Framework of critical loss analysis.
\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"5196",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Radiation Effects in Materials",title:"Radiation Effects in Materials",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The study of radiation effects has developed as a major field of materials science from the beginning, approximately 70 years ago. Its rapid development has been driven by two strong influences. The properties of the crystal defects and the materials containing them may then be studied. The types of radiation that can alter structural materials consist of neutrons, ions, electrons, gamma rays or other electromagnetic waves with different wavelengths. All of these forms of radiation have the capability to displace atoms/molecules from their lattice sites, which is the fundamental process that drives the changes in all materials. The effect of irradiation on materials is fixed in the initial event in which an energetic projectile strikes a target. The book is distributed in four sections: Ionic Materials; Biomaterials; Polymeric Materials and Metallic Materials.",isbn:"978-953-51-2418-4",printIsbn:"978-953-51-2417-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5068-8",doi:"10.5772/61498",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"radiation-effects-in-materials",numberOfPages:462,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"99f0555ddea93e099cc8d9df9cd6ec0f",bookSignature:"Waldemar A. Monteiro",publishedDate:"July 20th 2016",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5196.jpg",numberOfDownloads:34420,numberOfWosCitations:33,numberOfCrossrefCitations:38,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:4,numberOfDimensionsCitations:74,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:6,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:145,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 15th 2015",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 5th 2015",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 9th 2016",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"May 9th 2016",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"July 20th 2016",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"118821",title:"Dr.",name:"Waldemar Alfredo",middleName:null,surname:"Monteiro",slug:"waldemar-alfredo-monteiro",fullName:"Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/118821/images/system/118821.png",biography:"Physicist, MSc (Solid State Physics), DSc (Nuclear Technology) at the University of São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, Brazil. He is a Senior Researcher on Materials Science and Technology Center at IPEN (Nuclear and Energy Research Institute). Also, he is a lecturer and scientific advisor (MSc and DSc) on graduate course on IPEN – USP. His expertise areas are physical metallurgy, powder metallurgy, nuclear technology (materials), materials characterization (optical and electron microscopy; microanalysis techniques). He has published more than 160 articles (scientific journals and congress proceedings), chapters and books in the material sciences area. The academic advisories include 56 scientific initiations (undergraduate students), 30 Masters of Sciences and 16 Doctors of Sciences.",institutionString:"Nuclear and Energy Research Institute (Materials Science and Technology Center) / University of São Paulo",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"5",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"493",title:"Radiochemistry",slug:"nuclear-chemistry-radiochemistry"}],chapters:[{id:"51041",title:"Effects of Electron Irradiation Upon Absorptive and Fluorescent Properties of Some Doped Optical Fibers",doi:"10.5772/63939",slug:"effects-of-electron-irradiation-upon-absorptive-and-fluorescent-properties-of-some-doped-optical-fib",totalDownloads:2033,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A review of the recent studies of the effect of irradiating silica-based fibers doped with rare earths and metals by a beam of high-energy (β) electrons is presented. Of the review’s main scope are the attenuation spectra’ transformations occurring in optical fiber of such types under electron irradiation, allowing, from one side, to recover some general essence of the phenomena involved and, from the other side, to draw the features that would make such fibers useful for applications, for example, in dosimetry and space technologies. Among the fibers of the current review’s choice, exemplifying the effect of electron irradiation most brightly, are ytterbium (Yb) and cerium (Ce) (the rare earths’ representatives) and bismuth (Bi) (the post-transitional metals representative) doped fibers, where a diversity of the electron-irradiation-related effects is encouraged.",signatures:"Alexander V. Kir’yanov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51041",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51041",authors:[{id:"173105",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kir'Yanov",slug:"alexander-kir'yanov",fullName:"Alexander Kir'Yanov"}],corrections:null},{id:"51242",title:"Radiation Effects in Optical Materials and Photonic Devices",doi:"10.5772/62547",slug:"radiation-effects-in-optical-materials-and-photonic-devices",totalDownloads:2665,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The chapter continues previous reviews on radiation effects in optical fibers and on the use of optical fibers/optical fiber sensors in radiation monitoring, published by InTech in 2010 and 2012, by referring to radiation effects in optical materials, with an emphasis on those operating from visible to mid-IR, and on some photonic devices such as optical fibers for amplifiers, fiber Bragg gratings and long period gratings. The focus is on optical materials and fiber-based devices designed for both terrestrial and spaceborne applications. For the presented subjects, an overview of available data on X-rays or gamma rays, electron beams, alpha particles, neutrons, and protons effects is provided. In addition, comments on dose rate, dose, and/or temperature effects on materials and devices degradation under irradiation are mentioned, where appropriate. The optical materials and photonic devices reliability under ionizing radiation exposure is discussed as well, as the opportunities to use them in developing radiation sensors or dosimeters. The chapter includes an extensive bibliography and references to last published results in the field. Novel proposed applications of photonic devices in charged particle beam diagnostics, quasi-distributed radiation field mapping and the evaluation of radiation effects in materials for mid-IR spectroscopy are briefly introduced to the reader.",signatures:"Dan Sporea and Adelina Sporea",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/51242",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/51242",authors:[{id:"5392",title:"Dr.",name:"Dan",surname:"Sporea",slug:"dan-sporea",fullName:"Dan Sporea"},{id:"85843",title:"Dr.",name:"Adelina",surname:"Sporea",slug:"adelina-sporea",fullName:"Adelina Sporea"}],corrections:null},{id:"50464",title:"The Impact of Successive Gamma and Neutron Irradiation on Characteristics of PIN Photodiodes and Phototransistors",doi:"10.5772/62756",slug:"the-impact-of-successive-gamma-and-neutron-irradiation-on-characteristics-of-pin-photodiodes-and-pho",totalDownloads:2023,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of this paper is to explore the impact of increased gamma and neutron radiation on the PIN photodiodes and phototransistors and their output characteristics. Special attention was paid to the successive impact of gamma and neutron radiation when the components were located in the field of gamma radiation and after that in the field of neutron radiation. The impact of successive irradiation was compared with the influence of gamma and neutron radiation when they appear individually. An important result of this research is the observation that neutron irradiation of photovoltaic detectors, applied after gamma irradiation, leading to partial reparations of distorted semiconductor structure and increasing disrupted output characteristics (photocurrent, spectral response). Monte Carlo simulation of gamma photons transfer through the crystal lattice of the semiconductor has been shown that the cause of such effect of neutron radiation is a large number of divacancies caused by successive operation of the previous gamma radiation and the neutron radiation itself. Divacancies have created the basis for increased generation of charge carriers by direct transfer (tunneling) of carriers through the traps (recombination centers). This is so called intercenter charge transfer.",signatures:"Dejan Nikolić and Aleksandra Vasić-Milovanović",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50464",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50464",authors:[{id:"181272",title:"Dr.",name:"Dejan",surname:"Nikolic",slug:"dejan-nikolic",fullName:"Dejan Nikolic"},{id:"181276",title:"Dr.",name:"Aleksandra",surname:"Vasic-Milovanovic",slug:"aleksandra-vasic-milovanovic",fullName:"Aleksandra Vasic-Milovanovic"}],corrections:null},{id:"50286",title:"Electron Beam Irradiation Effects on Dielectric Parameters of SiR–EPDM Blends",doi:"10.5772/62624",slug:"electron-beam-irradiation-effects-on-dielectric-parameters-of-sir-epdm-blends",totalDownloads:1722,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The survival of an electrical system is mostly governed by the endurance limit of the dielectric material employed in it. The five different compositions of SiR–EPDM blends were prepared. Electron beam radiation has been widely used in the cable manufacturing industries in order to increase the life of the cable. Hence, the five blends were irradiated to 5, 15 and 25 Mrad dose levels by electron beam accelerator. The dielectric parameters such as breakdown voltage (BDV), dielectric strength (DS), dielectric constant (DC), and dissipation factor (DF) were measured as per ASTM/IEC standards. This chapter evaluates the effect of electron beam irradiation on dielectric parameters of SiR–EPDM blends.",signatures:"R. Deepalaxmi, V. Rajini and C. Vaithilingam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50286",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50286",authors:[{id:"180663",title:"Dr.",name:"R",surname:"Deepalaxmi",slug:"r-deepalaxmi",fullName:"R Deepalaxmi"},{id:"181031",title:"Dr.",name:"V",surname:"Rajini",slug:"v-rajini",fullName:"V Rajini"},{id:"181032",title:"Dr.",name:"C",surname:"Vaithilingam",slug:"c-vaithilingam",fullName:"C Vaithilingam"}],corrections:null},{id:"50436",title:"Radiation and Environmental Biophysics: From Single Cells to Small Animals",doi:"10.5772/62623",slug:"radiation-and-environmental-biophysics-from-single-cells-to-small-animals",totalDownloads:2219,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"In this chapter, two of very unique and novel radiation technologies for modern radiobiology studies are reviewed. First of all, it is concentrated on the developments of accelerator-based particle microbeam system, which has been effectively used for studying the puzzle of “radiation-induced bystander effect.” In addition, a recent published single-cell microbeam study, which is aiming to directly measure a cell’s radio-sensitivity combining microbeam system with self-referencing biosensor, is included. Then, toward the study of realistic irradiation scenarios in radiation biology in particular, such as a nuclear attack for homeland security concerns or a potential large-scale radiological event, there would be a major need to ascertain, within a few days, the radiation doses received by tens or hundreds of thousands of individuals. Specifically, biological tests would need to be established to estimate the likelihood of such radiation exposure to result in serious health consequences; tests that would then be applied to decide on the correct treatments that might mitigate the short- and long-term health effects of such radiation exposure. However, because of the complexity and difficulty of conducting tests in such circumstance, innovative irradiation systems and technology are required. So the new developments of small animal irradiation system for evaluating the radiation risk and carrying out animal model radiobiology experiments within the mimicked radiation scenarios are covered in the second half of this chapter.",signatures:"Yanping Xu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50436",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50436",authors:[{id:"181261",title:"Dr.",name:"Yanping",surname:"Xu",slug:"yanping-xu",fullName:"Yanping Xu"}],corrections:null},{id:"50183",title:"Radioactivity in Food: Experiences of the Food Control Authority of Basel-City since the Chernobyl Accident",doi:"10.5772/62460",slug:"radioactivity-in-food-experiences-of-the-food-control-authority-of-basel-city-since-the-chernobyl-ac",totalDownloads:1871,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:7,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The contamination of our environment and of food with artificial radionuclides originates from several sources. First, nuclear powers spread contamination all over the Northern Hemisphere by carrying out more than 600 atmospheric bomb tests from 1945 to 1963. The peaceful use of nuclear fission brought several accidents in nuclear installations [nuclear power plant (NPP)]. This began in the late 1940s and ended recently with the NPP’s core meltings at Fukushima-Daiji in 2011. The catastrophe at the Chernobyl NPP in 1986 spread enormous fallout over most parts of Europe. Besides the artificial contamination, one has to mention the exposure to naturally occurring radionuclides from the uranium and thorium decay series. From 1980 on, the State Laboratory Basel-City began a monitoring programme of food. Special equipment for the analysis of α-, β-, and γ-emitting radionuclides had to be built. In 1986/1987, the laboratory had to manage thousands of samples according to the accident at Chernobyl. The Government estimated the dose of the mean Swiss population from the ingestion of contaminated food to be 1 to 2 mSv. Today, the contamination of food has lowered significantly. The Office of Public Health estimated the total ingested dose of about 0.3 to 0.4 mSv/year. The main contribution comes from potassium-40 (40K; 0.2 mSv/year) and from natural radionuclides of the uranium and thorium decay series. The remaining contamination from the bomb fallout is less than 0.1 mSv/year.",signatures:"Markus Zehringer",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50183",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50183",authors:[{id:"311750",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus R.",surname:"Zehringer",slug:"markus-r.-zehringer",fullName:"Markus R. Zehringer"}],corrections:null},{id:"50235",title:"Radiation Influence on Edible Materials",doi:"10.5772/62430",slug:"radiation-influence-on-edible-materials",totalDownloads:1565,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Innovations in the food industry are shaped both by new technologies available and by society’s requirements. A good knowledge on the chemistry and biological role of the macro-nutrients (proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and also energy and water) and micro-nutrients (minerals and vitamins) is required. Food production foundations include not only the design of the food products but also the materials, mechanics, ingredients, conversion and transformation all must be taken into consideration. Edible polymers are polymeric materials that can be easily consumed by human beings or lower animals in whole or part via the oral cavity and given harmless effect to the health. An edible polymer is originated from natural products such as polysaccharides, proteins and lipids, with the addition of plasticizers and surfactants. Radiation-processing technologies are used currently for numerous applications of commercial and economic importance, but it is an emerging application with the use of ionizing radiation to enhance properties of edible polymers such as carbohydrates or proteins. This chapter aims at supplying the state of the art about the effects of ionizing radiation on edible polymers: starch and vegetal proteins and also on gelatin that comes from animal origin.",signatures:"Nelida Lucia del Mastro",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50235",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50235",authors:[{id:"153189",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nelida",surname:"Del Mastro",slug:"nelida-del-mastro",fullName:"Nelida Del Mastro"}],corrections:null},{id:"50623",title:"Transient Anions in Radiobiology and Radiotherapy: From Gaseous Biomolecules to Condensed Organic and Biomolecular Solids",doi:"10.5772/63293",slug:"transient-anions-in-radiobiology-and-radiotherapy-from-gaseous-biomolecules-to-condensed-organic-and",totalDownloads:1664,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the fundamental processes that govern interactions of low‐energy (1–30 eV) electrons with biological systems. These interactions have been investigated in the gas phase and within complex arrangements in the condensed phase. They often lead to the formation of transient molecular anions (TMAs), and their decay by autoionization or dissociation accompanied by bond dissociation. The damage caused to biomolecules via TMAs is emphasized in all sections. Such damage, which depends on a large number of factors, including electron energy, molecular environment, and type of biomolecule, and its physical and chemical interactions with radiosensitizing agents are extensively discussed. A majority of recent findings resulting from experimental and theoretical endeavors are presented. They encompass broad research areas to elucidate important roles of TMAs in irradiated biological systems, from the molecular level to nanoscale cellular dimensions. Fundamental aspects of TMA formation are stressed in this chapter, but many practical applications in a variety of radiation‐related fields such as radiobiology and radiotherapy are addressed.",signatures:"Elahe Alizadeh, Sylwia Ptasińska and Léon Sanche",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50623",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50623",authors:[{id:"180646",title:"Dr.",name:"Elahe",surname:"Alizadeh",slug:"elahe-alizadeh",fullName:"Elahe Alizadeh"},{id:"181757",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylwia",surname:"Ptasinska",slug:"sylwia-ptasinska",fullName:"Sylwia Ptasinska"},{id:"181758",title:"Prof.",name:"Leon",surname:"Sanche",slug:"leon-sanche",fullName:"Leon Sanche"}],corrections:null},{id:"50277",title:"Elimination of Potential Pathogenic Microorganisms in Sewage Sludge Using Electron Beam Irradiation",doi:"10.5772/62705",slug:"elimination-of-potential-pathogenic-microorganisms-in-sewage-sludge-using-electron-beam-irradiation",totalDownloads:1863,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Microbiological analyses on municipal sewage sludge sample treated in a pilot plant process utilizing an electron accelerator with a beam energy of 3 MeV were conducted as a way to show the potential of this technology to decontaminate sludge containing 15% solids. Bacterial counts including total heterotrophic bacterial, total coliform, and fecal coliform counts were performed on sewage sludge samples pre- and postirradiation with the electron beam at doses ranging between 2.7 and 30.7 kGy. At each irradiation dose, bacterial and Ascaris ova counts and survival were measured in triplicate as colony forming units (CFUs) per milliliter (ml) of sewage sludge. Experimental results obtained revealed that a dose of 6.7 kGy is enough to reduce bacterial load to consider the treated sewage sludge safe for both the environment and human according to the Environmental Protection Agency standards. However, a dose of 25.7 kGy was needed to reduce the concentration of Ascaris ova at levels deemed safe for land applications. This study also showed that electron beam treatment is less energy consuming with shorter processing times than conventional techniques used to decontaminate sludge. Taken altogether, these observations open new avenues for large urban agglomerations to save money on sewage sludge treatment.",signatures:"Jean Engohang-Ndong and Roberto M. Uribe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50277",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50277",authors:[{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong"},{id:"183556",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Uribe",slug:"roberto-uribe",fullName:"Roberto Uribe"}],corrections:null},{id:"50181",title:"Radiation Effects in Polyamides",doi:"10.5772/62464",slug:"radiation-effects-in-polyamides",totalDownloads:2128,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Polyamides (PAs) are largely used either as engineering materials in virgin form or as composites and a component of polymer blends. Various processes have been used to modify some properties of polymers to improve their utility. For this purpose, radiation technologies present clear, one-step procedures and offer improvement to the performance of PA materials. Irradiation by accelerated electron beams, γ-rays, and accelerated protons is applied on PAs, particularly PA-6, as well as PA composites. Variations of important characteristics, such as chemical structure, supermolecular structure, mechanical properties, thermal resistance, water absorption, and other parameters, are analyzed involving results obtained by other authors. The application of irradiation on incompatible polymer blends involving PA is presented as well. The selection of radiation treatment of PAs has to be considered to obtain optimal results.",signatures:"Mária Porubská",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50181",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50181",authors:[{id:"179726",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Maria",surname:"Porubska",slug:"maria-porubska",fullName:"Maria Porubska"}],corrections:null},{id:"50266",title:"Ion-Irradiation-Induced Carbon Nanostructures in Optoelectronic Polymer Materials",doi:"10.5772/62669",slug:"ion-irradiation-induced-carbon-nanostructures-in-optoelectronic-polymer-materials",totalDownloads:1906,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The recent results obtained on the ion-irradiation-induced carbon nanostructures in optoelectronic polymer materials exemplified by boron-ion-implanted polymethylmethacrylate (B:PMMA) with an energy of 40 keV, ion doses from 6.25 × 1014 to 5.0 × 1016 ions/cm2, and current density <2 μA/cm2 are reviewed. The positron annihilation spectroscopy (slow positron beam spectroscopy based on Doppler broadening of positron annihilation gamma rays as a function of incident positron energy and positron annihilation lifetime at a positron energy of 2.15 keV, and temperature-dependent positron annihilation lifetime spectroscopy), optical UV-visible spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, electrical (current–voltage) measurements, and nanoindentation test are chosen as the main experimental tools for the investigation of low-energy ion-induced processes in B:PMMA. The formation of carbon nanostructures is confirmed for the samples irradiated with higher ion fluences (>1016 ions/cm2) and the experimental results of the comprehensive study are found to be in a good agreement with SRIM (stopping and range of ions in matter) simulation results.",signatures:"Taras S. Kavetskyy and Andrey L. Stepanov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50266",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50266",authors:[{id:"6926",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrey",surname:"Stepanov",slug:"andrey-stepanov",fullName:"Andrey Stepanov"},{id:"181260",title:"Dr.",name:"Taras",surname:"Kavetskyy",slug:"taras-kavetskyy",fullName:"Taras Kavetskyy"}],corrections:null},{id:"50579",title:"Radiation Effects in Textile Materials",doi:"10.5772/63731",slug:"radiation-effects-in-textile-materials",totalDownloads:2889,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:9,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Irradiation processes have several commercial applications, in the coating of metals, plastics, and glass, in printing, wood finishing, film and plastic cross-linking, and in the fields of adhesive and electrical insulations. The advantages of this technology are well known.",signatures:"Sheila Shahidi and Jakub Wiener",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50579",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50579",authors:[{id:"58854",title:"Dr.",name:null,surname:"Shahidi",slug:"shahidi",fullName:"Shahidi"},{id:"87913",title:"Prof.",name:"Jakub",surname:"Wiener",slug:"jakub-wiener",fullName:"Jakub Wiener"},{id:"176974",title:"Prof.",name:"Mahmood",surname:"Ghoranneviss",slug:"mahmood-ghoranneviss",fullName:"Mahmood Ghoranneviss"}],corrections:null},{id:"50329",title:"Irradiation Pretreatment of Tropical Biomass and Biofiber for Biofuel Production",doi:"10.5772/62728",slug:"irradiation-pretreatment-of-tropical-biomass-and-biofiber-for-biofuel-production",totalDownloads:2657,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Interest on biofuel production from biomass and biofiber has gain great attention globally because these materials are abundant, inexpensive, renewable, and sustainable. Generally, the conversion of biomass and biofiber to biofuel involves several processes including biomass production, pretreatment, hydrolysis, and fermentation. Selecting the most efficient pretreatment is crucial to ensure the success of biofuel production since pretreatment has been reported to contribute substantial portion on the production cost. The main goal of the pretreatment is to enhance digestibility of the biomass and biofiber, and to increase sugar production prior to fermentation process. To date, several pretreatment methods have been introduced to pretreat biomass and biofiber including irradiation. This book chapter reviews and discusses different leading irradiation pretreatment technologies along with their mechanism involved during pretreatment of various tropical biomass and biofiber. This chapter also reviews the effect of irradiation pretreatment on the biomass and biofiber component, which could assist the enzymatic saccharification process.",signatures:"Mohd Asyraf Kassim, H.P.S Abdul Khalil, Noor Aziah Serri,\nMohamad Haafiz Mohamad Kassim, Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir,\nN.A. Sri Aprila and Rudi Dungani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50329",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50329",authors:[{id:"181433",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Asyraf",surname:"Kassim",slug:"mohd-asyraf-kassim",fullName:"Mohd Asyraf Kassim"},{id:"203218",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Izzuddin",surname:"Syakir Ishak",slug:"muhammad-izzuddin-syakir-ishak",fullName:"Muhammad Izzuddin Syakir Ishak"},{id:"234728",title:"Dr.",name:"Rudi",surname:"Dungani",slug:"rudi-dungani",fullName:"Rudi Dungani"},{id:"365131",title:"Dr.",name:"H.P.S",surname:"Abdul Khalil",slug:"h.p.s-abdul-khalil",fullName:"H.P.S Abdul Khalil"},{id:"365132",title:"Dr.",name:"Noor Aziah",surname:"Serri",slug:"noor-aziah-serri",fullName:"Noor Aziah Serri"},{id:"365133",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohamad Haafiz",surname:"Mohamad Kassim",slug:"mohamad-haafiz-mohamad-kassim",fullName:"Mohamad Haafiz Mohamad Kassim"},{id:"365134",title:"Dr.",name:"N.A.",surname:"Sri Aprila",slug:"n.a.-sri-aprila",fullName:"N.A. Sri Aprila"}],corrections:null},{id:"50278",title:"Ion Bombardment-Induced Surface Effects in Materials",doi:"10.5772/62731",slug:"ion-bombardment-induced-surface-effects-in-materials",totalDownloads:1850,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:6,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter deals with the experimental research and computer simulation of low- and medium-energy (E\n0 = 1-30 keV) ion collisions on the surface of a solid and of the accompanying effects, namely scattering, sputtering, and surface implantation. Experimental and computer simulation studies of low-energy (Е\n0 = 80–500 eV) Cs+ ions scattering on Ta, W, Re target surfaces and K+ ions scattering on Ti, V, Cr target surfaces have been performed for more accurate definition of mechanism of scattering, with a purpose of evaluation of use of slow ions scattering as a tool for surface layer analysis. The peculiarities of the process of correlated small angle scattering of 5–15 keV He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, and Rn ions by the Cu(100), Ni(100), and V(100) single-crystal surfaces have been investigated by computer simulation. It has been shown that under these conditions the inelastic energy losses become predominant over the elastic ones. The anomalous energy losses observed experimentally at the grazing ion scattering by the single-crystal surface were explained. It has been shown by computer simulation that the peculiarities of the chain effect at direct and reverse relation of masses of colliding particles and rainbow effect at quasi-single and quasi-double scattering of ions, heavier than adatoms, lead to the appearance of characteristic peaks in the energy and angular distributions of scattered ions. Analysis of these peaks and comparison with experiment give an opportunity to control the initial stages of adsorption and identification of adsorption structures with the help of low-energy ion scattering. It has been shown that from the correlation of the experimental and calculated energy distributions of the scattered particles, one may determine a spatial extension of the isolated atomic steps on the single-crystal surface damaged by the ion bombardment. Results obtained can be also used to study short-range order in alloys undergoing ordering. Grazing ion-sputtering processes of Si(001), SiC(001), and Cu3Au(001) surfaces at 0.5–5 keV Ne+ bombardment have been studied by computer simulations. A preferential emission of Cu atoms in the case of Cu3Au (001) surface sputtering is observed. It was shown that in the case of grazing ion bombardment, the layer-by-layer sputtering is possible, and its optimum is observed within the small angle range of the glancing angles near the threshold sputtering angle. The peculiarities of trajectories, ranges, and energy losses of low-energy different-mass ions channeling in thin single crystals of metals and semiconductors have been thoroughly studied by computer simulation. It has been found that in the case of light ions, even at low energy, the main contribution to energy loss is made by inelastic energy losses, whereas for heavy ions, already at E < 10 keV, elastic energy losses exceed inelastic ones. Profiles of the distribution of channeled ions have been calculated depending on the crystal lattice type, kind of ions, and their energy. It has been shown that the channeling of low-energy ions through thin single-crystal metal films can be used to determine the sort and adsorption site of light atoms adsorbed on a clean rear surface.",signatures:"Farid F. Umarov and Abdiravuf A. Dzhurakhalov",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50278",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50278",authors:[{id:"106763",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid",surname:"Umarov",slug:"farid-umarov",fullName:"Farid Umarov"},{id:"364999",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdiravuf A.",surname:"Dzhurakhalov",slug:"abdiravuf-a.-dzhurakhalov",fullName:"Abdiravuf A. Dzhurakhalov"}],corrections:null},{id:"50632",title:"Neutron Irradiation Effects in 5xxx and 6xxx Series Aluminum Alloys: A Literature Review",doi:"10.5772/63294",slug:"neutron-irradiation-effects-in-5xxx-and-6xxx-series-aluminum-alloys-a-literature-review",totalDownloads:2154,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A literature review on highly irradiated 5xxx and 6xxx series Al alloys is conducted to understand the expected changes in mechanical properties of high flux reactor (HFR) vessel material in relation with microstructural aspects beyond the current surveillance data to support the HFR Surveillance Program (SURP). It was found that the irradiation swelling in 5xxx series alloys is not a crucial degradation mechanism. Dislocation damage is expected to reach a saturation limit in both 5xxx and 6xxx series alloys at relatively low fast-fluence values (<2 × 1026 n/m2). The damage caused by precipitation of transmutation Si is found to be the dominant mechanism affecting the fracture toughness properties of irradiated 5xxx and 6xxx series Al alloys at high thermal fluence values. Tensile and fracture toughness data collected from the literature up to very high thermal fluences are analyzed in comparison with the available HFR surveillance data to predict the behavior of the HFR vessel material beyond current surveillance data. The observed changes in mechanical properties are classified into four different regimes. The contribution of various irradiation damage mechanisms, namely the displacement damage and transmutation damage, to the evolution of microstructure and mechanical properties is discussed in all four regimes for 5xxx and 6xxx series alloys.",signatures:"Murthy Kolluri",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50632",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50632",authors:[{id:"182588",title:"Dr.",name:"Murthy",surname:"Kolluri",slug:"murthy-kolluri",fullName:"Murthy Kolluri"}],corrections:null},{id:"50343",title:"A Parallel between Laser Irradiation and Relativistic Electrons Irradiation of Solids",doi:"10.5772/62353",slug:"a-parallel-between-laser-irradiation-and-relativistic-electrons-irradiation-of-solids",totalDownloads:1454,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The investigation of the thermal field distribution in a material sample irradiated by a laser beam or an electron beam with the energy of a few MeV appears as a demand for all kinds of experiments that involve irradiation. When investigating the effects of accelerated electrons on a target, it is necessary to figure out the temperature rise in the target. Also during irradiation with laser beams, it is important to know the thermal behavior of the target. A parallel between laser and electron beam irradiation is also made. The results are very interesting. Also, a very interesting case of cluster nano-particles (20–100 nm; inserted in a Cu surface) heated with a laser beam is tacking in to account.",signatures:"Mihai Oane, Rareş Victor Medianu and Anca Bucă",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50343",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50343",authors:[{id:"172381",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihai",surname:"Oane",slug:"mihai-oane",fullName:"Mihai Oane"},{id:"183552",title:"Dr.",name:"Rares",surname:"Medianu",slug:"rares-medianu",fullName:"Rares Medianu"},{id:"183657",title:"MSc.",name:"Anca",surname:"Buca",slug:"anca-buca",fullName:"Anca Buca"}],corrections:null},{id:"50279",title:"Nanostructuring of Material Surfaces by Laser Ablation",doi:"10.5772/62638",slug:"nanostructuring-of-material-surfaces-by-laser-ablation",totalDownloads:1760,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Irradiation of materials such as iron and silicon with single nanosecond laser pulses produces nanostructures on its surfaces. Nevertheless, the deposition before irradiation of thin films on the surface of the silicon wafers can modify the shapes of these structures. Upon laser irradiation, different effects are produced on the surfaces of monocrystalline silicon wafers coated with a thin film of Si3N4 than on that of bare ones. After irradiation with a Nd:YAG laser pulse of 532 nm, the coated silicon surface presents a nanostructure that, due to its hydrophobic behavior, can be used for biological applications such as cell growth. On the other hand, the nanostructures formed on the surface of metals, such as iron, make them more resistant to oxidation processes by changing their oxidation potentials.",signatures:"Cinthya Toro Salazar, María Laura Azcárate and Carlos Alberto\nRinaldi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50279",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50279",authors:[{id:"83339",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Alberto",surname:"Rinaldi",slug:"carlos-alberto-rinaldi",fullName:"Carlos Alberto Rinaldi"},{id:"181414",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Laura",surname:"Azcarate",slug:"maria-laura-azcarate",fullName:"Maria Laura Azcarate"},{id:"181415",title:"Dr.",name:"Cinthya",surname:"Toro Salazar",slug:"cinthya-toro-salazar",fullName:"Cinthya Toro Salazar"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3844",title:"Light Metal Alloys Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6ddeae36c90447289dd3320146d31861",slug:"light-metal-alloys-applications",bookSignature:"Waldemar A. Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3844.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"118821",title:"Dr.",name:"Waldemar Alfredo",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"waldemar-alfredo-monteiro",fullName:"Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2460",title:"New Features on Magnesium Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"53dc0d4a1e2c1d85bd0d14191457a343",slug:"new-features-on-magnesium-alloys",bookSignature:"Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2460.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"118821",title:"Dr.",name:"Waldemar Alfredo",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"waldemar-alfredo-monteiro",fullName:"Waldemar Alfredo Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"198",title:"Special Issues on Magnesium Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"549ac1b3e3c706e180b9dd8025c934b7",slug:"special-issues-on-magnesium-alloys",bookSignature:"Waldemar A. 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Almayah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8352.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259474",title:"Prof.",name:"Basim",surname:"Almayyahi",slug:"basim-almayyahi",fullName:"Basim Almayyahi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6336",title:"Advanced Technologies and Applications of Neutron Activation Analysis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"662abe626287d6cc1e9ae444e094efc0",slug:"advanced-technologies-and-applications-of-neutron-activation-analysis",bookSignature:"Lylia Alghem Hamidatou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6336.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"156961",title:"Dr.",name:"Lylia",surname:"Hamidatou",slug:"lylia-hamidatou",fullName:"Lylia Hamidatou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7443",title:"Nuclear Fusion",subtitle:"One Noble Goal and a Variety of Scientific and Technological Challenges",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c76c428580cf3eda6f92b41e7419fb5c",slug:"nuclear-fusion-one-noble-goal-and-a-variety-of-scientific-and-technological-challenges",bookSignature:"Igor Girka",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7443.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"261397",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",surname:"Girka",slug:"igor-girka",fullName:"Igor Girka"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"79356",slug:"corrigendum-to-risk-assessment-and-health-safety-and-environmental-management-of-carbon-nanomaterial",title:"Corrigendum to: Risk Assessment and Health, Safety, and Environmental Management of Carbon Nanomaterials",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/80612.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/80612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/80612",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/80612",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/80612",chapter:{id:"66689",slug:"risk-assessment-and-health-safety-and-environmental-management-of-carbon-nanomaterials",signatures:"Guilherme Lenz e Silva, Camila Viana, Danieli Domingues and Fernanda Vieira",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"February 26th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2019",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251730",title:"Dr.",name:"Guilherme",middleName:"Fredeico Bernardo",surname:"Lenz E Silva",fullName:"Guilherme Lenz E Silva",slug:"guilherme-lenz-e-silva",email:"guilhermelenz@usp.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286148",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:null,surname:"Viana",fullName:"Camila Viana",slug:"camila-viana",email:"camilaoviana@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"286149",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Fernanda Vieira",slug:"fernanda-vieira",email:"fevieira2001@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"286151",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Danieli",middleName:"Silva",surname:"Domingues",fullName:"Danieli Domingues",slug:"danieli-domingues",email:"danielisilva@ymail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},chapter:{id:"66689",slug:"risk-assessment-and-health-safety-and-environmental-management-of-carbon-nanomaterials",signatures:"Guilherme Lenz e Silva, Camila Viana, Danieli Domingues and Fernanda Vieira",dateSubmitted:null,dateReviewed:"February 26th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2019",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"251730",title:"Dr.",name:"Guilherme",middleName:"Fredeico Bernardo",surname:"Lenz E Silva",fullName:"Guilherme Lenz E Silva",slug:"guilherme-lenz-e-silva",email:"guilhermelenz@usp.br",position:null,institution:null},{id:"286148",title:"Dr.",name:"Camila",middleName:null,surname:"Viana",fullName:"Camila Viana",slug:"camila-viana",email:"camilaoviana@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"286149",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernanda",middleName:null,surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Fernanda Vieira",slug:"fernanda-vieira",email:"fevieira2001@gmail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"286151",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Danieli",middleName:"Silva",surname:"Domingues",fullName:"Danieli Domingues",slug:"danieli-domingues",email:"danielisilva@ymail.com",position:null,institution:{name:"Centro de Desenvolvimento da Tecnologia Nuclear",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]},book:{id:"8137",title:"Nanomaterials",subtitle:"Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",fullTitle:"Nanomaterials - Toxicity, Human Health and Environment",slug:"nanomaterials-toxicity-human-health-and-environment",publishedDate:"February 19th 2020",bookSignature:"Simona Clichici, Adriana Filip and Gustavo M. do Nascimento",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8137.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64160",title:"Prof.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Clichici",slug:"simona-clichici",fullName:"Simona Clichici"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"10749",leadTitle:null,title:"Legumes Research - Volume 1",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"
\r\n\tLegume crops provide a significant sources of plant-based proteins for humans. Grain legumes have outstanding nutritional and nutraceutical properties, while they are affordable food that contributes to achieving future food and feed security.
\r\n\r\n\tDue to an increasing world population, global food security requires a major re-focusing of plant sciences, crop improvement and production agronomy towards grain legumes (pulse crops) over coming decades, with intensive research and development to identify climate-resilient species and cultivars with improved grain characteristics. In this context, genetic developments have played a critical role to increase crop production, whose applications will undoubtedly contribute to sustainable agriculture and food security.
\r\n\r\n\tThis research topic aims to bring together a collection of outstanding studies for a better understanding of current improvements in agricultural and seed traits from both the biological (physiological and nutritional/nutraceutical) and genetic viewpoints. We welcome submissions of all types of articles falling under, but not limited to, the research topic highlighted in this book.
\r\n\t
The SSNIP test is a well-known conceptual framework of market definition for the purpose of competition policies in most countries. Critical loss analysis is a practical method which implements the principle of SSNIP test in a quantitative way to determine whether the relevant market for an antitrust case should be enlarged or not. The method has been referred to in many antitrust court cases as well as US and UK competition authorities’ guidelines of market definition. Critical loss analysis is now popular among experts on competition policies in Korea since it has been successfully adopted in economics analyses of recent two merger cases in soju and beer industries. Soju is popular liquor in Korea which is a kind of spirit with alcoholic content of about 20–22%. There are two kinds of soju—distilled and diluted. Popular one in Korea is the diluted, which are made by diluting alcohol essence extracted from grains—ethanol made from rice, barley, corn, etc. The sales of diluted soju in 2004 were about 2.34 trillion won. Total liquor sales were 6.64 trillion won in 2004. Hence, diluted soju accounts for 35.2% of total liquor markets. On the other hand, beer whose sales were 3.45 trillion won in 2004 accounts for 52%.
The first case is a horizontal merger between two local soju producers in 2002; Moohak, a dominant producer in Kyungnam province, attempted a hostile takeover of Daesun, a dominant producer in adjacent Busan area, through gathering shares. Administrative districts of South Korea are a capital city, six broad cities, and nine provinces. Busan and Kyungnam are a broad city and a province, respectively, and both southeastern. The main results of the analysis were introduced in [1]. Section 3 in this paper was based on it.
The second case is Hite-Jinro merger in 2005; Hite and Jinro were dominant companies in the Korean beer and soju market, respectively—each with market share more than 50%. The case attracted much public attention since the merger deal amounted to 3.41 trillion won, which was unprecedented at the time. Moreover, competing companies in both beer and soju markets strongly opposed to the merger, alleging its anticompetitive effects. Their arguments were twofold. First, the demand-side substitutability between beer and soju is so high that they constitute a single product market relevant to antitrust merger evaluation, called “pub alcoholic drink.” If that is the case, anticompetitive effects are out of question. Second, regardless of the definition of the relevant product market, concerns may still remain due to leverage or portfolio effects; i.e., it was alleged that the combined company could take advantage of dominance in one product market and exclude competitors in another market by using unfair methods such as exclusive tying or predatory bundling. Also, Hite-Jinro merger included a horizontal merger since Hite had a subsidiary local soju producer in Chonbuk. The anticompetitiveness of the horizontal merger depended upon the relevant geographic range of soju market. Jeon et al. submitted to KFTC economic analyses on the relevant market definitions and the possibility of anticompetitive effects. The main results of the analysis were introduced in [2]. Section 4 in this paper was based on it.
The following section discusses the SSNIP test as a well-known principle of market definition for competition policies and explains critical loss analysis that implements the SSNIP test practically. In Sections 3 and 4, actual applications of critical loss analyses in the Moohak-Daesun and Hite-Jinro cases are introduced. The author was involved with the two cases as a principal economic expert and submitted the relevant economic reports to the court in the first case and KFTC in the second case. The court and KFTC agreed upon the author’s arguments. The two sections in the paper are based on the author’s analyses and the court and KFTC’s judgments on the two cases. The last section concludes by remarking on several issues brought on in the course of the applications.
\nArticle 2.8 of the Korea Monopoly Regulation and Fair Trade Act (KMRFTA) defines the relevant market as “the range of transactions where there exist or may exist competitive relations in terms of objects, stages, or regions of trade,” and KFTC merger guideline articulates it as “the set of products or the whole geographic area into which a representative consumer can switch his/her purchases in response to the small but significant and nontransitory increase in prices of the specific products or regions holding other prices constant.”
\nThe spirit is the same with SSNIP test on which antitrust enforcement agencies in the USA, EU, and many other countries base their market definition. For SSNIP test in the historical context, see [3].
There exists a subtle difference between market definition in Korea and that in USA. In the former, a market is defined in a consumer’s perspective as the largest range where he/she can switch his/her purchases in response to SSNIP (“a representative consumer version”). In the latter, it is defined in a producer’s perspective as the smallest range where he/she can make profits by SSNIP (“a hypothetical monopolist version”). The representative consumer version may imply a smaller market than the hypothetical monopolist version. The reason is as follows. The representative consumer version considers only substitution effect and includes products or regions which are close substitutes in the relevant market. On the other hand, the hypothetical monopolist version considers price effect, i.e., both substitution and income effects. Even if all close substitutes are included, a hypothetical monopolist may not be able to increase price profitably because of the negative income effect in case of normal goods. Hence, the range of the relevant market should be enlarged further under the hypothetical monopolist version. I presume here normal goods with negative income effect. Discussions must be reversed in case of inferior goods.
While SSNIP test is a conceptual framework of market definition for competition policies, critical loss analysis is a practical method of implementing it in real cases. The analytical method, since it was first introduced by [6], has been tried in many US antitrust cases. There are many examples of its applications, such as FTC v. Tenet Health Care [186 F.2d 1045 (8th Cir, 1999)], USA v. Mercy Health Services [902 F.Supp.968 (N.D. Iowa 1995)], California v. Sutter Health System [130 F. Supp. 2d 1109 (N.D. Cal. 2001)], USA v. SunGuard Data Sys., Inc. [172 F. Supp. 2nd 172 n.21 (D.D.C. 2001)], and FTC v. Swedish Match [131 F.Supp. 2nd 151 (D.D.C. 2000)]. Especially in Swedish match, both enforcement agencies and defendants tried to define the relevant market based on their own critical loss analyses, and the court, reviewing them, suggested its own interpretations. See [7].
The idea of critical loss analysis is simple. Profitability of a price increase depends on the amount of consequent sales loss. “Critical loss for Notice that I adopt a breakeven version of critical loss rather than a profit-maximization version. The former is more often used in practices because of its simplicity and independence of the shape of demand curve.
Table 1 summarizes the method of market definition using critical loss analysis. If we reinterpret sales loss due to price change as price elasticity of demand, critical loss analysis becomes critical elasticity analysis.
Critical loss analysis | \n
---|
Actual sales loss after SSNIP < | \n
Critical sales loss for SSNIP | \n
⇒ Profitability of SSNIP by a hypothetical monopolist | \n
No further market expansion | \n
Framework of critical loss analysis.
If actual sales loss after a SSNIP is less than critical loss corresponding to the SSNIP, then a hypothetical monopolist can make more profits by such a SSNIP, which implies that the relevant market should be confined there with no need of further expansion. It is because there are no closely substitutable products or regions to which consumers can switch their current purchases in response to a SSNIP. On the other hand, if actual sales loss after a SSNIP is more than the critical loss, then a hypothetical monopolist cannot make more profits by such a SSNIP. This implies that the relevant market should be expanded to include next available substitutes. Market definition according to critical loss analysis starts from considering a set of products and regions for which anticompetitive concerns are raised. Compare actual sales loss with critical loss repetitively until there is no need for further expansion where actual loss is less than critical loss. That is, the relevant market is the smallest market for which a hypothetical monopolist can make more profits by a SSNIP.
\nDenoting critical loss by For the derivation, see [8]. In interpreting the implication of a high rate of margins, we should be careful of the well-known cellophane fallacy. That is, if high current margins are due to monopoly power or collusion, a simple conversion of critical loss may mislead to an enlarged market definition. Then the starting price in calculating margins should be adjusted to a counterfactual competitive price.
In January 2003 the KFTC made an order that Moohak dispose all stocks of Daesun it purchased in 2002, Moohak and its owner purchased Daesun’s stocks by 41.21% from June 2002 to December 2002. See KFTC Decision 2003-027.
The KFTC defined the geographic market relevant to Moohak-Daesun merger as diluted soju in Busan and Kyungnam. The product market is confined to “diluted” soju, but not distilled one. Diluted soju is produced by some process of diluting ethanol made from grains such as rice, barley, and corn. Other defenses of efficiency and failing firm were not relevant in this case.
In order to address Moohak-Daesun case properly, we should understand the consumers’ strong loyalty to their local products in Busan and Kyungnam. Daesun in Busan gained market share by more than 20% in 1997, while Jinro, which is a nationally dominant producer, lost market share by almost 20%. Daesun strengthened its market dominance afterward and maintained around 85% share in 2000s.
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Daesun | \n53.5\n | \n\n73.9\n | \n79.8 | \n81.5 | \n83.9 | \n85.0 | \n85.7 | \n86.9 | \n
Moohak | \n2.8 | \n5.1 | \n7.2 | \n7.9 | \n7.9 | \n7.1 | \n6.5 | \n6.6 | \n
Jinro | \n37.3 | \n18.0 | \n9.7 | \n7.4 | \n6.7 | \n6.6 | \n6.7 | \n5.2 | \n
Trend of market shares in Busan (sales, %).
The situation in the Kyungnam region was similar. Moohak gained market share by more than 10% since 1998, while Jinro lost share by the corresponding amount. Moohak have maintained a strong market position afterwards, even though Daesun shaded its market share a little bit recently.
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Moohak | \n68.2 | \n68.9 | \n81.1 | \n84.0 | \n85.3 | \n83.5 | \n82.1 | \n81.8 | \n
Daesun | \n8.1 | \n10.2 | \n9.7 | \n10.9 | \n10.7 | \n13.0 | \n13.9 | \n14.2 | \n
Jinro | \n21.7 | \n20.3 | \n9.1 | \n5.1 | \n4.0 | \n3.4 | \n4.0 | \n4.0 | \n
Trend of market shares in Kyungnam (sales, %).
\n
To understand the persistent dominance of local products and the huge shifts of market shares in these as shown in Tables 2 and 3, we should consider the history of regulation in local soju markets and the political power shift among regions in Korea. A regulation of mandatory purchase of local products more than 50% onto wholesalers had been introduced in order to protect local soju producers since mid-1970s. The regulation was abolished in 1992 and revived in June 1996 and finally declared illegal in December 1996 by the constitutional court. Interestingly, local characteristic has strengthened after the final abolishment of mandatory purchase of local products. First of all, local producers, confronted with more competitive pressures since mid-1990s, made greater survival efforts. Especially Daesun initiated such efforts by lowering prices and introducing new products with less alcoholic contents. For example, it introduced a new product of low-alcohol soju with alcohol content of 23% which was less than the contemporary standard 25% and lowered its price by 9.5% in 1996. The power base of President Park Jung Hee (1961–1978), Chun Doo Hwan (1981–87), Roh Tai Woo (1988–1992), and Kim Young Sam (1993–1997) was all Youngnam regions (Busan, Kyungnam, and Kyungbuk). On the other hand, Kim Dae Jung (1998–2002) based his power on Honam regions (Chonnam and Chonbuk). Choi et al. in [9] try to explain the persistence of market dominance in the Korean soju industry with local identity rooted in the past regulation and its strengthenment due to the change in political power configuration.
Generally the small but significant price increase in SSNIP test is in the range of 5–10%. But when there are a large number of consumers who are loyal to a given product, we may have to consider higher price increases as well. To be more precise, consider the following numerical example. There are 100 consumers in a region who have unit demands for a product. The current price for the product is $100, and the cost is $70. All consumers are now using the product. There are two groups of consumers: 30 price-sensitive consumers who will switch to another substitutable product if the price increases by 5% and 70 loyal consumers who stick to the product unless the price increases by more than 20%. In this situation, a hypothetical monopolist of the product cannot make more profits by a price increase of 5% or 10%:
\nCurrent profits: $3000 [=(100 − 70) × 100]
\nProfits after 5% price increase: $2450 [=(105 − 70) × 70]
\nProfits after 10% price increase: $2800 [=(110 − 70) × 70].
\nNonetheless, the monopolist can earn more profits by a price increase of 15 or 20%:
\nProfits after 15% price increase: $3150 [= (115 − 70) × 70]
\nProfits after 20% price increase: $3500 [= (120 − 70) × 70].
\nOf course, the monopolist will increase the price by 20%. In that case, the market should be confined to the product and not be extended further. However, if we considered only 5–10% range of price increases in the SSNIP test, we might end up with extending the market by including next available substitute products or regions. Given the possibility that the hypothetical monopolist can exploit market power by a large price increase such as 20%, the danger of expanding the relevant market is serious.
\nTo determine whether Busan and Kyungnam are the geographic market of diluted soju relevant to Moohak-Daesun merger, we have to estimate and compare the critical and actual loss of regional sales corresponding to various levels of SSNIP.
\nProper margins, in an economic sense, are the difference between price and marginal cost. But average variable cost is used for marginal cost in practice because of measurement difficulties:
Using accounting data, the above rate of margins is measured approximately by
Among various concepts of profit/loss in an income statement, operating profits are the most relevant in calculating margins. The operating profits of Moohak and Daesun in 2002 are as follows We used data in 2002, the year of stock acquisition. But the results do not change materially even if we use data in 2001 or 2003.
The rate of operating profits, 27.1%, is considerably high in comparison with the food and drink industry average of 7.3% as well as the whole manufacturing industry average of 6.7%.
\nTo convert operating profits into margins, we should deduct fixed parts from sales costs and marketing and administration costs in Table 4. The fixed components in sales cost are “rent” and “depreciation,” and those in marketing and administration cost are “rent,” “depreciation,” “intangible assets deduction,” “taxes and charges,” “insurance,” and “membership fees.” Deducting these fixed costs from total costs, we can estimate the margins of Moohak and Daesun in 2002 (Table 5).
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
Sales (A) | \n78,432 | \n75,283 | \n153,715 | \n
Sales cost (B) | \n42,868 | \n38,809 | \n81,677 | \n
Marketing and administration cost (C) | \n17,548 | \n12,864 | \n30,412 | \n
Operating profits (A − B − C) | \n18,016 | \n23,610 | \n41,625 | \n
Operating profits ratio ((A − B − C)/A) | \n23.0% | \n31.4% | \n27.1% | \n
Income statements of Moohak and Daesun in 2002 (mil. won, %).
\n
\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
Sales (A) | \n78,432 | \n75,283 | \n153,715 | \n
Variable sales costs (B’) | \n39,996 | \n36,616 | \n76,612 | \n
Variable marketing and administration cost (C’) | \n16,173 | \n11,870 | \n28,043 | \n
Margins ratio ((A − B’ − C’)/A) | \n28.4% | \n35.6% | \n31.9% | \n
Margins of Moohak and Daesun in 2002 (mil. won, %).
\n
The other party on Moohak’s side commented that the estimated ratio of margins, 31.9%, was misleadingly too low. They contended that fixed components should be defined as those which do not depend on operation level in one year and accordingly regarded “wages and salaries,” expenses for “training,” “advertising,” and “maintenance” should be regarded as fixed costs as well as “rent,” “depreciation,” “intangible asset deduction,” “taxes and charges,” “insurance,” and “membership fees.” Including all those components as fixed, they estimated the margins as high as 47.1%. Even with such a high estimate, the actual losses are less than the critical losses for 15% and 30% increases in price, and the relevant market should be confined to local regions, for consumption in dining/drinking houses. On the other hand, the actual losses are greater than the critical losses for 5–30% increases in price, and the relevant geographic market may be enlarged, for consumption in retailing shops. Hence, the results with large fixed costs and high margins may be mixed. As a comparison, the results with our estimated margins of 31.9% imply consistently a narrow local market for all price increases above 10% as shown in Tables 7 and 8.
Given
\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Critical loss | \n13.6% | \n23.9% | \n32.0% | \n48.5% | \n
Critical losses for the estimated margins of 31.9%.
We will consider high levels of SSNIP such as 15% and 30% as well as conventional 5% and 10%. Such consideration is warranted by heterogeneous composition of consumers with loyal majority and price-sensitive minority in Busan and Kyungnam. As shown by the previous numerical example, dominant local companies may disregard price-sensitive consumers and employ a high price strategy for loyal consumers in the circumstance. The possibility of high price strategy has significant implications on geographic market definition discussed in the following.
\nWe used a survey data of consumers’ choice of soju products in Busan and Kyungnam, estimated consumers’ purchase substitution in response of price changes, and consequent actual sales loss. The sample size is 1042, and the sampling error is 3.03. Gallup Korea conducted a survey in 2004 in Busan and parts of Kyungnam province—Yangsan, Kimhae, and Masan; Busan is Daesun’s base, Yangsan adjacent to Busan is where Daesun has strength, Kimhae is a competing field of Daesun and Moohak, and Masan is Moohak’s base.
This analysis starts from an integrated region of Busan and Kyungnam, and consider whether the relevant geographic market should be enlarged further or not. If a hypothetical monopolist in Busan and Kyungnam could increase profits by an SSNIP, then the geographic expansion of the relevant market is not necessary. If that is the case, it is not necessary to consider whether the market should be separated into each of Busan and Kyungnam since anticompetitive concerns on Moohak-Daesun merger are serious enough as long as the relevant market is local, regardless of whether the relevant market is Busan and Kyungnam separate or combined.
\n\nTable 7 and 8 summarizes the results of our critical loss analyses.
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|
5% increase | \n14.6 > 13.6% | \nYes | \n
10% increase | \n19.9 < 23.9% | \n\n | \n
15% increase | \n23.2 < 32.0% | \n\n | \n
30% increase | \n34.5 < 48.5% | \n\n | \n
Critical loss analyses with data of dining/drinking houses.
\n | \n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|
5% increase | \n15.8 > 13.6% | \nYes | \n
10% increase | \n21.0 < 23.9% | \n\n | \n
15% increase | \n25.5 < 32.0% | \n\n | \n
30% increase | \n43.4 < 48.5% | \n\n | \n
Critical loss analyses with data of retailing shops.
We obtain similar estimates of actual losses and the same results of critical loss analyses, with data of retailing shops.
\nThe above results show that a hypothetical monopolist in Busan and Kyungnam region could not increase profits by a low SSNIP of 5%, but could do so by higher SSNIPs such as 10%, 15%, and even 30%. This is because there are two groups of consumers in the region—a large group of price-insensitive consumers who are loyal to local products and a small group of price-sensitive ones; a monopolist can opt for a high price strategy to exploit loyal consumers, taking the risk of losing price-sensitive customers. To conclude our critical loss analyses, our results indicate that the geographic market of diluted soju product relevant to Moohak-Daesun merger is confined to the local area within Busan and Kyungnam province and not extended to the country as a whole.
\nHow sensitive are the above results to the breakdown of loyal and price-sensitive consumers? To address this question, it is helpful to interpret the critical analyses above in a reverse way. From Tables 7 and 8, we know that the critical percentage of “strongly” loyal consumers who would stick to local soju unless the price increase is higher than 30% is 51.5%. On the other hand, the actual percentage of such loyal consumers is 65.5% with the data of dining/drinking houses and 56.6% with the data of retailing shops. If we regard the consumers who would stick to local soju unless the price increase is higher than 10% as “broadly defined” loyal consumers, then the critical percentage of such loyal consumers is 76.1%, while the actual percentage of loyal consumers is 80.1% with the data of dining/drinking houses and 79.0% with the data of retailing shops. Hence, regardless of the criterion of loyalty, and the place of consumption, the hypothetical monopolist has the sufficient percentage of consumers to exploit their loyalty with price increases higher than 10%.
\n\nWe can confirm the locality of the relevant geographic market with the complimentary analysis of LIFO-LOFI indexes. The indexes of LIOF and LOFI were first formalized by [10]. Recently, they often have been used for geographic market definition in US hospital mergers: e.g., USA v. Rockford Memorial Hospital [717 F. Supp. 1251 (N.D. Ill. 1989)], FTC v. Freeman Hospital [911 F. Supp. 1213 (W.D. MO. 1995), FTC v. Butterworth Health Corp. [946 F. Supp. 1285 (W.D. Mich. 1996), and USA v. Long Island Jewish Medical Center [983 F. Supp. 121 (E.D.N.Y. 1997).
The market definition in antitrust cases is a starting point of analyzing anticompetitive effects of mergers and consequent dominant position. The Korean competition law presumes “a combination of enterprises” as “practically suppressing competition in any particular business area” if all of the following conditions in Article 7.4 are met:
The combined company is in a dominant position in the relevant market; i.e., its market share is 50% or more, or CR-3 is 75% or more except that its market share is less than 10%.
The combined market share is the largest in the relevant market.
The difference between the combined market share and the next largest market share is 25% or more.
Denoting the largest, the second largest, and the third market share by
10 % ≤
The impact of the Moohak-Daesun merger on market concentration hinges critically on the range of relevant geographic market (Table 9).
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Daesun (DS) | \n85.7% | \n13.9% | \n50.6% | \n7.8% | \n
Moohak (MH) | \n6.5% | \n82.1% | \n44.0% | \n7.5% | \n
DS + MH | \n92.2% | \n96.0% | \n94.6% | \n15.3% | \n
Jinro | \n6.7% | \n4.0% | \n5.0% | \n53.7% | \n
Market shares of Moohak-Daesun in 2002.
\n
If the relevant market is confined to Busan, Kyungnam, or the integrated region of BS + KN, it is obvious that the merger meets the conditions of presumption on suppression of competition according to KMRFTA. In fact, the market gets close to monopoly. On the other hand, if the market is national, then the merger does not belong to even the range of concerns about possible restraint on competition according to KFTC’s guideline.
\nHite bought 52.1% shares of Jinro’s stocks in August 2005. The size of Hite was 1852 bil. won and 861 bil. won in terms of assets and sales, respectively, in 2004. Its main product was beer, and the national share in beer market was 60.2% in 2004. On the other hand, the size of Jinro was 923 bil. won and 693 bil. won in terms of assets and sales, respectively, in 2004. Its main product was soju, and the national share in soju market was 55.8% in 2004. Hite has a subsidiary soju company, Hitejujo, which had a national market share of 1.5%. Even though Hitejujo is not a significant producer in the national soju market, it has the largest market share of 50.6% in Chonbuk province where Jinro is the second largest with 42.5% in 2004. Hite and Jinro sell spring water, but the market is very competitive in that they are just two among many producers with market shares of 6.2% and 10.5%, respectively. No competitive concerns were raised in that regard.
Competitive concerns about Hite-Jinro merger and problems of the relevant market definition were twofold: one for a merger between Hite beer and Jinro soju and another for a merger between Hitejujo soju and Jinro soju. For the first one, the parties opposing the merger, especially OB beer which almost halves Korean beer market with Hite, alleged that beer and soju are substitutes so close that they constitute a single product market relevant to the merger, the so-called pub alcoholic drink. If that is the case, the merger would be very difficult to go through since it would be a horizontal merger with a significant increase in concentration (Table 10).
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|
Hite* | \n837,598 | \n34.0% | \n
Jinro | \n613,254 | \n24.9% | \n
OB** | \n543,313 | \n22.1% | \n
Others*** | \n468,245 | \n19.0% | \n
Total | \n2,462,410 | \n100.0% | \n
“Pub alcoholic drink” market in 2004.
*Hite beer + Hitejujo soju.
**OB beer + Cass beer (both brands belong to the same company).
***All others are local soju producers such as Moohak, Daesun, and Keumbokju.
Source in [11]. Sales are in terms of net sales amount before taxes.
On the other hand, if beer and soju are regarded as separate products, the merger is basically conglomerate. In that case, there still may remain some anticompetitive concerns since both beer and soju companies share the same channels of wholesale distribution. But the anticompetitive allegations will be sagging.
\nThe second horizontal part of the merger was not a big issue since Hitejujo was a relatively small company. But an interesting issue here was whether the relevant geographic market was confined to the local province of Chonbuk or extended nationwide. Recall that the geographic soju market relevant to Moohak-Daesun merger was confined to the local areas of Busan and Kyungnam. If the geographic market was defined locally in this case too, e.g., as Chonbuk, then the horizontal merger would create a virtual monopoly in the region; the combination of Hitejujo and Jinro would have a market share of 92.8% in Chonbuk. On the other hand, if the relevant market is national, market concentration does not change consequentially.
\nIn this case, Jeon et al. submitted to KFTC economic analyses on behalf of Hite (see [2]). They defined the relevant product market for the first conglomerate case as two separate markets of beer and soju and the relevant geographic market for the second horizontal one as the national market in soju excluding some southern regions. On the other hand, Ryu and Yi in [10] in behalf of OB Beer Company contended that the relevant product market was a single market of beer and soju, the so-called pub alcoholic drinks. Interestingly, both parties applied the same method of market definition—critical loss analysis. However, their estimates of actual and critical losses were different, which led to conflicting conclusions on the relevant product market definition.
\nReviewing both parties’ economic analyses, Korea Fair Trade Commission adopted the market definitions by Jeon et al. KFTC final decision in 2006 was to allow the merger with some behavioral remedies attached. The remedies included a price cap of RPI + 5% on Hite and Jinro’s beer and soju, the division of marketing workforce and organization of Hite and Jinro for five years, and the provision of some arrangements by Hite itself that would ensure it not to commit exclusionary practices in the future.
\nIn the following, I summarize the part of Jeon et al.’s analyses on the definition of product market relevant to Hite-Jinro merger.
\nWe can apply the same method of calculating margins of soju and beer industries as was introduced in the previous section. The rate of margins in soju industry was calculated with income and cost statements of Jinro in 2003 and 2004 (Table 11).
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
Sales (A) | \n615,973 | \n693,053 | \n1,309,026 | \n
Variable sales costs (B’) | \n317,187 | \n338,827 | \n656,014 | \n
Variable market and administration costs (C’) | \n134,736 | \n126,373 | \n261,109 | \n
Margin ratio ((A − B’ − C’)/A) | \n26.6% | \n32.9% | \n29.9% | \n
Margins of Jinro in 2003 and 2004 (mil. won, %).
\n
Given Jinro’s dominant position in soju industry, we may regard the estimated rate of margins, 29.9%, as the representative one for soju industry. Incidentally, it is not much different from 27.1% that we obtained previously for Moohak-Daesun case.
\nSince beer industry is a duopoly, we use the data of Hite and OB in calculating margins (Table 12).
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
Sales (A) | \n1,683,146 | \n1,209,923 | \n2,893,069 | \n
Variable sales costs (B’) | \n721,850 | \n471,604 | \n1,193,455 | \n
Variable marketing and administration costs (C’) | \n478,914 | \n417,495 | \n896,409 | \n
Margin ratio ((A − B’ − C’)/A) | \n28.7% | \n26.5% | \n27.8% | \n
Margins of Hite and Jinro in 2003 and 2004 (mil. won, %).
\n
The estimated rate of margins for beer industry, 27.8%, is slightly lower than that for soju industry, 29.9%.
\nOn the other hand, Ryu and Yi in [10] estimated the rates of margins for soju and beer industries as 52.6% and 53.2%, respectively. The difference comes from their classification of fixed costs and, more fundamentally, their perspective of “nontransitory” period in SSNIP. They contended that fixed components should be defined as those which are fixed regardless of operation level within the period of one year, and accordingly regarded “wages and salaries,” expenses for “training,” “advertising,” and “maintenance” should be regarded as fixed costs as well as “rents,” “depreciation,” “intangible assets deduction,” “taxes and charges,” “insurance,” and “membership fees.” As noted before, Seoul High Court in regard to Moohak-Daesun case decided that those costs such as labor, advertising, and maintenance are not easily regarded as fixed during the significant period over which monopoly power can be exercised. Concurring to this decision, KFTC rebutted the high estimates of margins by Ryu and Yi; “they made an error of overestimating margins by regarding the time horizon dividing variable and fixed costs as one year rather than a significant period for exercising monopoly power, and consequently overestimating variable costs.”
\nGiven rate of margins (
\n | \n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|
Critical loss | \n14.3% | \n25.0% | \n
Critical losses for soju industry.
For beer industry with
\n | \n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|
Critical loss | \n15.3% | \n26.5% | \n
Critical losses for beer industry.
Notice that we considered only 5% and 10% levels of SSNIP in this case. This is because we expect that consumer loyalty is usually associated to specific brands within a product, but not to a product as a whole. That is, consumers may be loyal to some specific brand in comparison with all other brands in a product, but not loyal to a specific product in comparison with all other products. Hence we do not expect that there are a small group of price-sensitive consumers and a large group of loyal consumers for soju product or beer product as a whole. Moreover, we have to consider high level of SSNIP only if a hypothetical monopolist cannot make profits with 5–10% price increases. But the hypothetical monopolist can make profits with the normal 5–10% SSNIP in the present context, and we do not have to consider a higher level of price increase.
\nJeon et al. used Gallup Korea’s survey data in estimating actual sales losses that result from increases in prices of soju and beer. Ryu and Yi instead used weekly date of sales in discount stores with bar codes. As KFTC decision noted, the data have a serious sample selection bias in that discount stores account for only 5% of total sales of soju and beer, and consumers who purchase soju and beer in discount outlets do not represent the whole population. Especially, the characteristics of consumers using discount outlets such as Carrefour may be different from those of usual consumers who buy soju and beer in drinking/dining places and other retail shops. On the other hand, a survey data can avoid such selection bias by constructing a sample which reflects the population of soju and beer consumers in terms of sex, age, education, job, income, region, etc. Gallup Korea conducted the survey with a sample of 1603 soju consumers and 1547 beer consumers in such a way that avoided selection bias.
\n\nTable 15 and 16 summarizes the results of our critical loss analyses:
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|
5% price increase | \n5.6 < 14.3% | \n\n | \n
10% price increase | \n10.6 < 25.0% | \n\n | \n
Critical loss analysis for soju product.
\n | \n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|
5% price increase | \n13.2 < 15.3% | \n\n | \n
10% price increase | \n22.1 < 26.5% | \n\n | \n
Critical loss analysis for beer product.
These results show that product markets relevant to Hite-Jinro merger are two separate ones of soju and beer, not an integrated one of “pub alcoholic drink.” A hypothetical monopolist of soju (beer) product can implement 5% and 10% price increases profitably. This means that soju and beer are not so close substitutes that both constitute a single product market in antitrust perspective.
\nReinterpreting the actual losses in Tables 15 and 16 in terms of elasticities, the price elasticity of soju is about 1.1 and that of beer is about 2.2–2.6. Previous empirical studies using actual data of soju and beer consumption shows the robustness of the results based on survey data. Unfortunately, we cannot cross-check the robustness of the results in Tables 7 and 8 and Tables 19 and 20 with empirical estimation of demands for disaggregated soju brands, not a whole soju product. That is mainly because it is not easy to obtain disaggregated data, and prices of all soju brands vary similarly without meaningful cross-sectional variances.
Given that soju and beer are separate products from a perspective of competition policy, Hite-Jinro merger is basically conglomerate. However, the merger contains a horizontal part since Hite has a subsidiary soju company, Hitejujo, in Chonbuk. Competitive evaluation of the horizontal part hinges on definition of the relevant geographic market. In the following I summarize the part of Jeon et al. on the definition of geographic soju market relevant to the horizontal merger between Hitejujo and Jinro. The starting point of analysis is Chonbuk area for which competitive concerns about the merger might be raised, and then it will be checked whether the relevant market should be enlarged further.
\nWe estimated the margins in the same way as before, in this case with Hitejujo and Jinro which account for more than 90% of sales in Chonbuk—42.5 and 50.6% in 2004, respectively (Table 17).
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|
Sales (A) | \n37,054 | \n1,309,026 | \n1,346,080 | \n
Variable sales costs (B’) | \n17,894 | \n656,014 | \n673,909 | \n
Var. Mkt and Adm costs (C’) | \n12,411 | \n261,109 | \n275,780 | \n
Margin ratio ((A − B’ − C’)/A) | \n18.2% | \n29.9% | \n29.4% | \n
Margins of Hitejujo and Jinro in 2003 and 2004 (mil. won, %).
\n
The margins of Hitejujo were lower than those of other soju producers, which was due to large expenses of marketing and administration. But the margins of the combined company were close to the average of soju industry since Hitejujo was very small in comparison with Jinro.
\nCritical losses,
\n | \n | \n\n | \n\n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Critical loss | \n14.5% | \n25.5% | \n40.5% | \n50.5% | \n
Critical losses for the combined company of Hitejujo and Jinro.
We consider here high levels of SSNIP such as 20 and 30% in order to see whether there are a considerable number of consumers who show strong loyalty to local products as in the Moohak-Jinro case.
\nGallup Korea conducted a survey in 2005 with consumers in Chonbuk area for the analysis of their choice of soju products. The sample was selected to represent the average behavior of soju consumption in terms of sex, age, and regions, and the final 810 consumers were screened who responded that they usually consumed “Hite 2” (Hitejujo’s brand name) or “Chamisle” (Jinro’s brand name). Sampling error is 3.44% from 95% confidence interval.
The results of critical loss analyses are (Tables 19 and 20):
\n\n | \n | \n\n | \n
---|---|---|
5% increase | \n21.8 > 14.5% | \nYes | \n
10% increase | \n36.1 > 25.4% | \nYes | \n
20% increase | \n57.4 > 40.5% | \nYes | \n
30% increase | \n57.9 > 50.5% | \nYes | \n
Critical loss analyses with data of dining/drinking houses.
\n | Actual loss vs. critical loss | \nEnlarge the geographic market beyond Chonbuk? | \n
---|---|---|
5% increase | \n20.7 > 14.5% | \nYes | \n
10% increase | \n37.0 > 25.4% | \nYes | \n
20% increase | \n52.2 > 40.5% | \nYes | \n
30% increase | \n54.9 > 50.5% | \nYes | \n
Critical loss analyses with data of retailing shops.
These results show that Chonbuk consumers would switch their purchase of soju from their current main favorite brands to others to the extent that the relevant geographic market should not be confined to the Chonbuk region.
\nIt still remains the issue of how far the geographic market should be enlarged, i.e., whether it is the country as a whole or some regions are excluded. To make a definite conclusion on this issue, we have to conduct further critical loss analyses. Instead, we made a tentative suggestion that the geographic market might be nationwide, excluding some southern regions such as Busan, Kyungnam, Kyungbuk, Chonnam, and Jeju. The main reason is that each of those regions has a dominant local producer and consumers with strong loyalty to a local product. Moreover, their current soju sales in Chonbuk are negligible. The KFTC also defined the geographic market relevant to the merger between Hitejujo and Jinro as “the country except Busan, Kyungnam, Kyungbuk, Chonnam, and Jeju.”
\nIt is to be noted that the market definition in an antitrust case is case-specific. In other words, it depends on a starting point of analysis, which is a product or a region for which competitive concerns are raised. The previous market definition in Moohak-Daesun was confined to Busan and Kyungnam since consumers in the region did not switch much their purchase from local products to products in other regions, e.g., Hitejujo and Jinro, in response to local price increases. On the other hand, there would be nothing wrong if the geographic market relevant to Hitejujo-Jinro had been extended to the whole country even including Busan and Kyungnam, even though it did not actually go that far. This does not involve any inconsistency, since consumers in two regions could have different preferences.
\nBesides conducting critical loss analyses, we observe two facts that differentiate Hitejujo-Jinro from Moohak-Daesun. First, LIFO index in Chonbuk was only 42.5%, while that in Busan-Kyungnam was 94.7%. Compared to the conventional standard of 75–90% of LIFO-LOFI test, 40% must be too low. Second, there is a common pricing constraint in soju industry in that producers should apply the same wholesale price in the country. This suggests another basis of the national market in this case. One of the merging companies, Jinro, is a national producer which cannot raise soju price in Chonbuk without risking sales losses in other regions. On the other hand, both Moohak and Daesun are local producers which had virtually no other regions to consider in setting prices.
\nIt is worthwhile to elaborate a bit more on why opposite conclusions were arrived at with respect to expanding the geographic market in the two cases of Moohak-Daesun and Hitejujo-Jinro. Notice that we tried to apply the same methods of critical loss analysis: e.g., the same classification of variable vs. fixed costs in deriving margins and the same construction of questionnaire in conducting surveys. Hence, the opposite results in two cases were tied to the idiosyncratic nature of the two geographic regions rather than the application of the test. People in Busan-Kyungnam have strong loyalty to their local brands, which have been rooted in the past history of local purchase requirement regulation and the political atmosphere aforementioned. On the other hand, people in Chonbuk are not so loyal to their local soju firms which are not indigenous anymore. Hitejujo and Jinro are hardly regarded as Chonbuk-based since Hite, a national beer company, acquired the former indigenous Chungbuk soju and Jinro is a national soju company. Furthermore, political regionalism in Chonbuk has not been as keen as Busan and Kyungnam since Chonbuk has never been a power center in recent Korean political history.
\nSince beer and soju are separate products, Hite-Jinro merger is a conglomerate one. KFTC considered four possible anticompetitive effects of the conglomerate merger in this case: (i) excluding competitors, (ii) strengthening entry barriers, (iii) limiting potential competitors, and (iv) raising prices. To alleviate concerns, the merger was given conditional approval. The imposed conditions of corrective measures included a price cap of RPI + 5% on Hite and Jinro’s beer and soju, division of marketing workforce and organization of Hite and Jinro for five years, and some self-arrangement of not committing exclusionary practices in the future.
\nThe first two concerns stem from the fact that beer and soju producers share the same distribution channels of liquor wholesale: Hite and Jinro accounted for 34.5% and 22.1% of liquor wholesalers’ sales in 2004. It was alleged that the combination of two dominant companies in beer and soju could enhance its bargaining power against wholesalers and press them to influence final demands in favor of its brands. Moreover, strongholds of the two companies were different; Hite was dominant in southern provinces while Jinro was in Seoul and its adjacent regions. So the leverage effect of expanding monopoly powers across regions through tying or bundling was worried about by competitors of Hite and Jinro in beer and soju markets. See [14] for discussions of portfolio effects. Recent development in soju market seems to confirm this argument. Doosan recently emerged as a strong rival to Jinro with more than 10% market share in Seoul and its vicinities.
On the other hand, the KFTC did not consider the horizontal merger between Hitejujo and Jinro as restraining competition materially in the soju product market. Given the geographic market definition of the country as a whole except for five regions (Busan, Kyungnam, Kyungbuk, Chonnam, and Jeju), the market share of Hitejujo was merely 2.5%. The KFTC’s merger guideline stipulates that anticompetitive concerns are insignificant if the gain of market share after the merger is less than 5% in the relevant market.
\nSeveral issues have been raised in the course of applying critical loss analysis in merger cases of Moohak-Daesun and Hite-Jinro. First of all, estimation of margins using accounting data involves some degree of discretionary or ad hoc classification of fixed and variable costs. The parties who defend an enlarged market definition argue for more fixed costs, and vice versa; it is because the larger the portion of fixed costs, the higher the rate of margins, and hence the lower the level of critical loss. The most controversial and significant components are labor costs and advertising expenses. The arguments of those who regard them as fixed are as follows: the time horizon in the SSNIP test is one year, and hiring regular workers and expensing advertising budgets do not vary in accordance of output changes within one year. But Seoul High Court and the KFTC interpreted the time horizon appropriate for SSNIP test as a significant period over which monopoly power can be exercised, which is not be confined to only one year. Given that, labor and advertising costs are not necessarily fixed.
\nSecond, we used survey data in estimating price elasticities of consumer demand and actual losses corresponding to various levels of price increase in the SSNIP test. Economists usually prefer using actual historical data in estimating demands rather than resorting to survey data. However, in many cases we have data problems; data with the necessary degree of desegregation, time span, and representativeness are not available. Recent spread of bar code scanning system in retailing shops, and consequent availability of POS (Point of Sale) data, is a promising development that may resolve data problems in the future. POS data have already played an important role in antitrust econometrics in a well-known US merger case of Staples-Office Depot in 1997 and a recent Korean retailing merger case of Eland-Carrefour in 2006. See [15] and [16].
Third, we considered high price increases of 15 and 30% in the SSNIP test as well as conventional 5 and 10% in the Moohak-Daesun case. It was due to the fact that there were two groups of consumers in the regions—a price-sensitive one and another with loyalty to local brands. In such case, there is a concern that a local monopolist can exploit captured brand-loyal consumers by a high price strategy even though he cannot make profits with low prices. Of course, the usual criterion of 5–10% in the SSNIP test will be sufficient in most of cases where there are not many brand-loyal consumers.
\nFourth, there is a subtle issue of how we should account income effect in price effects in hypothetical monopoly test. If the spirit is to include close demand substitutes in a relevant market, then we may have to focus substitution effect in price effects and to give less weight to actual losses due to income effect. On the other hand, if the spirit is to identify a set of products and regions for which a monopolist can exercise market power, then we have to consider both substitution and income effects equally. US and EU guidelines are not clear about which is the right perspective, while the current version of the KFTC merger guideline seems to be based on the former.
\nThe last remark is on case specificity and possible asymmetry of market definition. That is, market definition in antitrust cases is case-specific; it depends on the starting point of analysis, from which we check whether the relevant market should be enlarged further. There would be nothing wrong if the geographic market relevant Moohak-Daesun was confined to Busan and Kyungnam, while the market relevant to Hitejujo and Jinro had been extended to the whole country including Busan and Kyungnam. Similarly, there would be nothing wrong if a critical loss analysis starting from soju product implied that soju was a separate market while an analysis starting from beer product had implied that beer and soju were in the same market, even though it did not turn out that way. Such possibilities do not involve any inconsistency, since consumers in two regions, or of two products, could have different preferences, and their consumption behaviors could result in asymmetric cross-elasticities.
\nCritical loss analysis is a convenient tool for practical market definition, and it proved to be very useful and successful in the two cases examined in the paper. Unfortunately, however, there are not many industries for which the analysis can be actually implemented. Soju and beer industries in Korea are rather special in that companies in these industries focus on basically one liquor business, which enable us to calculate the ratio of margins with public accounting data. Also there are not many different products in the industries, for which we can survey consumers’ purchasing behavior. On the other hand, it is practically impossible to conduct critical loss analysis for industries with too many businesses and products, for example, retailing or banking industry. For those industries, the SSNIP test will remain just as a conceptual framework without a quantitative support of critical loss analysis.
\nThis work was supported by the National Research Foundation of Korea Grant funded by the Korean Government (NRF-2013S1A3A2053586).
\nSediment transport is the movement of solid particles driven by fluid like water or wind in rivers, lakes, reservoirs, coastal waters. Generally, in the real world the flow is unsteady like flood waves, tidal waves and wind waves, because steady and uniform flows are very rare in reality. Even so, it is understandable that sediment transport is first observed under well controlled conditions in laboratory, and then the data are collected to calibrate the models. These formulae are further examined using field data by assuming the laboratory flow conditions (generally steady and uniform flows) can be extended to rivers and coastal waters (generally unsteady and non-uniform).
In the literature, many formulae use the boundary shear stress
where
Alternatively, the mean velocity
where
Besides the parameters
where
where the critical shear stress
where the arrows represent the direction, i.e., sediment is transported in the same direction as the near bed flow if the flow directions of upper and lower layers are different,
Obviously, the hypothesis in all equations listed above is that the higher the streamwise parameters are (e.g.,
where
Alternatively Francalanci et al. [19] suggest using the pressure
It seems that there is a knowledge gap between the unsteady flows and sediment transport, a new parameter is needed to be developed to express the unsteadiness, thus the above phenomena can be explained. In this study, the induced vertical velocity
to compare
to establish a simple connection between
to develop formulae to express critical shear stress, sediment discharge and Rouse number in unsteady flows;
to explain the mechanism of phase lags and bedform formation.
The chapter discusses the existence of vertical velocity in unsteady flows first, then the influence of vertical velocity on critical shear stress of sediment is analyzed, followed by its influence on sediment discharge and suspension concentration. Finally a comprehensive discussion is provided.
Sediment transport is a joint result of streamwise and vertical motions of fluid. This joint effect can be seen from the definition of Shields number that is the ratio of forces in streamwise and vertical directions as noted by
where
A simple wave model is shown in Figure 1a where a surface wave induces a vertical motion for the particles on the permeable bed. The surface wave is propagating in the research domain where the current velocity is
(a) Schematic diagrams showing interaction of surface waves and induced and vertical motions at the sediment layer along x direction. (b) Definition of progressive wave and its induced vertical velocity at different time (x = constant).
In Figure 1, the continuity equation of unsteady flows must be satisfied, i.e.,
where
In Eq. (11) the term ∂
At the permeable boundary, the fluid velocity must meet the continuous boundary condition, i.e.,
Generally speaking, the rising limb is the accelerating stage which induces a downward velocity, but the decelerating stage in ebb limb generates an upward velocity. In the real world, it is also possible that flows in both rising/falling limbs are accelerated as observed by
The direction of vertical velocity can noticeably change the profile of Reynolds shear stress, streamwise velocity etc. [12, 26]. One of the examples is shown in Figure 2,
Deviation of measured velocity from log-law by Kemp and Simons [
For sediment particles in Figure 1, the settling velocity
where drag coefficient
If a surface wave induces an upward velocity
From Eqs. (12) and (13), one can derive the following relationship:
where
It is interesting to discuss how the waves affect the initiation of sediment movement. For an unsteady flow, the existing Shields diagram may be invalid to express the threshold sediment motion, due to the existence of vertical velocity caused by its unsteadiness. When the apparent sediment density is included in the Shields number, it has the following form:
where
Using Eq. (9), Eq. (16) can be rewritten as follows
Eqs. (16) and (17) generally express the relationship between the Shields number
Eq. (15) includes the influence of the vertical velocity, it demonstrates that the upward velocity reduces particles’ apparent density, thus the required critical shear stress will be also reduced. Whilst the downward velocity increases the apparent density, thus the required critical shear stress is higher. If the cases with/without vertical velocity are compared, the critical shear stress without waves
and
Eq. (18) shows that the critical shear stress
If the influence of small wave on the shear stress is negligible, the
It should be stressed that accelerating flows constrain sediment mobility from vertical point of view, but the higher velocity and shear stress in the rising limb promote sediment transport in the streamwise direction, therefore the complete effect of accelerating flows in the rising limb should include both shear stress and maximum
Eq. (18) clearly demonstrates that the critical shear stress is jointly determined by the streamwise and vertical motions. The coexistence of streamwise/vertical motions results in the invalidity of Shields diagram which can be improved by Eq. (18) and shown in Figure 3, where the Shields number in the original Shields diagram is
Sediment incipient conditions in wave conditions, the required shields numbers depend on the veritocal motion, i.e., ±
As mentioned before that sediment transport is a joint effect of streamwise and vertical motions, the latter can be represented by the apparent sediment density. Therefore, Eq. (7) can be modified with the following way:
For sediment transport in waves conditions, the bed shear stress τ = τw + τcu and near bed velocity ub = uw + ucu, where the subscripts w and cu refers to waves and currents. Yang [12] obtained the formula which agrees reasonably well with von Rijn’s data in 1993, 1995 and 1999 for sediment transport when waves follow or oppose the currents, there are some angles between the direction of wave propagation and current, and waves are broken over a near shore bar, respectively. Even the best agreement has been achieved among the existing formulae, noticeable discrepancies imply that some mechanism of sediment transport by waves needs further investigations.
Eq. (20) shows that the direction of sediment motion is always the same as the near bed velocity. This is meaningful to specify the sediment moving direction in coastal waters where the direction of flow in up layer is often different from that in the bottom layer. Eq. (20) has the following simplified form [35]:
Inserting Eq. (12) into Eq. (21), one has:
Eq. (22) shows that sediment transport rate is jointly determined by the streamwise flow conditions (i.e.,
For the maximum over-the-wave-cycle horizontal wave-orbital speed at the bed
where the dispersion relationship gives:
It can be assumed that at the interfacial boundary,
To evaluate the influence of vertical velocity on sediment transport rate, one can compare the sediment transport rate in two cases: with or without the vertical velocity induced by waves if
From Eqs. (22) and (26), one has:
where
Measured sediment concentration normalized by C(0) = 5 mg/L versus the wave-orbital acceleration normalized by 23 cm/s2. The raw data were deprived from Green [
In their analysis,
where n = the number of zero-down crossing waves in the burst,
Figure 4 shows a plot
It can be seen that the sediment transport rate can be significantly promoted by an ebb tide, if the upward velocity is 75% of settling velocity (
The governing equation of suspended concentration can be derived from the continuity equation of solid-phase in the following form [37].
where c
In equilibrium conditions, time averaging of Eq. (29) gives:
The integration of Eq. (30) with respect to
If the eddy viscosity is used and Rouse number in Rouse’s law has the following form:
Similar to the Shields number, many researchers also found that the measured Z is different from the calculated
Measured Z(Y)/Z(0) in a rising tidal flow by Rose and Thome, at the starting point the streamwise velocity was the highest, minimum vertical velocity
If
Profile | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 1 | 2 | 3 | 5 |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Tide | ebb | Flood | ||||||||||
Rouse number | 0.55 | 0.45 | 0.45 | 0.50 | 0.27 | 0.35 | 0.48 | 0.50 | 0.68 | 0.95 | 0.7 | 1.2 |
Average | 0.44 | 0.70 |
Measured rouse numbers (
For sediment transport by either flood waves in rivers or tidal waves in the sea, the unsteadiness plays a significantly role for sediment transport. The equations developed from steady flow may be invalid in unsteady flows. Some researchers like
where
It is interesting to note that (
In fact, the unsteadiness parameter
where
Figures 4 and 5 show the influence of unsteadiness on sediment transport in tidal flows. For flood waves in a river,
Sediment transport rate and flood hydrograph measured by Lee et al. [
It should be mentioned that the peak sediment discharge in the rising limb is not always discernible as shown in Figure 6. For example,
Measured sediment concentration over a hydrograph at Huayuankou, Yellow River from July 4–6, 2010 by Qi et al. [
To interpret the results in Figures 6 and 7, the conceptual mathematical model in Eq. (27) may be useful as it covers the parameters in streamwise and vertical directions. Eq. (27) precisely suggests that the upward velocity may be responsible for the widely observed “phase lag” in sediment transport in rivers.
The formation of ripples and dunes over a flat mobile bed is an amazing phenomenon, and has attracted many investigations. All previous equations of sediment transport (e.g., Eqs. (1)–(7) and Eqs. (34) and (35) fail to explain how the bedforms are formed, because these equations only use the streamwise parameters (
However, Eqs. (14) and (22) may provide a possible explanation for the discontinuity of sediment transport from upstream to downstream. It is well known that turbulence in a steady and uniform flow is dominated by complex, multiscaled, quasi-random and organized eddies that possess both spatial and temporal coherence [43]. The velocity fluctuations are also governed by the continuity equation with the following form:
The coherent events can be broadly divided into ejections (
To help conceive the formation of bedforms, a flow region in Figure 8 is divided simply into three zones, A, B and C during a short period. If the flow region B is dominated by the ejection event (denoted by “+” in Figure 8 for upward vertical velocity), severe erosion should be observable in Zone B as Eq. (27) and Figure 4 indicate that the upward velocity significantly promotes the sediment discharge. On the other hand, Zones A and C are dominated by the downward velocity (or negative “-” velocity), and Eq. (27) and Figure 4 predict that the sediment carrying capacity is weaker if the vertical velocity is negative, therefore the sediment from zone B has to deposit at Zone C. It can be seen that the vertical velocity and its alternation in direction in space play a key role for the formation of dunes and ripples. The discontinuity of sediment-laden capacity along the flow direction is uneven, this triggers the formation of bedforms, once some scouring holes are formed over a flat mobile bed, erosion in these areas most likely would continue till the equilibrium condition is reached.
Relationship between the alternative vertical velocity and bedform formation, where “+” sign denotes upward velocity in region B and “-” is the downward velocity in region A and C. The dotted vertical lines denote the flow region division lines, the open circles denote the sediment particles, the solid circles denote that particles’ density “becomes heavier”, and dashed circles denote the “lightweight sediment”, the open circles are normal sediment particles.
Alternatively, we can consider a simple model that all particles in Figure 8 possess higher apparent density in zone A and C like iron particles (represented by dark solid circles in Figure 8), but the particles in zone B have lighter density (like plastic particles). All particles in zone A, B and C have the same diameter. It is understandable that a scour hole will be formed in zone B, and deposition will occur at C even though the
By comparing the mechanism of phase lag and bedform formation discussed above, one may find that the vertical velocity is responsible for both phase lag phenomenon and bedform formation. The temporal alternation of upward and downward velocities generates the phase lag phenomenon, whilst its spatial alternation yields the bedforms. Generally speaking, we can see that the phenomena of sediment transport can be categorized into streamwise and vertical motions dominated events. Sediment transport should be expressed using variables in streamwise and vertical directions jointly.
Generally, all interfaces on solid–liquid, liquid–liquid, liquid-gaseous phases exist waves if there exists alterative vertical motions as shown in Figure 8, otherwise no waves can be observed no matter how high the velocity is if the flow is laminar. Likewise, the ocean waves between water and air are not caused by the shear stress or wind velocity on the sea surface, but the air pressure oscillation whose period should be identical to the ocean waves. In other words, turbulence is the cause of ocean waves. In summer, the heated sea surface generates an upward motion, consequently typhoons, cyclones and hurricanes can be observed. In winter, the downward cold air yields a relatively calm surface.
The existence of upward velocity can be inferred from numerous small bubbles when waves are broken. The soluble gas or air near in a lower lever like the seabed (high pressure) can be transferred to the surface (gauge pressure = 0) by the upward velocity, which causes significant pressure difference of inside and outside bubbles, consequently the bubbles are broken. In other words, from bubbles one may conclude that there is an upward velocity to transfer the bubbles from deep water to the surface, this is also true for bubbles in hydraulic jumps. It is predictable that in high speed flow, cavitation (i.e., local scour over a metal/concrete surface) can be observed when decelerating flow or the vertical flow exists. The liquefaction can be observed when the seepage velocity and particle settling velocity are in the same order of magnitude.
This study investigates the influence of vertical velocity induced unsteady flows on sediment transport. It is well-known that the vertical velocity is ubiquitous and it can be induced by coherent structures, non-uniformity, unsteadiness, and so on. This paper just discusses the simplest cases, i.e., the presence of vertical velocity does not significantly alter the streamwise parameters like velocity
The upward velocity enhances sediment mobility and downward velocity increases its stability. Mathematically the behavior of sediment transport subject to a vertical motion can be equivalently treated by the variation of apparent density. Particles become “heavier” when they experience the downward flows, this reduces the sediment transport rate. But particles become “lighter” in flows with upward velocity where the sediment discharge is increased significantly. The obtained new equation for sediment transport’s apparent density is used to explain sediment transport in unsteady flows.
The application of Shields diagram, equations of sediment discharge and Rouse equation developed from steady flows could be extended to unsteady flows if the vertical parameter
The mathematical model may also provide a tool to understand many odd phenomena in sediment transport like the phase lag phenomenon and bedform formation. Both are widely reported and discussed, this is the first trail to give the similarities between these two phenomena. The research shows that the temporal variation of vertical velocity results in the phase lag, and its spatial variation leads to the bedform formation.
In the literature, the vertical velocity is generally ignored in the measurement, which leads to that the conclusions listed above rest on the inferences of vertical velocity, not its measured values and direction. In future, systematical experiments are needed to investigate its role in order to validate the conceptual model.
This is a brief overview of the main steps involved in publishing with IntechOpen Compacts, Monographs and Edited Books. Once you submit your proposal you will be appointed a Author Service Manager who will be your single point of contact and lead you through all the described steps below.
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The automatic detection of breathing patterns is equally important in other respiratory rehabilitation therapies, for example, magnetic resonance exams for respiratory triggered imaging, and synchronized functional electrical stimulation. In this context, the goal of many research groups is to create wearable devices able to monitor breathing activity continuously, under natural physiological conditions in different environments. Therefore, wearable sensors that have been used recently as well as the main signal processing methods for breathing analysis are discussed. The following sensor technologies are presented: acoustic, resistive, inductive, humidity, acceleration, pressure, electromyography, impedance, and infrared. 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Strategies employing enzyme-based bioelectronics represent a unique foundation of wearables because of specific enzyme recognition and catalytic activities. Therefore, such electrochemical biodevices on various platforms, e.g., tattoos, textiles, and wearable accessories, are interesting. However, these devices need effective power sources, requiring combining effective energy sources, such as BFCs, onto compact and conformal platforms. Advantageously, bioenergy-harvesting BFCs can also act as self-powered sensors, simplifying wearable systems. Challenges pertaining to energy requirements and the integration of biocatalysts with electrodes should be considered. In this chapter, we detail updated advancement in skin-worn devices, including biosensors, BFCs, and self-powered sensors, along with engineering designs and on-skin iontophoretic strategies to extract biofluids. Crucial parameters including mechanical/material aspects (e.g., stretchability), electrochemistry, enzyme-related views (e.g., electron shuttles, immobilization, and behaviors), and oxygen dependency will be discussed, along with outlooks. Understanding such challenges and opportunities is important to revolutionize wearable devices for diverse applications.",book:{id:"7654",slug:"wearable-devices-the-big-wave-of-innovation",title:"Wearable Devices",fullTitle:"Wearable Devices - the Big Wave of Innovation"},signatures:"Itthipon Jeerapan",authors:[{id:"285204",title:"Dr.",name:"Itthipon",middleName:null,surname:"Jeerapan",slug:"itthipon-jeerapan",fullName:"Itthipon Jeerapan"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"66828",title:"Breathing Monitoring and Pattern Recognition with Wearable Sensors",slug:"breathing-monitoring-and-pattern-recognition-with-wearable-sensors",totalDownloads:3101,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"This chapter introduces the anatomy and physiology of the respiratory system, and the reasons for measuring breathing events, particularly, using wearable sensors. Respiratory monitoring is vital including detection of sleep apnea and measurement of respiratory rate. 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For the measurement of blood pressure, we typically use brachial devices on the upper arm, and much less often, the radial devices with pressure sensors on the wrist. Medical doctors know that this is an unfortunate case. The brachial pressure and even more, the radial pressure, both are poor replacements for the central aortic pressure (CAP). Moreover, the devices on the market cannot provide continuous measurements 24 h. In addition, most of the ambulatory and wearable monitors do not enable acquisition of the blood pressure curves in time. These circumstances limit the accuracy of diagnosing. The aim of this chapter is to introduce our experiments, experiences and results in developing the wearable monitor for central aortic blood pressure curve by using electrical bioimpedance sensing and measurement. First, electronic circuitry with embedded data acquisition and signal processing approaches is given. Second, finding appropriate materials, configurations and placements of electrodes is of interest. Third, the results of modelling and simulations are discussed for obtaining the best sensitivity and stability of the measurement procedures. Finally, the discussion on the provided provisional experiments evaluates the obtained results. The conclusions are drawn together with the need for further development.",book:{id:"7654",slug:"wearable-devices-the-big-wave-of-innovation",title:"Wearable Devices",fullTitle:"Wearable Devices - the Big Wave of Innovation"},signatures:"Mart Min, Hip Kõiv, Eiko Priidel, Ksenija Pesti and Paul Annus",authors:[{id:"62780",title:"Prof.",name:"Mart",middleName:null,surname:"Min",slug:"mart-min",fullName:"Mart Min"},{id:"299121",title:"MSc.",name:"Hip",middleName:null,surname:"Kõiv",slug:"hip-koiv",fullName:"Hip Kõiv"},{id:"299122",title:"MSc.",name:"Ksenija",middleName:null,surname:"Pesti",slug:"ksenija-pesti",fullName:"Ksenija Pesti"},{id:"299123",title:"MSc.",name:"Eiko",middleName:null,surname:"Priidel",slug:"eiko-priidel",fullName:"Eiko Priidel"},{id:"299124",title:"Dr.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Annus",slug:"paul-annus",fullName:"Paul Annus"}]},{id:"67016",title:"Wearable Skin-Worn Enzyme-Based Electrochemical Devices: Biosensing, Energy Harvesting, and Self-Powered Sensing",slug:"wearable-skin-worn-enzyme-based-electrochemical-devices-biosensing-energy-harvesting-and-self-powere",totalDownloads:1858,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Integrating enzymes with wearable electrochemical systems delivers extraordinary functional devices, including biosensors and biofuel cells (BFCs). 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Crucial parameters including mechanical/material aspects (e.g., stretchability), electrochemistry, enzyme-related views (e.g., electron shuttles, immobilization, and behaviors), and oxygen dependency will be discussed, along with outlooks. 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Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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