Candidate cities and winners of the status of host of the modern Summer Olympic Games
\r\n\tThe formation and development of seagrass meadows take many years. Among all the plant habitats in the world, the most carbon storage feature belongs to seagrass with 2000 tons/ha. Posidonia oceanica is the most important seagrass species for primary production and is endemic to the Mediterranean. This species is a perennial herb that spreads to a depth of 45 meters on the Mediterranean coast and can live up to 30 years. Their presence is indicative of clean seas.
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From this perspective, one of the premises of our approach starts from the fact that, by comparison to the past, mankind has reached the
So,
Doubtlessly, the most important sports competitions, by the enthusiasm they generate, do promote a strong social, economic and educational interaction; sometimes the impact that sport events have may be stronger than all the texts of any political conventions. The friends of sports organize contests or participate in them as simple spectators, accepting without reserve democratic procedures, international treaties, rules and relations based on common goals and values.
The Olympic Games have been around for about 3000 years in the history of mankind. Now, it is hard to imagine the changes that have taken place in society, state, education, technology and even religion. Remarkable is the fact that the Olympic idea, a theory of certain ideals related to a certain lifestyle, has remained practically unchanged during all this incredible period, preserving the humanitarian goals expressed in values such as Freedom, Justice and Equality.
The Olympic competition supposes the mutual knowledge of one another’s history, and accepting others, a political concept of respect for the native country, which rejects any attempt of getting people to fuse. Today, this competition is a spectacular evidence of the physical, intellectual, economic, technological realizations of mankind on a global scale.
After the 15th edition, of 1952, from Helsinki, all the artistic actions, namely music, dancing, theatre shows and art exhibitions organized in the Olympic country and city, have represented attraction points for the hundreds of thousands of tourists arrived here, which proves that sports is an efficient instrument for combining culture and exercise with the desire to know new physical-geographic and historical areas, unknown up to that moment.
Often, on the agenda of the world’s official and unofficial institutions, it was possible to find the Olympic Movement issue, the aspects brought to light being rather those related to the organization and completion of the different editions of the Olympic Games. However, the Olympic contest has had a significant popularity, the offer for organizing the summer or winter Olympic competitions becoming increasingly generous and the administrative, economic, sportive, cultural and educative activities of the International Olympic Committee becoming more and more numerous. The aims of this world organization has benefited of the attention of other global organizations, namely UNO, UNESCO and UNICEF. The Olympic city has become an international one, and the Olympic competition, to which sportsmen, trainers, officials, journalists and other people of over 200 states take part (Athens 2004, Beijing 2008), has become a universal one, which, beside the above-mentioned details, constitutes as well a good opportunity of sustainable development of the tourist infrastructures and not only. This manner of advertising has determined the amendment of the Olympic Charter by the Olympic forum (IOC), out of the desire to complete it with principles related to ecology and to the preservation of the Earth’s biodiversity. So, the cities hosting the Olympic Games or other regional, European or world sports competitions are becoming development models, trying to produce no damaging effects on the environment.
At the same time, the financial policy of the international Olympic forum has got the cities of different sizes from countries all over the world, dreaming of the possibility of successfully hosting the Olympic Games and, on the other hand, has assured the required resources needed to support sports for all whenever that is necessary, giving an increased attention and assistance to the cultural programs, from which the sports activities proposed by the host cities are not missing.
The main sense attributed to sports culture by the same work is that, as an essential part of the universal culture, it synthesizes the categories, the laws, the institutions and the material goods created for an intensive valorization of the physical exercise in competition, the final goal being to obtain supremacy or a record, following man’s biological and spiritual improvement. We consider that, today, the interrelation sport-culture is beginning to no longer be considered an elitist phenomenon and, little by little, this relation is becoming general and accepted as an expression of cultural internationalization.
At the same time, for the media, the Olympic contest is becoming one of the best opportunities to test technological novelties, which proves the economic and communicational complexity of these modern social phenomena. Television represents one of the valuable revenue sources for the Olympic Movement but also for advertizing the country and city organizing the Olympic events, as well as their cultural and historical-geographic identity. We should approach this aspect from a longer temporal perspective, as the host country and especially city can become at any moment spots of tourist attraction: often those who participated as spectators feel the desire to return, often joined by other fellows willing to know the places where the best sportsmen in the world competed to obtain the Olympic crown. For a better perception of the phenomenon, of the desire to become Olympic hosts, in the table below, we shall present the list of the candidate and winner cities that prevailed in time in the contest for obtaining this status.
The data from Table 1 show that the obtaining of the status of host city for the modern Olympic competition has been constantly disputed, especially by cities from countries with a capitalist government. The only exception was Moscow in 1980, being the only metropolis situated on the other side of the
Designated by IOC | Athens (Greece) | |
Designated by IOC | Paris (France) | |
Chicago (USA), Saint Louis (USA) | Saint Louis | |
London (Great Britain), Berlin (Germany), Milano (Italy), Rome (Italy) | London | |
Stockholm (Sweden) | Stockholm | |
The Olympic Games were not organized because of the First World War | ||
Anvers (Belgium), Amsterdam (Holland), Lyon (France) | Anvers (Belgium) | |
Paris (France), Amsterdam (Holland), Barcelona (Spain), Los Angeles (USA), Prague (Czechoslovakia), Rome (Italy) | Paris | |
Amsterdam (Holland), Los Angeles (USA) | Amsterdam | |
Los Angeles (USA) | Los Angeles | |
Berlin (Germany), Barcelona (Spain) | Berlin | |
The Olympic Games were not organized because of the Second World War | ||
The Olympic Games were not organized because of the Second World War | ||
London (Great Britain), Baltimore (USA), Lausanne (Switzerland), Los Angeles (USA), Minneapolis (USA), Philadelphia (USA) | London | |
Helsinki (Finland), Los Angeles (USA), Amsterdam (Holland), Minneapolis (USA), Detroit (USA), Chicago (USA), Philadelphia (USA) | Helsinki | |
Melbourne (Australia), Stockholm (Sweden), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Los Angeles (USA), Detroit (USA), Mexico City (Mexico), Chicago (USA), Minneapolis (USA), Philadelphia (USA), San Francisco (USA) | Melbourne - Stockholm | |
Roma (Italy), Lausanne (Switzerland), Detroit (USA), Budapest (P.R. Hungary), Brussels (Belgium), Mexico City (Mexico), Tokyo (Japan) | Rome | |
Tokyo (Japan), Detroit (USA), Vienna (Austria), Brussels (Belgium) | Tokyo | |
Mexico City (Mexico), Detroit (USA), Lyon (France), Buenos Aires (Argentina) | Mexico City | |
Munich (Germany), Detroit (USA), Madrid (Spain), Montreal (Canada) | Munich | |
Montreal (Canada), Los Angeles (USA), Moscow (USSR) | Montreal | |
Moscow (USSR), Los Angeles (USA) | Moscow | |
Los Angeles (SUA) | Los Angeles | |
Seoul (South Korea), Nagoya (Japan) | Seoul | |
Barcelona (Spain), Amsterdam (Holland), Belgrade (Yugoslavia), Birmingham (Great Britain), Brisbane (Australia), Paris (France) | Barcelona | |
XXVI - 1996 Anniversary edition | Atlanta (USA), Athens (Greece), Belgrade (Yugoslavia), Manchester (Great Britain), Melbourne (Australia), Toronto (Canada) | Atlanta |
Sydney (Australia), Beijing (People’s Republic of China), Berlin (Germany), Istanbul (Turkey), Manchester (Great Britain) | Sydney | |
Athens (Greece), Buenos Aires (Argentina), Cape Town (South Africa), Rome (Italy), Stockholm (Sweden) | Athens | |
Toronto (Canada), Istanbul (Turkey), Paris (France), Osaka ( Japan), Beijing (China) | Beijing | |
London (England), Madrid (Spain), Moscow (Russia), New York (USA), Paris (France) | London | |
Chicago (SUA), Tokyo (Japan), Madrid (Spain), Rio de Janeiro (Brazil) | Rio de Janeiro | |
Madrid (Spain), Tokyo (Japan), Istanbul (Turkey), Doha (Qatar), Baku (Azerbaijan) | The designation will take place in September 2013 |
Candidate cities and winners of the status of host of the modern Summer Olympic Games
Since the 16th-18th centuries until today, in the history of mankind, one can distinguish two major periods of huge changes, the Modern period, reaching up to the end of the First World War, and the Contemporary period, beginning with the year 1918. Industrialization and urbanization, alphabetization and the intensification of the social-cultural exchanges, the constitution of certain states oriented towards national development represent a few of the important features of this period of affirmation of the liberal capitalism.
Globalization constitutes the
It is to the history of these periods recalled above that we shall attach the internationalization of the sports activities as well, namely of the Olympic Games, a process in line with that of global
So, we can say that the promotion of sports and the modernization of the Olympic Games was and is a continual process, begun long before the period 1892-1896, reflecting the will to fulfill the needs of the new generation concerning this cultural act, namely the right of Modernism to be found as well in the area of Olympism and in the activities of physical education and sports.
So, the period from the end of the 18th century and the beginning of the 19th century marks as well the passage to the creation of some crystallized, multilaterally oriented physical education systems, in which one can notice the influence of the Greek gymnasium and the resuming, one way or another, of some of the activities of the Antique palaestra. From this perspective, several remarkable figures were Per Henrik Ling (1776-1839), the creator of the Swedish gymnastics, and the Englishman Thomas Arnold (1795-1842), rector of the College of Rugby.
At the same time, the promotion of Olympism and the renaissance of the Olympic Games were given an impetus as well by the archeological researches undertaken in the area of Old Greece. In 1723 and then in 1726, there were proposals to carry out excavations on the bank of the Alpheios River, but they were not approved of. It was only in 1805 and 1807 that a few English archeologists, following some summary diggings, dug out the first remains of the sanctuary from Olympia, and were able to draw a sketch of Zeus’ temple. More thorough researches were carried out in 1829, yielding valuable results, despite their duration of just six weeks. The archeological diggings were resumed with proficiency by the team of the German archeologist Ernst Curtis, who, after six years of work (1875-1881), managed to bring to light a series of valuable objects related to the contests from Olympia.
In the meantime, however, the fascinating idea of organizing some modern Olympic Games won new supporters and set into motion significant material means. The first large action related to the Renaissance of the Old Games was carried out in 1859, following the initiative and the financial efforts of Evangelos Zappas (1800-1865). Born in Greece, Zappas had settled in Romania in 1833, being granted (on his demand) the Romanian citizenship in 1844. He became the owner of an estate and a cereal merchant, gathering a considerable fortune. His will, bearing the date of November 30, 1860, authenticated by the authorities from Broşteni, reads: “...All these revenues from my properties with houses and others, except for the 400 (four hundred) shares of the ship company, which I dedicated to the expenses for the quadrennial Olympics exhibition and which the Administration of Wills (Clirodotimaton) will take care to provide in time to be used wherever they are needed... [will go to my cousin Constantin Zappas] (translation from Romanian)"; the will goes on by mentioning: “He [Constantine Zappas, the executor of this will) has the responsibility to build the Olympics’ Establishment and its arena according to all the rules of the art and spacious, in agreement to the plan that I sent to Mr. Rangabi and to its copy which I have here ". Zappas had in view the construction of an exhibition complex called Zappeion, with multiple functions: market place, exhibitions, areas for cultural activities and sports. And so “...Evangelos Zappas leaves the life tenancy of his real estate to his cousin Constantin Zappas, and its legal ownership to an Administration from Greece meant to recreate the Olympic Games”(Bucur -Ionescu, Maria, coord. (2002).
The Games foreseen by Zappas were largely in accordance to the model of those of the Antiquity and were limited to a Greek participation, a fact shown clearly in his memo of 1858, addressed to the king of Greece, by which he proposed “the restoration of the Olympic Games, so as to be celebrated every four years, according to the teachings of the old Greeks, our ancestors". They were held in Athens in 1859, 1870, 1875, 1888 and 1889, comprising as well artistic contests or different exhibitions. The opinions of different researchers of the Olympic phenomenon are divided when they refer to the success of these Games (later on called “pan-Hellenic" or “pre-Olympic"), yet these opinions converge towards recognizing in Zappas their initiator and their supporter, as well as his contribution to the impetus needed for the renaissance of the modern Olympic Games (Zamarovsky, 1988).
Under these circumstances, in order for Olympism to become truly functional on an international scale, it was necessary for someone to get concretely involved in such a process; this historical responsibility was assumed by France, in agreement to its cultural tradition, whose specific feature is universality. Out of the people who wrote about the history of Olympism, few pondered on the difficulties encountered by France in its approach related to the management of the modernization and universalization of the Olympic Games; in exchange, they overcharged Pierre de Coubertin with initiatives and responsibilities, often starting their comments with certain statements from this Frenchman’s late works and especially with his declaration following the success of Ernst Curtis, which reads: “Germany found the material remains of Olympia; why couldn’t France resuscitate its spirit and its splendors?”.
Yet, beyond this declaration, we discover France’s discontent regarding the attitude of Greece, which had conceded the right to excavate at Olympia to Germany and not to France. So, we notice that the Olympism was bringing to light the French-German antagonism, which had not vanished completely by the end of the 1870 war. At the same time, trying to explain to ourselves the difficulties of the moment, we can state that the existence of the four Central and Eastern Europe empires (German, Austrian-Hungarian, Ottoman and Russian), truly multinational states by their different development levels and external & cultural policies, did not provide favorable conditions for the resuming of the Olympic Games under the aegis of France.
At the same time, England, Greece, Germany, Romania, Sweden etc., which were states that had promoted an intense national Olympic movement within their boundaries until then, out of their desire to preserve their identity, were feeling justified in slowing down the process of universalization of the Olympic Games, being aware that, in order to become international, you necessarily have to go through the stage of being truly national. Even Greece, the mother-country of Olympism, which, by the honor granted to it, namely to organize the Olympic Games in 1896, also became part of the history of the modern universal civilization, went dramatically astray from this road, organizing once again in Athens, in the middle of an Olympiad (1906), its own Games, demonstrating once again that traditionalism remains a specifically modern historical phenomenon. This is why it was necessary for numerous intellectuals and for the liberal elites of these countries to support the consolidation of the road to the modernization and universalization of the Olympic Games, for the full integration of the Olympism in the modern European civilization (N. Postolache, 2004).
The founders of the Olympic Games from the end of the 19th century, who were actually very numerous, structured the Olympic type of Games according to the patterns to which they had assisted themselves until 1890, in Athens. In the harmonization of these forms, a certain role was played by the celebration, for the first time, beginning with 1890, of the day of Mai 1, as an international day celebrating workers’ solidarity, first in England, Belgium, Germany, Romania, Hungary, Spain, and then, during the following years, also in France, Serbia, Greece etc. Three years later, in the summer of 1893, it was a century since Guts-Muths, in his work Gymnastics for Youth, launched the idea of the renaissance of the Olympic Games, which meant a reiteration of an older German proposition. In Bucharest, during the same period, Olympic festivities of gymnastics, running, canoeing etc. were organized as support and adhesion to the idea of renaissance of the Olympic Games. The glory of the German archeologists was to be matched by that of the French people through their actions undertaken in support of the reorganization of the modern international Olympic Games; yet, for this, it was necessary to go over the concept of distinctiveness that the Olympism had held until then and to definitively instate the unifying principles (Pehoiu C., 2006).
As a product of the liberalism characteristic for the end of the 19th century, Pierre de Frédi, Baron de Coubertin (1863-1937) brought to light the main historical values of Olympism, which he then passed on to the liberal humanism of his epoch: equality of chances, fair play, justice, respect for the other etc. To these, he added the values of mutual understanding, autonomy, perfection, rationality, in brief, universal values that the modern Olympic movement aims to cultivate as goods pertaining to the entire world. In this sense, beginning with November 1892, Coubertin’s spirit was to be conquered by the camp of those who, in Europe and in America, were thinking about the outline of the modem sports and of the Olympic movement. After the travels from England and Ireland (Edinburgh), 1883 and 1885-1887, dedicated to the study of their educative system, including that of physical education (J.P. Boulogre, p. 7-12), he gathered a very well documented material meant to lay at the basis of the reform of the French educative system. From here resulted his first books: L’Education en Angleterre (Education in England), Paris Hachette, 1888, and L’Education anglaise en France (English Education in France), appeared a year later. During the same year of his debut as an author, Coubertin founded in Paris the Commission for the promotion of physical exercises in education (Comité pour la Propagation des Exercises Physiques dans l’Education) whose general secretary he became (Norbert Müller, p. 23). He then visited numerous schools from France, disseminating the Anglo-Saxon experience that encouraged the creation of sports clubs in the educational institutions. During the autumn of 1889, Coubertin visited the universities from six American and two Canadian towns (Montreal and Toronto) and also took part to the Boston Congress on university sports as envoy of the French government.
His admiration for the future American president (1901-1909), the republican Theodore Roosevelt, and the friendship joining him to professor William Miligan Sloane, from the University of Princeton, were presented by Pierre de Coubertin, along with the results of his visit in the USA, in the book Universités transatlantiques, appeared in Paris in 1890. During the same year, the Union of the French Societies of Athletic Sports (Union des Sociétés Françaises de Sports Athlétiques) was created in Paris, Coubertin being one of its main founders. A talented writer, Coubertin published, under the pseudonym of Georges Hohrod, the book Roman d’un Rallié, Paris, “Nouvelle Revue”, 1897, a novel whose action unfolds almost exclusively in the United States (Pehoiu C., 2006).
In October 1890, he was again in England, at Much Wenlock, as a guest of doctor William Penny Brookes, who, in his honor, organized at that point national Olympic Games, the last ones in England’s experience. As he had reached the age of 81, Brookes wanted to pass on the Olympic torch into the hand of France, by initiating Coubertin concerning this event (David Young, p. 79).
On November 25, 1892, when in the amphitheatre from Sorbonne everybody was celebrating five years since the creation of the Union whose leader he was, Pierre de Coubertin was ending his presentation entitled “Les exercices physiques dans le monde moderne” with the most optimistic thoughts: “We need to internationalize sports, we need to organize Olympic Games!” (Pierre de Coubertin, p. 75). It was the first time when this Frenchman of Italian origin, who had become the apostle of the Hellenism of the stadium, made public his proposition related to the renaissance of the Olympic Games.
Such propositions had been made before as well, yet not from such a high tribune as the amphitheatre of the famous Parisian university. It is here that the lack of unity that had dominated the Olympism until then, making its presence felt in national Olympic-style Games (at Rondeau-France, in some German cities, at Ramlosa-Sweden, Much Wenlock - Wales), Birmingham or Wellington - Great Britain, Bucharest - Romania, Athens - Greece) – until the 1890s – was to be brought to an end. The local, federal, national Olympic contests had done their job concerning the cultivation of the tradition instituted at Olympia. Yet, during this last phase, they risked turning into testimonies of the non-universalization of this civilizational element, menaced by petrification in the national molds and prescriptions. Even if such games were closer to the original ones, those of the Greeks, so of just one nation, Coubertin later explained that “he had considered necessary that the Olympic Games be resumed as a supreme consecration of the cult of sports practice, in the purest spirit of true sport”. The explanation is not satisfactory, that is why we need to add to it the results of the archeological excavations from Olympia, which were benefiting of a worldwide scientific echo during this period. They had important repercussions on the European Olympic movement, which aimed to reform the physical education and the sports of the Modern Era. But, this was happening not just in Europe and in the United States, where by virtue of certain events from their history, there were countries interwoven with the Western spirit, but also in the territories under the influence of two more great cultural traditions: India’s and China’s. Zikoro Kano, for instance, was the Asian homologue of Coubertin, yet the Japanese (who had become a member of the I.O.C.) was preaching at that time educative values that were considered nationalistic.
In direct relation to the economic modernization, a new pastime conception accompanied by an unprecedented population growth (especially in Europe and in the U.S.A.) and the development of the urban area and civilization, there appears a specific environment, which was absolutely necessary for the practice of sports and the organization of international contests.
France, England and Germany (the latter unified as well in 1871, one year after the unification of Italy) are the states that were most affected by industrialization and urbanization. During this period, the Asian civilizations took over many elements of the modern European lifestyle and philosophical and moral values. The Church receives a strong challenge from state institutions, scientific theories and ideological beliefs, but it will soon get adapted to the modernization process. It is only with capitalism or rather with its birth that art, culture, sports embraced larger and larger shares of the public, of any age and gender, which stimulated the tendency of the human nature towards competition and stating one’s primacy as a common human feature. The glory of the coronation on the stadium, as once at Olympia, a privilege of the old Greeks that had set them apart among the peoples of the Antiquity, was rediscovered, becoming an international gain.
Slowly but surely, the Olympism that had reached the modern period of the European civilization was to flow over the Atlantic, to the USA and Canada, its values and ideas of sacred peace, fair-play, humanism, individual freedom, honor etc. conquering the entire earth.
At least during the last two decennia of the 19th century, the ideas related to Olympism were under a continuous migration, leading to the gradual but permanent disappearance from the Olympic movement of any trace of political, economic, sportive, spiritual regionalism that could have prevented its globalization.
At the same time, the 1880s mark as well the beginning of the great European colonial expansion, which, by the end of the year 1914, led to the transformation of the South-East of Asia, of Oceania and of India into colonies. Other regions, such as Persia or China were divided into areas of influence as England, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Holland, Portugal, Russia, and by the end of the 19th century the United States and Japan had become true empires or colonial powers. The consequences of this colonial expansion will be felt as well in the advertizing of sports but also in the organization of the modern Olympic Games, these countries being in fact the ones that organized the first editions of these contests in their capitals.
In front of the new challenges faced by mankind, namely the scientific impetus and the concept of long healthy living, the Olympic Movement had to adapt objectively, the need to add new elements being obvious. Among these elements, the universalization of the paradigms related to Olympism proved to be the way of no return. So, the period that we have referred to had the possibility to provide civilization with a model of Olympic Games, this time “not as a celebration of just one people, but of the sportsmen from all over the world” (V. Bănciulescu, p. 48). It is the moment when, through the organization and the development of these great periodical programmed international competitions, which were a means of mutual understanding and closeness, more active than the barriers separating them, the Olympic stadium and the sports activity in general were to meet the requirements of the value system for which they had been created.
So, globalization is the result of a deep economic and social restructuring of the world that used to be divided into three parts. So, more and more countries or groups of countries got to the point of being able to organize an edition of the Olympic Games, at least economically. So, globalization can be seen from the perspective of a dialectic process in which a tendency is always balanced by an antithetic countertendency: on the one hand, this possibility weakens the division of the tripartite world, and on the other hand, the differences continue to grow on a world scale. At the beginning of the 20th century, the periodical international Games, enriched with new features specific for the modern period, meant to annul the exclusive domination of a nation, of the male gender, of a single city etc., will truly become Olympic, comprising all the continents.
The transformations recorded worldwide have had and will continue to have a certain effect on the financial sources of the Olympic Games institution as well. Actually, they have become a sports event called the “Olympic Games Made in the World”. The role of one large national economy, as the unique basis for the organization and financing of the Olympic Games has begun to waver. Here, many people see a chance for cities from all the continents to host the Olympic Games and ask that the Games be urgently held in an African city, as the dream of organizing them in a South-American city has already been fulfilled (Table 1).
Globalization refers to a process of increased independence among societies and people on an economic, political, cultural and social level. Trade connections, fights, migration and culture are present everywhere in the history of mankind. The recent globalization process has determined new links in the interdependence chains that have always connected people all over the world.
So, today mankind is experiencing an intensification of the ongoing globalization process, which increases the speed of time and diminishes the space, giving it a higher degree of interdependence and increasing the world’s significance as a whole.
The actions accompanying man in time, related to his existential needs, were naturally joined by the desire of physiological relaxation and at the same time by the aspiration to obtain a victory in the confrontation with his fellows. This idea was later on called by the Englishmen, sport (through the nominalization of the Latin verb disportare, which meant to relax, to have fun).
Modern sport is connected to this global network of interdependent relations and can only be understood regarded in this context. First of all, it exhorts us to adopt a historical and comparative approach, to appreciate the context in which the global sports model is situated. Here are five associated dimensions of the domains under analysis in the context of globalization :
people\'s international mobility (sportsmen, trainers etc.);
technological optimization and efficiency increase (equipment and facilities);
economic problems (prizes in money, approvals, marketing);
mass-media contribution ( promoting transnational sports personalities);
ideological dimension (ideas transcending the national, regional or international ideologies, such as Olympism).
A complex contradictory multidimensional process, globalization seems to be the main feature of the present development, as it refers to the spatial extension of the relations, processes and structures of any nature. This is why, the increasing globalization of the financial resources meant to promote sports and Olympism and the organization and deployment of regional, continental or worldwide competitions is substantiated by spatial, quantitative, qualitative and intensity changes; the first refer to the spectators, TV spectators of sports shows from different world regions, which highlights as well the increase of the number of participant nations as well as the number of the countries in which the Olympic competition is broadcasted on TV. At the same time, the spatial character of sports globalization and of the Olympic Movement is also brought to light by the fact that more and more developed geographic regions have the financial possibility and the desire and political support to enroll in the contest for obtaining the status of organizer of the Olympic Games or of the World Championships.
From a quantitative perspective, the changes appear outside the area of the financial resources, in the increase of the sums of money meant for financing the Olympic competition directed to the organizing city, which sums come from all over the world, as a result of TV rights and sponsoring, Olympic programs, ticket sales, tourism, trade etc. Along with this aspect, we can notice the manifestation of the professional quality of the Olympic Movement, in direct relation to a growing efficiency, better development conditions from one edition to the next, all of these being the result of the easier information and goods exchange among the host cities.
Starting from the fact that the promotion of globalization has the purpose of sharing economic and social benefits among countries and their populations, by acting in this sense, the sports and Olympic movement – as supporters of globalization – have obtained enviable results. On an international level, the two movements generally have an important role in the approaches carried out in the sense of keeping the world peace, maintaining the sustainability of the relations among nations, facilitating the promotion of the sportive and cultural international ideal. By the extension they acquired beginning with the year 1896, the year when the Olympic Games were resumed, sport has progressed significantly in the area of knowledge as well as in the social, financial, political and economic areas, which happened, among others, because of the existence of an efficient management system, whose results have improved from one year to the next.
more TV broadcasts more tickets sold | more global financing |
more participant countries | more efficiency by means of exchanges service quality growth increase of the informational technology flow - more communication |
more Olympic tourists from all the countries | |
more potential host countries | more money circulating among the continents |
Spatial and quantitative changes with a global impact
So, we can notice that through the promotion of new governance models in sports, applied by one country or the other, a rapid and sustainable success of the domain under discussion has been assured. From this perspective, in time, two categories of governance methods have been delineated: an interventionist one (Romania, France, Italy, Croatia, Ukraine, Russia, Latvia, Slovenia etc.) and, at the opposite pole, a model with non-interventionist features (England, Austria, Finland, Germany, Norway, USA etc.), the differences between them being given by the presence of different structures and of certain demands and criteria for granting the funds imposed by a certain specific legislation, the last one assuring a greater flexibility (requiring no modifications in the sense of an adaptation at the appearance or adoption of new sports branches and contests), a rapid financing and a rearrangement of the sports organizations. At the same time, the sportive movement can be controlled by a governance or the other through the facilitation of public financing, without neglecting the private one, a behavior adopted by most European countries and supported, on the one hand, by the European Sport Charter, art. 12, and, on the other hand, by the awareness concerning the state’s role in the recognition of sports values as components of the national traditions and culture, in the shaping of a healthy lifestyle and the increase of the quality of the citizens’ life.
As far as the financing of the Olympic Movement is concerned, an important role in this sense goes to the Olympic Solidarity. Founded in 1961, this structure of the International Olympic Committee (CIO) has the mission to manage the sums obtained from the share of TV rights for the retransmission of the Olympic Games, directing them towards the National Olympic Committees (NOC), its responsibilities being truly in agreement with the specific technical and financial assistance programs built and approved by the commission of the world Olympic forum for the Olympic Solidarity and taking place every four years in order to promote sports.
The strategy approached in this sense by the above-mentioned structure relies on the principles of decentralization and autonomy of the Continental Associations in the context of the respect for the development of continental programs, for the minimal demands set by the Olympic Solidarity Commission, concerning the acceptance of the yearly financial audit, the realization and presentation of yearly reports. At the same time, beside the things mentioned above, an important concern is to maintain the content of the world Programs, at least on the level of the previous year, namely to increase the financial aid given to the National Olympic Committees. The Olympic programs represent a projection of the organization and development of the Olympic Games in the future; they are specific to each edition, yet substantiated by the permanence of the following general goals: promoting the main principles of the Olympic Movement; developing and completing the sportsmen’s and trainers’ technical knowledge by means of scholarships granted to them; training and instructing sports administrators; supporting the sportsmen’s training for the participation in the Olympic Games, women’s participation etc.
These programs are part of a consolidated budget, approved for a four-year period, which becomes the main means by which the world development of sports is assured. The programs carried out by the Olympic Solidarity during the last decennia of the 20th century and the beginning of the 21st century, on a global and national level, are acknowledged for the high-quality management module applied to the management of the financial means.
Funds allotted for the realization of the goals of the last three Olympic cycles (Source: OS reports)
So, for the realization of the goals of the last three Olympic cycles, the budget of the Olympic Solidarity was of $121. 9 millions for the period 1997-2000, the Sydney Program; 1.7 times more for the Athens Program, namely $209.48 millions, during the interval 2001-2004, while the budget sums planned to be spent within the Beijing Program, 2005-2008 rose to the value of $244. 0 millions, which represents a 16.48% growth compared to the previous one and twice as much as the sum corresponding to the years 1997-2000. (Fig. 1). Important sums from the last consolidated budget were spent on the implementation of the Continental Program, these sums being increased by 28.67%, while for the direct support of the National Olympic Committees, the sums increased by just 8.8 % for the same interval by comparison with the previous one (Table 3).
As far as the allotment of resources for the realization of the continental programs, the existing data from the Olympic Solidarity report for the periods under analysis show the fact that Africa was supported with a substantial sum, namely $15 290 thousands, representing 24.35% of the total of the funds, of which about 12% was directed to be administered by the National Olympic Committees, 12.3% was dedicated to reunions, 9.8% to continental activities, 10.4% to the organization of continental and regional games, the rest of 55.7% being allotted to other specific activities undertaken by the national Olympic forums.
At the same time, Europe benefited of a financing whose value was of $14,384 thousands, The National Olympic Committees using 53.4 % for the activities undertaken by them and 21.44% for the organization of reunions on different topics. In their turn, the continents Asia and America, for their specific programs, were granted respectively 20.4% and 19.4% of the total of the financial assistance meant for the continental programs. The smallest financial and technical aid for the same kind of activities went to Oceania, namely $8,200 thousands or 13.6%, low but consistent compared to other programs managed by the Olympic Solidarity.
2005-2008 compared to 2001-2004 ($) | 2005-2008 compared to 2001-2004 (%) | |||
Bejing 2005-2008 program | ||||
World programs | 99 800 000 | 110 500 000 | 10 700 000 | 10.72% |
Continental programs | 69 944 000 | 90 000 000 | 20 056 000 | 28.67% |
Direct NOC Assistance | 31 240 000 | 34 000 000 | 2 760 000 | 8.83% |
Management and communication | 8 500 000 | 9 500 000 | 1 000 000 | 11.76% |
ANOCA – Africa (53 NOC) | 15 290 000 | 19 675 000 | 4 385 000 | 28.68% |
COE – Europe (48 NOC) | 14 384 000 | 18 508 000 | 4 124 000 | 28.67% |
OCA - Asia ( 44 NOC) | 12 760 000 | 16 419 000 | 3 659 000 | 28.68% |
PASO – America (42 NOC) | 12 170 000 | 15 660 000 | 3 490 000 | 28.68% |
ONOC – Oceania (15 NOC) | 8 200 000 | 10 474 000 | 2 274 000 | 27.73% |
ANOC | 7140000 | 9 264 000 | 2 124 000 | 29.75% |
Programs for sportsmen | 43 500 000 | 47 500 000 | 4 000 000 | 9.20% |
Programs for enterprisers | 23 000 000 | 24 000 000 | 1 000 000 | 4.35% |
Programs for NOC administration | 20 500 000 | 25 500 000 | 5 000 000 | 24.39% |
Promoting the Olympic values | 12 800 000 | 13 500 000 | 700 000 | 5.47% |
From the perspective of the spatial and quantitative changes entailed, globalization affects sports and the Olympic phenomenon at least in four directions:
The selling of the TV broadcasting rights for the European or world sports competitions as well as the increasingly diversified and sophisticated services coming from sponsors constitute essential financial sources for the organization and development of these events. The international cooperation between the world Olympic forum, local, regional or continental sports organizations and sponsors who act without any boundaries is motivated and determined by the fact that this event represents a platform for advertisements on a global scale. For instance, the introduction of the “Olympic Program” after Los Angeles 1984 has subsequently provided a possibility for the international corporations to use the Olympic symbols, the sports competitions at all levels on a global scale.
The geographic setting of the host city has a strong influence on the origin of the financial sources, the analysis made from this perspective on all the editions of the Games, from Munich 1972 to Athens 2004 showing a substantial increase of the sources of global financing. The USA editions were financed less than those from other countries from this perspective, as the main share of the financial sources still come from this geographic area.
By comparison to the municipal marketing which means improving the city’s image using measurable assets concerning its physical infrastructure, its nature, its public services and the level of its taxes, the host cities of large competitions like the Olympic one have adopted branding as a method for promoting their image. This more recent and distinctive phenomenon, which means adding an emotional level to the image of the city, as well as highlighting its intangible qualities, such as its “soul” or its values, as well as the impressions that a person experiences when he/she visits a certain urban area. The success of a city brand competing for the status of organizer of the Olympic Games is represented by everything that expresses thoughts, feelings, expectations, associations coming into people’s minds when the name, the logo, the products, the services or the events specific for this urban area are brought to the forefront (fig. 2).
The city brand hexagon: Potential, Pulse, People, Basic needs, Place, Presence
According to Simon Anholt, a specialist in the phenomenon under discussion, what delineates a city’s brand are the following aspects: presence, potential, pulse, place, people, basic needs, elements that all together form the City Brand Hexagon, targeting mainly the international status of the city and the people’s degree of familiarization to certain cities, their desire to visit them or the fact that they visited them, the reasons why certain cities are famous worldwide, the contribution of these cities to the international development of science and culture during the last 30 years.
Based on this hexagon, in 2005, the same author elaborated the report “Anholt City Brand Index” whose content refers to a hierarchization of the world city brands in agreement to their perception among 17.502 people (man and women), aged between 18 and 64, from countries such as: Australia, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, France, Germany, India, Italy, Holland, New Zeeland, Poland, Japan, Malaysia, Mexico, Russia, Spain, United Kingdom, USA.
The criteria that substantiated this study were related to culture, population, work place, life quality, international status, and, following its application by means of questions addressed by phone, the top 10 world towns, in a descending order, are: London, Paris, Sydney, Rome, Barcelona, Amsterdam, New York, Los Angeles, Madrid and Berlin. We can notice that eight of them had in time the status of hosts of the Olympic competition, while the other two (New York and Madrid) did not have this honor, although they have candidated in this sense. The report showed the fact that the towns hosting the Olympic Games fully benefit of the greatness of the moment, which significantly improves the city’s image and brand. Certainly, everybody will have their eyes on London this year, during the development of the Olympic Games. A strong brand can also create false impressions, for instance people are so delighted by London, yet they do not realize how expensive life is in such a metropolis. This aspect has been seized by another recent study, as UBS appreciates that the capital of England is the most expensive city in the world, while the Anholt study situates it on the 7th place from this perspective. From a different perspective, the Anholt report estimates that Paris represents love, Milano - style, New York - energy, Washington - power, Tokyo - modernity, Lagos - corruption, Barcelona - culture, Rio - fun. They are all city brands, being inseparably related to the history and destiny of each geographic area.
Closely connected to the statements above are two examples of concrete cases that had an unexpected outcome:
Richard Daley, the mayor of the American city Chicago, who competed for the right to host the 31st edition of the Olympic Games, programmed for 2016, declared at the time that Beijing deserved a gold medal for its administration of the Olympic funds it got hold of from different sources for the Olympic contest of 2008, while his metropolis had not settled for such a trophy. The American city’s official was referring to the 40 billion dollars investment (the equivalent of 27 billion euro), which China used in order to assure the infrastructure of the 2008 Games. He underlined the fact that for the 2016 edition, his city’s administration would not use the taxes coming from the citizens, as for this purpose would be used only money from the private sector and from the federal government. The plans of Chicago city include several permanent or temporary sports bases, most of them already present, the cost of their reconditioning and readaptation being estimated to 900 million dollars. At the same time, 1 billion dollars is previewed for the realization of the Olympic Village, the funds being public-private (for the 2012 edition, London was announcing on the date of its designation that it would spend 18 billion dollars in this sense). For the organization of the 2016 Olympic Games, the other candidates, along with Chicago, were Tokio, Madrid and Rio de Janeiro, the last one being declared winner.
Italy has not been able to assure, during s period of crisis like the present one, the financial support for the organization of the Summer Olympic Games of 2020, the Italian government announcing that it would not support in this sense the authorities of Rome, which gave up showing up with an offer for the organization at the IOC just a day before the deadline, as the cost of the organization of this edition was estimated at 12.5 billion euro. The cities still competing for the organization of the 2020 Olympic Games are: Madrid, Tokyo, Istanbul, Doha and Baku, the winner being due to be announced in September 2013.
The information and transport systems have a capital importance in the organization and the deployment of large sports events. Today, the informational system facilitates the increase of the knowledge on sports competitions worldwide, and the transport system reduces the spatial barriers between nations, the result being reflected in the participation of over two hundreds of National Olympic Committees to the Olympic Games, leading, among other things, to the dynamization of the international tourism, as well as to the establishment of new worldwide economic relations.
During each edition of the interwar Olympic Games, a novelty, a premiere was introduced: the Olympic flag The flag was now bearing the inscription Citius - Altius - Fortius, which will become the Olympic slogan. The three exhortations (faster - higher - stronger) were formulated by Henri Didon, the director of the secondary school from Arcueil, a friend of Coubertin’s.
The first trajectory of the Olympic flame, starting from Olympia, went through the cities of Athens, Thessaloniki, Sofia, Belgrade, Budapest, Vienna, Prague, Dresden and then Berlin. In order to commemorate this event, in Tageu, in Arcadia, not far from Olympia, since 1936, there is a marble plate marking the first lighting of the Olympic flame during the era of the modern Olympic Games.
For the Olympic Games of 1956, in Australia, the flame was lit in Olympia and transported to Athens; then, it landed on the Australian land at Cairns, brought over by plane. From here to Melbourne, 2,830 sportsmen carried it on foot, a mile each. The last relay shift was the junior athlete Ron Clarke, who by the end of 1963 was to break down, for the first time, the world record in the 10,000 m race.
For the Olympic Games from Tokyo, the Olympic flame covered a distance of about 25,000 km, being carried by a number of about 100,000 people. The last shift of the Olympic relay was the student Yoshinori Sakai, aged 19, born in Hiroshima on the morning of the day of August 6, 1945, when the city was hit by the ordeal of the atomic bomb.
For the first time in the history of the Olympic Games, the Olympic flame was lit in Mexico by a woman, the young Mexican athlete Enriqueta Basilio. Before reaching the stadium, the Olympic flame covered 14,000 km by ship, from Europe to Mexico.
For the Olympic Games of 1976, the Olympic flame was lit by satellite, with laser rays, from Olympia in Greece directly into a Québec square, Quebec being the then capital of Canada.
During the 1980s, the revenues of the organization committees of the host cities from the sales of the television rights strongly depended on the negotiations with the American TV channels. Today, these negotiations are only the responsibility of the International Olympic Committee (IOC). The strong competition among the American TV networks, which began around the 1970s, led to a stronger position of the US for this financing source. The US channels would easily overbid, because the American corporations were ready to pay even higher prices for commercial TV spots. Until the end of the 1980s, when the prices for TV rights in the US were adjusted on demand, the increasing privatization of the TV channels caused a strong increase of the revenues in Europe.
The intensification of the global communications is related to the increased exchanges, significances and cultural identities on a global scale. By the end of the last millennium, people talked about the increase and the juxtaposition of the “mediascapes” (world news broadcasting) and “ideoscapes” (key concepts and values of the world enlightenment problems, such as freedom, democracy or other human rights); together they have brought about a trend of world consumption and media models, which have grown together and have interacted. The global presence of certain products, strongly influenced and dominated by the West, serves to highlight this point. Today, capitalism dominates the world economy, promoting a different way of exchange organization, which favors cultural relations and understanding among people from different countries. So, one can state that the occidentalization and the globalization of the consumers’ behavior, regardless of the products, are the main factors responsible for the perception of the Olympic competition as something special, spectacular, created by the Western world. People are developing a demand for the Games and for sports products and broadcasts. This, however, does not mean a cultural homogenization process in the hand of some easily identifiable nations or ideologies, but the fusion of different legends (ex.: consumerism, cult of technology).
This aspect refers to the appearance of expert systems for organizing worldwide sports competitions. They rely on the learning of an efficient management and communication using the new technologies. Information sharing and exchange is a crucial element of the global Olympic system on a scale unprecedented before.
The main sense of the sports culture is that, as an essential part of the universal culture, it synthesizes the categories, the laws, the institutions and the material goods created for the intensive valorization of the physical exercise within the contest, with the final goal of obtaining supremacy or a record, following man’s biological and spiritual optimization. We think that, in this way, nowadays, the interrelation sport-culture begins to no longer be considered an elitist phenomenon and, little by little, this relation tends to be generalized and accepted as mass culture.
Moreover, to the ancestral dilemma, often present in the world of the antique thinkers as well, namely whether man should rather cultivate the astuteness of his mind or the strength of his body, the Greeks of the Antiquity replied by what we have inherited from them as kalokagathia, and the Latin people of those times by the well known maxim Mens sana in corpore sano.
In the year 776 B.C., was held the first edition of the Olympic Games documented during the Antiquity. If we were to return to the contemporary period, in 1989, the world witnessed, for instance, the longest pedestrian contest ever organized in the world, from Paris to Beijing (about 18,000 km). The participants marched through 12 countries on two continents, celebrating in this way the bicentennial of the French Revolution of 1789 and 40 years since the foundation of the Popular Republic of China. The arrival in Beijing took place on July 14, 1989. In the year 2000, the last Olympic Games of the second millennium took place, and, in 2004, the first ones of the third millennium.
Between the first major event of the Antiquity and the other three belonging to the modern world, there were respectively 2765, 2775 and 2780 years of human history but also of sports history. Throughout all these years the idea of contest for getting better, higher, stronger (“Citius, altius, fortius”), has kept its sense – with few exceptions – a fact demonstrated not just by legends, but also by historical accounts, which attest that the first protagonists of the great organized competitions were not the best sportsman in the world.
The level attained by the practice of the physical exercise during the actual stage of development of our society is the consequence of multiple determining factors, of which we consider it necessary to highlight, because of their importance, a number of four:
Taking over the generous idea of the Pan-Hellenic games, the founders of the modern Olympic Games enriched them with new features, first of all conferring them the quality of universality, by inviting young people from all the countries in the world, to a loyal competition, without any discrimination. In the modern world, the Olympic Games convey, along with the Olympic flame, the noble message of peace and harmony all over the world, a harmony dreamed of, a few millennia ago, by Plato, the visionary of the antique Greece.
the continual development of the formal and informal education, a fact that has determined the inclusion of an increasingly larger share of the young population within the sphere of action of the institutionalized physical education;
the creation of leisure time, as a permanent social reality, has constituted and will continue to be a premise for drawing adults towards the practice of physical exercises;
the intense circulation and transformation of the values specific to this phenomenon, supported by the contemporary conditions of our civilization, have changed and developed the role of physical education, structured as sport, adapting it to man’s needs, in the sense of understanding it in relation to the work process, turning it into a means of training the individual for work and at the same time into an alternative to a brutalizing work.
The combative and pacifist character of the Greek culture, its symmetry, harmony and measure in everything, its thirst for knowledge and its power of synthesis – elements that played an important role in the protection of the Greek people’s interests – have gradually been embraced by the whole mankind, by its entire culture and civilization. These gifts of the Mediterranean world, diminished for a while during the Middle Ages, have attained the actual period as values included in one phenomenon: Olyimpism.
The evolution, from national to global, of at least four financing sources of the Olympic Movement, namely TV broadcasts, sponsorships, ticket sales, the commercialization of certain symbols related to the Olympic competition (coins, stamps) is closely connected to the four directions of the global spatial and quantitative changes presented above. In brief, the effects of globalization as a process on the above-mentioned sources are:
The globalization of the media and of the consumers’ behavior has led to a worldwide interest for the Olympic sports and for the Games. The revenues come from selling broadcasting rights to TV networks from all over the world. So far, the revenues of the US, which is still the most important market for broadcasting rights, after the 1984 edition, have remained vast, yet the revenues won by other continents have been growing as well. Atlanta realized 3000 hours of broadcasting for a number of worldwide spectators that went over the one of the previous edition by 3 billion people. The substantial increase of the revenues for the 2000 Olympic competition was caused by an unbalanced distribution by the international Olympic forum, which finally managed a $2.35 billion total, which was paid to the organization committees for broadcasts until 2008. At present, it is clear that the cities of Athens and Beijing, hosts of the 2004 and 2008 contests, have considered a constant or even a slight decrease of the revenues coming from the sale of the broadcasting rights to the US, according to the inflation. The rights for broadcasting the event represent the most important source of revenue for Athens; its value was $1.5 billion, and the IOC benefited of a part of it.
The globalization of the market turns today’s multinational corporations into virtual networks with strong connections in the worldwide advertizing. The top revenues come especially from the USA, where there are numerous specialized international corporations. In contrast, the revenues from the “partners” of the respective Olympic Games come especially from the host country. The Sydney edition generated up to 6.1 billion dollars revenues from advertizing, and over 6 billion dollars were spent by its 1.6 billion visitors during the year 2001. The Sydney Convention and Visitors Bureau recorded between 1993 and the year of the Games, a number of 210 events, attracting over 250,000 delegates and investing over a billion dollars of the city’s economy. The coming of over 110.000 international visitors during the Games led to a substantial improvement of the perception on Australia as far as its services, quality, value and trust are concerned.
Partners’ origin | 1985-1988 program | 1988 partner | 1989-1992 program | 1992 partner | 1993-1996 program | 1996 partner | 1997-2000 program | 2000 partner |
9 | 15 | 12 | 9 | 10 | 10 | 11 | 13 | |
USA | 78% | 27% | 75% | 22% | 90% | 90% | 82% | 8% |
From outside the SUA | 22% | 73% | 25% | 78% | 10% | 10% | 18% | 92% |
From the host country | 0% | 60% | 0% | 56% | 90% | 90% | 0% | 84% |
From outside the host country | 100% | 40% | 100% | 44% | 10% | 10% | 100% | 16% |
Sponsors of the Seoul to Sidney Olympics, according to the country of origin - sources: Seoul OCOG (1988, p.233) / Barcelona OCOG (1992, p. 376) / Patterson (1994) / Hill (1996) / N.N. (Nov. 6, 1996, p. 21) / lOC (1996b, p. 7) / IOC (1996a, p. 15) / Landiy / Yerless (1996, p. 179) / IOC (1997b, p. S-10)
The analysis of the data presented in the table above gives us the possibility to state that most of the corporations supporting the marketing programs meant to promote the Olympic Games come from the US (81%), an aspect that could explain why the Los Angeles 1984 and Atlanta 1996 editions did not benefit of a substantial international financing compared to other countries that hosted such events. In exchange, the marketing activities of the corporations from the host country of the Olympic Games are limited to the respective area, their involvement in the Organization of the Games being substantial (73%). Although the 1952 Helsinki edition occasioned the first international marketing program (IOC, July 5, 1996, p. 22/ Landry / Yerles 1996, p. 370), sponsoring has not evolved in the direction of becoming a global financing source until the IOC assumed the role of leader, and the market and the technology have not attained globalization. So, instead of individually buying the rights of the Olympic circles from the national committees, the global corporations can now obtain exclusive rights from the International Olympic Committee in exchange for just one contribution.
In the future, the intensive market globalization, as well as the increase of the number of global corporations will determine the appearance of an increasingly strong competition for exclusive marketing rights with a view to using the Olympic symbols. It can be noticed that the majority of the corporations taking part in the TOP marketing program come from the USA (81%). For this reason, and because of the very significant revenues earned from selling the broadcasting rights, the 1984 Los Angeles and 1996 Atlanta Games did not enjoy a similarly large financing as the Olympic Games hosted in other countries. For the “partners” and the “sponsors” of the Games, the situation is the other way round. Since their marketing activities are limited to the host country, many corporations from the respective country got involved (73%).
Although at Helsinki in 1952 took place the first international marketing program (IOC, July 5, 1996, p. 22/ Landry / Yerles 1996, p. 370), sponsoring did not develop into a global financing source until the IOC assumed its role of leader, and the market and the technology reached globalization, instead of individually buying the Olympic circles’ rights from the National Olympic Committees. The global corporations can now obtain exclusive rights from the IOC with just one contribution.
In the future, the increasing market globalization and the growth of the number of global corporations will lead to a fierce competition for exclusive marketing rights to use the Olympic circles’ symbol. On the one hand, this situation will assure an increase of the Olympic circles’ value, which will improve the chance of sports financing. On the other hand, an essential problem will appear due to the fact that, generally, the large global corporations provide a large array of products. Since TOP relies on granting exclusiveness for product categories, there is a possibility of occurrence of a conflict of interests. For instance, a corporation expects exclusiveness for Olympic advertising, but the consumer will not be able to acknowledge its “exclusive” category if one of the TOP sponsors offer products from a category guaranteed by another TOP sponsor.
The globalization of the technology reduces the previous barriers that used to exist between the host city and the spectators. The number of tickets sold abroad is dictated more and more by the accommodation thresholds of the host city and by the stadiums’ extent, rather than by the transport problems, which are becoming realities. For instance, the centennial edition of Atlanta (1996), generated the increase of the number of drivers and cars that had to be borrowed from other cities and the critical number of hotels necessary for different organizational locations and press and communication stations, which were concentrated in a very compact area of the commercial city. Unfortunately, most of the Americans’ transport problems were substantiated rather in the difficulties encountered by the media representatives. Because of the unprecedented number of spectators and visitors who came to assist to the Games, the organizers focused their attention too much on the planning of the enormous mass of people and did not give enough attention to the specific needs of the media representatives.
Moreover, initially it was believed that it would be efficient to concentrate the 21 locations hosting the contests, the Olympic Village, the International Radio Broadcast Center and the main Press Center in the commercial area of the city. Trying to satisfy the unprecedented demands, the organizers were not always able to manage as they would have wanted. At the same time, they learnt that transport, especially the transport of the press representatives, can be solved more operatively if they are accommodated in a more compact area than if they are scattered throughout the city. These are lessons that have already been kept in mind by the future organizational committees and candidate cities.
The globalization of the technology favors the collecting of coins, stamps and commemorative adornments. Despite the general decline of the money domain, the sale of commemorative coins got to become a financing source for the Olympic contests. From the perspective of the gathering of Olympic coins and stamps, we are witnessing a growth of their popularity among those interested, beginning with 1952; it became more intense after 1992. If for the 1984 Los Angeles edition we can notice a decrease of the quantity of commemorative coins, on the one hand due to the small series produced by the US, on a world scale we can notice the increase of the issuing countries in the 1970s, when even the smallest nations began to forge their own Olympic coins. As far as the Olympic stamps are concerned, the number of the issuing countries continued to grow as well. Anyway, after Munich 1972, the total number of marked stamps decreased worldwide. The small number of countries that issued Olympic stamps in 1980 can be explained by the fact that many western nations boycotted the Games from Moscow. As non-participating countries, they did not have any reason to issue commemorative stamps. Anyway, one cannot say the same thing about the following counter-boycott of the Los Angeles Olympics by countries from the Eastern Block. For 1984, the number of the countries that nevertheless issued Olympic stamps reached 152. Another possible explanation for this large number of stamps for Los Angeles can be explained by the leadership role of the US in the sports world, especially in the developing countries. The global relations can be at the same time connected to three phenomena concerning stamp emission and pattern collection. The first phenomenon refers to the fact that the stamps’ drawings frequently contain images of the athletes of the nation with the largest collection market. The second phenomenon is brought to light by the issuing of the dates for the stamps, since they are launched during the pre-Olympic years, the patterns reflecting a growing intensification of the world relations. Third, one can notice that if initially only the host countries used to issue stamps, later on, the participant countries began to issue Olympic stamps as well. Moreover, even countries that are not represented at these contests issue this type of documents, which defines both a strong spatial globalization (the number of issuing countries) and a quantitative globalization (intensification of the exchanges among different object collectors).
However, if the organization committees and the authorities do not know how to fully take advantage of such events, there can be unpleasant outcomes, as in the case of the city of Montreal, which, after the organization of the 1976 edition recorded a deficit of a billion dollars. A careful management of these events can bring profit to its organizers, as it happened in the case of the Games hosted by Los Angeles, in 1984, when the plus was of 250 billion dollars, although the American government did not get involved, not even with a penny, and in the case of the Games from Seoul in 1988, when the South Koreans recorded a $300 billion dollar gain. Four years later, in 1992, Barcelona obtained a profit of just five million dollars; and, in 1996, at Atlanta, the organizers announced a plus of just 10 millions. All this approach seems to show that the most profitable situation was that of the Australians, who won the most after Sydney, 2000, as the organizers announced a record gain of $1.756 billion. An entirely different situation occurred in the case of the Greeks, who organized the most expensive edition until then, the Greek budget deficit being estimated at 5.3% in 2005, the year that followed the Games, because of a 7 billion euro fiscal burden.
For most people, we suppose, the word “Olympic” will evoke images of the Olympic Games, be they antique or modern. The philosophy of the French baron Pierre de Coubertin, an aristocrat strongly influenced by the British School sports-related traditions in education, concerns directly not just the elite athletes, but everybody, and not just for a short while, but for their whole life, not just for competition and winning, but also for the values of participation and cooperation, not just for the sport as an activity, but also in order to influence the training and development of the individual personality in agreement to the demands of the social life. So, this will accentuate the role of sports in: world development, peaceful coexistence, moral and civic education, promotion of justice, respect for people, understanding and reason, autonomy and perfection. These are the values of the Olympic history, although some people may interpret things differently at different moments. They are, basically, the main values of the liberal humanism.
We would like to draw the readers’ attention to the relations between the Olympic movement, UN and UNESCO, three global organizations facing similar problems in point of universality and particularity. The general problem is how we should act on a global level seeing that apparently there are so many insoluble differences on a particular level. Some try to solve such differences talking about sport as a universal language, but we think that the problem seems to be underestimated. Not just sport, but also Olympism endeavors to be universal by means of its values: mutual recognition and respect, tolerance, solidarity, equity, antidiscrimination, peace, multiculturalism etc. This is a set of specific values that are at a certain moment a set of general universal principles, but which also need a different interpretation across different cultures - defined in general terms, but interpreted in particular.
This search for a universal representation on the interpersonal and political level of our common mankind seems to be the essence of the optimism and of the hope of Olympism and of other forms of humanism and internationalism. In front of the recent events from Europe and from other parts of the world, it seems a dear hope and naïve optimism, yet we will continue to find arguments for working on a promising future and we still see a strong plea for sports as a way of attaining these ideals. We think that sport has been an enormous contribution to the modern society for over 100 years and that is why the philosophy of Olympism has been the most coherent systematization of the ethic and political values, supporting the sport practice up to where it is today.
Olympism: a socio-human approach (adaptation after N.
Structure of the Olympic education forms (adaptation after N.
In the specialized literature, it is suggested that we have reached “the end of history”, that the liberal democracy has won the battle for global political hegemony. Whether this is true or not, it is argued that the attention given to such multicultural ideas – as for instance respect, recognition and equal status for all cultures – has become increasingly important. Multiculturalism, according to certain authors, “needs a political society able to admit the equal status of all the stable and viable communities existing in the society”. An example of multiculturalism is the recognition of both English and French as official languages of the International Olympic Committee. In terms of promotion of its target of international understanding and multiculturalism, it is very important for the Olympic phenomenon to continue its existence for a coherent universal representation of itself – a concept of Olympism to which each nation should be able to dedicate itself sincerely, finding at the same time the general idea of the form of expression (a conception) that is unique, generated by its own culture, localization, history, tradition and future pursued.
We think that assuring a multicultural education in and for the modern democracies is a new and urgent task and it has to be made to function if we want to assure a functional political heritage for the future generations. In the global political context, this means promoting international understanding and mutual respect and a determination in favor of a peaceful solution to all the conflicts, which are all goals that Olympism and sport have been promoting. All the “fine” values for which the regulatory structures in sports have been longing, their acceptance by all the participants constitute premises for the continuation of the existence of the sports competitions, which supports such political efforts on an educational and cultural level. The Olympic education perpetuates the fundamental social values based on which one can realize the essence and the image of Olympism as a worldwide phenomenon. For the young people’s education, and not only, mankind has always been in need of this complex civilizing factor, continually opposed to the degenerative effects of the actual civilization.
The Olympic education harmonizes the values of the general education with the ideals of Olympism, in order to create both a type of man, a psychological-physical Olympic greatness, and a balanced modern lifestyle, based on the joy of effort and of the prolonged perseverance, able to produce and to convey - at any moment - a message, a positive example of behavior, enduring, and carrying universal ethic principles.
The projection of these paradigms with their demands on our world makes it appear that Olympism seems to remain a problematization, a possible yet not a real world, which has set itself as a goal a new world order based on new economic relations, explosion of information, knowledge, a new educational approach, a challenge for the thought, in order to find out the meanings and the future ways of a society full of older or newer manners.
With the political, economic, social, military organization of the human communities, the variety and the significance of the undertaken activities – influenced by the geographic and historical factors – have acquired new meanings. Politics turns sports into a more organized, more interesting and more attractive activity, pursuing certain specific interests, but also the development and progress of this domain. The advantages related to sports are intuited by and represent an attraction for politics: investments, projects, plans, which come to satisfy the potential interest of politics and politicians. Sports and politics interact increasingly often on different levels: local, European, global. On a global scale, the interaction between these domains is represented by legislations, provisions, laws or regulations concerning sports. On a regional or local level, politics tends to organize or to influence sports in order to meet its own interests.
In this context, as we have mentioned before, the domain of physical education and sports has a well determined place. Today we are talking about Pan-American Games, Pan-Arabic Games, Mediterranean Games, Balkan Games, Commonwealth Games, World and European Championships. Looking at today’s map of the Olympic cities, at the number of the participant countries, which has grown during the last 110 years from 13 (Athens 1896) to 197 (Atlanta, 1996) respectively 204 at Beijing in the year 2004, we cannot help noticing the universal character of this social institution, but also the dangers overshadowing it: gigantism, professionalism, commercialization, naturalization etc.
All these are meant to accelerate the identification and continuation of certain cultural and spiritual traditions specific for each regional, continental or global unit. Their promotion determines other hierarchies than those promoted by the chanceries of the modern world, hierarchies accepted through peoples’ mutual harmony with the sports arenas.
This thing has to take into account the fact that the world is not a laboratory, and a context will never be identical to another, such as for instance the future London Olympics (2012), declared ecological and which makes us think about man’s return towards his own energies, and about their promotion in the context of a healthy natural environment.
At the same time, we must recall the fact that the involvement of some great powers in the conflicts that may occur on a local level or in regional and continental ones may lead to the deterioration of the Olympic ideals. Edifying in this sense is the harmful content of the theories related to vital space, racism and neo-Malthusianism, which were at the basis of the absence of three editions of the Olympic Games during the period between the Two World Wars (the editions of 1916, 1940 and 1944), the assault during the Munich edition in 1972, the boycott of the competitions of Moscow, in 1980, and Los Angeles, in 1984, and the recent – we could say – assault from the American edition of Atlanta, in 1996.
As the war lasted for four years, the First World War did not allow the sportsmen to prepare for the Olympic Games of 1920, except after it ended, in the autumn of 1918. On the occasion of the 7th edition of the Games, namely that from Anvers, the Belgian Olympic forum decided not to invite, on the one hand, Germany, Austria, Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey, which had fought against the Entente and, on the other hand, Russia, a country in which the communists were creating a new kind of state, a federal state which, beginning with 1922, received the name of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (U.S.S.R.). After 1918, pacifism was to become an important political trend, assuring a durable universal peace and the mutual understanding of the nations was supported by the entire interwar Olympic Movement.
The territorial changes occurred following the Versailles system and especially the reorganization of Central Europe and of the Balkans and the appearance either of unitary states (Poland, Austria, Hungary, Romania) or of federative states (Czechoslovakia, Yugoslavia) brought those tensioned topics to the Olympic stadium as well.
The International Olympic Committee, just like the whole Olympic Movement, felt all these tensions, increased by Germany’s idea of revenge, by the less developed level of the East European countries, where Finland and the Baltic States became independent in 1920, by the Anglo-French interests in the Middle East In this area, France created the Lebanon and Syria, and England the Iraq, Jordan and Palestine.
The participants to the IOC Congress, which took place in Barcelona in 1931, decided that the Olympic Games of 1936 should be organized in the capital of Germany. They were not able to foresee that the Olympic peace and the Games would be shadowed by the annexation of Ethiopia by the fascist Italy, by the reoccupation of the demilitarized Renan area by Hitler’s Germany and by the Japanese expansion in the Extreme Orient (1932-1939). Back then, at the time of the Congress, the flag with a swastika was not fluttering above Germany; this happened two years later, when Hitler came to power. Unfortunately, it was impossible to move the Olympic Games to another country. The representatives of those times saw in their completion an opportunity to show the world the power of the Third Reich. That is why they gave them an ostentatious support Television made its Olympic debut on the occasion of the Berlin Games in 1936. Those who state that the Olympic Games have become only recently a political platform probably forget that Hitler used this event exactly in this sense, despite the menaces of boycott from the USA and Great Britain.
The revisionism and the degradation of the international relations interrupted the interwar Olympic peace a quarter of a century since the resuming of the Games; they were suspended again in the years 1940 and 1944.
After the conclusion of the peace of May 9, 1945, the new historical epoch came with its specifics, with its right to its own culture and civilization, and also with its duty to preserve and to increase these goods. On the background of the deterioration of the US-USSR relations, which marked the beginning of the world’s bipolarization and almost immediately of the Cold War, the Olympic Games were about to disappear from history.
In 1965, after several years of negotiations, the IOC decided to allow the German Democratic Republic to participate to the Games of Mexico City with its own team. To avoid any subsequent conflict, the GDR (German Democratic Republic) and the FRG (Federal Republic of Germany) wore the same colors, had the same national hymn (a fragment from Beethoven’s 9th Symphony), and their flags had for an emblem the five Olympic rings. This problem was solved for good after the reunification of the two German countries, at the Olympic Games from Barcelona, where a common team came, without any mediation from the IOC.
In December 1966, 32 African countries created the “Supreme Council for Sport”. Their representatives were determined to use all the possible means to exclude South Africa from among the sports associations, international federations and the Olympic Movement, unless the country agreed to comply with the principles of the International Olympic Committee, putting an end to its apartheid policy. The common demand of the African countries, addressed to the IOC was not to allow the South-African regime to send sportsmen to the Olympic Games of Mexico, as long as it did not respect the principle of equality for all its citizens.
After the negotiations, the IOC first accepted the participation of South Africa, yet on condition that the Olympic team should be made up of black and white sportsmen selected in agreement to their performances, and not by means of eliminatory tests with a joined participation of the black and white competitors.
After the IOC decision of February 1968, 32 countries of the African Union announced that they would not take part in the Olympic Games of Mexico, being supported by the Islamic and communist countries as well. This situation determined the IOC to revoke, in April 1968, the invitation made to the South African National Olympic Committee to take part in the Games.
The students’ revolts and the social turmoil in Mexico City, as well as the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia represent two more political events the IOC had to take into account just before the Olympic Games of Mexico. The exclusion of Emil Zatopek from the National Olympic Committee of Czechoslovakia caused tensions on the level of the relations between the IOC and the communist government of this country.
In 1972, in order to wipe away the memory of the Olympic Games from Berlin (1936), the Committees for the Organization of the Olympic Games prepared the Games of Munich with a particular care and sensitivity. The Olympic bases, especially the extremely modern stadium and the Olympic village were the best proof of the realizations of modern Germany. Although the Cold War between the East and the West was in full development, it was convened, however, that the GDR would participate for the first time to the Games with its own equipment, flag and national hymn. Yet, these games were not spared from political problems either. The terrorist attack and the assassination of 11 Israeli athletes stigmatized for good the Olympic Games of Munich.
During the Olympic Games of Montreal, on a political level, the participation of the People’s Republic of China and of Taiwan was not possible, despite the IOC efforts. On the other hand, a rugby match between New Zeeland and South Africa, shortly before the beginning of the Games, caused the departure of 28 African NOCs. The issue of South Africa was solved in 1991, when the government put an end to the apartheid regime, by a series of radical reforms, and the IOC allowed the South-African Olympic Committee to send a mission to the future Olympic Games.
The mingling of politics in sports and in the Olympic Games continued during the following decennium. The Winter Games from Lake Placid (1980) took place in the shadow of the political events that followed the penetration of the Soviet troops in Afghanistan and the call of the US president to the sportsmen not to participate in the Summer Olympic Games from Moscow. The Winter Games from Lake Placid, where China participated for the first time after the Second World War, took place without major problems. Yet, not the same thing happened with the Summer Olympic Games of 1980. Despite the opposition of numerous sportsmen, who considered that the Olympic Games and their participation was a decision that belonged only to themselves, and not to their countries’ governments, 62 National Olympic Committees, submitting themselves to the order of their government, did not show up to the Olympic Games of Moscow. Among the 81 countries that took part in the Games, there was Great Britain, whose NOC, despite the objections of the British Government, decided to send sportsmen to Moscow.
At the Olympic Games from Seoul (1988), after a quite long period, the threat of non-participation finally ceased, and the Games took place with the participation of sportsmen from both blocks - West and East. The Games from Seoul marked the beginning of a new era for the Olympic Movement. The Universality of the Olympic Games became even more obvious at the following Olympic Games.
Certainly, the explosion of a bomb in the Centennial Central Park during the Games was a meaningless act of terrorism, which shocked us all and left a whole world in awe. While we are still mourning the two dead and the wounded who were victims of this awful event, we keep in mind the undeletable memory of the Olympic spirit which came to light following this cowardly gesture. Out of this tragedy, there appeared a feeling of community and an engagement that cannot be threatened, intimidated or defeated.
The rapid changes in technology and logistics combined with the developing globalization, certainly affects the sports and Olympic activity. These shifts have generated, on the one hand, transformations in the sense of assuring the necessary financing sources for the organization and development of the great competitions, and, on the other hand, as far as the costs of the Olympic contests’ elements were concerned, through the delineation of obvious actions of improvement and increased efficiency in the funds management, assured by a much more professional approach. During the Antiquity, the Olympic competitions were hosted in the same location every four years, while, during the last 116 years, they were hosted in different countries of the world, each time assisting to a new projection for the future of their organization and development, based on a mix of Modernity and Antiquity. Despite the globalization of the sportive movement and the promotion of the Olympic ideal, there is a growing gap between the areas belonging to the technologically developed world and those of the marginalized and closed, poor and underdeveloped world. Even the intensifying global inter-relations do not always trigger globalization. The regional centers with the structural capacity of organizing Olympic contests or world championships are still developing distinctly. Sports glorify democracy, equal chances, and the autonomy of the social domains. Politics is a public domain, just as sports. In politics, just as in sports, there are preferences, candidates, leaders and led people. But the essence of the two domains is: competition, democracy, fair-play, liberty and prominence of the best; all these things will truly become reality when cities will develop on all the continents, which will bring with it the possibility to organize the great sports events on all the continents of the world.
It is known that the corrosion-mechanical and functional properties of steels can be improved by alloying elements with a more negative electrode potential (chromium, silicon, aluminum) or elements with a higher potential than iron (e.g., copper, molybdenum, nickel) or elements that promote the formation of carbides, nitrides, and other phases.
\nThe second way (which can occur simultaneously with the first) is to use various methods of surface engineering, in particular, the formation of a dense oxide film, which protects the surface of the alloy from oxidation and dissolution or acts as a functional coating, e.g., a dielectric one. To do this, you need to have the appropriate concentration of the alloying element. To ensure the proper level of functional properties, such coatings must be without defects, with high adhesion to the surface and minimal difference in thermal expansion coefficients as compared to the stainless steel substrate. The condition of formation of such coatings is a certain ratio of the volumes of oxide (VMеО) and the oxidizing metal (VMе): VMеО/VMе > 1. Under such a condition, as a rule, coatings are formed that improve the functional properties of the metal and slow down both the degradation process of its microstructure and deterioration of the properties.
\nAs is known, stainless steels are obtained by introducing into the composition of low- and medium-carbon steels at least 12.5% chromium as well as nickel and other alloying elements (titanium, aluminum, molybdenum, niobium, copper, manganese). Depending on the structure, austenitic (AISI 302, 347, 316L, 316, 316Ti, and others), ferritic (AISI 430, 430Ti, 439, and others), martensitic (AISI 420, 431, 420F), austenitic-martensitic (AISI 631, AM350), and austenitic-ferritic (AISI 301) stainless steels are distinguished. Chromium ferritic and chromium-nickel austenitic steels are the most common in engineering practice [1].
\nChromium ferritic stainless steels are the cheapest, but they are inferior to chromium-nickel steels in corrosion resistance. So, AISI 430 steel is stable in acidic environments, but not suitable for welding, because during welding when heated above 900–950°C and rapidly cooled, the grain boundaries become depleted in chromium. With content less than 12% Cr, the electrochemical potential of the steel becomes negative, and it loses its ability to resist corrosion. Under these conditions, AISI 430 steel has a dangerous type of corrosion—intercrystalline corrosion. Stabilization of this steel with titanium or niobium is used to prevent this. It should be noted that σ phase (Fe, Cr) can be formed in high-chromium steels as a result of delamination of the alloyed solid solution into a mixture of α + α′ phases (where α′ is σ phase). Due to this, the corrosion resistance of such steels is reduced. In ferritic steels with 20% Cr, the minimum formation time of the σ phase at 600°C is 150 h, and in the steels with 25% Cr at 650°C, it is 15 h. Therefore, when using these steels, it is desirable to bypass this temperature range.
\nFerritic and ferritic-martensitic stainless steels are widely used in electrical engineering as heat carriers and metal substrates for the manufacturing of film heating elements (FHE) (Figure 1). To insulate the metal substrate from the action of electric current, a dielectric insulation coating is applied to its surface. There are a large number of materials that can be used as electrical insulators at high temperatures. But for the correct choice of technology of a quality coating on the surface of stainless steel, it is necessary to take into account the coefficient of linear thermal expansion (CLTE) and the absence of phase transformations in the structure of the coating material during operation [2].
\nSchematic diagram of a film heating element [
Due to the compatibility of thermal, physical, and micromechanical properties of stainless steels to the protective coatings, a material based on the fusible glass ceramics of the ZnO-PbO-B2O3 system was proposed as a coating material [3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15].
\nFor the preparation of coatings based on the PbO-ZnO-B2O3 glass-crystal system, mixtures of powders, the compositions of which are shown in Table 1, were used. Each mixture was poured into an electrocorundum crucible and melted at 1180°C. After holding at this temperature for 60 min, the melt was rapidly cooled to form an amorphous structure and prevent crystallization. The dried granules were ground and sieved to obtain powder fractions with a granule average size of not more than 56 μm. On the basis of the powder obtained, a dielectric paste was made, which was applied to a prepared surface of AISI 420 steel samples and dried at 70°C. For all specimens, standard heat treatment [16, 17, 18, 19, 20] was performed with two-step annealing at 380 and 440°C and holding at these temperatures for 45 min. The thermal treatment of the coatings was carried out without a protective atmosphere to activate the formation of oxides.
\nMarking | \nChemical composition, wt% | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
PbO | \nZnO | \nB2O3\n | \nSiO2\n | \nAl2O3\n | \nBaO | \n|
SC 100-1 | \n75.5 | \n12.0 | \n8.4 | \n2.1 | \n2.0 | \n– | \n
SC 90-1 | \n75.3 | \n11.6 | \n8.5 | \n2.1 | \n0.8 | \n1.7 | \n
SC 88 | \n75.1 | \n11.2 | \n9.4 | \n1.9 | \n– | \n1.9 | \n
SC 90 | \n75.3 | \n11.6 | \n8.5 | \n2.1 | \n– | \n2.5 | \n
Chemical compositions of powders for the synthesis of the PbO-ZnO-B2O3 glass-ceramic system-based coatings [2].
The coatings were applied to the surface of AISI 420 stainless steel. To determine the adhesion properties, the steel surfaces were treated with three different methods, which allowed obtaining different indices of surface roughness: S1, machine grinding; S2, electrolytic etching; S3, manual grinding [3].
\nUsing the method of interference profilometry, surface profilograms of AISI 420 stainless steel substrates were obtained after various surface treatment methods. From the obtained profilograms using the software “Micron-Gamma,” the basic parameters of the roughness of the substrates were calculated, the values of which are given in Table 2.
\nMarking | \nArithmetical mean deviation of the assessed profile | \nAverage distance based on the ten highest peaks and lowest valleys over the entire sampling length | \nMaximum height of the profile | \nAverage step of peaks along the mean line | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
AISI 420—S1 | \n1.11 | \n5.11 | \n4.68 | \n1.02 | \n
AISI 420—S2 | \n1.31 | \n5.15 | \n5.36 | \n1.03 | \n
AISI 420—S3 | \n1.11 | \n4.00 | \n5.21 | \n1.00 | \n
Surface roughness parameters of the AISI 420 steel substrates after various types of grinding operations [3].
The surface of AISI 420 stainless steel with roughness S1 and S3 is characterized by a nonuniform row structure with gaps and projections of the height of 4.6–5.2 μm (Figure 2). The surface of AISI 420 stainless steel with roughness S3 after electrolytic etching has a more uniform structure. The height of the needle projections is uniform and averages 5.3 μm.
\nThree-dimensional surface microtopography of AISI 420 steel substrates after various types of grinding operations: (a) machine grinding S1; (b) electrolytic etching S2; (c) manual grinding S3 [
Traditional methods do not allow qualitative estimation of quantitative indices of adhesion strength of coatings obtained by the method of thick films, the thickness of which exceeds 100 μm. Because of this, indirect methods of investigation can be used to predict the adhesion strength of such coatings, in particular, the determination of the free surface energy of the substrates on which the coatings are synthesized (Figure 3). It is known that the level of surface energy will specify the adhesion properties. This technique allows determining the level of the adhesion strength in the coating-substrate system if the actual contact area between them is known [21, 22, 23, 24].
\nGeneral view of the desktop of the KSV Attension Theta optical tensiometer (a) and the droplet along with the calculated wetting angles (b) [
To predict the adhesion strength of the dielectric coating to the substrate, the surface topography of the prepared substrates was investigated, and the values of the free surface energy were calculated for them. Optical tensiometry was used to calculate the free surface energy with the measurement of wetting angles between the test surface and droplets of substances: water, glycerol, formamide, ethylene glycol, diiodomethane, and bromonaphthalene [3]. Figure 4 shows the change in the wetting angles for the substrates after various surface treatments, depending on the type of drip fraction of the substance applied to the surface.
\nValues of wetting angles for AISI 420 stainless steel substrates after machine grinding S1, electrolytic etching S2, and manual grinding S3 depending on the substance of the droplet.
The substrates S1 and S2 have the highest average values of the wetting angles. This testifies to the dependence of the wetting angle not only on the physicochemical properties of the droplet but also on the roughness and microtopography of the surface.
\nBy changing the values of the wetting angle using two calculation methods, the values of the free surface energy components for the substrates S1, S2, and S3 were determined (Table 3). The first calculation method [25] gave a large variation of the experimental data, which makes it difficult to predict the physical and mechanical properties of the surface being studied. According to the second calculation method [26], the substrates S1 and S2 have the highest values of the free surface energy. This is confirmed by the fact that the actual contact surface area increases with increasing roughness. This, in turn, will increase the free surface energy indices, which will be reflected in the adsorption component of adhesion.
\nConstituents of surface energy | \nLifshitz-van der Waals energy γLW (mJ/m2) | \nEnergy of the electron acceptors γ+ (mJ/m2) | \nEnergy of the electron donors γ− (mJ/m2) | \nTotal surface energy γtot (mJ/m2) | \n|
---|---|---|---|---|---|
S1 | \nMethod 1 | \n32.3 | \n0.2 | \n2.7 | \n34.2 | \n
Method 2 | \n34.8 | \n1.4 | \n4.8 | \n39.9 | \n|
S2 | \nMethod 1 | \n39.2 | \n1.2 | \n0.7 | \n41.0 | \n
Method 2 | \n36.9 | \n2.5 | \n1.1 | \n40.2 | \n|
S2 | \nMethod 1 | \n38.2 | \n2.4 | \n0.6 | \n40.6 | \n
Method 2 | \n34.9 | \n7.4 | \n0.4 | \n38.2 | \n
Values of the free surface energy constituents for the substrates S1, S2, and S3 and coatings based on the PbO-ZnO-B2O3 glass crystalline system [3].
Thus, the formation of the developed surface structure of AISI 420 stainless steel substrates obtained by the surface etching method will provide the maximum level of the free surface energy by forming the largest contact area between the applied dielectric layer and the substrate, which will provide the best level of adhesion uniformity [3].
\nTo obtain a high-quality insulation coating on the surface of stainless steels, it is necessary to ensure the maximum homogeneity of its structure in both the thickness and surface area. The surface roughness of such coatings must be within
After synthesis and heat treatment, the obtained glass-ceramic coatings have a dark gray color with shades of green and are smooth to the touch. Small projections and gaps are observed along the entire area of the formed coating. No defects in the form of pores, gas bubbles, or residues of non-smelted sealant (SC, sital cement) powder have been detected. The thickness of the coatings ranges from 90 to 105 μm.
\nTo evaluate the microgeometry parameters of the surface structure for each synthesized coating, the surface topography was investigated in five sections of the surface with a section area of 0.55 × 0.75 mm2. Surface profilograms of the coatings were obtained using the interference profilometer (Figure 5).
\nSurface profilograms of synthesized functional coatings based on glass crystalline materials of grades (a) SC 100-1, (b) SC 90-1, (c) SC 88, and (d) SC 90 on AISI 420 stainless steel substrates [
Structural and geometric parameters of the surface roughness of the coatings, the values of which are given in Table 4, were calculated from the obtained profilograms using the Micron-Gamma software. According to Table 4, the values of
Marking | \nArithmetical mean deviation of the assessed profile | \nAverage distance based on the 10 highest peaks and lowest valleys over the entire sampling length | \nMaximum height of the profile | \nAverage step of peaks along the mean line | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
SC 100-1 | \n0.55 | \n2.11 | \n2.29 | \n1.01 | \n
SC 90-1 | \n0.49 | \n1.87 | \n2.21 | \n1.01 | \n
SC 88 | \n0.41 | \n1.63 | \n1.82 | \n1.00 | \n
SC 90 | \n0.57 | \n2.14 | \n2.29 | \n1.01 | \n
Parameters of surface roughness of coatings SC 100-1, SC 90-1, SC 88, and SC 90 [3].
Parameter | \nCoating based on SC 90-1 powder | \nCoating based on SC 100-1 powder | \n
---|---|---|
Number of pores per field of view | \n157 | \n88 | \n
Volume fraction of pores, % | \n4.1 | \n19.7 | \n
Specific surface of pores | \n0.031 | \n0.047 | \n
Mean chord length of pores, μm | \n5.3 | \n16.9 | \n
Average distance between pores, μm | \n126.5 | \n69.1 | \n
Fractal dimension | \n1.07 | \n1.56 | \n
Form factor | \n0.867 | \n0.825 | \n
Compact factor | \n0.989 | \n0.935 | \n
Stretching factor | \n0.815 | \n0.734 | \n
Cutting factor of the contour | \n0.867 | \n0.859 | \n
Quantitative analysis of the porosity of coatings SC 100-1 and SC 90-1.
The study of three-dimensional topography of the surface of the formed coatings by the method of interference profilometry testifies to the presence of identical fragments of their structure, regardless of the microtopography of the substrate surface (Figure 6).
\nThree-dimensional microtopography of the surfaces of functional coatings based on glass crystalline materials of grades (a) SC 100-1, (b) SC 90-1, (c) SC 88, and (d) SC 90 on AISI 420 stainless steel substrates [
Coatings based on powders SC 100-1, SC 90-1, SC 88, and SC 90 have a homogeneous structure with shallow round gaps and needle projections of height 0.8–1.1 μm. Such surface microtopography of the dielectric coating will guarantee correspondingly high adhesion strength of the applied resistive layer [1, 2, 3].
\nThe dendritic component has been revealed in the surface layers of the dielectric coatings using a scanning electron microscope (Figure 7). This is a positive feature because it is the crystalline component of the microstructure of the PbO-ZnO-B2O3 system coating that is responsible for the proper functional properties of the insulation layer [4]. The largest dendritic crystals are observed in the structure of SC 100-1 and SC 90 coatings. As the coatings of SC 100-1 and SC 90 grades have the highest surface roughness compared to the other two coating grades, it can be assumed that the growth rate of dendritic crystals will affect the final surface roughness parameters of the coatings.
\nSurface microstructure of dielectric coatings based on glass crystalline materials of grades (а) SC 100-1, (b) SC 90-1, (c) SC 88, and (d) SC 90 [
It should be noted that the presence of an amorphous phase in the amount of more than 15% will cause a significant deterioration of the micromechanical and thermophysical characteristics of coatings while increasing the dielectric strength [4].
\nTo evaluate the porosity of coatings based on glass crystalline materials of SC 100-1 and SC 90-1 grades, their microstructure after polishing was investigated (Figure 8). They are found to contain a large number of pores of different sizes, unevenly distributed in the bulk of the coatings. The formation of pores can be explained by the uncontrolled process of sublimation of organic solvents (butyl acetate, amyl acetate) during synthesis at temperatures of 250–350°C.
\nThe microstructure of coatings based on glass crystalline materials of grades (a) SC 100-1 and (b) SC 90-1 after polishing [
Quantitative analysis of the porosity of synthesized coatings based on SC 90-1 and SC 100-1 powders was carried out (Table 5). It was found out that the volume fraction of pores in the structure of the SC 90-1-based glass-ceramic material coating is 4.1%, in contrast to the coating SC 100-1, the average porosity of which is 19.7%.
\nThe difference in the structure of the coatings can be explained by the alloying of the PbO-ZnO-B2O3 system with BaO oxide in quantities up to 1.7%, which reduces the temperature of formation of the amorphous glass material in the synthesis stage, which in turn causes acceleration of the sublimation processes of organic solvents and accelerates the crystallization process [4].
\nThe microstructural analysis of the polished transverse sections of the synthesized coatings on AISI 420 steel substrates was carried out. Using energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDS), it was found that no diffusion or transition zones are formed between the applied coatings and the substrates. This is evidenced by a sharp drop in the content of lead in the place where the coating is bonded to the substrate (Figure 9). This indicates a significant influence of electrochemical processes (double electric layer) during the formation of a strong adhesion of the synthesized glass crystalline coatings of the PbO-ZnO-B2O3 system with the substrate surfaces.
\nThe local EDS microanalysis of the coating based on the glass crystalline material of SC 90-1 grade by the depth of the layer showing the distribution of elements (a) Fe, (b) Cr, (c) Si, and (d) Pb.
The diffraction pattern of the coating based on the SC 100-1 powder (Figure 10) confirms the fact of the formation of a crystalline structure during synthesis. It shows pronounced peaks corresponding to lead and zinc as pure chemical elements. The shape and height of the peaks indicate the presence of crystalline phases in the volume of the coating.
\nX-ray pattern of the surface of the coating based on the glass crystalline material of SC 100-1 grade.
To determine the chemical homogeneity of the coatings, a local EDS microanalysis was performed. It was detected lead, zinc, and boron oxides in all types of synthesized coatings in various proportions depending on the location of the analysis.
\nIn the coatings based on SC 90-1, SC 88, and SC 90 powders, BaO and SiO2 oxides were found. Due to the low accuracy of the EDS method when detecting light elements, including boron oxide, the volume fraction of each of the oxides in the coating structure could not be estimated correctly.
\nX-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was used to determine the qualitative and quantitative chemical composition of coatings, as it allows doing this more accurately and detecting all chemical elements except hydrogen and helium. This technique is based on obtaining XPS spectra by irradiating a material with a beam of X-rays (Al Kα) while simultaneously measuring the kinetic energy and number of electrons that escape from the top 0 to 10 nm of the coating being analyzed. To improve the reliability of the results obtained, the evaluation of the chemical composition was performed in three different areas on the sample surfaces. According to the investigation results, experimental diffraction patterns were constructed (Figure 11).
\nExperimental X-ray patterns of the surfaces of coatings based on glass crystalline materials of grades (a) SC 100-1, (b) SC 90-1, (c) SC 88, and (d) SC 90 obtained by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy.
It was revealed that the elemental compositions of the synthesized coatings correspond to the compositions of the original powders within the error of the device (2%). As an example, the chemical composition of the synthesized coating based on sital cement of SC 90-1 grade is as follows: 75.3 wt% PbO, 11.6 wt% ZnO, 8.5 wt% B2O3, 2.1 wt% SiO2, 0.8 wt% Al2O3, and 1.7 wt% BaO. Besides, unwanted phases of 0.15% BaSO4, 1.02 % (ZnS + ZnF2), and 0.28% B4C, which could be formed during prolonged isothermal holding and interaction of powder particles with residues of nitrocellulose lacquer, were detected. To avoid the formation of these phases, it is necessary to increase the annealing temperature to accelerate the crystallization process and simultaneously reduce the holding time. However, it should be remembered that the final crystallization temperature should not exceed the glass spill temperature more than two times (in our case up to 520°C).
\nThe ion-plasma sputtering as one of the CVD technique methods was chosen as an alternative method of synthesizing protective insulating coatings on stainless steels. As materials for the sputtering, it is advisable to use pure compounds based on nitrides and oxides of metals, which have a wide range of functional properties [27, 28, 29, 30, 31].
\nThe most optimal materials for application to the surfaces of ferritic and ferritic-martensitic stainless steels are coatings of magnesia (MgO), alumina (Al2O3), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and aluminum nitride (AlN) (Table 6). It should be noted that the thermal conductivity of beryllium oxide (BeO) is nine times higher than of the listed materials. Thus, it can significantly increase the power of FHE on stainless steel substrates. However, the use of BeO is hampered by its high cost and toxicity during processing. Traditionally, this or that type of ceramics is obtained by sintering oxide or nitride powders at various temperatures. However, high-energy methods of surface engineering are promising when forming dielectric layers on the surfaces of various structural materials. The properties of the layers synthesized in this way, which are given in various literary sources, differ significantly and depend on a method used to form these layers.
\nParameter | \nMgO | \nAlN | \nAl2O3\n | \nTiO2\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Density, g/cm3\n | \n3.58 | \n3.2–3.24 | \n3.6 | \n3.9–4.3 | \n
Dielectric constant | \n8–9 | \n8.5 | \n12.0 | \n31–173 (114 for rutile) | \n
Relative density | \n0.95–0.96 | \n0.96–0.98 | \n0.94–0.98 | \n- | \n
Melting point, °С | \n2800 | \n2400 | \n2050 | \n1855 | \n
Operating temperature range for an atmosphere, °С | \nUp to 2000 in air | \n1300–1400 | \n1600–1700 | \n- | \n
Sintering temperature, °С | \n1600 | \n- | \n1700–1750 | \n- | \n
Coefficient of linear thermal expansion α, ×106 К−1\n | \n11.7–14.2 | \n4.8 | \n5-6.7 | \n9.8–10.8 | \n
Thermal conductivity, W m−1 K−1\n | \n28.0 | \n66 | \n24–29 | \n\n |
Modification | \nCubic а = 0.42 nm | \nHexagonal a = 0.31–0.313 nm c = 0.493–0.498 nm | \nα-Trigonal β-Hexagonal γ-Cubic | \nAnatase Brookite Rutile | \n
Physical properties of materials of the dielectric layer.
Magnesium oxide is the only oxygen compound of magnesium. It exists in only one modification and crystallizes in a cubic system. The crystalline form of MgO is called periclase. It has a potassium salt lattice with a parameter of 0.42 nm. By its chemical properties, MgO is a basic oxide, and, as a consequence, it combines with all acidic oxides and dissolves in inorganic acids (partially in water). Hydration of MgO limits the possibility of its fine fragmentation in water, as it increases greatly with increasing both fragmentation and temperature. MgO sintering is facilitated by TiO2, ZrO2, Al2O3, and Fe2O3 impurities. Magnesium oxide is a good insulator. Its crystals have ionic conductivity. The work [32] presents the study of the electrical properties of magnesium oxide layers formed by magnetron sputtering of magnesium followed by annealing in air. It is found out that, depending on the annealing temperature, the layer resistivity ranges from 1.7 × 107 to 2.81 × 1012 mOhm cm. The work [33] presents the study of MgO layers formed by the sol-gel method. The obtained results indicate the weak crystallinity and the disorientation of the magnesium oxide phase. The breakdown voltage ranges from 5 to 78 MW/cm. Leakage currents when heated to 250°C increase within 10−9–10−3 A/cm2. In the work [34], using the method of pulsed laser deposition, MgO polycrystalline films with various crystallographic orientations were obtained. The value of the dielectric constant was 9.67 for a density near the band gap of 4.5 × 1011 eV−1 cm−2. In some works [32, 33, 34, 35], magnesia ceramics are characterized by a dense fine-crystalline structure with perfect physical, mechanical, and electrophysical properties.
\nAnother promising material widely used in radio and microelectronic technology is aluminum oxide [33, 34, 35]. It is known for its nine crystallographic modifications, the most important for the industry being α-modification. The corundum structure (Figure 12) can be considered as a hexagonal dense packing of O2− ions in which 2/3 of the octahedral gaps are occupied by Al3+.
\nCoordination polyhedra in α-Al2O3 structure [
The sintering temperature of α-Al2O3 of technical purity (99–99.5) and the fraction grade of 1–2 μm without additives are 1700–1750°C. At this temperature, a density of 3.75–3.85 g/cm3 is reached. The porosity of the sintered corundum is mainly closed and internal, and the pore shape is circular. The size of initial Al2O3 particles has a decisive influence on the sintering temperature. The maximum size of Al2O3 crystallites capable of active solid phase sintering should not exceed 3–5 μm. By adding to Al2O3 powder some substances in the form of oxides or salts called mineralizers, it is possible to reduce the sintering temperature of corundum by 150–200°C, and the character of crystallization can become directional because the delay or growth of crystals in certain directions is ensured. Among the additives that delay the growth of crystals, the oxides TiO2, MnO2, and Fe2O3 should be noted. The most effective is the addition of TiO2, forming a solid solution and reducing the sintering temperature of corundum to 1500–1550°C. The introduction of the Mn4+ ion, whose ion radius is 0.052 nm, should also lead to the formation of an interstitial solid solution. Another group of additives affects the growth of crystals during annealing. The addition of such compounds results in crystal growth, sometimes very intense, and the sintering temperature can either decrease or remain unchanged. Thus, there are additives that simultaneously reduce the sintering temperature and affect the growth of crystals.
\nThe formation of coatings has many technological difficulties related to the provision of the required stoichiometry, phase composition, crystalline structure, impurity level, porosity, etc. In the work [5], the influence of the parameters of the Al2O3 film forming process in high-frequency magnetron discharge on the structure, phase composition, porosity, and electrical strength of the films was investigated. It is shown that under appropriate conditions, multiphase polycrystalline coatings with stable α-structure are formed. Their electrical strength varies in the range of 0.4–1.6 V/m. The high chemical and thermal resistances of aluminum oxide make it possible to use it in the manufacture of heating devices.
\nAluminum nitride is the only compound of nitrogen with aluminum that has high chemical resistance. It crystallizes to form a hexagonal lattice of the wurtzite type with parameters a = 0.31–0.313 nm and c = 0.493–0.498 nm. Aluminum nitride has no modification, which simplifies the technology of manufacturing products. At 1900–2000°C, AlN decomposes. AlN ceramics can be used in an inert environment up to 1800°C, in vacuum up to 1600°C, in air up to 1300–1400°C. The high thermal conductivity (140–280 W m−1 K−1), which is a characteristic of aluminum nitride, and the heat resistance make these ceramics promising for use in conditions with a sharp change in temperature. In particular, the thermophysical properties of aluminum nitride ceramics were investigated in. The heat capacity of
Ceramics, the crystalline base of which is titanium dioxide, are considered as a separate grade of technical ceramics since this compound has a high value of relative permittivity as compared to other ceramic materials (Table 6). Titanium oxide films, due to their physicochemical properties, are widely used as protective and optically sensitive coatings in gas sensors and during photocatalysis. They are also used in microelectronics (dynamic memory, field-effect transistors, ferromagnetic materials). Besides, TiO2 is used in electronic engineering, in particular for the manufacture of capacitors. Titanium dioxide does not occur in nature in pure form. It is obtained by chemical processing of titanium ores FeTiO3, CaTiSiO5, CaTiO3, and others. Titanium dioxide is available in three modifications: anatase, brookite, and rutile. Rutile is a stable high-temperature form of titanium dioxide, and the other two transforms irreversibly into this. Anatase modification of titanium dioxide is used as a catalyst and component of solar cells. Due to its high reflectance, it is used to protect spacecraft from the sun’s radiation. For the ceramics industry, they produce a special brand of TiO2 called “capacitor.”
\nThus, the properties of MgO, Al2O3, TiO2, and AlN ceramics depend strongly on the method of their production and a set of certain parameters of the initial powders. Of the four dielectric materials presented, all to a greater or lesser extent satisfy the requirements relating to insulating layers of film heating elements based on a stainless steel substrate. Thus, titanium oxide has high relative permittivity, while aluminum nitride has high thermal conductivity. Both magnesium and aluminum oxides have satisfactory electrical strength at low CLTE. The combination of such dielectric properties with the verified technology of forming ceramic coatings on the surfaces of structural materials can serve effectively for the replacement of FHE constituents.
\nAmong the high-energy surface engineering technologies, the ion-plasma sputtering method is the most promising for the formation of dielectric and resistive layers on the surfaces of stainless steels [37]. Therefore, the functional layers were formed by this method using a multifunctional ion-plasma discharge system. To create the dielectric layer by ion-plasma sputtering, a number of materials were analyzed that would provide the dielectric properties of the FHE and meet technological, economic, and environmental requirements. Oxides and nitrides of Mg, Ti, and Al, which corresponded to the abovementioned dielectric properties of FHEs [38], were selected for the application.
\nThe stainless steel substrates were placed in the substrate holder of a reaction chamber at a distance of 40–50 cm from the cathode. The cathodes were made of aluminum of A1 99.7 grade (for AlN and Al2O3), magnesium of Mg 98 grade (for MgO), titanium of VT1-00 grade (for TiO2), and Cr20Ni80-H nichrome alloy (for the resistive layer). They were manufactured in the form of rods with a diameter of 40 mm. The sputtering was performed under various modes in oxygen, nitrogen, or vacuum atmosphere. Each mode was characterized by certain parameters such as the gas pressure in the reaction chamber, the substrate potential, the current, and the sputtering time. To increase the adhesion strength of the layer, the substrate was heated using a furnace placed directly in the reaction chamber of the ion-plasma device. The plasma stream was directed from the cathode region toward the substrate. The beam divergence angle was about 20°. This provided optimum ion density in the plasma stream [37].
\nAfter the samples are uploaded, the reaction chamber of the hybrid ion-plasma device was evacuated. Then, using the helicon source in column mode, the final purification of the substrates in an argon plasma stream for 30 min at a pressure of 0.93 Pa, the potential on the substrate E = −100 V, and the current on the sample of 0.15 A was performed. During the purification, argon ions bombarded the substrate, removing residues of contaminants and impurities from its surface [1, 5].
\nThe ion-plasma discharge device is designed to form nanoscale structure elements [32, 33, 34, 35, 36, 37] and, due to its low operating temperatures, allows to apply functional layers to virtually any substrate (metal, plastic, ceramics, etc.). The plasma discharge chamber consists of three process modules (helicon source discharge chamber, drift chamber, treatment chamber), which are connected by flanges using vacuum seals. The scheme of the discharge plasma chamber is shown in Figure 13. A working chamber is connected directly to a flange of the vacuum system. A table with the substrate is located in this chamber. A drift chamber with docked vacuum arc accelerators is located above the working chamber. The drift chamber is connected to the helicon source discharge camera. Its top is covered by quartz glass, through which high-frequency energy is supplied during discharge using an antenna connected via a coordination unit to a high-frequency generator.
\nThe scheme of the ion-plasma discharge chamber [
The magnetic coil located in the working chamber provides the plasma stream from the helicon source to the substrate. Besides, it makes it possible to direct the plasma stream from the plasma-arc accelerator toward the substrate, which significantly reduces the amount of transferred micro-droplet fraction that is formed when working with fusible materials (Tm < 2000 K).
\nFor the formation of high-quality insulating and resistive layers, it is necessary to constantly monitor the state of the substrate surface in all stages of the technological process. Only in this case can the reproduction of the results, the stability of the process, and the high level of quality of coatings on the surfaces of stainless steels be ensured. When using standard high-vacuum equipment, the surface of the substrate always contains several adsorbed monolayers with residual components of the atmosphere. A plasma helicon source and plasma-arc accelerators ensure constant action of an argon ion flux on the substrate in all stages of the process. In this case, the density and energy of the ion flux are sufficient to effectively remove the adsorbed light residual components of the atmosphere from the substrate surface layer by the selective sputtering mechanism and do not interfere with the basic technological operations [37].
\nThe ion-plasma device consists of a high-frequency plasma source based on helicon discharge, for the implementation of the CVD process, and plasma-arc accelerators. The high degree of ionization of the plasma stream (more than 80 %) formed by the plasma-arc accelerator allows controlling the thickness of the layers during their application by the value of the total charge transferred to the substrate. Figure 14 shows a general view of the discharge chamber of an ion-plasma device [2, 37].
\nGeneral view of the discharge chamber of an ion-plasma device [
Plasma helicon sources are non-electrode high-frequency induction magnetic field sources capable of generating dense (
In general, this method is not effective in applying dielectric and resistive layers under conditions of mass production of FHEs, because of the high cost of the device for magnetron sputtering; the small size of the camera, which does not allow sputtering on a large number of samples simultaneously; and the lack of quality cleaning of the working chamber when replacing sputtering cathodes (MgO, Al2O3, nichrome, etc.). The application of this method is also limited since the obtained dielectric layers have a high porosity, which increases the probability of electrical breakdown of the coating and failure of the heating device as a whole.
\nFunctional dielectric coatings based on oxides of Mg, Ti, and Al for FHEs on stainless steels were obtained by ion-plasma sputtering and were investigated by various methods, namely:
Study of peculiarities of formation of structure and phase composition of dielectric layers
Study of adhesion and micromechanical properties
Measurement of electrophysical characteristics of functional layers
The study of the surface morphology of the formed layers was carried out using an electron microscope JSM-6490LV (JEOL, Japan), equipped with an analytical setup for elemental analysis (spectrometer with energy dispersion INCA Energy+ Oxford). Determination of thickness and the structure and elemental composition analyses were performed using a scanning electron microscope with a PEMMA-102-02 microanalyzer. Surface topography was investigated using a Solver P47-PRO atomic force microscope.
\nThe surface morphology of the formed dielectric layer with MgO is shown in Figure 15. The grain sizes varied from 20 to 70 nm. Grain growth is likely carried out by an islet mechanism when the formed grain becomes the basis for the formation of nuclei of grains and their subsequent growth (Figure 15a). Thus, the newly formed grains are combined into clusters of various sizes. Due to the specific structure, the grains are characterized by a large specific surface, which increases because of petals formed in the perpendicular direction (Figure 15b). The thickness of the identified petals is in the range of 10–20 nm. This mechanism of the layer structure formation and a significant difference between the sizes of the grain clusters cause a substantially high porosity of the dielectric layer, which can significantly increase its hygroscopicity [1].
\nSEM surface microtopography of the MgO dielectric layer [
To study the microtopography of the TiO2 layer surface, SEM and local EDS analyses were performed (Figure 16). The surface of the formed layer is continuous and homogeneous, with a small porosity. In some parts of the surface layer, elliptical inclusions of size from 0.08 to 1 μm are observed (Figure 16b). Elemental analysis indicates that the bulk of the layer contains titanium and oxygen, the quantitative ratio of which corresponds to the TiO2 compound of stoichiometric composition. Besides, impurity atoms of iron and aluminum were identified, the presence of which was caused by contamination [2].
\nSEM surface microtopography of the TiO2 dielectric layer [
The Al2O3 layer was formed by ion-plasma deposition of aluminum onto a substrate of the AMg2 aluminum magnesium alloy in an oxygen atmosphere [5]. The result is a layer with a solid, smooth, visually nonporous surface topography (Figure 17a). The predominant orientation of individual elements of the surface structure in the form of projections of elongated shape was observed (Figure 17b) [1].
\nSEM surface microtopography of the Al2O3 dielectric layer [
By studying SEM microstructure of polished transverse microsections by the depth of the oxide layers MgO, TiO2, and Al2O3, it was revealed that all the layers except MgO have a gradient structure and consist of two sublayers (Figure 18). The inner Al2O3 sublayer, 1.5–2.5 μm thick, is the boundary section of the substrate layer system and has a highly dispersed structure with a grain size of 90–200 nm, and the outer Al2O3 sublayer of a thickness of 12.5–13.5 μm has a fragmented structure (Figure 18a). The outer TiO2 sublayer, 12–13 μm thick, is almost defect-free, uniform, solid, and homogeneous (Figure 18b). It has a two-phase structure, with dispersed inclusions of a globular shape, which may belong to one of the TiO2 modifications. The inner TiO2 sublayer, 2–3 μm thick, adjoins the substrate surface and completely reproduces its morphology. By studying SEM microstructure of polished transverse microsections of MgO dielectric layers, it was revealed that their thickness ranges within 25–65 μm. MgO layer continuity disturbances were observed only along the boundaries of the separation of large clusters. At higher magnifications, MgO dendritic crystallites were identified, which are oriented in the direction perpendicular to the substrate surface (Figure 18c).
\nSEM microstructure of polished transverse microsections by the depth of oxide layers (а) Al2O3, (b) TiO2, and (c) MgO [
The MgO layer has a developed surface with well-defined elongated grains, which demonstrates the growth direction of individual grains. Based on the surface microtopography of the MgO layer (Figure 19a), it is revealed that there exist grain clusters along with the individual grains. Each cluster of the size of 200–400 nm is separated by smaller grains (60–150 nm). Similarly to the case of MgO, the outer TiO2 sublayer has a developed surface with well-defined projections, gaps, and grain boundaries (Figure 19b). The TiO2 surface is characterized by a spheroidal, row-like structure that could have been formed as a result of local instability of the plasma combustion. The disorientation of TiO2 grains may be due to the high concentration of plasma on the substrate surface and the intensity of heat removal from the substrate. Grain clusters of the size of 50–100 nm in the structure of the TiO2 sublayer are aggregated into packages up to 500 nm in size. More precise studies of the topology of the outer Al2O3 sublayer made it possible to clearly identify grain boundaries and quantify grain size gradation (Figure 19c). The microrelief of the Al2O3 surface has a dimple structure which is oriented perpendicularly to the surface [4].
\nAFM surface microtopography of the dielectric layers (a) MgO, (b) TiO2, and (c) Al2O3 [
In order to estimate the increase in the loss current and the breakdown voltage of the dielectric layers, the electrical characteristics were investigated for an alternating current case. To obtain the electrical characteristics of the coating, the upper contact made of foil was pressed against its surface, and an electrode was applied over the foil. As the lower contact, a steel substrate was used. Measurements of capacitance (
The electrical conductivity values for Al2O3, MgO, and TiO2 coatings at low frequencies are almost unchanged at room temperature and are approximately 3 × 10−8 Ohm−1 m−1, 7 × 10−8 Ohm−1 m−1, and 3 × 10−8 Ohm−1 m−1, respectively. In dielectric layers of Al2O3 (at temperatures above 300°C) and MgO (at temperatures above 150°C), a monotonous increase in conductivity begins, caused by the thermal activation of charge carriers from energy levels of 0.63 eV and 0.35 eV, respectively. The electrical conductivity of TiO2 coatings decreases from 4 × 10−8 Ohm−1 m−1 to 1 × 10−10 Ohm−1 m−1 with increasing temperature from room temperature to 250°C and increases to 1 × 10−7 Ohm−1 m−1 with increasing temperature up to 400°C [2].
\nAs can be seen from the temperature dependences of the electrical conductivity of the dielectric layers for an alternating current case, in all investigated coating systems with increasing frequency, the magnitude of the electrical conductivity increases linearly. The increase in
Thus, the peculiarities of formation of the structure, adhesive, micromechanical, and electrophysical properties of the Al2O3, TiO2, and MgO dielectric layers obtained by ion-plasma sputtering were established. An optimal mode of formation of Al2O3, TiO2, and MgO dielectric layers was also determined: the gas pressure in the range Р = (1.5–4) × 10−2 mmHg, the arc current in the range I = 30–40 A, the displacement potential on substrate Е = −60 V, and the time τ = 20 min.
\nWhen selecting the material for the substrate and dielectric layer during the design of a film heating element, it is necessary to evaluate the type and order of values of the dielectric losses that occur under operating conditions.
\nThe existing methods for producing insulating coatings on the surface of corrosion-resistant steels are analyzed. It is shown that the CVD methods (ion-plasma deposition of metal oxide metal) of deposition on stainless steel substrates make it possible to obtain high-quality dielectric coatings for film heating elements with high micromechanical and electrophysical properties. The disadvantage of this method is its low productivity, which makes it impossible to use it in mass production. The relevance of using highly efficient and low-cost methods for the synthesis of functional coatings based on glass-ceramic glass sealants is shown. This method is simpler in execution technology and cheaper considering the use of raw materials, which opens up wide prospects for use in mass production. Given the proportionality of the sizes of coatings formed by both methods, the identity of the structure, microtopography of the surface, and the level of electrophysical properties, it can be argued that the first method can be recommended for applying dielectric coatings on the surface of stainless steels which is used for creating film heating elements.
\nIntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\\n\\n1. DEFINITIONS
\\n\\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\\n\\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\\n\\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\\n\\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\\n\\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\\n\\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
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\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\\n\\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\\n\\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\\n\\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\\n\\n5. TERMINATION
\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\\n\\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n\\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\\n\\n\\n\\n
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\n\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
\n\n5. TERMINATION
\n\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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The aim of the chapter is to give details on advance computational modelling and analytical methodologies, which can be used in order to design shallow and deep tunnels and to present real case studies from around the world, from very shallow tunnels in India with only 4.5 m overburden to a deep tunnel in Venezuela with extreme squeezing conditions under 1300 m overburden.",book:{id:"7690",slug:"tunnel-engineering-selected-topics",title:"Tunnel Engineering",fullTitle:"Tunnel Engineering - Selected Topics"},signatures:"Spiros Massinas",authors:[{id:"295762",title:"Dr.",name:"Spiros",middleName:null,surname:"Massinas",slug:"spiros-massinas",fullName:"Spiros Massinas"}]},{id:"68157",title:"Introductory Chapter: Textile Manufacturing Processes",slug:"introductory-chapter-textile-manufacturing-processes",totalDownloads:4484,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:null,book:{id:"8892",slug:"textile-manufacturing-processes",title:"Textile Manufacturing Processes",fullTitle:"Textile Manufacturing Processes"},signatures:"Faheem Uddin",authors:[{id:"228107",title:"Prof.",name:"Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"faheem-uddin",fullName:"Faheem Uddin"}]},{id:"66828",title:"Breathing Monitoring and Pattern Recognition with Wearable Sensors",slug:"breathing-monitoring-and-pattern-recognition-with-wearable-sensors",totalDownloads:3113,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:16,abstract:"This chapter introduces the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system, and the reasons for measuring breathing events, particularly, using wearable sensors. 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New technologies open the door to future methods of noninvasive breathing analysis using wearable sensors associated with machine learning techniques for pattern detection.",book:{id:"7654",slug:"wearable-devices-the-big-wave-of-innovation",title:"Wearable Devices",fullTitle:"Wearable Devices - the Big Wave of Innovation"},signatures:"Taisa Daiana da Costa, Maria de Fatima Fernandes Vara, Camila Santos Cristino, Tyene Zoraski Zanella, Guilherme Nunes Nogueira Neto and Percy Nohama",authors:[{id:"192464",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Percy",middleName:null,surname:"Nohama",slug:"percy-nohama",fullName:"Percy Nohama"},{id:"285706",title:"MSc.",name:"Taísa Daiana",middleName:null,surname:"Da Costa",slug:"taisa-daiana-da-costa",fullName:"Taísa Daiana Da Costa"},{id:"285707",title:"MSc.",name:"Maria de Fatima Fernandes",middleName:null,surname:"Vara",slug:"maria-de-fatima-fernandes-vara",fullName:"Maria de Fatima Fernandes Vara"},{id:"285708",title:"BSc.",name:"Camila Santos",middleName:null,surname:"Cristino",slug:"camila-santos-cristino",fullName:"Camila Santos Cristino"},{id:"285709",title:"Prof.",name:"Guilherme Nunes",middleName:null,surname:"Nogueira Neto",slug:"guilherme-nunes-nogueira-neto",fullName:"Guilherme Nunes Nogueira Neto"},{id:"293109",title:"BSc.",name:"Tyene",middleName:null,surname:"Zoraski Zanella",slug:"tyene-zoraski-zanella",fullName:"Tyene Zoraski Zanella"}]},{id:"41411",title:"Textile Dyes: Dyeing Process and Environmental Impact",slug:"textile-dyes-dyeing-process-and-environmental-impact",totalDownloads:20676,totalCrossrefCites:101,totalDimensionsCites:320,abstract:null,book:{id:"3137",slug:"eco-friendly-textile-dyeing-and-finishing",title:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing",fullTitle:"Eco-Friendly Textile Dyeing and Finishing"},signatures:"Farah Maria Drumond Chequer, Gisele Augusto Rodrigues de Oliveira, Elisa Raquel Anastácio Ferraz, Juliano Carvalho Cardoso, Maria Valnice Boldrin Zanoni and Danielle Palma de Oliveira",authors:[{id:"49040",title:"Prof.",name:"Danielle",middleName:null,surname:"Palma De Oliveira",slug:"danielle-palma-de-oliveira",fullName:"Danielle Palma De Oliveira"},{id:"149074",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Valnice",middleName:null,surname:"Zanoni",slug:"maria-valnice-zanoni",fullName:"Maria Valnice Zanoni"},{id:"153502",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Farah",middleName:null,surname:"Chequer",slug:"farah-chequer",fullName:"Farah Chequer"},{id:"153504",title:"MSc.",name:"Gisele",middleName:null,surname:"Oliveira",slug:"gisele-oliveira",fullName:"Gisele Oliveira"},{id:"163377",title:"Dr.",name:"Juliano",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",slug:"juliano-cardoso",fullName:"Juliano Cardoso"},{id:"163393",title:"Dr.",name:"Elisa",middleName:null,surname:"Ferraz",slug:"elisa-ferraz",fullName:"Elisa Ferraz"}]},{id:"70242",title:"Advancements in the Fenton Process for Wastewater Treatment",slug:"advancements-in-the-fenton-process-for-wastewater-treatment",totalDownloads:1985,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Fenton is considered to be one of the most effective advanced treatment processes in the removal of many hazardous organic pollutants from refractory/toxic wastewater. It has many advantages, but drawbacks are significant such as a strong acid environment, the cost of reagents consumption, and the large production of ferric sludge, which limits Fenton’s further application. The development of Fenton applications is mainly achieved by improving oxidation efficiency and reducing sludge production. This chapter presents a review on fundamentals and applications of conventional Fenton, leading advanced technologies in the Fenton process, and reuse methods of iron containing sludge to synthetic and real wastewaters are discussed. Finally, future trends and some guidelines for Fenton processes are given.",book:{id:"9415",slug:"advanced-oxidation-processes-applications-trends-and-prospects",title:"Advanced Oxidation Processes",fullTitle:"Advanced Oxidation Processes - Applications, Trends, and Prospects"},signatures:"Min Xu, Changyong Wu and Yuexi Zhou",authors:[{id:"307479",title:"Dr.",name:"Changyong",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"changyong-wu",fullName:"Changyong Wu"},{id:"307546",title:"Prof.",name:"Yuexi",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yuexi-zhou",fullName:"Yuexi Zhou"},{id:"311139",title:"Dr.",name:"Min",middleName:null,surname:"Xu",slug:"min-xu",fullName:"Min Xu"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"24",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82676",title:"Electrospinning of Fiber Matrices from Polyhydroxybutyrate for the Controlled Release Drug Delivery Systems",slug:"electrospinning-of-fiber-matrices-from-polyhydroxybutyrate-for-the-controlled-release-drug-delivery-",totalDownloads:13,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105786",abstract:"The submission provides an overview of current state of the problem and authors’ experimental data on manufacturing nonwoven fibrous matrices for the controlled release drug delivery systems (CRDDS). The choice of ultrathin fibers as effective carriers is determined by their characteristics and functional behavior, for example, such as a high specific surface area, anisotropy of some physicochemical characteristics, spatial limitations of segmental mobility that are inherent in nanosized objects, controlled biodegradation, and controlled diffusion transport. The structural-dynamic approach to the study of the morphology and diffusion properties of biopolymer fibers based on polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB) is considered from several angles. In the submission, the electrospinning (ES) application to reach specific characteristics of materials for controlled release drug delivery is discussed.",book:{id:"11127",title:"Electrospinning - Material Technology of the Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11127.jpg"},signatures:"Anatoly A. Olkhov, Svetlana G. Karpova, Anna V. Bychkova, Alexandre A. Vetcher and Alexey L. Iordanskii"},{id:"82600",title:"Impact of the Spreading of Sludge from Wastewater Treatment Plants on the Transfer and Bio-Availability of Trace Metal Elements in the Soil-Plant System",slug:"impact-of-the-spreading-of-sludge-from-wastewater-treatment-plants-on-the-transfer-and-bio-availabil",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103745",abstract:"The spreading of sludge from sewage treatment plants increased the production of durum wheat and rapeseed. Their richness in nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium gives them a beneficial effect on crops. However, the application of the sludge can induce increases in the concentration of metals in plant tissues. This increase can generate disturbances at the level of the cell and organelles, such as mitochondria and chloroplasts, which can be altered. Repeated applications of the sludge on the same site tend to increase the accumulation of heavy metals in the soil, so that an cause toxicities for soil microorganisms, animals, and humans, via the food chain. However, it is important to specify that these nuisances mainly concerned industrial sludge, but the use of this sludge is strictly prohibited. In addition, the high doses used in our field experiments are significantly higher than those authorized in agricultural practice. Finally, the risk assessment by calculating both the level of consumer exposure and the number of years for soil saturation shows that the use of urban sludge is safe, especially in the short and medium-term. Nevertheless, the quality of the sludge to be spread must be constantly monitored.",book:{id:"11173",title:"Wastewater Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11173.jpg"},signatures:"Najla Lassoued and Bilal Essaid"},{id:"81249",title:"Electrospun Polymeric Substrates for Tissue Engineering: Viewpoints on Fabrication, Application, and Challenges",slug:"electrospun-polymeric-substrates-for-tissue-engineering-viewpoints-on-fabrication-application-and-ch",totalDownloads:8,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102596",abstract:"Electrospinning is the technique for producing nonwoven fibrous structures, to mimic the fabrication and function of the native extracellular matrix (ECM) in tissue. Prepared fibrous with this method can act as potential polymeric substrates for proliferation and differentiation of stem cells (with the cellular growth pattern similar to damaged tissue cells) and facilitation of artificial tissue remodeling. Moreover, such substrates can improve biological functions, and lead to a decrease in organ transplantation. In this chapter, we focus on the fundamental parameters and principles of the electrospinning technique to generate natural ECM-like substrates, in terms of structural and functional complexity. In the following, the application of these substrates in regenerating various tissues and the role of polymers (synthetic/natural) in the formation of such substrates is evaluated. Finally, challenges of this technique (such as cellular infiltration and inadequate mechanical strength) and solutions to overcome these limitations are studied.",book:{id:"11127",title:"Electrospinning - Material Technology of the Future",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11127.jpg"},signatures:"Azadeh Izadyari Aghmiuni, Arezoo Ghadi, Elmira Azmoun, Niloufar Kalantari, Iman Mohammadi and Hossein Hemati Kordmahaleh"},{id:"82145",title:"Slope Casting Process: A Review",slug:"slope-casting-process-a-review",totalDownloads:9,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.102742",abstract:"Semi solid processing is a near net shape casting process and one of the promising techniques to obtain dendritic free structure of metals. Semi solid casting gives numerous advantages than solid processing and liquid processing. Semi solid casting process gives, Laminar flow filling of die without turbulence, Lower metal temperature, Less shrinkage, Less porosity, Higher mechanical properties. Semi solid casting process is industrially successful, producing a variety of products with good quality. Slope Casting process is a simple technique to produce semi solid feed-stoke with globular microstructure and dendrite free structure castings. Slope casting process depends on different process parameters like slope length, slope angle, pouring temperature etc. The present study mainly focuses on review of various explorations made by researchers with different process parameters of the Slope casting process and explain the mechanisms that lead to microstructural changes which leads to good mechanical properties.",book:{id:"11119",title:"Casting Processes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11119.jpg"},signatures:"Mukkollu Sambasiva Rao and Amitesh Kumar"},{id:"81861",title:"Emerging Human Coronaviruses (SARS-CoV-2) in the Environment Associated with Outbreaks Viral Pandemics",slug:"emerging-human-coronaviruses-sars-cov-2-in-the-environment-associated-with-outbreaks-viral-pandemics",totalDownloads:19,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103886",abstract:"In December 2019, there was a cluster of pneumonia cases in Wuhan, a city of about 11 million people in Hubei Province. The World Health Organization (WHO), qualified CoVid-19 as an emerging infectious disease on March 11, 2020, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) which spreads around the world. Coronaviruses are also included in the list of viruses likely to be found in raw sewage, as are other viruses belonging to the Picornaviridae family. SRAS-CoV-2 has been detected in wastewater worldwide such as the USA, France, Netherlands, Australia, and Italy according to the National Research Institute for Public Health and the Environment. In addition, the SARS-CoV-2 could infect many animals since it has been noticed in pigs, domestic and wild birds, bats, rodents, dogs, cats, tigers, cattle. Therefore, the SARS-CoV-2 molecular characterization in the environment, particularly in wastewater and animals, appeared to be a novel approach to monitor the outbreaks of viral pandemics. This review will be focused on the description of some virological characteristics of these emerging viruses, the different human and zoonotic coronaviruses, the sources of contamination of wastewater by coronaviruses and their potential procedures of disinfection from wastewater.",book:{id:"11173",title:"Wastewater Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11173.jpg"},signatures:"Chourouk Ibrahim, Salah Hammami, Eya Ghanmi and Abdennaceur Hassen"},{id:"81797",title:"Study of Change Surface Aerator to Submerged Nonporous Aerator in Biological Pond in an Industrial Wastewater Treatment in Daura Refinery",slug:"study-of-change-surface-aerator-to-submerged-nonporous-aerator-in-biological-pond-in-an-industrial-w",totalDownloads:11,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104860",abstract:"Daura refinery, with a capacity of 140,000 barrel per stream day as a refining capacity, wastewater discharged from refining and treatment processing units, polluted water as foul water, drainages, oil spills, blowdown of boilers and cooling towers, and many other polluted water sources, aims to remove pollutants and reject clean water to the river; wastewater treatment system takes place in this treatment process. Wastewater treatment system suffers from many problems and specifically biological stage; at this stage, activated sludge with bacteria, should be supplied with oxygen, aeration system done by surface aerators with four surface fans; these fans suffer from high vibration, loss support, and in consequence, lack in oxygen supply to aerobic bacteria less than 4 ppm. The nonporous aerator is suggested as an oxygen source for the biological pool. The pilot plant builds the aim to study the ability to apply the new aeration system at the biological pool, pilot plant build with 1 cubic meter capacity tank and continuous overflow of wastewater of 10 liters.min−1, air injected with the pressure of (0.5–0.75) bar(g), and airflow of (7.6–9.7) liter.min−1 respectively. Oxygen concentration was recorded as (3.4–6.0) ppm; in terms of consumption power, changing the aeration system reduces it to less than 20%.",book:{id:"11173",title:"Wastewater Treatment",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11173.jpg"},signatures:"Omar M. Waheeb, Mohanad Mahmood Salman and Rand Qusay Kadhim"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:27},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 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He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"310576",title:"Prof.",name:"Erick Giovani",middleName:null,surname:"Sperandio Nascimento",slug:"erick-giovani-sperandio-nascimento",fullName:"Erick Giovani Sperandio Nascimento",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y00002pDKxDQAW/ProfilePicture%202022-06-20%2019%3A57%3A24.788",biography:"Prof. Erick Sperandio is the Lead Researcher and professor of Artificial Intelligence (AI) at SENAI CIMATEC, Bahia, Brazil, also working with Computational Modeling (CM) and HPC. He holds a PhD in Environmental Engineering in the area of Atmospheric Computational Modeling, a Master in Informatics in the field of Computational Intelligence and Graduated in Computer Science from UFES. He currently coordinates, leads and participates in R&D projects in the areas of AI, computational modeling and supercomputing applied to different areas such as Oil and Gas, Health, Advanced Manufacturing, Renewable Energies and Atmospheric Sciences, advising undergraduate, master's and doctoral students. He is the Lead Researcher at SENAI CIMATEC's Reference Center on Artificial Intelligence. In addition, he is a Certified Instructor and University Ambassador of the NVIDIA Deep Learning Institute (DLI) in the areas of Deep Learning, Computer Vision, Natural Language Processing and Recommender Systems, and Principal Investigator of the NVIDIA/CIMATEC AI Joint Lab, the first in Latin America within the NVIDIA AI Technology Center (NVAITC) worldwide program. He also works as a researcher at the Supercomputing Center for Industrial Innovation (CS2i) and at the SENAI Institute of Innovation for Automation (ISI Automação), both from SENAI CIMATEC. He is a member and vice-coordinator of the Basic Board of Scientific-Technological Advice and Evaluation, in the area of Innovation, of the Foundation for Research Support of the State of Bahia (FAPESB). He serves as Technology Transfer Coordinator and one of the Principal Investigators at the National Applied Research Center in Artificial Intelligence (CPA-IA) of SENAI CIMATEC, focusing on Industry, being one of the six CPA-IA in Brazil approved by MCTI / FAPESP / CGI.br. He also participates as one of the representatives of Brazil in the BRICS Innovation Collaboration Working Group on HPC, ICT and AI. He is the coordinator of the Work Group of the Axis 5 - Workforce and Training - of the Brazilian Strategy for Artificial Intelligence (EBIA), and member of the MCTI/EMBRAPII AI Innovation Network Training Committee. He is the coordinator, by SENAI CIMATEC, of the Artificial Intelligence Reference Network of the State of Bahia (REDE BAH.IA). He leads the working group of experts representing Brazil in the Global Partnership on Artificial Intelligence (GPAI), on the theme \"AI and the Pandemic Response\".",institutionString:"Manufacturing and Technology Integrated Campus – SENAI CIMATEC",institution:null},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. Currently, she is working within the OPTIMA (Optimization Modeling & Analytics) business of TECNALIA’s ICT Division as a data scientist in projects related to the prediction and optimization of management and industrial processes (resource planning, energy efficiency, etc).",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE, and a recipient of the Biscay Talent prize for his academic career.",institutionString:"Tecnalia Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"278948",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Pedro",middleName:null,surname:"Gonçalves",slug:"carlos-pedro-goncalves",fullName:"Carlos Pedro Gonçalves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRcmyQAC/Profile_Picture_1564224512145",biography:'Carlos Pedro Gonçalves (PhD) is an Associate Professor at Lusophone University of Humanities and Technologies and a researcher on Complexity Sciences, Quantum Technologies, Artificial Intelligence, Strategic Studies, Studies in Intelligence and Security, FinTech and Financial Risk Modeling. He is also a progammer with programming experience in:\n\nA) Quantum Computing using Qiskit Python module and IBM Quantum Experience Platform, with software developed on the simulation of Quantum Artificial Neural Networks and Quantum Cybersecurity;\n\nB) Artificial Intelligence and Machine learning programming in Python;\n\nC) Artificial Intelligence, Multiagent Systems Modeling and System Dynamics Modeling in Netlogo, with models developed in the areas of Chaos Theory, Econophysics, Artificial Intelligence, Classical and Quantum Complex Systems Science, with the Econophysics models having been cited worldwide and incorporated in PhD programs by different Universities.\n\nReceived an Arctic Code Vault Contributor status by GitHub, due to having developed open source software preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\" for future generations (https://archiveprogram.github.com/arctic-vault/), with the Strategy Analyzer A.I. module for decision making support (based on his PhD thesis, used in his Classes on Decision Making and in Strategic Intelligence Consulting Activities) and QNeural Python Quantum Neural Network simulator also preserved in the \\"Arctic Code Vault\\", for access to these software modules see: https://github.com/cpgoncalves. He is also a peer reviewer with outsanding review status from Elsevier journals, including Physica A, Neurocomputing and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence. Science CV available at: https://www.cienciavitae.pt//pt/8E1C-A8B3-78C5 and ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0298-3974',institutionString:"University of Lisbon",institution:{name:"Universidade Lusófona",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"241400",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Bsiss",slug:"mohammed-bsiss",fullName:"Mohammed Bsiss",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241400/images/8062_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"276128",title:"Dr.",name:"Hira",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"hira-fatima",fullName:"Hira Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/276128/images/14420_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hira Fatima\nAssistant Professor\nDepartment of Mathematics\nInstitute of Applied Science\nMangalayatan University, Aligarh\nMobile: no : 8532041179\nhirafatima2014@gmal.com\n\nDr. Hira Fatima has received his Ph.D. degree in pure Mathematics from Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh India. Currently working as an Assistant Professor in the Department of Mathematics, Institute of Applied Science, Mangalayatan University, Aligarh. She taught so many courses of Mathematics of UG and PG level. Her research Area of Expertise is Functional Analysis & Sequence Spaces. She has been working on Ideal Convergence of double sequence. She has published 17 research papers in National and International Journals including Cogent Mathematics, Filomat, Journal of Intelligent and Fuzzy Systems, Advances in Difference Equations, Journal of Mathematical Analysis, Journal of Mathematical & Computer Science etc. She has also reviewed few research papers for the and international journals. She is a member of Indian Mathematical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"414880",title:"Dr.",name:"Maryam",middleName:null,surname:"Vatankhah",slug:"maryam-vatankhah",fullName:"Maryam Vatankhah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Borough of Manhattan Community College",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"414879",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammad-Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",slug:"mohammad-reza-akbarzadeh-totonchi",fullName:"Mohammad-Reza Akbarzadeh-Totonchi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ferdowsi University of Mashhad",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"414878",title:"Prof.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Fazel-Rezai",slug:"reza-fazel-rezai",fullName:"Reza Fazel-Rezai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"American Public University System",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"426586",title:"Dr.",name:"Oladunni A.",middleName:null,surname:"Daramola",slug:"oladunni-a.-daramola",fullName:"Oladunni A. Daramola",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Technology",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"357014",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",middleName:null,surname:"Bobrowski",slug:"leon-bobrowski",fullName:"Leon Bobrowski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bialystok University of Technology",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"302698",title:"Dr.",name:"Yao",middleName:null,surname:"Shan",slug:"yao-shan",fullName:"Yao Shan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Dalian University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"354126",title:"Dr.",name:"Setiawan",middleName:null,surname:"Hadi",slug:"setiawan-hadi",fullName:"Setiawan Hadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Padjadjaran University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"125911",title:"Prof.",name:"Jia-Ching",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"jia-ching-wang",fullName:"Jia-Ching Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Central University",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"332603",title:"Prof.",name:"Kumar S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ray",slug:"kumar-s.-ray",fullName:"Kumar S. Ray",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Statistical Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"415409",title:"Prof.",name:"Maghsoud",middleName:null,surname:"Amiri",slug:"maghsoud-amiri",fullName:"Maghsoud Amiri",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Allameh Tabataba'i University",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"357085",title:"Mr.",name:"P. Mohan",middleName:null,surname:"Anand",slug:"p.-mohan-anand",fullName:"P. Mohan Anand",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"356696",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"P.V.",middleName:null,surname:"Sai Charan",slug:"p.v.-sai-charan",fullName:"P.V. Sai Charan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"357086",title:"Prof.",name:"Sandeep K.",middleName:null,surname:"Shukla",slug:"sandeep-k.-shukla",fullName:"Sandeep K. Shukla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Technology Kanpur",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"27",type:"subseries",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",keywords:"Collaborative Intelligence, Learning, Distributed Control System, Swarm Robotics, Decision Science, Software Engineering",scope:"Multi-agent systems are recognised as a state of the art field in Artificial Intelligence studies, which is popular due to the usefulness in facilitation capabilities to handle real-world problem-solving in a distributed fashion. The area covers many techniques that offer solutions to emerging problems in robotics and enterprise-level software systems. Collaborative intelligence is highly and effectively achieved with multi-agent systems. Areas of application include swarms of robots, flocks of UAVs, collaborative software management. Given the level of technological enhancements, the popularity of machine learning in use has opened a new chapter in multi-agent studies alongside the practical challenges and long-lasting collaboration issues in the field. It has increased the urgency and the need for further studies in this field. We welcome chapters presenting research on the many applications of multi-agent studies including, but not limited to, the following key areas: machine learning for multi-agent systems; modeling swarms robots and flocks of UAVs with multi-agent systems; decision science and multi-agent systems; software engineering for and with multi-agent systems; tools and technologies of multi-agent systems.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!1,annualVolume:11423,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. 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We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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