farming ensures production of greens all year round in nontropical countries and is better than normal farming. Despommier stated that 1 acre of vertical farm can produce products almost equal to the amount of products produced by 30 acres of normal farmland on considering the number of crops produced each season.
Vertical farming involves reduction or abandonment of the use of herbicides and pesticides. In some cases, vertical farming uses ladybugs and other biological controls when required.
As the crops in a vertical farm are grown under a controlled environment, they are safe from extreme weather conditions such as droughts, hail, and floods.
Hydroponic growing techniques help in water conservation by using about 70% less water than normal agriculture.
Indoor farming reduces or eliminates the use of tractors and other large farm equipment that are commonly used on outdoor farms, thus reducing the burning of fossil fuel. According to Despommier, large-scale vertical farming could result in a significant reduction in air pollution and in CO2 emissions.
Vertical farming is people friendly. Some hazards that can be avoided in vertical farming are accidents while operating heavy farming equipment and exposure to harmful chemicals.
Apart from so many advantages, there are many critics of the vertical farming described by the scientists. They claimed that there are a number of problems in vertical farming. The challenges to vertical farming may be summarized as follows [13]:
Start-up costs are high in order to purchase land in central business districts.
The number of crops grown is sometimes less than rural farming.
Production volumes are also not as large as conventional farming and scaling-up may add cost and complexity.
Raising investment capitals and training a skilled workforce are also challenges in vertical farming.
Scientists explored the motivations for urban gardening in Germany by screening 657 urban gardening project websites and characterized the types of gardeners, cultivation methods, and consumer behavior. The study also highlighted the “terrabioponic smart-garden system” where the plants grow in natural soil and in organic nutrient solution, which may facilitate social transition toward bio economy [16]. Also scientists from the United Kingdom reported that vertical farming system has increased the yield of lettuce per unit area as compared to traditional horizontal hydroponics [17]. Agriculture and food production activities in the cities of Mexico can contribute in reducing carbon footprint by creating green environment and better land use [18].
\nCase study 1: The world’s largest indoor vertical farm, AeroFarms, is located in Newark, New Jersey, which grows more than 2 million pounds of greens per year without sunlight, soil or pesticides. Instead of using a huge quantity of water to grow plants, AeroFarms system sprays nutrient-rich mist to the plants. Seeds are sown, germinated, and grown on reusable sheets of cloth and are stretched out over trays stacked vertically. LED lights are used instead of the sun, and the exposure is controlled depending upon the maturity of the plant [12].
\nCase study 2: Rob Laing founded Farm.One in the year 2016 in order to grow rare and hard-to-find produce to the chefs and restaurants in the middle of New York City. The first farm was set up at the Institute of Culinary Education (ICE) in downtown Manhattan, and the second farm is in Tribeca. It uses hydroponics and LED lights and aims to grow rare produce every year. The company supplies rare herbs, edible flowers and microgreens to some of the best chefs in New York [19].
\nCase study 3: One of the world’s first commercial vertical farms named Sky Greens was built in Singapore. This vertical farm produces one ton of vegetables every other day. Large varieties of tropical vegetables like Chinese cabbage, spinach, lettuce, xia bai cai, bayam, kang kong, cai xin, gai lan, and nai bai are grown. Sky Greens uses a hydraulic system called “A Go-Gro,” which consists of 6-m-tall hydraulic water-driven A-shaped towers. Each tower contains 22–26 tiers of growing troughs, and is spun around the aluminum frame at a speed of 1 mm/sec for a steady radiation of sunlight, proper air flow, and irrigation for all the edibles growing in the tower. The rotation system is powered by a unique gravity-aided water-pulley system that uses only 1 L of water per 16-hour cycle, which is collected in a rainwater-fed reservoir. The water used in powering the frames is recycled and filtered before returning to the plants. The organic wastes produced on the farm are composted and reused [19].
\nIndia is one of the largest producers of fruits, vegetables, and many other agricultural products. In India, vertical farming has been introduced in recent times. Experts from Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR) are working on the concept of “vertical farming” which can be implemented in metros like New Delhi, Mumbai, Kolkata, and Chennai [20].
\nScientists at Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya in Nadia, West Bengal, had initial success on growing brinjal and tomato hydroponically on a small scale. Punjab also has succeeded in producing potato tubers through vertical farming [20].
\nIn cities like Cuttack and Nagpur, the slum dwellers performed organic farming on terrace and plots and sold the surplus products to the local markets. In Delhi, on the fertile banks of Yamuna River, extensive farming is going on in spite of the fact that farmers do not have any legal sanction to do farming there. In Hyderabad, farmers living along the banks of Musi River use water from the river for urban farming and contributed rice and vegetables to the market [21].
\nIn the urban areas of Tripura, to help the youth for income generation, a prototype model on “vertical farming system” was developed. The area of the structure was about 630 sq. ft. with two floors and two galleries. The ground floor contained two cages (50 sq. ft. each) at both corners that accommodated 100 layer chicks. The central space (140 sq. ft) housed 200 bird broiler/layer chicks per batch. Eight goats were kept on the first floor (140 sq. ft.) area. There were also 12 rabbits kept in hanging cages (4 sq. ft. each). Proper drainage facility was provided to collect wastes with storage facility where it was decomposed and used for manuring the pots. Three Azolla tanks were constructed above the rabbit cages which were the source of nutrient to the goat as well as the birds. Ten benches (30 cm each) were kept on both sides of the structure which contained 160 pots for growing small fodder, vegetables, and spices. A water tank of 400 L capacity was also provided on top of the structure for storing water for animals and poultry and also providing irrigation to each pot through drip irrigation system [22].
\nIdeafarms is an Indian design-in-tech company which produces vertical farm products, and the produce is of high quality and organic and the supply is huge. A Bengaluru-based start-up company named Greenopia is selling kits with self-watering pots, enriched soil, and better quality seeds. A Mumbai-based start-up firm U-Farm Technologies is using hydroponic gardening technique to build vertical farm for an individual apartment or for a supermarket [20].
\nVertical farming is definitely a solution to critical problems in Indian farming like lack of supply of farm produce, overuse of pesticides and fertilizers, and even unemployment. But there are some challenges: The initial huge cost of infrastructure for implementing vertical farming in India is difficult. Vertical farming in India has to face other challenges like public awareness, technical knowledge, and high cost of managing and maintaining the vertical farm systems [20].
\nUrban farming, both vertical farming or farming on vacant open spaces, can be a favorable way for ensuring food security in India and around the world in the future. Although countries like Europe, the USA, and Singapore have already implemented vertical farming and are dealing with big projects for future concerns, India still has a long way to go as it is restricted to only few self-interest-driven projects. Institutional support, awareness of the benefits associated with urban agriculture, and financial and technological support from the government can only attract the city dwellers and help them to move forward with the concept of urban agriculture in India. Progressive growth of urban agriculture can act as an urban regeneration tool for the cities by providing social interaction and increasing job opportunities and environmental benefits to the urban areas across the globe. Thus, to combat the challenges associated with rapid increase in population, the topic of “urban agriculture” is being closely monitored by scientists, city planners, and the sustainable agricultural community for a better future.
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I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. 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I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. 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