Recent advances in the application of binary indium selenide nanomaterials.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 179 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 252 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"29",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advances in Induction and Microwave Heating of Mineral and Organic Materials",title:"Advances in Induction and Microwave Heating of Mineral and Organic Materials",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The book offers comprehensive coverage of the broad range of scientific knowledge in the fields of advances in induction and microwave heating of mineral and organic materials. Beginning with industry application in many areas of practical application to mineral materials and ending with raw materials of agriculture origin the authors, specialists in different scientific area, present their results in the two sections: Section 1-Induction and Microwave Heating of Mineral Materials, and Section 2-Microwave Heating of Organic Materials.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-522-8",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4520-2",doi:"10.5772/562",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"advances-in-induction-and-microwave-heating-of-mineral-and-organic-materials",numberOfPages:768,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Stanisław Grundas",publishedDate:"February 14th 2011",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/29.jpg",numberOfDownloads:147399,numberOfWosCitations:221,numberOfCrossrefCitations:73,numberOfDimensionsCitations:216,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:510,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 20th 2010",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 18th 2010",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"September 22nd 2010",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 22nd 2010",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 21st 2010",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,10",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"14397",title:"Prof.",name:"Stanisław",middleName:"Teodor",surname:"Grundas",slug:"stanislaw-grundas",fullName:"Stanisław Grundas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14397/images/1560_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Stanisław Grundas was born in 1944 in Majdanek, commune of Tomaszów Lubelski, Poland. In 1971 he graduated as a Master of Engineering from the Department of Agricultural Technology of the Agricultural University in Lublin and began working at the Institute of Agrophysics, Polish Academy of Sciences in that city. In 1977 he obtained PhD, Technical Sciences, at this Department, and in 1988 the degree of DSc, Agricultural Sciences of that University. In 1994 he was granted the title of Professor of Agricultural Sciences. Since the beginning of his work he held the positions of, initially, the Deputy Head and then the Head of the Department of Physical Properties of Plant Materials at the Institute. The list of his publications amounts to a total of 250, including articles in several encyclopaedias on the cereal grain. After returning from a sabbatical at the Institute of Agrophysics, Leningrad, Russia in 1986, he developed the roentgenography of plant materials. 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Despite the advent of effective antiviral drugs to eradicate hepatitis C infection, the prevalence of HCC is projected to increase secondary to increasing rates of fatty liver disease from diabetes and the obesity epidemic [2]. Unfortunately, there has been little to no change in the survivability of HCC over the last three decades [3] in spite of the increasing array of therapeutic options, leaving much room for improvement. The armamentarium for managing HCC is wide and includes surgical resection, orthotopic liver transplantation (OLT), ablative techniques using ethanol (percutaneous ethanol injection, PEI), microwave (MWA) or radiofrequency (RFA), catheter-directed transarterial chemoembolization (TACE) or radioembolization (TARE), external beam radiation therapy in the form of stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT) or proton beam therapy (PBT), systemic targeted small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors, check-point inhibitor immunotherapy and investigational agents. These modalities are often used together in a multidisciplinary approach.
Surgical resection, or partial hepatectomy (PH), is a potentially curative surgical treatment option for up to 15–20% of patients with HCC. The primary objective of PH is to remove the HCC with an adequate margin, while preserving as much functional liver parenchyma to avoid post-resection hepatic failure. With improvements in preoperative assessment, patient selection, surgical and anesthetic techniques, intraoperative ultrasound, PH for HCC is now routine and safe. Operative mortality has been reduced to less than 5% with a 5-year overall survival of 60–75%.
Several factors are considered in determining the eligibility for PH, including the patient’s health status (e.g. age, ECOG PS), tumor-specific factors (e.g. extent and tumor biology), and the reserve of the liver remnant. Determined by the degree of liver dysfunction and the size of the postoperative liver remnant. While there is no strict age limit, one must consider the liver’s regenerative capabilities in elderly patients, and the patient’s ability to tolerate the physiologic consequences of portal pedicle clamping and acute hemorrhage on their cardiopulmonary system. In addition, patients undergoing a minimally invasive approach must also be able to endure the effects of the pneumoperitoneum and reverse Trendelenburg positioning on their physiology.
Several different clinical staging systems exist to stratify patients according to prognostic variables [4]. One of the most commonly used is the Barcelona Clinic Liver Cancer (BCLC) system which incorporates tumor size, number of nodules and hepatic function as classified by the Child-Pugh score [5]. The system classifies patients into early, intermediate, advanced and terminal stages and proposes recommended treatment strategy. According to this staging system, only stage 0 or early stage patients with small tumors are recommended for surgical resection or liver transplant.
However, many view the BCLC criterion for resection to be restrictive. For patients with large tumors (beyond any down-staging or expanded OLT criteria) who are ineligible for OLT, PH is the only potentially curative treatment. With improvements in perioperative management, preoperative morphological assessment and manipulation of the future liver remnant, PH for large HCC has been safely performed with good oncologic outcome [6, 7]. Therefore, large tumor size alone is not a contraindication to PH, rather factors such as multiple or bilobar tumors, extrahepatic metastasis, involvement of the main bile duct, portal venous or other macroscopic vascular invasion, and portal hypertension are all relative contraindications to PH. When clinically not evident, portal hypertension can be evaluated by measuring the transjugular intrahepatic portosystemic gradient (PSG). PSG values greater than 10 mmHg are indicative of significant portal hypertension and these patients must be approached with caution.
85–90% of patients with HCC have concomitant liver dysfunction. It is critical to account for the degree of liver dysfunction in addition to the patient’s overall functional and nutritional status. Patients with liver disease are often malnourished with diminished performance status and comorbid conditions. To help stratify clinical liver dysfunction, patients are classified by the Child-Turcotte-Pugh (CTP) score and the Model for End-Stage Liver Disease (MELD) system. These two systems classify patients based on physical exam and laboratory data, with increasing scores associated with higher overall surgical risk. In general, patients with CTP score up to B7, MELD score <9 without significant portal hypertension can be considered for PH. Patients with more severe liver dysfunction and HCC can be considered for OLT if they meet specific criteria [8, 9].
Assessment of the hepatic function and future liver remnant (FLR) is important for patient selection prior to surgical resection [10]. The volume of the FLR and the regenerative capacity are key predictors of postoperative morbidity. Several laboratory tests have been used to evaluate hepatic reserve in cirrhotic patients including assessment of clearance of indocyanine green, sorbitol and 99mTc-galactosyl serum albumin scintigraphy [11]. Preoperative volumetric analysis can be performed with 3D computerized tomography volumetry [12]. To minimize the chance of post-hepatectomy liver failure, data suggest a liver remnant to be at minimum >20% of preoperative liver volume in a normal functioning liver, >30% for patients who have undergone >3 months systemic chemotherapy and >40% in those with advanced liver disease [13, 14].
Several techniques for preoperative optimization of the FLR exist including portal vein embolization (PVE) and the associated liver partition with portal vein ligation for staged hepatectomy (ALPPS) [15]. Initially developed in 1986, PVE results in atrophy of the embolized segments and compensatory hypertrophy of the perfused segments [16], within approximately 4–6 weeks, with at least >10% growth of the FLR predicting adequate regeneration post-PH. PVE has been shown to reduce the rate of postoperative complications in select patients with chronic liver disease [17], and can also be used safely in patients undergoing concurrent chemotherapy for colorectal metastases. One study demonstrated improved prognosis after PH in patients with impaired hepatic function [18].
ALPPS was developed in 2007 to induce liver hypertrophy in patients planned for extended liver resections with marginal FLR. A two-step operation, the initial data demonstrated it to be quite effective with rapid hypertrophy [15], however, it has not gained wide acceptance secondary to significant morbidity and mortality and the need for larger scale studies [19, 20, 21]. However, there are more recent reports of “mini-ALPPS” where the procedure is performed minimally invasively and with limited peripheral division of the parenchyma.
The surgical anatomy of the liver is based on Claude Couinaud’s classification system and further refined in the Brisbane 2000 Terminology of Liver Anatomy and Resections (Figure 1) [22]. In this classification, the liver is divided into first, second and third order divisions based on internal anatomy rather than surface landmarks. First order division splits the liver into a right and left hemiliver along Cantlie’s line, a plane extending from the middle of the gallbladder fossa to the center of the inferior vena cava. Second order divisions split the hemilivers into two respective sections or sectors, the medial and lateral sections/sectors on the left and anterior and posterior sections/sectors on the right. The third order division divides each section/sector into two segments, constituting the 9 individual hepatic segments defined by Couinaud. In general, each segment has a unique vascular inflow, outflow and biliary duct enabling segments to be removed without damage to other segments.
Schematic of liver anatomy separating the parenchyma into 9 anatomic segments. Each segment has unique blood supply and biliary drainage. Source: Cho, Fong. Hepatic Resection. In: Ashley SW, editor. Scientific American Surgery. Hamilton: Decker. 7th ed; 2014. pp. 1094–1114.
The proper hepatic artery and portal vein bifurcate prior to the hilum of the liver and form the right and left hepatic artery and portal vein which supply the right and left hemiliver. Joined by the biliary duct, the portal triad generally runs centrally within hepatic segments. The right hepatic artery enters the parenchyma soon after branching while the left has a longer extrahepatic course. In contrast, the three hepatic veins run between section/sectors in three portal scissurae. The right hepatic vein drains directly into the inferior vena cava (IVC) while the middle and left hepatic veins often form a common trunk prior to entering the IVC.
The liver is encapsulated by a fibrous capsule, known as Glisson’s capsule. The capsule envelops the portal triads as they enter the liver parenchyma which makes it identifiable on intraoperative ultrasound. Furthermore, the dense capsule allows for control of the portal triad during dissection and enables pedicle ligation.
Some important perioperative anesthetic considerations should be accounted for to increase the safety of hepatectomy. To minimize the possibility of major intraoperative hemorrhage, the central venous pressure should be maintained at less than 5 mmHg to reduce the intrahepatic venous pressure. This is achieved using various anesthetic maneuvers and agents such as IVF restriction, and administration of isoflurane, fentanyl, mannitol, and cisatricurium. For open hepatectomy, the patient can be placed in slight reverse Trendelenburg position if pressures allow and switched to Trendelenburg position if there is significant hemorrhage with hemodynamic derangement to increase cardiac output and maintain end-organ perfusion. For laparoscopic/robotic hepatectomy, the patient is placed in reverse Trendelenburg position for a caudal approach which improves visualization of the vasculature, and the pneumoperitoneum creates a tamponade effect on the hepatic veins, which aids in limiting hemorrhage. Adequate vascular access should be obtained using large bore IVs, with appropriate invasive hemodynamic monitoring using A-line. Blood products should be readily available and resuscitation of operative blood loss should be with an appropriate combination of crystalloid, albumin and blood product as necessary. End-tidal CO2 is measured to monitor for CO2 embolism in the laparoscopic/robotic approach.
Resections are either “anatomic” or “non-anatomic”. Anatomic resection defines a resection that obeys Brisbane divisions and is preferred for malignant disease because it has been found to lower rate of positive margins, decrease regional recurrences and improve surgical outcome. Non-anatomic resection refers to parenchymal transection that does not respect segmental planes and is typically used for debulking procedures, benign tumors or when trying to preserve remnant parenchyma. Achieving a microscopic margin negative (R0) resection is paramount to reducing local recurrence. 1 cm surgical margins have historically been considered standard, but narrower margins have been safely demonstrated [23].
There are six standard, anatomic hepatic resections as defined by the Brisbane classification (Figure 2). Right hemi-hepatectomy consists of surgical resection of segments V-VIII and left hepatectomy includes segments II-IV and occasionally segment I. In an extended right hepatectomy or a right trisectionectomy/trisectorectomy, segments IV-VIII, and in an extended left hepatectomy or a left trisectionectomy, segments II-IV, V and VIII are resected. A left lateral sectorectomy involves resection of segments II-III and a right posterior sectionectomy includes segments VI-VII. Segmentectomies denote resection of any individual segment.
Schematic illustrations of the standard hepatic resections as labeled. Source: Cho, Fong. Hepatic Resection. In: Ashley SW, editor. Scientific American Surgery. Hamilton: Decker. 7th ed; 2014. pp. 1094–1114.
The common principle of anatomic hepatectomies involves parenchymal transection after both vascular inflow and outflow have been controlled. Given that each hepatic segment has their unique vascular inflow and outflow, each segment can be safely excised without damage to surrounding hepatic segments. Intraoperative ultrasonography is used routinely for identification of the vascular structures, evaluation of tumor location, extent and relationship to the surrounding vasculature.
After initial laparoscopic inspection excludes unresectable disease (in selected cases), the incision is made. In an open conventional approach, appropriate incision and exposure is critical to safe hepatectomy. There are several incisions used including the bilateral subcostal (Chevron), right/left subcostal, J-type or the inverted Y (Mercedes) incision.
Once the liver is mobilized by dividing ligamentous attachments, careful inspection, palpation and ultrasound examination are performed to evaluate for any missed tumors. Arterial aberrancies are identified and portal triad inflow is controlled with sutures and clips or staple ligation. The corresponding hepatic vein is isolated and ligated. Parenchymal transection is performed along the line of devascularization. Different techniques for parenchymal transection exist, varying from clamp-crushing, waterjet, monopolar/bipolar cautery, radiofrequency ablative devices, bipolar vessel sealing devices, ultrasonic dissection devices to staplers. The clamp-crush technique is rapid and has been associated with lower rates of blood loss compared to other methods [24]. Once the resected segment is removed, hemostasis is obtained with sutures, clips, argon beam coagulator and application of various hemostatic agents. Biliary leaks are controlled with clipping and suture ligation. Prior to abdominal closure, drains are placed if there is an infected operative field or if a biliary reconstruction is performed [25].
Although established as a safe and beneficial approach for numerous intra-abdominal operations, laparoscopic techniques were slow to be adopted for liver surgery for several reasons [26]. Concerns over technical feasibility of vascular dissection and control, organ mobilization, parenchymal dissection and management of intraoperative complications were prohibitive. Furthermore, it was unknown if port-site seeding, inadequate margins and poor oncologic outcomes would be more common in the minimally invasive approach.
The benefits of laparoscopic liver surgery are numerous. In addition to the generalized benefits of laparoscopic surgery including a more rapid functional recovery, smaller incisions which reduce the incidence of surgical site infections and postoperative pulmonary complications, there are additional advantages specific to laparoscopic liver surgery. Steep Trendelenburg positioning reduces intrahepatic venous pressure and the pneumoperitoneum exerts tamponade effect on vasculature leading to reduced intraoperative blood loss. Laparoscopy creates a caudal-cranial surgical view which affords improved visualization of major vascular structures compared to the ventral-dorsal angle of visualization of an open hepatectomy. For cirrhotic patients, small laparoscopic incisions avoid disruption of abdominal wall collaterals and the constraint on fluid shifts in a laparoscopic partial hepatectomy can decrease the incidence of liver-related complications. Minimally invasive hepatectomy also results in less adhesion formation which facilitates additional surgery in the future.
There have been numerous studies to date demonstrating the safety and efficacy of laparoscopic liver surgery. In 2009, a worldwide experience of 127 series including 2804 cases of laparoscopic partial hepatectomy demonstrated comparable 5-year overall survival and disease free survival compared to open hepatectomy [27]. Half of these cases were done for malignant disease with greater than 80% of resections boasting negative surgical margins. In 2015, a randomized control trial was published demonstrating safety and feasibility of laparoscopic liver resection with reduction in length of stay and intraoperative blood loss compared to open hepatectomy [28]. Numerous systematic analyses have substantiated these data, demonstrating that the laparoscopic partial hepatectomy is associated with decreased intraoperative blood loss, shorter length of hospital stay, and decreased number of positive resection margins. Overall, there were consistently fewer complications found in the laparoscopic group in these reviews [29]. A case–control propensity matched studies also found no difference in 1-, 3-, and 5-year overall survival and disease-free survival [30]. The National Surgical Quality Improvement Program database was evaluated to compare short-term outcomes among patients undergoing minimally invasive partial hepatectomy. Over 3000 patients were include in the study and it demonstrated lower postoperative morbidity and shorter length of stay compared with patients undergoing open liver resection [31].
Specific to the treatment of HCC, the safety and efficacy of the laparoscopic approach has been evaluated in several meta-analyses and propensity score analyses. These studies demonstrated the equivalent or superior perioperative outcomes of laparoscopic compared to open resection [32, 33]. In a propensity score analysis, the overall and disease-free survival were similar and for the secondary outcomes, the laparoscopic group had shorter hospital stay, lower morbidity, with fewer transient liver failure and wound complications, and a larger tumor margin [34].
Multiple meta-analyses and case control series were reviewed and analyzed at the second international conference for laparoscopic liver resection in Morioka in 2014. Minor resections were validated as standard practice in the assessment stage, while major or complex resections were considered to be in the exploration stage, with incompletely defined risks. The Jury at Morioka made strong recommendations for higher quality studies including registries to define the role and benefits of laparoscopic major hepatectomy.
Patient selection is critical to ensuring safe laparoscopic partial hepatectomy. Although is technically feasible, resection of lesions in right posterior sections or the hepatic dome can be challenging and should be approached with caution. The patient is placed in the supine position and securely fastened to the table to allow for safe intraoperative repositioning. Generally, five ports are required for laparoscopic resection including two 12 mm and three 5 mm ports. Port placement is dependent upon laterality of the lesion as shown in Figure 3. Some surgeons advocate using a hand access port to assist with intraoperative manipulation, intra-corporeal suturing as well as serve as the specimen removal site.
Suggested port placements for laparoscopic left lateral sectionectomy (a) and hand-assisted laparoscopic right hepatectomy (b). Source: Cho, Fong. Hepatic Resection. In: Ashley SW, editor. Scientific American Surgery. Hamilton: Decker. 7th ed; 2014. pp. 1094–1114.
Further advances in surgical technology has created new opportunities in minimally invasive liver surgery. Robotic surgical systems offer unique advantages to the liver surgeon that enhances the minimally invasive approach. There are several key improvements on the robotic surgical system including a camera with optics providing a 3-dimensional stereotactic visual field. In addition, the instruments allow for seven degrees of freedom in their motion, providing easier suturing for hemorrhage control. There is no fulcrum effect on the body wall of the patient as in laparoscopic surgery, and it has been associated with reduction in surgeon fatigue compared to the laparoscopic approach.
Similar to laparoscopic partial hepatectomy, the patient is placed in the supine position and in steep reverse Trendelenburg position. The table is tilted with right side up approximately 25 degrees for right-sided resections. Five ports are placed including four robot-controlled ports and one assistant port (Figure 4). The ports are placed based on the laterality of the resection. In general, for a right-sided hepatectomy, the camera port is placed to the right-side of midline. Once the ports have been placed, the robot is docked from the cephalad position (Figure 5). Intraoperative ultrasound is critical to establishing vascular anatomy and defining oncologic planes of resection. After vascular control and establishing the line of transection, parenchymal transection is performed using one of many published techniques [35].
Image of port placement for a robot-assisted surgeries left lateral sectionectomy. Blue dots denote da Vinci 8-mm reusable cannulas (3). Green dot denotes 12-mm camera port. Purple dot denotes AirSeal® assistant port. Costal margin and midline marked in dotted pen.
Standard operating room set up for robotic-assisted liver surgery. Head of bed is on left side of image, anesthesia equipment and personnel on right side of image.
Several large case series have been published demonstrating the success of robotic liver resection [36, 37]. The first large case series of 70 patients included 38.5% major liver resections without any mortalities [36]. An early systematic review of the literature demonstrated safety and feasibility of the robotic technique, with conversion to open rate of 4.6% and complication rate of 20.3% [38]. In 2018, an international, multicenter retrospective review of robotic liver surgery was published specifically evaluating long-term oncologic outcomes in patients with primary hepatobiliary malignancies after a median follow up of 75 months [39]. This study demonstrated comparable outcomes between robotic, open and laparoscopic liver surgery with 3-year overall survival of 90% for HCC. The majority of the cases were non-anatomic resections with an R0 resection achieved in 95% of HCC resections, 68% in cholangiocarcinoma and 82% in gallbladder cancer.
Minimally invasive approach to liver surgery, both laparoscopic and robotic-assisted, have their share of limitations. An important potential complication associated with the establishment of pneumoperitoneum and laparoscopic liver surgery is carbon dioxide gas embolism. Reports have demonstrated that this event rate is low, particularly if the pneumoperitoneal pressure is maintained below 12 mmHg [40]. Studies have published and event rate of as low as at 0.5~1.5% [41]. There is a learning curve with gaining proficiency in the laparoscopic technique of liver resection with expert centers estimating the learning curve for laparoscopic liver resection at approximately 45~70 cases with senior partner proctoring [42]. Other limitations include the need for a skilled bedside assistant, and the diminished tactile sense when dealing with friable tissue such as steatotic liver parenchyma or thin venules within a cirrhotic liver can make the case challenging. And in the rare event when massive venous bleeding ensues, it can be difficult to control.
Cost is one major barrier to the wide adoption of the robotic approach. There is a significant initial capital investment in addition to maintenance fees and costs of staff training. However, one study demonstrated that while perioperative costs are higher with the robot, the overall total direct hospital costs are lower at least in part due to the decrease length of stay with robotic minimally invasive resection [43]. There are several generations of the robot with older generation units best suited for an operation in a single work field, with cumbersome redocking steps to perform multi-quadrant operations. The majority of studies indicate a longer operating time secondary to robot set up and draping. Technically speaking, the robot does not provide haptic feedback challenging the surgeon to “feel with their eyes” and occasionally resulting in excessive tissue damage in inexperienced hands. Further studies are needed to examine the comparative effectiveness of robotic versus laparoscopic minimally invasive hepatectomy.
The main postoperative complications include postoperative hemorrhage, liver dysfunction, biliary leak and fluid collections. Postoperative hemorrhage is uncommon after liver resection if meticulous attention is given to confirmation of hemostasis at the conclusion of the case. Bleeding may occasionally occur from retroperitoneal structures, such as the adrenal gland, or diaphragmatic musculature. Argon beam coagulator and a variety of topical hemostatic applications are utilized to reduce liver surface related bleeding.
Post hepatectomy liver failure (PHLF) is a major postoperative complication with mortality of approximately 30%. The definition of post-hepatectomy liver is the impaired ability of the liver to maintain its synthetic, excretory and detoxifying functions, characterized by an increase in international normalized ratio and bilirubin on or after postoperative day 5 [44]. The most effective treatment of PHLF is liver transplantation but that is reserved for the most severe cases. Initial care is supportive and often includes mechanical ventilation, hemodynamic support and hemodialysis. Administration of colloid products and nutritional supplementation is also advocated.
The best way to treat post-hepatectomy liver failure is to prevent it. Preoperative weight loss, nutritional supplementation, careful preoperative selection and risk stratification are important to minimize the risk of PHLF [10]. Intra-operatively, minimizing blood loss and blood transfusion, close attention to hemostasis and minimizing skeletonization of the hepatoduodenal ligament will lower risk of PHLF. In the postoperative period, recognizing and aggressively treating postoperative hemorrhage, biliary obstructions or leaks and intra-abdominal infections will reduce the hepatic stress and likelihood of developing hepatic failure.
Postoperative fluid collections collect in the resected liver bed. These collections are varied in etiology but can include hematoma, seroma or biloma. They often to not result in symptoms, but occasionally they can cause pain or fullness requiring drainage. These collections also are at risk for infection and abscess formation. Biliary leakage from the raw surface of the resected liver can occur in up to 8% of patients after liver resection [45].
New technologies continue to be developed to enhance minimally invasive liver surgery. One example is intra-operative near-infrared fluorescence (NIF) imaging. NIF imaging has become commonplace in many laparoscopic and robotic camera systems enabling the identification of various dyes, such as indocyanine green, injected preoperatively. Indocyanine green is a green dye that is preferentially metabolized by hepatocytes and excreted in the biliary tree. It lights up the biliary tree and has been utilized for robotic and laparoscopic assisted cholecystectomy. It has been more recently utilized to guide parenchymal dissection after vascular control by identifying perfused from poorly perfused hepatic parenchyma.
Future directions within the realm of robotic liver surgery include the application of preoperative planning with virtual reality (VR) models and real-time augmented reality (AR) intraoperative endoscopic overlays to aid with surgical navigation on da Vinci ® surgical systems. The current practice standard for operative planning involves preoperative cross-sectional imaging using contrast-enhanced, multiphase liver protocol computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans to evaluate the tumor’s extent (size and number) and location with respect to critical structures including the major vasculature and biliary architecture. Surgeons rely on years of training to develop the ability to mentally reconstruct 2D images into a mental 3D model in order to preoperatively plan for a surgery while referencing the 2D images intraoperatively.
Computer-based three-dimensional (3D) reconstructions of liver tumors have been shown to increase accuracy of tumor localization and precision of operative planning for liver surgery [46]. While useful for operative planning, intraoperative review of 2D images on a traditional PACS system requires diversion of attention away from the operative field. Intraoperative ultrasound is routinely used for real-time localization of liver tumors and identification of vessels and biliary structures. However, its use is limited in minimally invasive liver surgery due to the need for an additional port site and the need to interpret the 2D ultrasound images and mentally reconstruct the 3D anatomy being projected based on the orientation of the ultrasound probe. Preoperative planning with a VR model (Figure 6) and the application of AR endoscopic overlay (Figure 7) of patient-specific anatomy into the robotic surgical system could potentially improve surgical efficiency in real-time with intelligent surgical navigation.
Virtual 3D model of the liver. Porcine experimental model with implanted radiopaque tumor within the liver parenchyma. Preoperatively, CT images were obtained of the porcine liver with 3D segmented reconstructions created from the DICOM images. The 3D reconstructions can be viewed for preoperative planning with intuitive Surgical’s da Vinci® Surgical System.
Real-time endoscopic overlay of 3D reconstruction over the surgical field on the da Vinci ® Xi Surgical System. The relationship between the tumor (light pink) and adjacent vasculature including the hepatic veins (light blue), hepatic arteries (red) and portal veins (blue) is present on the overlay. After initial registration, the overlay is mapped onto the patient-specific anatomy changing in real-time with camera movement.
AR may be developed to overlay accurate 3D reconstruction data onto the operative field itself, thereby eliminating the need to divert the attention from the operative field and to translate the 2D images into a 3D construct. These advancements with planning and guidance can potentially reduce the cognitive load burden on the surgeon. Augmented reality for spatial recognition has been shown to improve localization accuracy in an experimental model of uterine myomectomy [47],and our recent experience has shown promise and feasibility in an experimental porcine liver model (Figures 1 and 2). Next steps in the application of VR and AR to hepatobiliary surgery include overcoming technical obstacles of continuous co-registration to a mobile liver with tissue deformation while continuing to define the utility of the technology with patient education, tumor board evaluations, preoperative planning and intraoperative navigation.
Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a deadly disease that represents major challenges for patients and healthcare providers alike. Numerous therapeutic options exist for the treatment of HCC that are often used in combination for local and regional control. Surgical resection remains an important intervention that can be curative. Minimally invasive surgical technologies continue to improve increasing its safety and applicability for oncologic liver surgery.
We would like to acknowledge Drs. Kyle Miller and Jonathan Sorger of Intuitive Surgical Inc. for their collaboration on the emerging robotic surgical technologies.
The authors have no conflict of interest to report.
Over the years, there has been an increasing demand on state-of-art solutions to solve real world problems such as the energy crises and efficient early-detection protocols in biomedical services. The current systems in place suffer from a range of issues, e.g. an increase in the depletion rate of fossil fuel and petroleum reserves as precursors in the electrical power generation plants [1]. Although, in the context of electricity generation, there exists alternatives such as nuclear power, unwavering challenges such as toxicity of nuclear waste still persist [2]. Another good example is the use of conventional dyes for the detection of tumors (typically having issues with stability and sensitivity) and drug delivery systems, which both generally lack selectivity i.e. in crucial need of smart, guide-assisted delivery to an affected target area [3]. As a response to these issues, among many that exist, scientists and engineers have presented a range of nanotechnology-based solutions through successes in the development and pioneering work on functional nanomaterials and related devices. There are, however, reservations in trusting these technologies in the general public domains, attributed to insufficient knowledge and/or lack of educational strategies [4]. Thus, progress in introducing these systems for general use still remains a challenge, with few successes such as QLED televisions [5] already available to the general public consumers for everyday use.
The core fundamental principle to grasp on nanotechnology and nanomaterials is that when the particle size dimensions of a bulk material decrease to the nanometer scale, improved and/or novel properties emerge. Thus, properties of a material can be tuned to desired standards best suited for specific applications, by simply manipulating particle size and shape. Indium chalcogenide nanomaterials are among many functional materials which boast rich literature in the aforementioned context, hence, their technological importance continues to be showcased in widespread applications to date.
The surge in the interest of indium chalcogenide nanomaterials has mainly been fueled by their recognition as alternative candidates against giants in the field of photovoltaics and sustainable energy solutions, such as cadmium chalcogenides which are known for their toxicity issues albeit achieving high performance and efficiency in metal chalcogenide-based semiconductor solar cells and other optoelectronic applications [6]. There are other less-to-non-toxic candidates which have been identified, such as antimony [7] and tin [8] chalcogenides, among others. However, indium chalcogenides contain a broad spectrum of crystallographic phases/species which exhibit unique properties attributed to different atomic compositions and crystal lattice orientation (polymorphism), contrary to antimony and tin chalcogenides. An example of this can be seen in the indium sulfide series, where InS, In3S4, In6S7 and In2S3 (α-In2S3, β-In2S3 and γ-In2S3 [9]) phases have been obtained experimentally [10]. This, in addition to manipulating particle size and shape, as well as employing other enhancement techniques such as doping and composite fabrications, present endless opportunities to harness tailor-made properties.
The most common and easy route to tune the properties of nanomaterials is by tweaking reaction parameters during synthesis. Therefore, the choice of synthetic methods best suited for specific precursors is of crucial importance [11]. Over the years, there has been an intensive research invested on precursor design necessary to produce high quality nanomaterials [12]. Hence, metalorganic compounds gained unprecedented attention as molecular precursors compatible with a range of fabrication protocols. These molecular precursors have made it possible to access various classes of nanomaterials, although the overall nanomaterial fabrication protocols were initially a hit-or-miss process. As a result of this approach, useful data has been obtained which has formed an integral part of theoretical models used to predict novel nanomaterials and their corresponding properties. As much as molecular precursors have demonstrated their preference and superiority over conventional salt-based precursors in the context of nanomaterial fabrication, the latter is however currently ideal for the development of devices which are sensitive to impurities, among other factors. Hence, recent technological advances (from late 2019 to date of this book chapter) of indium chalcogenide nanomaterials presented in the next sections are predominantly obtained through conventional salt-based precursor routes. Interesting literature on molecular precursors for indium chalcogenide nanomaterials is available elsewhere [13, 14].
Research on indium chalcogenide nanomaterials predominantly focuses on the indium sulfide series, attributed to readily available, abundant, cheap and stable precursors. This series finds applications in various applications, typically in optoelectronics. Among recent advancements is the selective NO2 gas sensing abilities of β-In2S3 thin films prepared by spray pyrolysis; this preliminary study introduces β-In2S3 thin films as less toxic and cheaper alternatives to highly selective and sensitive cadmium sulfide-based NO2 gas sensors [15]. In other work, In2S3thin films prepared by ultrasonic spray pyrolysis was evaluated, for the first time, as photoelectrodes (Figure 1) for all-vanadium photoelectrochemical batteries [16]. The efficiency was linked to the degree of optical and photoelectrochemical behavior associated with the thickness of the In2S3 thin films. In both works, it becomes apparent that the physical alterations of the films are necessary to improve selectivity, sensitivity and efficiency. There are two notable recent reports which have provided preliminary solutions as per above: (i) band gap (1.9–2.3 eV) and electrical resistivity (5.5 x 100–6.0 x 103 Ωm) control through thermal treatment of as-prepared In2S3 thin films at different temperatures in the presence/absence of sulfur powder [17], and (ii) tunable morphological (root mean square roughness) and optical properties (transmittance and photoluminescence) of the In2S3 thin films by varying the S/In molar ratio in spray pyrolysis deposition experiments [18].
Schematic representation of the photoelectrochemical VR-flow cell based on the In2S3-type photoelectrode. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [16]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.
Similar to the research objectives in Ref [15], indium sulfide is yet again demonstrated as a promising alternative to the cadmium sulfide, in this case as a buffer layer in the Cu(In,Ga)Se2 solar cell [19]. It was found that the indium sulfide-based solar cell achieved 15.3% efficiency compared to 17.1% recorded for the cadmium sulfide counterpart. The authors report that the observed efficiency is attributed to substrate temperature optimization during the sputtering method-based experiments. According to the study, the increase in substrate temperature tempers with the InxSy and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 compositions; an increase in temperature resulted to a sulfur-rich InxSy buffer layer, as well as copper depletion observed in the Cu(In,Ga)Se2 absorber layer, as seen in Figure 2. Furthermore, sodium doping was observed in both the InxSy layer and in the InxSy and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 interface. Thus, it is these features which were identified to play a major role in the increase of the solar efficiency.
Elemental composition of InxSy and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 layers deposited at different substrate temperatures. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [19]. Copyright 2020 MDPI.
Other efforts to improve attractive properties of In2S3 thin films have been reported, such as silver doping as means of improving electrical transport [20], as well as plasma treatment which consequently results to the self-formation of metallic indium arrays at the surface thus presenting opportunities in fabricating heterostructures for potential use optoelectronics [21]. Bilayer and trilayer InS triangular nanoflakes have also been prepared by chemical vapor deposition [22], potential applications envisaged as heterojunctions in nanoelectronic devices.
The films outlined above are predominantly obtained from existing technologies such as spray pyrolysis, thermal evaporation and chemical vapor deposition, where the films are directly prepared on a substrate. A new, solution-based synthesis of suspended 2D ultrathin sheets was developed [23]. This novel strategy, optimized through the synthesis of In2S3 sheets, exploits a self-assembling anisotropic growth mechanism templated by a combination of amine ligand with a geometrically-matched alkane. The obtained In2S3 sheets exhibited high photoelectric activities best suited for photoelectrochemical applications. Preliminary experiments displayed versatility of the method, attributed to the successful preparation of other 2D nanostructures such as Co9S8, MnS, SnS2, Al2S3 and MoS2. Thus, this presents an alternative route to easily prepare functional thin films which could ultimately be transferred to desired substrate post preparation and manipulation processes.
It has been observed that the recent advances in indium sulfide nanomaterials outlined above predominantly use the multiple precursor route. Although progress has been made in the past few years, the search for novel metalorganic single-source precursors for indium sulfide continues. New indium complexes with aminothiolate ligands have been synthesized and characterized fully [24], their structures are provided in Figure 3. Preliminary evaluations as potential single-source precursors showed that complex 1 is able produce β-In2S3 nanoparticles, complexes 2 and 3however need extensive work, as the diffraction studies for phase identification were inconclusive. However, microelemental analyses suggest that the nanomaterial exhibit general formulae In2S3 and In2Se2S from complexes 2 and 3, respectively.
Chemical structures of novel indium (III) aminothiolate complexes prepared by Ref. [24].
The main interest on indium sulfide-based ternary and quaternary nanomaterials is their optical properties, predominantly exploited in emission/photoluminescence applications. Recent studies in this field has focused on the chalcopyrite-type materials, copper indium sulfide (CuInS2) and silver indium sulfide (AgInS2) in particular. A recent, concise review on the synthesis and applications of CuInS2 is available in Ref [25]. However, there are interesting literature reports which emerged subsequent to the publication of the review. For example, there is a study which has evaluated the influence of halide ions on the optical properties of CuInS2 quantum dots [26]. Similar to our work where we evaluated the influence of halide ligands in the single-source precursors on the morphological and optical properties of cadmium sulfide [27, 28] and lead sulfide [29] nanoparticles, the authors in this case follow a multiple-source precursor route (through the solvothermal synthetic protocols) using CuX (where X = I, Cl and Br) salts. The optical properties show unique behavior with respect to the metal salt used, attributed to the physicochemical properties resulting from the growth processes which consequently promote accumulation of the halide ions in the crystal lattices of the quantum dots. In another report, the importance of controlling the Cu:In ratio in CuInS2 quantum dots to harness different properties for various applications is discussed [30]. The report suggests that the change in the Cu:In ratio induces defects attributed to what the authors refer to as Cu1+vs Cu2+ concentration defects, resulting in different optical emission behaviors as observed in Figure 4.
(a) Resonant photoluminescence (PL) measurements of CuxInS2 quantum dots where x = 0.47 (dashed lines) and x = 0.85 (solid lines), at different excitation energies. (b) the PL peak energies extracted from (a). (c) Simulated absorption (lines) and corresponding PL (shaded peaks) spectra of CuxInS2 quantum dots with respect to Cu1+ and Cu2+ defects. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [30]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.
Although CuInS2 is a reputably known non-toxic material displaying attractive properties which are already exploited intensively in biomedical-based applications, there are however recent reports which have shown compelling experimental evidence contradicting this non-toxic behavior. A recent research study has observed the instability of zinc sulfide (ZnS) shell-free CuInS2 quantum dots relative to the shelled counterparts in the in vitro studies [31], degradation was demonstrated by rapid dissolution in simulated biological fluid (SBF) and artificial lysosomal fluid (ALS) through absorption spectroscopy measurements shown in Figure 5. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that shell-free CuInS2 induces severe toxicity in the in vivo studies compared to the infamous, toxic cadmium selenide. In another report, CuInS2 nanocrystals were exposed in environment-like conditions (including alkaline and acidic settings) thereby promoting weathering [32]. It was observed that when the environmental pathogenic bacteria Staphylococcus aureus CMCC 26003 strain is exposed to weathered CuInS2 nanocrystals, it develops increased tolerance to certain antibiotics such as penicillin G, tetracycline and ciprofloxacin. Thus, these two studies are a constant reminder with regards to creating awareness that alternative “green” approaches require concise evaluations and any possible adverse effects towards disruption of natural and crucial processes. This should however not deter attempts in developing similar technologies such as AgInS2 quantum dots which have recently shown ultralong PL decay time attributed to the coordinating ligands which bear electron rich groups capable of passivating surface trap centers and achieving strong emissions [33].
(A) Comparative study on the dissolution of CIS (CuInS2), CISZ (zinc-alloyed CuInS2) and CIS/ZnS’ (CuInS2/ZnS core/shell) quantum dots by absorption spectroscopy measurements. (B) Visual evidence of dissolution in SBF. (C-E) dissolution studies in various media. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [31]. Copyright 2020 American Chemical Society.
Apart from the chalcopyrite series, other indium sulfide-incorporated multinary nanomaterials have made significant technological progress. Recently, CdIn2S4 and ZnIn2S4 nanostructures have been prepared by solvent-free green reaction protocols at moderately low temperatures [34]; the nanostructures displayed good photocatalytic activities in hydrogen evolution reactions through the splitting of hydrogen sulfide and water under visible light conditions. The activities were however lower than those of other CdIn2S4 and ZnIn2S4 nanostructures reported elsewhere [35, 36], attributed to synthetic the method limitations particularly on poor control of physical features such as particle size and shape. The quaternary system which has been recently reported is the Zn2xCu1 − xIn1 − xS2 [37] and Zn2xAg1 − xIn1 − xS2 [38] nanomaterials which display unique optical properties with varying composition and an active component potential in the light harvesting inorganic–organic hybrid nanomaterial, respectively.
The indium selenide series exhibits similar characteristics to the indium sulfide series, such as multiple crystallographic phases and polymorphic materials which have unique properties already found use in various applications. The chemistry, synthesis and application of the indium selenide series is already disseminated in comprehensive literature reviews available elsewhere [39, 40].
Among recent developments in the synthesis of indium selenide, is a novel reaction protocol which has been designed to growing ultrathin films of stoichiometric indium selenide (InSe) by precipitation of the thermally evaporated InSe crystal on a chemically neutral oil [41]. In another study, the thermal evaporation technique was used albeit to synthesize InSe nanowires on silicon and quartz silica substrates through an edge-epitaxial growth mechanism [42], this work presents a solution on challenges associated with growing nanowires on these substrates as a result of the lattice mismatch. This provides easy access to investigate the efficiency of nanowires on fabricated electronic and optoelectronic devices. The epitaxial growth approach has also been employed in the fabrication of few-layer β-In2Se3 thin films on c-plane sapphire and silicon substrates through the metalorganic chemical vapor deposition method [43], the synthetic protocols have potential scale up capabilities while retaining good quality uniform film. Obtaining defect-free nanomaterials from bulk counterparts through exfoliation mediated processes still remains an economically ideal route, however, the most common issue is low yields. Recent efforts towards this direction is the development of ultrafast electrochemical-assisted delamination of bulk In2Se3 through intercalation by tetrahexylammonium ions in a typical setup provided in Figure 6(d) [44], the authors demonstrated that the results are reproducible and the obtained yields of up to 83% flakes which have large micron-scale lateral sizes suitable for fabricating various nanodevices.
(a) Top and (b) side view of the layered crystal structure In2Se3; (c) the chemical structure of the tetrahexylammonium-based intercalant; (d) experimental setup; (e) images showing the beginning and completion of the experiment; (f) dispersion of delaminated In2Se3 nanosheets in dimethylformamide. Reprinted with permission from Ref. [44]. Copyright 2020 WILEY-VCH.
Applications of binary indium selenide nanomaterials are provided in Table 1. As observed, the choice of synthetic method is crucial since it produces nanomaterials suitable for specific applications. Recent interests are towards synthesizing good quality nanosheets and thin films, attributed to the development of novel next-generation devices for use in various fields. It is apparent that the sought-after features of binary indium selenide nanomaterials are optical properties-related, hence exploitation predominantly observed in optoelectronic applications.
Material | Synthetic method | Application | Material type | Reference |
---|---|---|---|---|
InSe | Mechanical exfoliation (Scotch tape) | Saturable absorber for mid-infrared pulsed laser | Thin films | [49] |
Sn-doped InSe | Photoluminescent sensor for sulfur vapors | Nanosheets | [50] | |
InSe | Field-effect transistor | [51, 52, 53] | ||
Field-effect transistor for pressure sensors | [54] | |||
Edge-epitaxial growth | Photodetector | Nanowires | [42] | |
Liquid phase exfoliation | All-optical diodes and switching | Nanosheets | [55] | |
α-In2Se3 | Potential use in Ultrafast photonic devices | [56] | ||
γ-In2Se3 | Electrosynthesis | Electrocatalyst for carbon dioxide electroreduction to Syngas | Nanoparticles | [57] |
α-In2Se3 | Mechanical exfoliation (Scotch tape) | Photodetector | Nanosheets | [58] |
In2Se3 | Electrochemical-based exfoliation | [44] | ||
In3S4 | Electron-beam deposition | Potential applications in electrical and thermoelectrical devices | Thin films | [59] |
Recent advances in the application of binary indium selenide nanomaterials.
Multinary indium selenide-based nanomaterials, with the exception of the binary system, are rarely subjects of research interest compared to the sulfide counterparts, most probably due to synthetic challenges associated with limited economic precursors. Hence, recent technologies outlined in section 3 above rely mostly on pre-synthesized (at extreme reaction conditions) and commercial indium sulfide bulk material. Regardless of this, recent efforts on multinary indium selenide-based nanomaterials have been reported.
Silver indium sulfide nanocrystals of the AgIn5Se8 phase have been synthesized through an eco-friendly electrochemical method using L-glutathione as a stabilizing agent [45]. The photoluminescence spectra of the nanocrystals showed an increase in quantum yields with an increase in silver-to-indium ratio used during synthesis. Furthermore, the nanocrystals displayed good photothermal responses which are ideal for hyperthermia applications. Layered manganese indium sulfide nanosheets of the MnIn2Se4 phase prepared by mechanical exfoliation, have recently been demonstrated as a potential candidate for use in magnetic and optoelectronic devices due to their interesting magnetic and transport properties [46]. Computational studies using first-principle calculations have predicted properties of the layered indium selenide bromide (InSeBr) which have significantly been ignored [47]. The comprehensive Raman scattering measurements have predicted that InSeBr would be a good potential candidate for use in optoelectronic properties. Research interests on quaternary indium selenide-based nanomaterials have primarily focused on copper indium gallium selenide [Cu(In,Ga)Se2] materials which are heavily invested in the fabrication of next-generation semiconductor solar cells; a recent, comprehensive review on the science, synthesis and application of Cu(In,Ga)Se2 nanomaterials is available elsewhere [48].
Indium telluride and derived nanomaterials are rarely common, due to a limited application scope. The most common application of indium telluride nanomaterials is in thermoelectrics. There has been attempts in gas sensing applications showing unsatisfactory sensitivity, attributed to the low electrical resistance of the nanomaterial [60]. Other applications have been mentioned elsewhere with references therein [61]. In a recent report, the authors devised a method of preparing In2Te3 thin films composed of nanowire structures from bulk InTe using a chemical vapor deposition technique through a gold-catalyzed vapor-liquid–solid growth mechanism [62]. It was however observed that the low electrical resistivity and thermal conductivity cannot be improved by simply changing the morphology of the particles. A separate study has reported that these properties can be effectively improved by doping In2Te3 with aluminum and antimony [63]. The stoichiometric InTe phase is also used in thermoelectric applications; recent studies also identify that the thermoelectric performance is improved by doping with antimony [64].
Ternary analogues of indium tellurides also find use in thermoelectric applications, such as copper indium telluride (CuInTe2) and silver indium sulfide (AgInTe2). The thermoelectric properties of the former have recently been reported to be enhanced by doping with manganese [65], while for the latter, adjusting only the silver concentration x (in Ag1-xInTe2) was sufficient [66]. The interesting properties of another ternary material potassium indium telluride (KInTe2), for the first time, have been recently predicted and investigated through theoretical first-principle calculations [67]; preliminary studies suggest the material is a semiconductor with an indirect energy band gap.
For over a decade, indium chalcogenide nanomaterials continue to make significant contributions in the development of next-generation functional materials and devices, attributed to their unique properties which can be tuned easily using existing methods. As a result of their multiple crystallographic phases, in addition to the manipulation of the physical features such as morphology, indium chalcogenide nanomaterials remain of interest due to diversified opportunities which still need to be explored.
With the aid of computational modeling and related tools, it has become easier to identify application-specific objectives which guide the thought process when designing reaction protocols for nanomaterial fabrication. The current research-driven focus is on providing easy and efficient solutions to challenges associated with purity, quality and yield which affect the performance of the nanomaterial in desired applications. Hence, the recent literature reports provided in this book chapter have rather revisited classical methods of synthesis which are reputably known for producing high quality precursors, even though having received a lot of criticism over the years due to harsh and/or sensitive reaction protocols best executed by skilled personnel. Therefore, there is now and urgent need for the alternative routes such as the use of low-temperature decomposing single-source molecular precursors, which have been developed over the years, to be improved and incorporated in the fabrication of functional nanodevices.
In many literature reports, there continues to be an exacerbated use of ‘non-toxic alternatives’ and related terms whenever nanomaterials which do not contain heavy metals are presented. Novel and/or improved properties resulting from the physical changes of the material is a good indication that the nanomaterial could exhibit features and behavior different to the bulk counterpart, toxicity could be an example. Thus, an increasing trend on the interest of toxicity studies for nanomaterials is envisaged in the coming years.
The authors wish to thank the DST-NRF (South Africa) and RS-DFID (United Kingdom) for financial support.
We declare no conflict of interest.
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