CIE L a b difference parameters for unscoured cotton fabric after UV treatment.
\r\n\tAs the subject of adhesives is in constant development, this book's purpose is to get together information about adhesives science and technology, recent advances, and applications that use adhesive technology. Also, to make these contents available to engineering students, engineers, researchers, and the people interested in this topic. The book is expected to present works that aim to contribute to the development of new technologies and the use of non-traditional materials in engineering.
",isbn:"978-1-83880-670-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-669-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83880-671-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"c58b7d4c17e2a202af1dc4b906b7becb",bookSignature:"Prof. António Bastos Pereira and Dr. Alexandre Luiz Pereira",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11819.jpg",keywords:"The Technology of the Adhesives, Recent Advances, New Perspectives, Structural Adhesives Bonding, Durability of Structural Adhesives, New Applications, Repair of Composites, Bonding of Composites, Experimental Mechanics Tests, Thermal Analysis, Finite Element Method, Numerical Analysis.",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 15th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 22nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 21st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 9th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 8th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"15 days",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. António Pereira is a professor and researcher, who graduated from the University of Porto, and gained experience as an engineer working at Renault, with an h-index of 23, and more than 1500 citations for 70 papers published in SCI journals.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"An active researcher in Solid Mechanics, Dr. Alexandre Luiz Pereira holds a degree in Mathematics from the State University of Rio de Janeiro, and a degree in Mechanical Engineering from the Fluminense Federal University in Brazil.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Bastos",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/211131/images/system/211131.png",biography:"Founding shareholder and Director of Martifer Group (ca. 3500 employees) (1990-1999) - was responsible for the planning and production of about 500 steel structures and industrial equipment with a total amount exceeding 100 million euros.\nAssistant Professor at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro, since 2000. Board Member and Member of the Executive Committee at the Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Aveiro (2011 – 2015), currently Director of TEMA - Centre for Mechanical Technology and Automation.\nHis main research area has been mechanics of composite materials, with particular emphasis on delamination fracture mechanics. He has published 44 papers in SCI journals and has delivered 30 presentations at international conferences. His h-index at scopus is 16 with more than 770 citations.",institutionString:"University of Aveiro",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"452095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre Luiz",middleName:null,surname:"Pereira",slug:"alexandre-luiz-pereira",fullName:"Alexandre Luiz Pereira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003LeECuQAN/Profile_Picture_1642158596909",biography:"Alexandre Luiz Pereira is Ph.D. in Mechanical Engineering and Materials Technology. During the period of the Ph.D., he did a Postgraduate Internship at the Department of Mechanical Engineering at the University of Aveiro/Portugal (UA). Since 2014 he has been a professor and researcher at the Federal Center of Technological Education in Rio de Janeiro (CEFET/RJ). He is currently the coordinator of the Mechanical Engineering course at the CEFET/RJ Campus Angra dos Reis. His main research areas focus on the study of materials technology, from structural and hybrid composites, hyperelastic materials, and adhesives joints.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"14",title:"Materials Science",slug:"materials-science"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"444312",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Tikel",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/444312/images/20015_n.jpg",email:"sara.t@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager, my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. 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Fernandes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7610.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"211131",title:"Prof.",name:"António",surname:"Pereira",slug:"antonio-pereira",fullName:"António Pereira"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6320",title:"Advances in Glass Science and Technology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6d0a32a0cf9806bccd04101a8b6e1b95",slug:"advances-in-glass-science-and-technology",bookSignature:"Vincenzo M. 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Shaheer Akhtar and Hyung-Shik Shin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6517.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"52613",title:"Dr.",name:"Sadia",surname:"Ameen",slug:"sadia-ameen",fullName:"Sadia Ameen"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6188",title:"Solidification",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0405c42586170a1def7a4b011c5f2b60",slug:"solidification",bookSignature:"Alicia Esther Ares",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6188.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91095",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia Esther",surname:"Ares",slug:"alicia-esther-ares",fullName:"Alicia Esther Ares"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9393",title:"Engineering Steels and High Entropy-Alloys",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d33466a3272f97353a6bf6d76d7512a5",slug:"engineering-steels-and-high-entropy-alloys",bookSignature:"Ashutosh Sharma, Zoia Duriagina, Sanjeev Kumar",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9393.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"145236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashutosh",surname:"Sharma",slug:"ashutosh-sharma",fullName:"Ashutosh Sharma"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6802",title:"Graphene Oxide",subtitle:"Applications and Opportunities",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"075b313e11be74c55a1f66be5dd56b40",slug:"graphene-oxide-applications-and-opportunities",bookSignature:"Ganesh Kamble",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6802.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"236420",title:"Dr.",name:"Ganesh",surname:"Kamble",slug:"ganesh-kamble",fullName:"Ganesh Kamble"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6656",title:"Phase Change Materials and Their Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9b257f8386280bdde4633d36124787f2",slug:"phase-change-materials-and-their-applications",bookSignature:"Mohsen Mhadhbi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6656.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"228366",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohsen",surname:"Mhadhbi",slug:"mohsen-mhadhbi",fullName:"Mohsen Mhadhbi"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6805",title:"Electrical and Electronic Properties of Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f6b6930e7ae9d0704f68b5c180526309",slug:"electrical-and-electronic-properties-of-materials",bookSignature:"Md. Kawsar Alam",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6805.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"199691",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Kawsar",surname:"Alam",slug:"md.-kawsar-alam",fullName:"Md. Kawsar Alam"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8417",title:"Recent Advances in Boron-Containing Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3737be3f785ef9d8b318571ab474f407",slug:"recent-advances-in-boron-containing-materials",bookSignature:"Metin Aydin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8417.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"27070",title:"Prof.",name:"Metin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"metin-aydin",fullName:"Metin Aydin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8812",title:"Contemporary Topics about Phosphorus in Biology and Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"86c427901f631db034a54b22dd765d6a",slug:"contemporary-topics-about-phosphorus-in-biology-and-materials",bookSignature:"David G. Churchill, Maja Dutour Sikirić, Božana Čolović and Helga Füredi Milhofer",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8812.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"219335",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Churchill",slug:"david-churchill",fullName:"David Churchill"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"51307",title:"UV Treatments on Cotton Fibers",doi:"10.5772/63796",slug:"uv-treatments-on-cotton-fibers",body:'\nCotton fiber differs markedly from other cellulose fibers in morphological traits. Due to its many features, cotton, even though it was discovered later than other fibers, gained a high position and strongly stimulated the development of textile industry. Cotton today is the most used textile fiber in the world. Its current market share is 56% for all fibers used for apparel and home furnishings; another contribution is attributed to nonwoven textiles and personal care items. It is generally recognized that most consumers prefer cotton fiber for personal care items to those containing synthetic fibers.
\nSoft hand, good absorbency, and color retaining are among the advantages of cotton fabric; it is easy to print, handle, and sew; it is machine-washable and dry-cleanable; and it has good strength and hangs well. These are all the desirable properties for a textile but, for some applications, they can show drawbacks, which suggested modifications of the fibers achievable with chemical or physical treatments. Among the latter, ultraviolet (UV) irradiation was experimented.
\nUV radiations can act in different ways on the functionalization of textiles, through pre- or post-treatments, in order to modify their behavior in dyeing and finishing processes.
\nThe UV treatments applied in textile field, in addition to required specific effects, should also have the following advantages: (1) easy application, not needing expensive and sophisticated equipment; (2) durability and fastness of the degree of treatment looking at the future uses; (3) limited treatment costs, without precluding any market segment; and (4) environmentally friendly requirements, for sustainable textile processes. Many research works were developed with the aim to utilize the effects of UV radiations on various natural as well as synthetic fibers [1–6]. Most of these studies were devoted to the surface modification of wool, but even cotton fiber was considered.
\nIn cotton, unlike the wool, the true origin of the UV absorption, which is not due to any of the structural groups that make up the normal cellulosic chains, is uncertain and can only be attributed to “impurities” or “faults” bearing carbonyl and/or carboxyl groups.
\nNaturally pigmented green cotton fiber derives its color from caffeic acid that is deposited in alternating layers with cellulose around the outside of the fiber. The isolated compound is fluorescent (287 and 310 nm absorption wavelengths), and it has been theorized that its purpose is to absorb UV radiation in order to protect the seed. Brown and tan cottons derive their color from tannin vacuoles in the lumen of the fiber cells rather than in the wax layer as in green cotton. The brown color appears after the fibers are exposed to oxygen and sunlight, which happens when the seed pod opens.
\nThe gray cotton fiber contains the above-cited impurities, so one or more pretreatment processes before dyeing are applied to attain its full textile exploitation. The pretreatment processes of cotton fabrics include scouring to get off noncellulosic impurities, pigments, and waxes. An oxidative bleaching is carried out to wipe out natural coloring matter for white or dyeing, while singing is applied to eliminate the protruding loose fibers [7].
\nMansuri et al. [8] claimed that cotton-knitted fabric padded in a solution of hydrogen peroxide and then irradiated with UV lamp showed a significant pilling reduction, comparable to that obtained with industrial system of biopolishing. Moreover, Millington said that Siroflash® treatment (UV irradiation coupled with mild wet oxidation with hydrogen peroxide) is highly effective against pilling formation of wool as well as of cotton fiber [9]. In the latter case, the application of Siroflash® process would require the presence of a sensitizer or a photoinitiator to absorb UV radiation in the primary photochemical step. Such a photoinitiator must be odor-free, nontoxic, low expensive, and easily removable by aqueous washing. This rules out many of the commercial UV photoinitiators, but hydrogen peroxide is able to absorb UV radiations below 300 nm to produce highly reactive hydroxyl radicals. One would expect these radicals to reduce the strength of knitted cotton fabric by breaking the cellulose chains. In fact, significant dry-burst strength losses were observed in dependence on hydrogen peroxide concentration, but some fabric strength loss would be acceptable if the limiting factor is an unacceptable level of pills.
\nMercerization is the treatment of cotton yarns, fabrics, and knit goods with cold, strong caustic soda bath under tension to give increased luster, smoothness, dye and finishing chemical uptake, dimensional constancy, and better mechanical properties. Zuber et al. [10] demonstrated that UV rays have a similar effect, on cellulosic fibers, as the alkaline treatment; irradiated cellulosic fibers showed higher swelling in comparison with any concentration of soda treatment, but tear and tensile strength were worse compared to the untreated and to the alkali-treated ones. They emphasized that UV rays do not produce loss in weight after exposure of cotton fabrics, and affinity for direct dyes is slightly enhanced in comparison with that found with mercerization. However, with a reactive dye it is found that UV irradiation not only enhanced the strength of dye on irradiated fabric but also improved the dyeing properties [11]. The reason for this might be that the exposure of cotton fiber to UV radiation in the presence of oxygen causes cellulose oxidation to carboxylic acids and opens spaces between the fibers causing imbibition of more dye, hence the interaction for dyeing becomes more significant [12].
\nIqbal et al. [13] and more recently Adeel et al. [14] observed that UV radiation not only enhances the uptake and fastness of natural dyes on pre-irradiated cotton fabric using low concentrations of dye but also with a low concentration of mordant.
\nCotton fiber immersed in water develops a negative surface potential, which consequently gives rise to electrostatic repulsion of anionic dyes. Therefore, a large amount of electrolyte, such as sodium sulfate or chloride, is required in order to reduce the repulsion between the negatively charged fibers and the anionic dyes. Moreover, the complete dye exhaustion is not normally reached, causing environmental problems due to the discharge of colored effluent having a high salt concentration. To overcome these problems, the cationization of cotton fiber was applied to increase the substantivity of anionic dyes by introducing positively charged sites on the fibers. Pretreatments with glycidyltrimethylammonium chloride and other cationization reagents were reported. However, cationic polymerizable monomers, such as methacryloyl quaternary ammonium compounds, have also been fixed onto cotton fabric using UV radiation with a view to producing print-patterned dyeings [15].
\nInstead, Jang et al. [16] have examined the potential of photografting cationic monomers onto crease-resistant cross-linked cotton fabric by incorporation of a water-soluble photoinitiator to improve grafting. In fact, whereas untreated cotton is readily dyeable with anionic dyes in the presence of salt, the cross-linked fiber is undyeable to a comparable deep shade, since the diffusion of relatively large dye molecules into the cross-linked substrate is hindered by a low swelling under aqueous conditions. The dyeability of cationized cotton fiber by three classes of dyes (direct, reactive, and sulfur dyes) has been significantly improved owing to the increased ionic attraction between dyes and cationized cellulose, even in the absence of salts [17].
\nOn the other hand, Dong and Jang [18] proposed the direct photografting of wool-reactive dyes themselves onto cotton fabric. This coloration utilizes the photoreactivity of certain dyes under UV irradiation, through photopolymerization, photografting, and photocross-linking processes, to form a polymerized and cross-linked dye network. Thus, a single class of dye can color almost any textile substrate since no specific affinity of particular dyes to individual fibers is required. Reactive dyes containing an α-bromoacrylamido reactive group are among the most successful metal-free dyes for protein fibers because of their brilliant color and high wet-fastness properties. However, these reactive dyes hardly react with cotton fiber under similar conditions owing to the rather low nucleophilicity of the hydroxyl groups in cellulose compared with the thiol and amino groups in proteins. Therefore, dyes containing α-bromoacrylamido groups were employed as grafting monomers to be photografted onto cellulose under continuous UV irradiation. This novel approach may realize the photoactive coloration of cotton fiber even with dyes of low affinity for conventional reactive dyeing. Furthermore, the coloration does not require large amounts of salt, time, and energy, which makes it an alternative process of excellent environmental friendliness.
\nTextile world is always looking for new color effects, both for artistic questions and in order to meet the current fashion demands; for these reasons, differential dyeing effects mainly on wool fibers were studied. These can be achieved by surface modification on selected areas of fabric by a physical surface treatment such as plasma [19] or UV irradiation on one side followed by a conventional dyeing [20]. Moreover, patterning effects can be obtained if a suitable mask is interposed between energy source and fabric for selective surface modification. This represents an alternative and less expensive method than the usual production of patterned fabrics by printing or color weaving.
\nIn the Sun-Wash method patented by Nearchimica with Stamperia Emiliana (Italy) [21], the continuous UV pretreatment of wool fabric on one face before dyeing has been proposed to obtain different shades on the two faces or patterning effects. A careful selection of dyes is needed to obtain satisfactory tone-on-tone effects and even more to produce double-face effects with different colors. These suggestions inspired the experiments on differential dyeing of wool by UV irradiation carried out by Migliavacca et al. [22]. A good final shade uniformity was obtained, with an acceptable color difference (Δ
The same type of chromatic effect was also wanted for cellulosic fibers, in particular for cotton [23]. An unscoured 100% cotton yarn was chosen (
UVA irradiance: | \n430 mW/cm2 | \n
source working length: | \n0.6 m | \n
radiant exposure: | \n8.6 J/cm2 | \n
fabric speed: | \n11 m/min | \n
no. of irradiation steps: | \n6 | \n
total irradiation time: | \n30 s | \n
Colorimetric measurements were made comparing the UV-treated fabric with the untreated one, using a reflectance spectrophotometer Datacolor Check II Plus, with the results reported in Table 1.
\nSample | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
UV treated | \n−0.65 | \n−0.18 | \n2.86 | \n2.94 | \n
CIE L a b difference parameters for unscoured cotton fabric after UV treatment.
In these conditions of treatment, a global fiber-yellowing effect is observed, mainly due to a process that involves both photodegradation and photochromic reactions; chemical species probably involved in this phenomenon are quinol and phenylcoumaran residues (belonging to lignin impurity).
\nDyeing tests were carried out on cotton fabrics (UV irradiated and not) using Solophenyl® (Huntsman) direct dyes for cellulosic fibers applied on 0.1% o.w.f. (on the weight of fabric), 1:40 material to liquor ratio, with 2.0 g/L Albatex UNI as leveling agent, and 1.0 g/L NaCl. The dyeing was performed at 100°C for 30 min, then the samples were cooled at 80°C, and maintained at 80°C for 15 min. The irradiation conditions were the same as reported in Section 2.1.
\nThe final bath exhaustion was about 70% for all the dyes, and the resulted dyeings showed good color level and chromatic homogeneity. However, the color differences between UV-treated and untreated fabrics were minimal, as shown in Table 2, where a color difference greater than 5.0 Δ
Increasing the dyeing depth over 0.1%, the chromatic differences between UV-treated and untreated fabrics would increase; however, the wet fastness of dyed cotton fabric would be less, then not acceptable. Therefore, this dye selection seems not to be suitable for the differential dyeing.
\nDye | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Orange Solophenyl TGL 182% | \n0.58 | \n−1.0 | \n−1.20 | \n1.68 | \n
Bordeaux Solophenyl 3BLE | \n1.20 | \n−0.75 | \n0.52 | \n1.51 | \n
Blue Solophenyl FGLE 220% | \n1.30 | \n0.75 | \n2.30 | \n2.75 | \n
Navy Solophenyl BLE 250% | \n4.94 | \n0.06 | \n3.58 | \n
Color difference parameters for 0.1% dyeings with Solophenyl dyes.
On the other hand, differential dyeing effects can be pursued applying UV irradiation on dyed samples, just using the discoloration induced by radiation. In this case, the fading ability of the dyes on cotton yarn was exploited and in many cases significant color differences (Δ
Fading of dyed cotton yarns was carried out on dyed yarn samples wrapped on cardboard where one side was exposed for half area to UV rays. The irradiation condition and color evaluation were the same as reported in Section 2.1.
\nTwo series of reactive dyes for cellulosic fibers were investigated, at first reactive dyes namely Kayacelon React® (Nippon Kayaku) and Kemacelon® (Kem Color) having reactive groups belonging to triazinyl betaine (Figure 1).
\nTriazinyl reactive group.
These dyes were applied at 1.0% o.w.f. with liquor ratio of 1:20, in the presence of an alkali donor (1.0 g/L of Buslid 509, which slowly releases hexamethylenetetramine increasing pH) and 40 g/L Na2SO4 working at 90°C for 60 min. The results are reported in Table 3.
\nEven this series of reactive dyes presents only a term (Kayacelon React Red CN-3B, evidenced in bold) with acceptable color difference for a differential dyeing between UV-treated and untreated samples.
\nThe chromatic investigation was continued with the reactive dyes Avitera SE® (Huntsman), constituted by a chromogen with three reactive groups (chemical structure still under patent), applied at 0.5% o.w.f., 1:20 liquor ratio, and 50 g/L NaCl working at 60°C for 30 min adding 9 g/L of Na2CO3 divided into three aliquots (1/6, 2/6, 3/6), always working at 60°C for another 30 min. The results are reported in Table 4.
\nDye | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Kayacelon React Yellow CN-RL | \n−0.18 | \n0.79 | \n−0.48 | \n0.94 | \n
Kayacelon React Yellow CN-ML | \n1.11 | \n−0.49 | \n−0.33 | \n1.26 | \n
Kayacelon React G. Yellow CN-GL | \n−0.02 | \n0.45 | \n−2.43 | \n2.47 | \n
Kayacelon React Red CN-3B | \n2.28 | \n−6.84 | \n2.27 | \n|
Kayacelon React Blue CN-MG | \n1.19 | \n0.55 | \n3.68 | \n3.91 | \n
Kayacelon React Dark Blue CN-R | \n3.36 | \n1.78 | \n3.1 | \n4.92 | \n
Color difference parameters for 1.0% dyeings with Kayacelon React dyes.
Dye | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Avitera Yellow SE | \n0.86 | \n−0.77 | \n−2.48 | \n2.74 | \n
Avitera Red SE | \n4.92 | \n−10.0 | \n4.02 | \n|
Avitera deep Blue SE | \n5.39 | \n4.14 | \n5.06 | \n
Color difference parameters for 0.5% dyeings with Avitera dyes.
This series of reactive dyes presents only two terms, evidenced in bold, with acceptable values for differential dyeing effects. It was then decided to consider other series of DyStar reactive dyes, based on the monochloro-difluoro-pyrimidine reactive group, Levafix type (Figure 2a), and β-sulfatoethylsulfonic reactive group, Remazol type (Figure 2b).
\nMolecular structure of dyes with monochloro-difluoro-pyrimidine reactive group (a) and β-sulfatoethylsulfonic reactive group (b).
In accordance with the works carried out by Batchelor et al. [24] about photofading, it was observed that light fastness (and therefore also the fading ability toward UV radiations) is instead related to the chemical structure of the chromogen; they showed that fading is caused by both visible and UV light, with visible light responsible for azo dyes and UV light responsible for phthalocyanines.
\nGenerally speaking, the photofading is mainly due to singlet oxygen development, 1O2, which can be formed by the quenching of excited states of dyes by the triplet ground state of oxygen, 3O2:\n
Color index | \nCommercial name | \nLight fastness (1/6 SD) | \nStructure | \nReactive group | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
R.Y. 160 | \nYellow br. Remazol 4GL | \n5 | \nAzo | \nVinylsulfone | \n
R.Y. 176 | \nYellow Remazol 3RS | \n5 | \nUnknown | \nUnknown | \n
R.O. 107 | \nG. yellow Remazol RNL 150% | \n4/5 | \nAzo | \nVinylsulfone | \n
R.O.16 | \nOrange br. Remazol 3R spec. | \n4/5 | \nAzo | \nVinylsulfone | \n
Unknown | \nScarlet Levafix CA | \n4 | \nAzo | \nTriazinyl + vinylsulfone | \n
Unknown | \nRed Levafix CA | \n4 | \nAzo | \nTriazinyl + vinylsulfone | \n
R.R. 180 | \nRed br. Remazol F-3B | \n3/4 | \nAzo | \nVinylsulfone | \n
R.Bl. 21 | \nTurquoise Remazol G 133% | \n5 | \nPhthal. | \nVinylsulfone | \n
Unknown | \nNavy Levafix CA | \n3/4 | \nAzo | \nTriazinyl + vinylsulfone | \n
R.Bk. 5 | \nBlack Remazol B 133% | \n3/4 | \nDisazo | \n2 vinylsulfone | \n
Unknown | \nYellow Remazol RR | \n4 | \nUnknown | \nUnknown | \n
Unknown | \nOrange Remazol RR | \n4 | \nUnknown | \nUnknown | \n
Unknown | \nRed Remazol RR | \n4 | \nUnknown | \nUnknown | \n
Unknown | \nBlue Remazol RR | \n4 | \nUnknown | \nUnknown | \n
R.Y. 217 | \nYellow Avitera SE | \n5/6 | \nUnknown | \n3 reactive groups | \n
R.R. 286 | \nRed Avitera SE | \n4 | \nUnknown | \n3 reactive groups | \n
R.Bl. 281 | \nDeep blue Avitera SE | \n4 | \nUnknown | \n3 reactive groups | \n
Unknown | \nBlue Farbofix SP-BRF 150% | \n4/5 | \nUnknown | \nUnknown | \n
Unknown | \nNavy Farbofix SP-BRK/N | \n3/4 | \nUnknown | \nUnknown | \n
R.Bl. 225 | \nNavy Levafix E-BNA | \n2/3 | \nUnknown | \nUnknown | \n
Unknown | \nBlue br. Neareafix AC-BRF 150% | \n5 | \nUnknown | \nUnknown | \n
Light fastness, structure, and groups of commercial dyes experimented.
Table 5 shows light fastness and structure types of the investigated reactive dyes (data derived from color charts of the producers).
\nTable 6 shows the measured color differences between UV-irradiated and untreated cotton yarns of the dyeings carried out with 0.5% Levafix dyes, while Table 7 reports those obtained with 0.5% Remazol dyes (in both tables Δ
Dye | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Levafix Yellow CA | \n−0.65 | \n−0.36 | \n−3.94 | \n4.01 | \n
Levafix Amber CA | \n2.09 | \n−3.27 | \n−4.98 | \n|
Levafix Scarlet CA | \n4.02 | \n−3.80 | \n−1.12 | \n|
Levafix Red CA | \n4.37 | \n−5.21 | \n3.15 | \n|
Levafix Rubin CA | \n3.05 | \n−4.66 | \n0.42 | \n|
Levafix Blue CA | \n1.77 | \n−0.42 | \n4.69 | \n|
Levafix Navy CA | \n4.47 | \n2.61 | \n4.35 | \n
Color difference parameters for 0.5% dyeings with Levafix dyes.
Dye | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \nΔ | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Remazol Yellow br. 4GL | \n−1.05 | \n0.99 | \n−1.33 | \n1.96 | \n
Remazol Yellow RR | \n−0.17 | \n−0.10 | \n−0.53 | \n0.56 | \n
Remazol Orange RR | \n3.05 | \n−5.94 | \n−5.63 | \n|
Remazol Red RB 133% | \n4.65 | \n−11.50 | \n3.69 | \n|
Remazol Red RR | \n9.62 | \n−13.17 | \n4.10 | \n|
Remazol Red 3BS 150% | \n3.39 | \n−7.62 | \n2.33 | \n|
Remazol Blue RR | \n6.50 | \n2.40 | \n5.21 | \n|
Remazol Navy GG 133% | \n2.77 | \n3.90 | \n2.83 | \n|
Remazol Black B 133% | \n4.58 | \n2.76 | \n4.76 | \n
Color difference parameters for 0.5% dyeings with Remazol dyes.
Specifically, it was noted that the chromogens more difficult to fade under UV radiations are those providing yellow shades, typically made up of pyrazolone. Only the amber tone (Levafix) is interesting as a yellow, but it is an orange yellow; the fading ability increases going from orange shades (azo) toward red (azo), while in the case of shades provided by diazo dyes the fading ability increases going from navy until the maximum value in the case of Remazol Blue RR, as demonstrated in Table 7 (Remazol dyeings).
\nA selection of dyes sensitive toward UV-generated fade was thus performed offering a combination of the six terms reported in Table 8.
\nDye | \nΔ | \n
---|---|
Levafix Amber CA | \n|
Remazol Orange RR | \n|
Remazol Red RB 133% | \n|
Remazol Navy GG 133% | \n|
Remazol Black B 133% | \n|
Remazol Blue RR | \n
Total color difference (Δ
It is possible to observe, as reported in Tables 6 and 7, that the total color difference (Δ
The selection shown in Figure 3 has characteristics of good mutual combinability and synchronism in dye exhaustion, together with a color difference higher than 5.0 units of Δ
Dyeings with 0.5% selected dyes: (a) Levafix Amber CA, (b) Remazol Orange RR, (c) Remazol Red RB 133%, (d) Remazol Navy GG 133%, (e) Remazol Black B 133%, (f) Remazol Blue RR (for each shade: untreated yarn on the left side, UV faded on the right side).
In conclusion, on cotton fibers, unlike wool, a UV pretreatment does not substantially change the dyeing affinity, but a UV posttreatment is capable to fade dyeing, allowing to obtain interesting differential chromatic effects.
\nCotton fabrics often find its application in producing home furnishing, such as table linen, clothing, or work wear with high hygienic requirements. The high concentration of hydroxyl groups on cotton fabric surface makes the fabrics water adsorbent and easily stained by liquids. Moreover, the chemical composition and morphological properties of cellulosic fibers provide an excellent medium for bacterial growth. To overcome these limits, a finishing treatment is required on cotton fabrics to confer oil and/or water repellency and antibacterial activity.
\nUsually, the desired properties are achieved by thermal polymerization, regardless of energy consumption and costs of the process [25]. Fluorinated or silicone monomers, applied to the fabrics by padding, can confer oil and water repellency, while Triclosan, quaternary ammonium salts, and silver ions [26] are commonly used as antibacterial agents [27].
\nFerrero et al. [3] proposed the UV curing as eco-friendly and cheap alternative to thermal curing of functional monomers onto cotton fibers. In UV-curing processes, a suitable photoinitiator is able to interact with UV radiations yielding radical or cationic species, which induce a rapid curing of reactive monomers and oligomers at low temperature, with lower environmental impact and lower cost than thermal process.
\nFor textile applications on cotton fabrics, if a mixture of monomer and initiator is absorbed by the fibers and subsequently UV-irradiated, the polymeric chains can form inside the textile structure, establishing also graft bonds (UV grafting) with the cellulose macromolecules and making the treatment solid and water resistant. Moreover, the interpenetration of components and homogeneous distribution of monomers, even at a low concentration, contribute to obtain textile materials with modified surface properties without high add-on of polymer. In this way, the bulk properties of the fibers, such as mechanical and thermal resistance, are not affected and also the fabric breathability can be kept unvaried.
\nWater and oil repellency are among the most common functional properties that need to be assessed for protective clothing. This property can be conferred by the modification of the surface energy of textile fibers, possibly confined to a thin surface layer, so that the bulk properties of the textile fabric such as mechanical strength, flexibility, breathability, and softness should remain uncompromised.
\nHydrophobic or oleophobic surfaces are difficult to wet by water or apolar liquids, respectively, and are called low-energy surfaces. Wetting primarily comes from the non-ideality of solid substrates that are both rough and chemically heterogeneous. The surface modification of textile fibers to confer these properties can be achieved by physical or chemical methods or by the combination of both. Plasma treatments and exposure to radiations, often accomplished in the presence of reactive gases or after impregnation with suitable chemicals, are mainly representative of physical methods, while chemical treatments can generally be carried out with oxidants or other finishing agents, followed by thermal treatment or by sol-gel techniques.
\nPolysiloxanes are widely used for textile finishing to impart desirable properties such as softness, crease resistance, and water repellency, depending on the nature of organic functional groups incorporated in the polymer structure. The application of a polymeric coating to a cotton fabric in the form of a thin film ensures waterproof properties, but the fabric could lose comfort characteristics, such as handling and breathability. Therefore, hydrorepellency obtained by homogeneous adsorption of monomers onto each fiber and followed by a radiation curing method should be preferred. This was proposed by Ferrero et al. [3], which obtained water-repellent cotton fabrics by radical UV curing of silicone and urethane acrylates. The values of contact angle (Table 9), wettability, and moisture adsorption showed that a low resin add-on on the fabric is enough to confer water repellency, while scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analysis confirmed that UV curing yields a coating layer onto each single fiber than a film on the fabric surface (Figure 4) without damage of breathability.
\nResin | \nChemical nature | \nWeight on cotton (%) | \nContact angle (°) | \n
---|---|---|---|
Coatosil 3503 | \nSilicone (medium) acrylate | \n1.3 | \n143 | \n
Coatosil 3509 | \nSilicone (high) acrylate | \n2.9 | \n114 | \n
Tego Rad 2600 | \nPolysiloxane epoxy | \n2.6 | \n100 | \n
Ucecoat 7849 | \nUrethane acrylate (MW = 10,000) | \n2 | \n100 | \n
Hydrorepellent finishing of cotton fabrics by radical UV curing of silicone and urethane acrylates.
SEM images of cotton fibers untreated (a) and treated by radical UV curing of a silicone acrylate resin 3% add-on (b).
Periolatto et al. [28] recently investigated the application by UV grafting of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSSs) and a polysilazane (KION 20) to cotton fabrics to confer hydrorepellency.
\nPOSSs are polyhedral clusters yielded by hydrolytic condensation of trifunctional silanes. The generic formula is (RSiO1.5)n, where each silicon atom is bound on average to one and a half oxygen atoms and to one hydrocarbon group. The single nanoparticle may be represented as a silica cage core (diameters in the range of 1–3 nm) bearing organic functional groups attached to the corners of the cage (Figure 5a).
\nMolecular structures of polyhedral oligomeric silsesquioxanes (POSSs), where R = i-butyl, Y = methacryloisobutyl functional groups (a) and KION 20 structural units (b).
KION polysilazane contains repeating units in which silicon and nitrogen atoms are bonded in an alternating sequence. Both of these units contain cyclic and linear features. In addition, KION 20 contains fewer low-molecular-weight polysilazane components (Figure 5b).
\nFor what concerns the hydrorepellency, it was clearly conferred by the treatment, as confirmed by water contact angles measured on the as-prepared samples higher than 90°, for both POSS- and KION-treated samples. Measurements on aged samples revealed that KION-treated samples could maintain better properties during time, with respect to POSS treated. Moreover, for these two oligomers, higher contact angles were measured on samples treated with solutions at higher concentration. In particular, samples treated with 1- and 5-g/L POSS solutions, although showing an initial water contact angle higher than 100°, after aging immediately absorb the water drop, denouncing the total loss of hydrorepellency.
\nMany research papers have been published on the production and application of different types of fluorochemicals to textile finishing [29]. Fluorochemicals are organic compounds consisting of perfluorinated carbon chains, which impart water and oil repellency to the fiber surface when incorporated into polymer backbone with perfluoro groups as side chains. The old fluorochemicals used were based on C8 carbon chains, which release highly hazardous and toxic substances, such as perfluoro-octanoic acid and perfluoro-octanesulfonates. Nowadays, C6 fluorochemicals are still in use although the rules on this topic became more stringent, banding also C6 fluorochemicals, so studies about the performance conferred by C2–C3 products are of great interest [30].
\nFluorochemical finishings are commercially available as water emulsions and are applied to fabrics by the pad-dry-cure method, with a thermal-curing step at 150–175°C in hot flue for some minutes. As alternative, Ferrero et al. [2, 6] proposed the UV curing of perfluoro-alkyl-polyacrylate resins (Repellan EPF and NFC by Pulcra Chemicals and Oleophobol CP-C by Huntsman), in water emulsions, able to impart water as well as oil repellency to cotton fabrics, and the results were compared with those obtained by thermal polymerization. A radical photoinitiator was added in the proper amount, then the solution was diluted with water, mixed, and applied by dipping or spraying onto strips of fabric that were dried in an oven. Final weight add-ons of 3 and 5% o.w.f. were usually applied in order to obtain the desired properties without loss of fabric handling. Then, the samples were UV radiated on both sides by a medium pressure mercury lamp (about 60 mW/cm2 ) under inert atmosphere for 30–60 s. Thermally cured fabrics were considered as reference, treated for 2–3 min at 140 or 150°C according to the indications of the producer.
\n\n | \n | \n | Contact angle (°) | \n|||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
\n | \n | \n | Before washing | \nAfter washing | \n||||
Resin | \nAdd-on (%) | \nCuring type | \nθA | \nθR | \nΔθ | \nθA | \nθR | \nΔθ | \n
Repellan EPF | \n3 | \nThermal | \n134 | \n126 | \n8 | \n142 | \n136 | \n6 | \n
\n | 3 | \nUV | \n138 | \n129 | \n9 | \n134 | \n131 | \n3 | \n
\n | 5 | \nThermal | \n145 | \n133 | \n12 | \n143 | \n140 | \n3 | \n
\n | 5 | \nUV | \n142 | \n134 | \n8 | \n138 | \n134 | \n4 | \n
Repellan NFC | \n3 | \nThermal | \n140 | \n130 | \n10 | \n139 | \n122 | \n17 | \n
\n | 3 | \nUV | \n140 | \n132 | \n8 | \n137 | \n123 | \n14 | \n
\n | 5 | \nThermal | \n136 | \n125 | \n9 | \n134 | \n124 | \n10 | \n
\n | 5 | \nUV | \n133 | \n126 | \n7 | \n131 | \n119 | \n12 | \n
Dynamic water contact angles (average of repeated measurements, standard deviation about 4°, θA = advancing, θR = receding, Δθ = hysteresis) before and after washing on cotton fabrics cured with Repellan EPF and NFC.
The effectiveness of the UV treatment was evaluated by the determination of weight loss in chloroform. Repellan EPF showed the highest yields after UV curing, quite similar to those reached with the thermal treatment (93–96%), whereas Repellan NFC showed lower, although acceptable, yields in UV curing (80–81%) than in the thermal one (98%), without the influence of irradiation time and polymer add-on. However, with Oleophobol CP-C lower yields were obtained in both finishing treatments, and longer UV irradiation time, at least 60 s, is necessary to achieve a yield of 91% with a 3% add-on. Measurements of dynamic contact angles of water and oil drops allowed comparing the repellent behavior of the cotton fabrics finished with both curing methods before and after five domestic washing cycles (Table 10). A hysteresis Δθ > 0 is typical of most real surfaces, as confirmed by all the results obtained. The good wash fastness of water repellency was proved by the slight reduction of the advancing contact angles after washing, regardless of the curing type and polymer add-on. Oleophobol (data not reported) gave slightly lower contact angles but was practically unaffected by repeated washings.
\nIn conclusion, the laboratory-scale application of the hydro- and oil-repellent finishing on textile fabrics by UV curing of silica based or fluorocarbon resins, with the optimization of process parameters, followed by a deep characterization of treated samples, confirmed the effectiveness of the treatment.
\nThe study of Ferrero and Periolatto went on with the semi-industrial scale-up of the process: a great number (about 80) of larger fabric samples were padded by foulard with Oleophobol and then were irradiated in air by Sun-Wash®, an apparatus for continuous treatment of fabrics by UV light providing an irradiance of 913 mW/cm2 on an exposed area of about 120 × 60 cm2. Samples were exposed to the radiation with a carpet speed of 5 m/min, by five passes, corresponding to an irradiation time of 35 s, on both sides [31]. Fabric add-on was significantly reduced in order to hold down the finishing cost. White and dyed samples of different textile composition were treated and evaluated in terms of conferred repellency, yellowing, or color changes. Most relevant process parameters were investigated, considering the thermal process normally adopted at industrial level as reference. Results were so statistically evaluated by Six Sigma method with Minitab 16 software, to point out the most influencing parameters and the real possibility to replace the thermal treatment with UV. Water and oil drop sorption times higher than 2 h were found on all treated samples, showing that Oleophobol works very well as oil- and water-repellent agent for textiles.
\nUV process was revealed to work better than thermal one, in fact higher water and oil contact angles were obtained with a lower amount (1% o.w.f.) of finishing agent. Considering the UV process, best results were related to white fabrics, rather than dyed, and medium values of both radiation dose and product concentration, taking into account both contact angles and color reflectance evaluations. Finally, contact angle measurements carried out on aged samples (2 years) showed no variations with respect to fresh samples, meaning that the finishing is not affected by aging. Obtained results were considered encouraging and can open the way for a real application of the UV process to industrial field.
\nThe textile manufacturing industry is going through a period of severe crisis due to the globalization of the world market. A highly competitive context and stringent ecological regulations make quality and eco-friendly processes the major demands for a company.
\nA first objective aims to lower water and energy consumption; another relevant factor is the possibility of replacing high-polluting or toxic chemicals with others characterized by lower or zero environmental impact. From this point of view, the products of green chemistry, of natural origin, are particularly interesting for applications in the field of textile finishing.
\nIncreased attention toward health and hygiene, due to frequent diseases and invasive infections, brought the attention of the research in textile field on antibacterial materials, which can not only prevent degradation and discoloration of the fabrics by microorganisms but also effectively prevent the spread of pathogenic bacteria. An antibacterial finishing, by means of a suitable surface chemical modification of fibers, is mainly required on natural fibers for furnishing, technical textiles, medical devices, hygienic textiles, food industry, and packaging. Chemicals bearing functional biocide groups are usually applied by padding, followed by a thermal treatment. Unfortunately, most of these products are toxic or carcinogenic, so the application to textiles is not advisable, also considering a possible release of the antibacterial agent during the use, in skin contact.
\nFor these reasons, a strong chemical grafting to treated fibers is mandatory for a fast, stable, and resistant treatment. However, the finishing should not compromise the hand, appearance, and color of the fabric, considering that finishing processes are normally carried out after dyeing. In this view, the application of natural biopolymers by an eco-friendly and cheap process can be the winning choice to develop bioactive eco-sustainable textiles from renewable sources [32].
\nCellulose and chitin, the main components of cotton fibers and crustacean shells, respectively, are the two most abundant polysaccharides in nature. They are mutually compatible, due to their similar structure (Figure 6), and biodegradable; it makes them good candidates as eco-friendly and eco-sustainable substrates for textile applications. Chitosan (2-amino-2-deoxy-(1–4)-β-d-glucopyranan) is a carbohydrate biopolymer derived from the deacetylation of the chitin with unique biological, physiological, and pharmacological properties, such as biodegradability, no toxicity, and high antibacterial activity toward both Gram-positive and Gram-negative microorganisms, due to the combined bacteriostatic and bactericide action.
\nMolecular structures of cellulose (a) and chitosan (b).
In textile field, chitosan is mainly used as a dyeing auxiliary or a finishing agent, but the finishing fastness is limited by the weak interactions between chitosan macromolecules and fibers. To obtain a stable treatment, a thermal wet process is required, with high energy, water consumption, and possible degradation of the treated substrate. Moreover, the addition of cross-linking agents is required. Usually, toxic chemicals bearing aldehyde groups are used in thermal processes; recently, genipin was proposed as natural, nontoxic alternative: encouraging results in terms of fastness improvement were obtained, opening the way for biomedical and pharmaceutical applications [33], but the prohibitive cost of genipin makes it not applicable in textile field.
\nFerrero and Periolatto [34] proposed photocuring (UV curing and/or UV grafting) as cheap and eco-friendly process to bind chitosan to textiles by means of radical reactions. Studies about the photodegradation of chitosan macromolecules due to UV exposure confirmed the formation of macroradicals on the polymer. Same radicals can be involved in cross-linking process, promoted by the presence of a suitable radical photoinitiator. Among the substrates considered, there are wool [35], silk [36], polyester, polyamide, and cotton fiber [37], in the form of weft-warp and knitted piquet fabrics [38] but also filter substrates and gauzes with more open structures [39–41].
\nFocusing on cotton, the research work started with laboratory test on samples of small dimensions, aimed to optimize the process parameters and confirm the treatment efficiency and fastness [36]. A low-viscosity chitosan with deacetylation degree of 75–85% was dissolved in acetic acid solution at pH 4. The solution was added of 2-hydroxy-2-methyl-phenyl-propane-1-one, 4% wt on chitosan, as radical photoinitiator, properly diluted and applied to the fabric surface by dipping, to reach a chitosan add-on ranging from 1 to 3% wt. An impregnation time of 12 h at 25°C or 1 h at 50°C was necessary to obtain 100% process yield.
\nChitosan UV curing yielded high antimicrobial properties, against
Semi-industrial scaled tests were carried out on samples of higher dimension, using commercial chitosan powder (Peripret or Chitoclear) dissolved in acetic acid solution [38]. In some cases, a softener (Nearfinish SM/40) or an antioxidant agent (Nearcand) was added to the recipe, while the radical photoinitiator was kept in the same amount. The chitosan add-on was drastically lowered till 0.3% o.w.f, diluting the solution to 0.25% before the impregnation by padding. The as-impregnated samples were dried in a rameuse and finally radiated by Sun-Wash®, as reported in Section 3.1. Results of antibacterial activity tests are reported in Table 11 and confirmed those previously obtained with samples prepared at laboratory scale.
\nSample description | \nCondition | \nMicroorganism reduction (%) | \n
---|---|---|
Untreated | \n\n | – | \n
Ultrafresh GH-20 2% | \nInitial | \n>99.9 | \n
\n | 10 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
\n | 30 washes | \n98.4 | \n
Chitosan finishing: 3% Peripret | \nInitial | \n>99.9 | \n
Wet irradiation | \n10 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
\n | 30 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
Chitosan finishing 3% Peripret | \nInitial | \n>99.9 | \n
Dry irradiation | \n10 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
\n | 30 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
Chitosan finishing: 3% Peripret | \nInitial | \n>99.9 | \n
With Nearfinish SM/40 | \n10 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
Dry irradiation | \n30 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
Chitosan finishing: 0.3% Chitoclear | \nInitial | \n98.6 | \n
Wet irradiation | \n10 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
\n | 30 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
Chitosan finishing: 0.6% Chitoclear | \nInitial | \n99 | \n
Wet irradiation | \n10 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
\n | 30 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
Chitosan finishing: 0.6% Chitoclear | \nInitial | \n99.2 | \n
With Nearcand | \n10 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
Wet irradiation | \n30 washes | \n>99.9 | \n
Antibacterial activity of chitosan-treated samples as prepared and after 10 and 30 washing cycles. Quantitative assessment of activity according to ISO 20743: 2007 (E) against
“
“
Dyeing test with Direct Red 81: untreated cotton fabric (a), treated with 0.6% wt. chitosan (Peripret CTS) (b).
SEM analysis on cotton fabric treated with 3% wt. chitosan (4500×).
The UV treatments on cotton fibers can be utilized in dyeing and finishing processes. UV irradiation coupled with mild oxidation can improve some properties of the cotton fibers such as pilling resistance, water swelling, and dyeability. However, significant effects of differential dyeing were obtained by a UV posttreatment capable to fade dyeings with reactive dyes. UV curing and UV grafting with suitable chemical enabled to modify the surface of cotton fibers in order to confer oil and/or water repellency with an eco-friendly and cheap alternative to chemical and thermal finishing treatments. Moreover, the chitosan UV grafting was proposed as valid environmental friendly method to obtain cotton fabrics with a satisfactory washing-resistant antimicrobial activity even with low polymer add-on.
\nAustenitic stainless steels, particularly 316L grade, have received much attention because of their good mechanical properties and high corrosion resistance [1]. This material contains a maximum carbon content of 0.03 by weight, which provides an extra level of corrosion resistance as well as the high rate of weldability. Several domains, notably marine and petrochemical industry, architecture, chemical production, and also biomedical sector, use this stainless steel due to its superior tensile strength, fracture toughness, and good formability [2]. 316L is non-magnetic and has excellent biocompatibility, which makes him a good candidate in the production of biomedical parts such as knee joints of total hip replacements [3]. In addition, 316L became very attractive to the industry owing to its low-cost and easy fabrication.
In almost engineering applications, an important interest is directed to the aspect of surface as it strongly influences the functional properties of mechanical parts such as their corrosion resistance, tribological behavior, and fatigue durability. Most failures of manufactured parts initiate from the outer layers which are exposed to the environmental conditions of service [4]. Mechanical, metallurgical, or chemical changes are the most common causes of the initiation of alterations in the surface [5]. In the case of wear, repeated contact actions between surfaces lead to the abrasion and/or delamination of the superficial layer which causes a loss in material quantity as well as in wear resistance. This loss is also produced in the case of corrosion where chemical changes in the surface are provoked after the contact between the surface and the environment under which the material operates. As a result, of these phenomena, the properties of surfaces become poor and unacceptable to fulfill the intended requirements of service. Some examples of components because of surface damages are: (a) environmental stress cracking of plastics by some chemical environments [6], (b) turbine vane and blade material surface deterioration caused by erosion [7], (c) surface corrosion [8], etc. The surface quality of materials therefore greatly needs attention to guarantee a good longevity of manufactured products.
The surface integrity notion, as it is understood is manufacturing processes, was defined by Field and Kahles [9] as
Topological characteristics (surface roughness, geometric aspects…);
Mechanical characteristics (microhardness, residual stresses…);
Metallurgical characteristics (phase transformation, grains size, …);
Chemical characteristics (changes in the chemical composition of the surface, …).
Among the aforementioned parameters, surface roughness and microhardness are the major ones influencing the functional properties of parts. By far, the two parameters are remaining extensively studied to achieve better surface integrity. Surface roughness is a measurement of surface texture. A lower surface roughness indicates a smaller contact area with other materials, which is advantageous to improve corrosion resistance, frictional resistance, and fatigue life. Generally, the high quality of surface roughness is highlighted by the low values of amplitude parameters of surface topography. These parameters clarify the aspect of the topography which is related to the distance of a point on the surface from the mean plane, i.e., it gives information about the height or depth of a surface [10]. Hardness is the ability of a material to resist deformation. It is commonly preferred to produce surfaces with high values of microhardness as it prevents failures by wear and fatigue.
One way of improving the surface roughness and microhardness of parts is by applying surface treatments during the finishing step. Ball burnishing is a common mechanical surface treatment that has been widely applied on engineering parts for the finishing of their functional surfaces. This post-machining process is based on causing plastic deformation of the superficial layers through compressing a hard ball on the surface of the workpiece (Figure 1). As the ball is continuously moving, it transfers a material flow from peaks to valleys of superficial asperities. As a result, surface irregularities are reduced and compressive residual stresses are induced in the deformed layer. These two simultaneous actions improve the physical and mechanical characteristics of the surface which becomes smoother and also harder. Ball burnishing is easy, simple, and fast process which enhance the long-term properties of materials with low energy and almost no environmental pollution.
Ball burnishing concept [
At present, there are rich literature sources about the effect of ball burnishing on surface roughness and microhardness of materials and also on the service performance of manufactured parts. The positive effect of this treatment in reducing the surface roughness [12, 13, 14, 15, 16] and raising the microhardness [12, 15, 16, 17, 18] was widely reported. As a result, of these changes caused in surface characteristics, wear delamination was restricted as the interlocking movements of micro-irregularities were limited during friction [4, 19]. Fatigue resistance, yield and tensile strength, and also corrosion resistance were improved [20, 21].
High surface finishing after ball burnishing is dependant on whether appropriate parameters of the process were well chosen or not. While the penetration depth and the initial state of the surface play a secondary role in obtaining good surface integrity, other parameters such as the burnishing force, the feed rate, and the number of passes contribute fundamentally to the final aspect of the treated surface [22]. Thus, it is very necessary to choose the right combination of process parameters and to master their effect on the surface integrity.
This research tackles the surface integrity of 316L after being subjected to the ball burnishing process. The effect of the number of burnishing passes, as an important process parameter, will be investigated. The results will be analyzed in terms of surface texture and microhardness after processing. At the sight of the results, an appropriate combination between burnishing force, feed rate, ball size, and a number of passes shall be proposed to execute the operation according to the right objective. This is important for 316L to confer its parts the special properties intended in the different industrial applications.
In this study, 316L stainless steel was used as workpiece material. The chemical composition of the alloy was determined as: the wt% is 0.02% C, the wt% is 16.64% Cr, the wt% is 10.35% Ni, the wt% is 2.03% Mo, and the rest is Fe. In the first step, a pre-machining operation was applied on a TOS TRENSIN machine to prepare the surface to be treated. Ball burnishing was then proceeded on the prepared surface with fixing the parameters regrouped in Table 1. The mentioned parameters were fixed after optimization of the process using the response surface “RSM” method based on BOX-Behnken design. The methodology of the optimization, as well as the analysis, were precisely described in our previous work [23]. After fixing the cited parameters, a number of passes (i) was varied by up to i = 5.
Parameter | Burnishing force (Px) | Feed rate (f) | Ball diameter (Db) |
Value | 87.1 N | 0.18 mm/tr | 13 mm |
Burnishing parameters.
The surface roughness of burnished surfaces was measured using Altisurf500 profilometer (Figure 2(1)). For each sample, an area of 3 × 2 mm2 was scanned with a cutoff length of 0.8 mm. Altimap software was used to extract the following surface texture parameters. Atomic force microscopy (Bruker Dimension) was used to analyze the 3D topography of some selected surfaces.
Altisurf500 profilometer (1); Innovatest microdurometer (2).
Innovatest microdurometer, showed in Figure 2(2), was used to measure the surface microhardness of pre-machined and burnished samples. All tests were carried out using a load of 100 kgf applied for 10 s. The average diameters of five indentations were calculated to get reliable data.
The values surface topography parameters of the height of the five burnished samples, in comparison to the turned one, are regrouped in Table 2.
Surface topography parameters of height | Sample | ||||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Turned | Burnished (i = 1) | Burnished (i = 2) | Burnished (i = 3) | Burnished (i = 4) | Burnished (i = 5) | ||
Root mean square height | Sq [μm] | 2.212 | 0.715 | 0,729 | 0.583 | 0.978 | 2.62 |
Skewness | Ssk | −1.121 | −0.758 | −0,856 | −0.784 | −0.799 | −1.09 |
Kurtosis | Sku | 5.83 | 3.62 | 3.48 | 2.77 | 5.34 | 3.24 |
Maximum peak height | Sp [μm] | 5.89 | 3.37 | 3.37 | 1.35 | 2.83 | 3.60 |
Maximum pit height | Sv [μm] | 9.52 | 5.76 | 3.85 | 2.16 | 3.79 | 7.50 |
Maximum height | Sz [μm] | 15.41 | 9.14 | 7.23 | 3.51 | 6.62 | 11.1 |
Arithmetic mean height | Sa [μm] | 1.552 | 0.574 | 0.590 | 0.450 | 0.733 | 2.12 |
Comparison of height surface topography parameters of ground and ball-burnished samples.
As a consequence of the ball burnishing process, the root means square height of the surface Sq was decreased in all samples as compared to the untreated one. During ball burnishing, the first two passes significantly reduced the Sq parameter from 2.212 μm to 0.715 and 0.729 μm respectively. After three passes (i = 3), the Sq still decreased achieving 0.583 μm. However, further augmentation in the number of passes provoked an increase in the Sq parameter which can attain a value higher than the initial one after five passes (i = 5). The turned surface is characterized by a more negative skewness Ssk and higher kurtosis Sku than all burnished samples. The highest skewness and the lowest kurtosis are registered in the surface burnished with three passes (i = 3/Ssk = −0.784 Sku = 2.77). The other amplitude parameters (Sp, Sv, Sz, and Sa) of all samples decreased after ball burnishing. These parameters follow the same tendency with respect to the number of passes as the Sq parameter. Hence, it can be noted that three passes (i = 3) are the most appropriate if surface topography is aimed to be improved. Further augmentation in this parameter can lead to the deterioration of surface quality, which is indicated by the increase in the amplitude parameters. The main objective of ball burnishing is the reduction of the heights of surface irregularities. Effectively, this objective was reached because the results show that the height parameters of the surface structure were reduced by more than three-fold, which is indicated in the results listed in Table 2.
The sample burnished with three passes (i = 3) shows the best height surface topography parameters. As a result, this surface is selected to be studied in terms of the other surface topography parameters. Table 3 regroups the measured parameters of this surface as compared to the turned sample. Comparing these results, significant differences in the measurements can be highlighted between the turned and the burnished surface. After ball burnishing, the areal material ration Smr was significantly increased while the Smc and Sxp indicators were reduced. The Smr parameter of the turned sample was very low indicating a high peaky topography. After the application of ball burnishing, the value of Smr was sharply increased which impacts positively on the wear properties of the material. Indeed, a good bearing ratio indicates a good bearing capacity which improves the tribological behavior of the workpiece [10]. The Sxp parameter was reduced indicating reducing in surface roughness [24].
Surface topography parameters | Sample | |||
---|---|---|---|---|
Turned | Burnished (i = 3) | |||
Functional | Areal material ratio | Smr [%] | 0.826 | 28.8 |
Inverse areal material ratio | Smc [μm] | 2.263 | 0.660 | |
Extreme peak height | Sxp [μm] | 6.045 | 1.47 | |
Spatial | Texture-aspect ratio | Str | 0.292 | 0.312 |
Texture direction | Std [°] | 72.015 | 106 | |
Hybrid | Root mean square gradient | Sdq | 0.070 | 0.159 |
Developed interfacial area ratio | Sdr [%] | 0.247 | 1.11 | |
Functional (volume) | Material volume | Vm [mm3/mm2] | 1.088 × 10−4 | 1.95 × 10−5 |
Void volume | Vv [mm3/mm2] | 0.00237 | 0.00068 | |
Peak material volume | Vmp [mm3/mm2] | 1.088 × 10−4 | 1.95 × 10−5 | |
Core material volume | Vmc [mm3/mm2] | 0.00168 | 0.0005 | |
Core void volume | Vvc [mm3/mm2] | 0.00196 | 0.000588 | |
Pit void volume | Vvv [mm3/mm2] | 4.096 × 10−4 | 9.22 × 10−5 | |
Functional (stratified surfaces) | Core roughness depth | Sk [μm] | 3.118 | 1.26 |
Reduced summit height | Spk [μm] | 1.849 | 0.302 | |
Reduced valley depth | Svk [μm] | 3.613 | 0.722 | |
Upper bearing area | Smr1 [%] | 14.34 | 6.81 | |
Lower bearing area | Smr2 [%] | 77.61 | 86.5 |
Comparison of surface texture parameters of turned and ball-burnished surfaces.
The spatial parameter Str of the burnished sample was almost similar to that of the turned sample indicating the micro-anisotropic texture of both surfaces. The micro-anisotropy is a natural result of the machining process [10]. In turning, and similarly burnishing, the single point cutting tool will generate a high degree of anisotropy to the machined surface. The std. parameter is used to indicate the marked direction of the surface texture for the y-axis, which means indicating the lay direction of the surface [25]. This parameter is applicable only for surfaces which does not have a uniform texture, i.e., when the Str > 0.5. It can be observed from Table 3 that both turned and burnished surfaces have a lower value of Str < 0.5, which means that both surfaces have a pronounced lay pattern. The Std parameter gives the direction angle of the texture, which in the present results has increased from 72.01
All functional (volume) parameters were significantly reduced as a result of the ball burnishing process. The decrease in the material volume Vm indicates that an important part of surface irregularities was eliminated while the decrease in the void volume Vv refers to the elimination of valleys. This is also evident from the diminish of the other functional parameters Vmp and Vvc. The Vvv parameter characterizes the volume of fluid retention in the deepest valleys of the surface. Although this indicator was reduced for the burnished surface, this is not significant as this parameter is not affected by wear processes [26]. The wear resistance of components is directly related to the functional (volume) parameters and the enhancement resulting after BB impacts positively on reducing the quantity of material exposed to wear during the functioning of the workpiece.
For the functional parameters (stratified surfaces), all the parameters were reduced in the case of the burnished surface. The only exception is for the parameter Smr2. The lower value of Sk is desired for better sliding contact between contact surfaces while the decrease in the Spk parameter means that the volume of the material which is likely to be removed during the running in of the component was considerably restricted [26].
Based on the previously cited results, the effect of ball burnishing on surface topography can be remarked. As a consequence of the ball burnishing process, the functionality surface topography of 316L was efficiently improved which is characterized by the advantageous micro-geometric changes, namely: surface smoothness, elimination peaks and valleys and reduced peak heights and trough depths. The effect of a number of burnishing passes was also highlighted. It can be concluded that when the ball passes repeatedly over the surface of 316L, it deforms more asperities and produce smoother surface. However, this repetition should be limited 3 times to have the most improved surface, otherwise, surface flaking occurs due to excessive plastic deformation on the same surface layers [4].
Figure 2 represents isometric views of the selected burnished sample with three passes (i = 3) which showed the best-enhanced surface topography parameters. According to the 3D images of the untreated surface (Figure 3(1)), we can notice that it is characterized by higher peaks and deeper valleys compared to the burnished surface (Figure 3(2)). Hence it can be confirmed that the burnishing treatment by applying three passes produced a smoother surface. The visible scratches on the turned surface are due to the machining process which generates significant roughness (Ra = 134 nm μm and Rq = 172 nm). After burnishing with three passes over the surface of the 316L, the scratches as well as the peaks have almost disappeared, which reduces the roughness Ra to 14.1 nm and Rq to 18.3 nm, i.e., a decrease by 89.4% and 68.3% respectively.
3D images of (1) untreated surface and (2) burnished sample with i = 3.
The effect of ball burnishing as well as the number of passes on surface microhardness Hv of the surfaces is presented in Figure 4. It can be remarked that all burnished surfaces show higher values of microhardness in comparison to the turned sample. This indicated the high efficiency of BB process in hardening the surface of 316L. The impact of increasing the number of passes is manifested by a variation in the final microhardness. As a result, to one pass during ball burnishing (i = 1), an increment of approximately 90 Hv was obtained. While the increase in the number of passes to i = 2 did not really cause a remarkable change in the microhardness, the application of 3–5 passes generates a very significant hardening. The application of three passes has led to the increase in microhardness by 150 Hv while the most significant improvement in microhardness was recorded when four passes (i = 4) were applied. A similar hardening effect was caused after the application of five passes (i = 5) which is characterized by reaching a value of 593.0 Hv.
Microhardness values of untreated and burnished surfaces.
The impact of burnishing on the microhardness is interpreted by the plastic deformation which produces a structure with condensed grains and generates residual stresses loading the surface in compression. However, and contrary to the results of roughness, the increase in the number of passes does not cause any negative effect even if the ball passes 5 times successively over the same surface. Although, several works stipulate that repeating the burnishing operation several times, especially more than 3 times, destroy the surface because the surface is already saturated. We can explain our result by the high feed (0.18 mm/rev) and the low force (80 N) applied during the five passes. Indeed, since the ball is lowly loaded and moves quickly, it deforms more areas after each pass without affecting the already deformed areas. In other words, the repetitive passage of the ball over the same area will not have a detrimental effect since it does not have either the great force or the time sufficient to penetrate the surface and destroy the previously deformed layers.
In this study, the surface integrity of 316L stainless steel after ball burnishing was investigated. Based on the obtained results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
The surface topography of 316L stainless steel was successfully improved after the ball burnishing process. The root means square Rq was reduced to less than 0.1 μm. Almost all the surface texture parameters were reduced after the application of ball burnishing treatment, which is an important advantage if the functional properties, such as the wear resistance, is aimed to be improved.
The surface microhardness of the studied alloy was efficiently raised as a result of the ball burnishing process. An increment in microhardness by up to 150 Hv was recorded indicating the work hardening effect induced during the process.
The number of passes is found to be an important parameter that influences on both surface topography and microhardness. The previously cited results are obtained in condition to the application of three number of passes. Further increase in the number of passes can lead to the deterioration of the surface.
The authors thank the response of Mechanics and Structures (LMS) Research Laboratory, University of 8th May 1945, Guelma, Algeria, for their involvement in our study.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"56440",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70162",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6400,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"50921",doi:"10.5772/63712",title:"Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet",slug:"menaquinones-bacteria-and-foods-vitamin-k2-in-the-diet",totalDownloads:3301,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Vitamin K2 is a collection of isoprenologues that mostly originate from bacterial synthesis, also called menaquinones (MKs). Multiple bacterial species used as starter cultures for food fermentation are known to synthesize MK. Therefore, fermented food is the best source of vitamin K2. In the Western diet, dairy products are one of the best known and most commonly consumed group of fermented products.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet",authors:[{id:"184784",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Walther",slug:"barbara-walther",fullName:"Barbara Walther"},{id:"188194",title:"Mrs.",name:"Magali",middleName:null,surname:"Chollet",slug:"magali-chollet",fullName:"Magali Chollet"}]},{id:"66098",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84445",title:"Golden Rice: To Combat Vitamin A Deficiency for Public Health",slug:"golden-rice-to-combat-vitamin-a-deficiency-for-public-health",totalDownloads:3345,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) has been recognised as a significant public health problem continuously for more than 30 years, despite current interventions. The problem is particularly severe in populations where rice is the staple food and diversity of diet is limited, as white rice contains no micronutrients. Golden Rice is a public-sector product designed as an additional intervention for VAD. There will be no charge for the nutritional trait, which has been donated by its inventors for use in public-sector rice varieties to assist the resource poor, and no limitations on what small farmers can do with the crop—saving and replanting seed, selling seed and selling grain are all possible. Because Golden Rice had to be created by introducing two new genes—one from maize and the other from a very commonly ingested soil bacterium—it has taken a long time to get from the laboratory to the field. Now it has been formally registered as safe as food, feed, or in processed form by four industrialised counties, and applications are pending in developing countries. The data are summarised here, and criticisms addressed, for a public health professional audience: is it needed, will it work, is it safe and is it economic? Adoption of Golden Rice, the next step after in-country registration, requires strategic and tactical cooperation across professions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and government departments often not used to working together. Public health professionals need to play a prominent role.",book:{id:"7978",slug:"vitamin-a",title:"Vitamin A",fullTitle:"Vitamin A"},signatures:"Adrian Dubock",authors:[{id:"273220",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Dubock",slug:"adrian-dubock",fullName:"Adrian Dubock"}]},{id:"62836",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79350",title:"The Role of Thiamine in Plants and Current Perspectives in Crop Improvement",slug:"the-role-of-thiamine-in-plants-and-current-perspectives-in-crop-improvement",totalDownloads:1557,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Current research is focusing on selecting potential genes that can alleviate stress and produce disease-tolerant crop variety. The novel paradigm is to investigate the potential of thiamine as a crop protection molecule in plants. Thiamine or vitamin B1 is important for primary metabolism for all living organisms. The active form, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), is a cofactor for the enzymes involved in the synthesis of amino acids, tricarboxylic acid cycle and pentose phosphate pathway. Recently, thiamine is shown to have a role in the processes underlying protection of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. The aim of this chapter is to review the role of thiamine in plant growth and disease protection and also to highlight that TPP and its intermediates are involved in management of stress. The perspectives on its potential for manipulating the biosynthesis pathway in crop improvement will also be discussed.",book:{id:"6709",slug:"b-group-vitamins-current-uses-and-perspectives",title:"B Group Vitamins",fullTitle:"B Group Vitamins - Current Uses and Perspectives"},signatures:"Atiqah Subki, Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin and Zetty Norhana\nBalia Yusof",authors:[{id:"240031",title:"Dr.",name:"Zetty-Norhana Balia",middleName:null,surname:"Yusof",slug:"zetty-norhana-balia-yusof",fullName:"Zetty-Norhana Balia Yusof"},{id:"261167",title:"Mr.",name:"Aisamuddin Ardi",middleName:null,surname:"Zainal Abidin",slug:"aisamuddin-ardi-zainal-abidin",fullName:"Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin"},{id:"261169",title:"Ms.",name:"Atiqah",middleName:null,surname:"Subki",slug:"atiqah-subki",fullName:"Atiqah Subki"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56440",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6391,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:25,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"56013",title:"Vitamin C: An Antioxidant Agent",slug:"vitamin-c-an-antioxidant-agent",totalDownloads:7779,totalCrossrefCites:26,totalDimensionsCites:55,abstract:"Vitamin C or ascorbic acid (AsA) is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties, found in both animals and plants. It functions as a redox buffer which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species. It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"69402",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency and Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency-and-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1578,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vitamin D (VD) is a molecule that can be synthesized directly in the humans’ body or enter the organism with food in the form of inactive precursors. To exert its biological action, VD undergoes two-stage hydroxylation (at the 25th and 1st position) catalyzed by cytochromes P450, the presence of which has already been shown in almost all tissues of the human body. The product of hydroxylation is hormone-active form of vitamin D–1,25(OH)2D. 1,25(OH)2D binds to specific vitamin D receptor (VDR) and regulates the expression of genes involved in bone remodeling (classical function) and genes that control immune response, hormone secretion, cell proliferation, and differentiation (nonclassical functions). VD deficiency is prevalent around the globe and may be one of the key factors for diabetes development. The direct association between vitamin D deficiency and type 1 (T1D) and type 2 (T2D) diabetes has been proven. Detection of VDR in pancreas and adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, and immune cells allowed implying the antidiabetic role of vitamin D by enhancing insulin synthesis and exocytosis, increasing the expression of the insulin receptor, and modulating immune cells’ functions. This chapter summarizes data about relationship between VD insufficiency/deficiency and development of T1D and T2D, and their complications.",book:{id:"7038",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",fullTitle:"Vitamin D Deficiency"},signatures:"Ihor Shymanskyi, Olha Lisakovska, Anna Mazanova and Mykola Veliky",authors:null},{id:"76108",title:"Vitamin D Metabolism",slug:"vitamin-d-metabolism",totalDownloads:460,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Vitamin D plays an important role in bone metabolism. Vitamin D is a group of biologically inactive, fat-soluble prohormones that exist in two major forms: ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) produced by plants in response to ultraviolet irradiation and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) derived from animal tissues or 7-dehydrocholesterol in human skin by the action of ultraviolet rays present in sunlight. Vitamin D, which is biologically inactive, needs two-step hydroxylation for activation. All of these steps are of crucial for Vitamin D to show its effect properly. In this section, we will present vitamin D synthesis and its action steps in detail.",book:{id:"10631",slug:"vitamin-d",title:"Vitamin D",fullTitle:"Vitamin D"},signatures:"Sezer Acar and Behzat Özkan",authors:[{id:"29878",title:"Dr.",name:"Behzat",middleName:null,surname:"Özkan",slug:"behzat-ozkan",fullName:"Behzat Özkan"},{id:"348287",title:"Dr.",name:"Sezer",middleName:null,surname:"Acar",slug:"sezer-acar",fullName:"Sezer Acar"}]},{id:"50754",title:"Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites",slug:"medicinal-chemistry-of-vitamin-k-derivatives-and-metabolites",totalDownloads:1904,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vitamin K acts as a cofactor for γ‐glutamyl carboxylase. Recently, various biological activities of vitamin K have been reported. Anti‐proliferative activities of vitamin K, especially in vitamin K3, are well known. In addition, various physiological and pharmacological functions of vitamin K2, such as transcription modulators as nuclear steroid and xenobiotic receptor (SXR) ligands and anti‐inflammatory effects, have been revealed in the past decade. Characterization of vitamin K metabolites is also important for clinical application of vitamin K and its derivatives. In this chapter, recent progress on the medicinal chemistry of vitamin K derivatives and metabolites is discussed.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika",authors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika"},{id:"180529",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",middleName:null,surname:"Fujii",slug:"shinya-fujii",fullName:"Shinya Fujii"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"42",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81286",title:"Potassium Derangements: A Pathophysiological Review, Diagnostic Approach, and Clinical Management",slug:"potassium-derangements-a-pathophysiological-review-diagnostic-approach-and-clinical-management",totalDownloads:42,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103016",abstract:"Potassium is an essential cation critical in fluid and electrolyte balance, acid–base regulation, and neuromuscular functions. The normal serum potassium is kept within a narrow range of 3.5–5.2 meq/L while the intracellular concentration is approximately 140–150 meq/L. The total body potassium is about 45–55 mmol/kg; thus, a 70 kg male has an estimated ~136 g and 60 kg female has ~117 g of potassium. In total, 98% of the total body potassium is intracellular. Skeletal muscle contains ~80% of body potassium stores. The ratio of intracellular to extracellular potassium concentration (Ki/Ke) maintained by Na+/K+ ATPase determines the resting membrane potential. Disturbances of potassium homeostasis lead to hypo- and hyperkalemia, which if severe, can be life-threatening. Prompt diagnosis and management of these problems are important.",book:{id:"10794",title:"Potassium in Human Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10794.jpg"},signatures:"Sairah Sharif and Jie Tang"},{id:"79194",title:"Potassium in Solid Cancers",slug:"potassium-in-solid-cancers",totalDownloads:164,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101108",abstract:"Electrolyte disorders are a frequent finding in cancer patients. In the majority of cases the etiologies of such disorders are common to all cancer types (i.e. diuretic-induced hyponatremia or hypokalemia). Sometimes, electrolyte disorders are caused by paraneoplastic syndromes or are due to cancer therapy. Potassium is one of the most important electrolytes of the human body since it is involved in the regulation of muscle contraction, maintenance of the integrity of the skeleton, blood pressure and nerve transmission as well as in the normal function of cells. Potassium homeostasis is strictly regulated since the gap between the recommended daily dietary intake (120 mEq/day) and the levels stored in the extracellular fluid (around 70 mEq) is huge. Alterations of potassium homeostasis are frequent in cancer patients as well alterations in potassium channels, the transmembrane proteins that mediate potassium fluxes within the cells. The present chapter is focused on the clinical significance of potassium homeostasis and potassium channels in patients with solid tumors.",book:{id:"10794",title:"Potassium in Human Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10794.jpg"},signatures:"Jessica Iorio, Lisa Lastraioli and Elena Lastraioli"},{id:"78820",title:"Potassium Homeostasis",slug:"potassium-homeostasis",totalDownloads:121,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100368",abstract:"The average potassium intake in the United States population ranges from 90 to 120 mEq/day. About 98% of the total body’s potassium is intracellular, and only 2% is present in the extracellular compartment. This distributional proportion is essential for cellular metabolic reactions and maintaining a gradient for resting membrane potential. A loss of this gradient results in hyper- or hypopolarization of the cell membrane, especially in cardiac muscles leading to life-threatening arrhythmias. Multiple mechanisms in human maintain homeostasis. Transient initial changes are due to transcellular shifts activating sodium-potassium ATPase pumps on the cell membrane. The kidneys essentially take part in excess potassium excretion, maintaining total body stores constant within normal range. Gastrointestinal secretion of potassium is insignificant in individuals with normal renal function, however plays an essential role in individuals with compromised renal function. So far, a classic feedback mechanism was thought to maintain potassium homeostasis; however, a recently recognized feedforward mechanism acting independently also helps preserve potassium homeostasis. Hence, potassium homeostasis is vital for humans to function at a normal level.",book:{id:"10794",title:"Potassium in Human Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10794.jpg"},signatures:"Shakuntala S. Patil and Sachin M. Patil"},{id:"78193",title:"Potassium and Cardiac Surgery",slug:"potassium-and-cardiac-surgery",totalDownloads:203,totalDimensionsCites:1,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.99735",abstract:"Potassium homeostasis affects cardiac rhythm and contractility, along with vascular reactivity and vascular smooth muscle proliferation. This chapter will focus on potassium dynamics during and after cardiac surgery involving cardioplegic arrest and cardiopulmonary bypass (CPB). Hyperkalemic, hypothermic solutions are frequently used to induce cardioplegic arrest and protect the heart during cardiac surgery involving CPB. Common consequences of hyperkalemic cardioplegic arrest and reperfusion include microvascular dysfunction involving several organ systems and myocardial dysfunction. Immediately after CPB, blood potassium levels often drop precipitously due to a variety of factors, including CPB -induced electrolyte depletion and frequent, long-term administration of insulin during and after surgery. Meanwhile, some patients with pre-existing kidney dysfunction may experience postoperative hyperkalemia following cardioplegia. Any degree of postoperative hyper/hypokalemia significantly elevates the risk of cardiac arrythmias and subsequent myocardial failure. Therefore, proper management of blood potassium levels during and after cardioplegia/CPB is crucial for optimizing patient outcomes following cardiac surgery.",book:{id:"10794",title:"Potassium in Human Health",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10794.jpg"},signatures:"Shawn Kant, Frank W. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",issn:"2632-0517",scope:"Paralleling similar advances in the medical field, astounding advances occurred in Veterinary Medicine and Science in recent decades. These advances have helped foster better support for animal health, more humane animal production, and a better understanding of the physiology of endangered species to improve the assisted reproductive technologies or the pathogenesis of certain diseases, where animals can be used as models for human diseases (like cancer, degenerative diseases or fertility), and even as a guarantee of public health. Bridging Human, Animal, and Environmental health, the holistic and integrative “One Health” concept intimately associates the developments within those fields, projecting its advancements into practice. This book series aims to tackle various animal-related medicine and sciences fields, providing thematic volumes consisting of high-quality significant research directed to researchers and postgraduates. It aims to give us a glimpse into the new accomplishments in the Veterinary Medicine and Science field. 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After almost 32 years of teaching at the University of Trás-os-Montes and Alto Douro, she recently moved to the University of Évora, Department of Veterinary Medicine, where she teaches in the field of Animal Reproduction and Clinics. Her primary research areas include the molecular markers of the endometrial cycle and the embryo–maternal interaction, including oxidative stress and the reproductive physiology and disorders of sexual development, besides the molecular determinants of male and female fertility. She often supervises students preparing their master's or doctoral theses. She is also a frequent referee for various journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Évora",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!1,editor:null,editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. 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He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:10,paginationItems:[{id:"82380",title:"Evolution of Parasitism and Pathogenic Adaptations in Certain Medically Important Fungi",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105206",signatures:"Gokul Shankar Sabesan, Ranjit Singh AJA, Ranjith Mehenderkar and Basanta Kumar Mohanty",slug:"evolution-of-parasitism-and-pathogenic-adaptations-in-certain-medically-important-fungi",totalDownloads:6,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11400.jpg",subseries:{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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Kharsany, Temesgen Zewotir and Delia North",slug:"spatial-variation-and-factors-associated-with-unsuppressed-hiv-viral-load-among-women-in-an-hiv-hype",totalDownloads:13,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82193",title:"Enterococcal Infections: Recent Nomenclature and emerging trends",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104792",signatures:"Kavita Raja",slug:"enterococcal-infections-recent-nomenclature-and-emerging-trends",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Streptococcal Infections",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10828.jpg",subseries:{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82207",title:"Management Strategies in Perinatal HIV",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105451",signatures:"Kayla Aleshire and Rima Bazzi",slug:"management-strategies-in-perinatal-hiv",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"HIV-AIDS - Updates, Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7123",title:"Current Topics in Neglected Tropical Diseases",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7123.jpg",slug:"current-topics-in-neglected-tropical-diseases",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. 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He is currently a consultant at Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC, Anthem, AZ, USA.",institutionString:"Endocrinology Metabolism Consulting, LLC",institution:null},{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",middleName:null,surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/76477/images/system/76477.png",biography:"Dr. Mirza Hasanuzzaman is a Professor of Agronomy at Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University, Bangladesh. He received his Ph.D. in Plant Stress Physiology and Antioxidant Metabolism from Ehime University, Japan, with a scholarship from the Japanese Government (MEXT). Later, he completed his postdoctoral research at the Center of Molecular Biosciences, University of the Ryukyus, Japan, as a recipient of the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) postdoctoral fellowship. He was also the recipient of the Australian Government Endeavour Research Fellowship for postdoctoral research as an adjunct senior researcher at the University of Tasmania, Australia. Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s current work is focused on the physiological and molecular mechanisms of environmental stress tolerance. Dr. Hasanuzzaman has published more than 150 articles in peer-reviewed journals. He has edited ten books and written more than forty book chapters on important aspects of plant physiology, plant stress tolerance, and crop production. According to Scopus, Dr. Hasanuzzaman’s publications have received more than 10,500 citations with an h-index of 53. He has been named a Highly Cited Researcher by Clarivate. He is an editor and reviewer for more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and was a recipient of the “Publons Peer Review Award” in 2017, 2018, and 2019. He has been honored by different authorities for his outstanding performance in various fields like research and education, and he has received the World Academy of Science Young Scientist Award (2014) and the University Grants Commission (UGC) Award 2018. He is a fellow of the Bangladesh Academy of Sciences (BAS) and the Royal Society of Biology.",institutionString:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",institution:{name:"Sher-e-Bangla Agricultural University",country:{name:"Bangladesh"}}},{id:"187859",title:"Prof.",name:"Kusal",middleName:"K.",surname:"Das",slug:"kusal-das",fullName:"Kusal Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBDeQAO/Profile_Picture_1623411145568",biography:"Kusal K. Das is a Distinguished Chair Professor of Physiology, Shri B. M. Patil Medical College and Director, Centre for Advanced Medical Research (CAMR), BLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapur, Karnataka, India. Dr. Das did his M.S. and Ph.D. in Human Physiology from the University of Calcutta, Kolkata. His area of research is focused on understanding of molecular mechanisms of heavy metal activated low oxygen sensing pathways in vascular pathophysiology. He has invented a new method of estimation of serum vitamin E. His expertise in critical experimental protocols on vascular functions in experimental animals was well documented by his quality of publications. He was a Visiting Professor of Medicine at University of Leeds, United Kingdom (2014-2016) and Tulane University, New Orleans, USA (2017). For his immense contribution in medical research Ministry of Science and Technology, Government of India conferred him 'G.P. Chatterjee Memorial Research Prize-2019” and he is also the recipient of 'Dr.Raja Ramanna State Scientist Award 2015” by Government of Karnataka. He is a Fellow of the Royal Society of Biology (FRSB), London and Honorary Fellow of Karnataka Science and Technology Academy, Department of Science and Technology, Government of Karnataka.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University), India",institution:null},{id:"243660",title:"Dr.",name:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda",middleName:null,surname:"Biradar",slug:"mallanagouda-shivanagouda-biradar",fullName:"Mallanagouda Shivanagouda Biradar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243660/images/system/243660.jpeg",biography:"M. S. Biradar is Vice Chancellor and Professor of Medicine of\nBLDE (Deemed to be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India.\nHe obtained his MD with a gold medal in General Medicine and\nhas devoted himself to medical teaching, research, and administrations. He has also immensely contributed to medical research\non vascular medicine, which is reflected by his numerous publications including books and book chapters. Professor Biradar was\nalso Visiting Professor at Tulane University School of Medicine, New Orleans, USA.",institutionString:"BLDE (Deemed to be University)",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"289796",title:"Dr.",name:"Swastika",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"swastika-das",fullName:"Swastika Das",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/289796/images/system/289796.jpeg",biography:"Swastika N. Das is Professor of Chemistry at the V. P. Dr. P. G.\nHalakatti College of Engineering and Technology, BLDE (Deemed\nto be University), Vijayapura, Karnataka, India. She obtained an\nMSc, MPhil, and PhD in Chemistry from Sambalpur University,\nOdisha, India. Her areas of research interest are medicinal chemistry, chemical kinetics, and free radical chemistry. She is a member\nof the investigators who invented a new modified method of estimation of serum vitamin E. She has authored numerous publications including book\nchapters and is a mentor of doctoral curriculum at her university.",institutionString:"BLDEA’s V.P.Dr.P.G.Halakatti College of Engineering & Technology",institution:{name:"BLDE University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"248459",title:"Dr.",name:"Akikazu",middleName:null,surname:"Takada",slug:"akikazu-takada",fullName:"Akikazu Takada",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248459/images/system/248459.png",biography:"Akikazu Takada was born in Japan, 1935. After graduation from\nKeio University School of Medicine and finishing his post-graduate studies, he worked at Roswell Park Memorial Institute NY,\nUSA. He then took a professorship at Hamamatsu University\nSchool of Medicine. In thrombosis studies, he found the SK\npotentiator that enhances plasminogen activation by streptokinase. He is very much interested in simultaneous measurements\nof fatty acids, amino acids, and tryptophan degradation products. By using fatty\nacid analyses, he indicated that plasma levels of trans-fatty acids of old men were\nfar higher in the US than Japanese men. . He also showed that eicosapentaenoic acid\n(EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) levels are higher, and arachidonic acid\nlevels are lower in Japanese than US people. By using simultaneous LC/MS analyses\nof plasma levels of tryptophan metabolites, he recently found that plasma levels of\nserotonin, kynurenine, or 5-HIAA were higher in patients of mono- and bipolar\ndepression, which are significantly different from observations reported before. In\nview of recent reports that plasma tryptophan metabolites are mainly produced by\nmicrobiota. He is now working on the relationships between microbiota and depression or autism.",institutionString:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",institution:{name:"Hamamatsu University School of Medicine",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"137240",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed",middleName:null,surname:"Khalid",slug:"mohammed-khalid",fullName:"Mohammed Khalid",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/137240/images/system/137240.png",biography:"Mohammed Khalid received his B.S. in Chemistry in July 2000, and his Ph.D. in Physical Chemistry in 2007 from the University of Khartoum, Sudan. In 2009 he joined the Dr. Ron Clarke research group at the School of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Australia as a postdoctoral fellow where he worked on the Interaction of ATP with the phosphoenzyme of the Na+, K+-ATPase, and Dual mechanisms of allosteric acceleration of the Na+, K+-ATPase by ATP. He then worked as Assistant Professor at the Department of Chemistry, University of Khartoum, and in 2014 was promoted to Associate Professor ranking. In 2011 he joined the staff of the Chemistry Department at Taif University, Saudi Arabia, where he is currently active as an Assistant Professor. His research interests include:\r\n(1) P-type ATPase Enzyme Kinetics and Mechanisms; (2) Kinetics and Mechanism of Redox Reactions; (3) Autocatalytic reactions; (4) Computational enzyme kinetics; (5) Allosteric acceleration of P-type ATPases by ATP; (6) Exploring of allosteric sites of ATPases and interaction of ATP with ATPases located in the cell membranes.",institutionString:"Taif University",institution:{name:"Taif University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"63810",title:"Prof.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Morales-Montor",slug:"jorge-morales-montor",fullName:"Jorge Morales-Montor",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63810/images/system/63810.png",biography:"Dr. Jorge Morales-Montor was recognized with the Lola and Igo Flisser PUIS Award for best graduate thesis at the national level in the field of parasitology. He received a fellowship from the Fogarty Foundation to perform postdoctoral research stay at the University of Georgia. He has 153 journal articles to his credit. He has also edited several books and published more than fifty-five book chapters. He is a member of the Mexican Academy of Sciences, Latin American Academy of Sciences, and the National Academy of Medicine. He has received more than thirty-five awards and has supervised numerous bachelor’s, master’s, and Ph.D. students. Dr. Morales-Montor is the past president of the Mexican Society of Parasitology.",institutionString:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"217215",title:"Dr.",name:"Palash",middleName:null,surname:"Mandal",slug:"palash-mandal",fullName:"Palash Mandal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217215/images/system/217215.jpeg",biography:null,institutionString:"Charusat University",institution:null},{id:"49739",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:null,surname:"Szablewski",slug:"leszek-szablewski",fullName:"Leszek Szablewski",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49739/images/system/49739.jpg",biography:"Leszek Szablewski is a professor of medical sciences. He received his M.S. in the Faculty of Biology from the University of Warsaw and his PhD degree from the Institute of Experimental Biology Polish Academy of Sciences. He habilitated in the Medical University of Warsaw, and he obtained his degree of Professor from the President of Poland. Professor Szablewski is the Head of Chair and Department of General Biology and Parasitology, Medical University of Warsaw. Professor Szablewski has published over 80 peer-reviewed papers in journals such as Journal of Alzheimer’s Disease, Biochim. Biophys. Acta Reviews of Cancer, Biol. Chem., J. Biomed. Sci., and Diabetes/Metabol. Res. Rev, Endocrine. He is the author of two books and four book chapters. He has edited four books, written 15 scripts for students, is the ad hoc reviewer of over 30 peer-reviewed journals, and editorial member of peer-reviewed journals. Prof. Szablewski’s research focuses on cell physiology, genetics, and pathophysiology. He works on the damage caused by lack of glucose homeostasis and changes in the expression and/or function of glucose transporters due to various diseases. He has given lectures, seminars, and exercises for students at the Medical University.",institutionString:"Medical University of Warsaw",institution:{name:"Medical University of Warsaw",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"173123",title:"Dr.",name:"Maitham",middleName:null,surname:"Khajah",slug:"maitham-khajah",fullName:"Maitham Khajah",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/173123/images/system/173123.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Maitham A. Khajah received his degree in Pharmacy from Faculty of Pharmacy, Kuwait University, in 2003 and obtained his PhD degree in December 2009 from the University of Calgary, Canada (Gastrointestinal Science and Immunology). Since January 2010 he has been assistant professor in Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics. His research interest are molecular targets for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and the mechanisms responsible for immune cell chemotaxis. He cosupervised many students for the MSc Molecular Biology Program, College of Graduate Studies, Kuwait University. Ever since joining Kuwait University in 2010, he got various grants as PI and Co-I. He was awarded the Best Young Researcher Award by Kuwait University, Research Sector, for the Year 2013–2014. He was a member in the organizing committee for three conferences organized by Kuwait University, Faculty of Pharmacy, as cochair and a member in the scientific committee (the 3rd, 4th, and 5th Kuwait International Pharmacy Conference).",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"195136",title:"Dr.",name:"Aya",middleName:null,surname:"Adel",slug:"aya-adel",fullName:"Aya Adel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/195136/images/system/195136.jpg",biography:"Dr. Adel works as an Assistant Lecturer in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. Dr. Adel is especially interested in joint attention and its impairment in autism spectrum disorder",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"94911",title:"Dr.",name:"Boulenouar",middleName:null,surname:"Mesraoua",slug:"boulenouar-mesraoua",fullName:"Boulenouar Mesraoua",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94911/images/system/94911.png",biography:"Dr Boulenouar Mesraoua is the Associate Professor of Clinical Neurology at Weill Cornell Medical College-Qatar and a Consultant Neurologist at Hamad Medical Corporation at the Neuroscience Department; He graduated as a Medical Doctor from the University of Oran, Algeria; he then moved to Belgium, the City of Liege, for a Residency in Internal Medicine and Neurology at Liege University; after getting the Belgian Board of Neurology (with high marks), he went to the National Hospital for Nervous Diseases, Queen Square, London, United Kingdom for a fellowship in Clinical Neurophysiology, under Pr Willison ; Dr Mesraoua had also further training in Epilepsy and Continuous EEG Monitoring for two years (from 2001-2003) in the Neurophysiology department of Zurich University, Switzerland, under late Pr Hans Gregor Wieser ,an internationally known epileptologist expert. \n\nDr B. Mesraoua is the Director of the Neurology Fellowship Program at the Neurology Section and an active member of the newly created Comprehensive Epilepsy Program at Hamad General Hospital, Doha, Qatar; he is also Assistant Director of the Residency Program at the Qatar Medical School. \nDr B. Mesraoua's main interests are Epilepsy, Multiple Sclerosis, and Clinical Neurology; He is the Chairman and the Organizer of the well known Qatar Epilepsy Symposium, he is running yearly for the past 14 years and which is considered a landmark in the Gulf region; He has also started last year , together with other epileptologists from Qatar, the region and elsewhere, a yearly International Epilepsy School Course, which was attended by many neurologists from the Area.\n\nInternationally, Dr Mesraoua is an active and elected member of the Commission on Eastern Mediterranean Region (EMR ) , a regional branch of the International League Against Epilepsy (ILAE), where he represents the Middle East and North Africa(MENA ) and where he holds the position of chief of the Epilepsy Epidemiology Section; Dr Mesraoua is a member of the American Academy of Neurology, the Europeen Academy of Neurology and the American Epilepsy Society.\n\nDr Mesraoua's main objectives are to encourage frequent gathering of the epileptologists/neurologists from the MENA region and the rest of the world, promote Epilepsy Teaching in the MENA Region, and encourage multicenter studies involving neurologists and epileptologists in the MENA region, particularly epilepsy epidemiological studies. \n\nDr. Mesraoua is the recipient of two research Grants, as the Lead Principal Investigator (750.000 USD and 250.000 USD) from the Qatar National Research Fund (QNRF) and the Hamad Hospital Internal Research Grant (IRGC), on the following topics : “Continuous EEG Monitoring in the ICU “ and on “Alpha-lactoalbumin , proof of concept in the treatment of epilepsy” .Dr Mesraoua is a reviewer for the journal \"seizures\" (Europeen Epilepsy Journal ) as well as dove journals ; Dr Mesraoua is the author and co-author of many peer reviewed publications and four book chapters in the field of Epilepsy and Clinical Neurology",institutionString:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",institution:{name:"Weill Cornell Medical College in Qatar",country:{name:"Qatar"}}},{id:"282429",title:"Prof.",name:"Covanis",middleName:null,surname:"Athanasios",slug:"covanis-athanasios",fullName:"Covanis Athanasios",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/282429/images/system/282429.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"Neurology-Neurophysiology Department of the Children Hospital Agia Sophia",institution:null},{id:"190980",title:"Prof.",name:"Marwa",middleName:null,surname:"Mahmoud Saleh",slug:"marwa-mahmoud-saleh",fullName:"Marwa Mahmoud Saleh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/190980/images/system/190980.jpg",biography:"Professor Marwa Mahmoud Saleh is a doctor of medicine and currently works in the unit of Phoniatrics, Department of Otolaryngology, Ain Shams University in Cairo, Egypt. She got her doctoral degree in 1991 and her doctoral thesis was accomplished in the University of Iowa, United States. Her publications covered a multitude of topics as videokymography, cochlear implants, stuttering, and dysphagia. She has lectured Egyptian phonology for many years. Her recent research interest is joint attention in autism.",institutionString:"Ain Shams University",institution:{name:"Ain Shams University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259190/images/system/259190.png",biography:"Dr. Naqvi is a radioanalytical chemist and is working as an associate professor of analytical chemistry in the Department of Chemistry, Government College University, Faisalabad, Pakistan. Advance separation techniques, nuclear analytical techniques and radiopharmaceutical analysis are the main courses that he is teaching to graduate and post-graduate students. In the research area, he is focusing on the development of organic- and biomolecule-based radiopharmaceuticals for diagnosis and therapy of infectious and cancerous diseases. Under the supervision of Dr. Naqvi, three students have completed their Ph.D. degrees and 41 students have completed their MS degrees. He has completed three research projects and is currently working on 2 projects entitled “Radiolabeling of fluoroquinolone derivatives for the diagnosis of deep-seated bacterial infections” and “Radiolabeled minigastrin peptides for diagnosis and therapy of NETs”. He has published about 100 research articles in international reputed journals and 7 book chapters. Pakistan Institute of Nuclear Science & Technology (PINSTECH) Islamabad, Punjab Institute of Nuclear Medicine (PINM), Faisalabad and Institute of Nuclear Medicine and Radiology (INOR) Abbottabad are the main collaborating institutes.",institutionString:"Government College University",institution:{name:"Government College University, Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"58390",title:"Dr.",name:"Gyula",middleName:null,surname:"Mozsik",slug:"gyula-mozsik",fullName:"Gyula Mozsik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/58390/images/system/58390.png",biography:"Gyula Mózsik MD, Ph.D., ScD (med), is an emeritus professor of Medicine at the First Department of Medicine, Univesity of Pécs, Hungary. He was head of this department from 1993 to 2003. His specializations are medicine, gastroenterology, clinical pharmacology, clinical nutrition, and dietetics. His research fields are biochemical pharmacological examinations in the human gastrointestinal (GI) mucosa, mechanisms of retinoids, drugs, capsaicin-sensitive afferent nerves, and innovative pharmacological, pharmaceutical, and nutritional (dietary) research in humans. He has published about 360 peer-reviewed papers, 197 book chapters, 692 abstracts, 19 monographs, and has edited 37 books. He has given about 1120 regular and review lectures. He has organized thirty-eight national and international congresses and symposia. He is the founder of the International Conference on Ulcer Research (ICUR); International Union of Pharmacology, Gastrointestinal Section (IUPHAR-GI); Brain-Gut Society symposiums, and gastrointestinal cytoprotective symposiums. He received the Andre Robert Award from IUPHAR-GI in 2014. Fifteen of his students have been appointed as full professors in Egypt, Cuba, and Hungary.",institutionString:"University of Pécs",institution:{name:"University of Pecs",country:{name:"Hungary"}}},{id:"277367",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Daniel",middleName:"Martin",surname:"Márquez López",slug:"daniel-marquez-lopez",fullName:"Daniel Márquez López",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/277367/images/7909_n.jpg",biography:"Msc Daniel Martin Márquez López has a bachelor degree in Industrial Chemical Engineering, a Master of science degree in the same área and he is a PhD candidate for the Instituto Politécnico Nacional. His Works are realted to the Green chemistry field, biolubricants, biodiesel, transesterification reactions for biodiesel production and the manipulation of oils for therapeutic purposes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196544/images/system/196544.jpg",biography:"Angel Catalá studied chemistry at Universidad Nacional de La Plata, Argentina, where he received a Ph.D. in Chemistry (Biological Branch) in 1965. From 1964 to 1974, he worked as an Assistant in Biochemistry at the School of Medicine at the same university. From 1974 to 1976, he was a fellow of the National Institutes of Health (NIH) at the University of Connecticut, Health Center, USA. From 1985 to 2004, he served as a Full Professor of Biochemistry at the Universidad Nacional de La Plata. He is a member of the National Research Council (CONICET), Argentina, and the Argentine Society for Biochemistry and Molecular Biology (SAIB). His laboratory has been interested for many years in the lipid peroxidation of biological membranes from various tissues and different species. Dr. Catalá has directed twelve doctoral theses, published more than 100 papers in peer-reviewed journals, several chapters in books, and edited twelve books. He received awards at the 40th International Conference Biochemistry of Lipids 1999 in Dijon, France. He is the winner of the Bimbo Pan-American Nutrition, Food Science and Technology Award 2006 and 2012, South America, Human Nutrition, Professional Category. In 2006, he won the Bernardo Houssay award in pharmacology, in recognition of his meritorious works of research. Dr. Catalá belongs to the editorial board of several journals including Journal of Lipids; International Review of Biophysical Chemistry; Frontiers in Membrane Physiology and Biophysics; World Journal of Experimental Medicine and Biochemistry Research International; World Journal of Biological Chemistry, Diabetes, and the Pancreas; International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy; and International Journal of Nutrition. He is the co-editor of The Open Biology Journal and associate editor for Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity.",institutionString:"Universidad Nacional de La Plata",institution:{name:"National University of La Plata",country:{name:"Argentina"}}},{id:"186585",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Martin-Romero",slug:"francisco-javier-martin-romero",fullName:"Francisco Javier Martin-Romero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSB3HQAW/Profile_Picture_1631258137641",biography:"Francisco Javier Martín-Romero (Javier) is a Professor of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology at the University of Extremadura, Spain. He is also a group leader at the Biomarkers Institute of Molecular Pathology. Javier received his Ph.D. in 1998 in Biochemistry and Biophysics. At the National Cancer Institute (National Institute of Health, Bethesda, MD) he worked as a research associate on the molecular biology of selenium and its role in health and disease. After postdoctoral collaborations with Carlos Gutierrez-Merino (University of Extremadura, Spain) and Dario Alessi (University of Dundee, UK), he established his own laboratory in 2008. The interest of Javier's lab is the study of cell signaling with a special focus on Ca2+ signaling, and how Ca2+ transport modulates the cytoskeleton, migration, differentiation, cell death, etc. He is especially interested in the study of Ca2+ channels, and the role of STIM1 in the initiation of pathological events.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Extremadura",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"198499",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",middleName:null,surname:"Glossman-Mitnik",slug:"daniel-glossman-mitnik",fullName:"Daniel Glossman-Mitnik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/198499/images/system/198499.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Daniel Glossman-Mitnik is currently a Titular Researcher at the Centro de Investigación en Materiales Avanzados (CIMAV), Chihuahua, Mexico, as well as a National Researcher of Level III at the Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología, México. His research interest focuses on computational chemistry and molecular modeling of diverse systems of pharmacological, food, and alternative energy interests by resorting to DFT and Conceptual DFT. He has authored a coauthored more than 270 peer-reviewed papers, 32 book chapters, and 4 edited books. He has delivered speeches at many international and domestic conferences. He serves as a reviewer for more than eighty international journals, books, and research proposals as well as an editor for special issues of renowned scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"217323",title:"Prof.",name:"Guang-Jer",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",slug:"guang-jer-wu",fullName:"Guang-Jer Wu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217323/images/8027_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"148546",title:"Dr.",name:"Norma Francenia",middleName:null,surname:"Santos-Sánchez",slug:"norma-francenia-santos-sanchez",fullName:"Norma Francenia Santos-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148546/images/4640_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"272889",title:"Dr.",name:"Narendra",middleName:null,surname:"Maddu",slug:"narendra-maddu",fullName:"Narendra Maddu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272889/images/10758_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"242491",title:"Prof.",name:"Angelica",middleName:null,surname:"Rueda",slug:"angelica-rueda",fullName:"Angelica Rueda",position:"Investigador Cinvestav 3B",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242491/images/6765_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"88631",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",middleName:null,surname:"Petyaev",slug:"ivan-petyaev",fullName:"Ivan Petyaev",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lycotec (United Kingdom)",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"428313",title:"Dr.",name:"Sambangi",middleName:null,surname:"Pratyusha",slug:"sambangi-pratyusha",fullName:"Sambangi Pratyusha",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"CGIAR",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"423869",title:"Ms.",name:"Smita",middleName:null,surname:"Rai",slug:"smita-rai",fullName:"Smita Rai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"424024",title:"Prof.",name:"Swati",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"swati-sharma",fullName:"Swati Sharma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"439112",title:"MSc.",name:"Touseef",middleName:null,surname:"Fatima",slug:"touseef-fatima",fullName:"Touseef Fatima",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"5",type:"subseries",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Blood Borne Parasites, Intestinal Parasites, Protozoa, Helminths, Arthropods, Water Born Parasites, Epidemiology, Molecular Biology, Systematics, Genomics, Proteomics, Ecology",scope:"Parasitic diseases have evolved alongside their human hosts. In many cases, these diseases have adapted so well that they have developed efficient resilience methods in the human host and can live in the host for years. Others, particularly some blood parasites, can cause very acute diseases and are responsible for millions of deaths yearly. Many parasitic diseases are classified as neglected tropical diseases because they have received minimal funding over recent years and, in many cases, are under-reported despite the critical role they play in morbidity and mortality among human and animal hosts. The current topic, Parasitic Infectious Diseases, in the Infectious Diseases Series aims to publish studies on the systematics, epidemiology, molecular biology, genomics, pathogenesis, genetics, and clinical significance of parasitic diseases from blood borne to intestinal parasites as well as zoonotic parasites. We hope to cover all aspects of parasitic diseases to provide current and relevant research data on these very important diseases. In the current atmosphere of the Coronavirus pandemic, communities around the world, particularly those in different underdeveloped areas, are faced with the growing challenges of the high burden of parasitic diseases. At the same time, they are faced with the Covid-19 pandemic leading to what some authors have called potential syndemics that might worsen the outcome of such infections. Therefore, it is important to conduct studies that examine parasitic infections in the context of the coronavirus pandemic for the benefit of all communities to help foster more informed decisions for the betterment of human and animal health.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11401,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188881",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando José",middleName:null,surname:"Andrade-Narváez",slug:"fernando-jose-andrade-narvaez",fullName:"Fernando José Andrade-Narváez",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRIV7QAO/Profile_Picture_1628834308121",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Yucatán",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"269120",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajeev",middleName:"K.",surname:"Tyagi",slug:"rajeev-tyagi",fullName:"Rajeev Tyagi",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRaBqQAK/Profile_Picture_1644331884726",institutionString:"CSIR - Institute of Microbial Technology, India",institution:null},{id:"336849",title:"Prof.",name:"Ricardo",middleName:null,surname:"Izurieta",slug:"ricardo-izurieta",fullName:"Ricardo Izurieta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/293169/images/system/293169.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Florida",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:1,paginationItems:[{id:"82124",title:"Assessment of Diversity, Growth Characteristics and Aboveground Biomass of Tree Species in Selected Urban Green Areas of Osogbo, Osun State",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104982",signatures:"Omolara Aremu, Olusola O. 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