\r\n\t[2] J. V. Moloney, A. C. Newell. Nonlinear Optics. Westview Press, Oxford, 2004. \r\n\t[3] M. Kauranen, A. V. Zayats. Nonlinear Plasmonics. Nature Photonics, vol. 6, 2012, pp. 737-748. \r\n\t[4] P. Dombi, Z. Pápa, J. Vogelsang et al. Strong-field nano-optics. Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 92, 2020, pp. 025003-1 – 025003-66. \r\n\t[5] N. C. Panoiu, W. E. I. Sha, D.Y. Lei, G.-C. Li. Nonlinear optics in plasmonic nanostructures. Journal of Optics, 20, 2018, pp. 1-36. \r\n\t[6] A. Krasnok, A. Alu. Active nanophotonics. Proceedings of IEEE, vol. 108, 2020, pp. 628-654. \r\n\t[7] M. Lapine, I.V. Shadrivov, Yu. S. Kivshar. Colloquium: Nonlinear metamaterials. Reviews of Modern Physics, vol. 86, 2014, pp. 1093-1123. \r\n\t[8] Iam Choon Khoo. Nonlinear optics, active plasmonics and metamaterials with liquid crystals. Progress in Quantum Electronics, vol. 38, 2014, pp. 77- 117. \r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83962-836-8",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-835-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-890-0",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"cfe87b713a8bee22c19361b86b03d506",bookSignature:"Dr. Boris I. Lembrikov",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10672.jpg",keywords:"Nonlinear Optics, Nano-Photonics, Surface Plasmon Polariton (SPP), Plasmonics, Plasmonic Nanostructure, Plasmonic Waveguide, Metamaterial, Nonlinearity, Nematic Liquid Crystals (NLC), TE Mode, TM Mode, Cholesteric Liquid Crystals (CLC)",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"January 27th 2021",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 24th 2021",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 25th 2021",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 14th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 12th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"6 days",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A researcher in Nonlinear Optics, Quantum Devices (Quantum Dot lasers and optical amplifiers), Microwave Photonics, Optical signal processing.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"2359",title:"Dr.",name:"Boris",middleName:"I.",surname:"Lembrikov",slug:"boris-lembrikov",fullName:"Boris Lembrikov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/2359/images/system/2359.jpg",biography:"Boris I. Lembrikov is a senior lecturer at the Faculty of Electronics, Electrical and Communication Engineering of the Holon Institute of Technology (HIT), Holon, Israel. B. I. Lembrikov received his Ph.D. in Nonlinear Optics at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology in 1996. Since then he was an invited researcher at the Haifa University, at the Max Planck Institute High Magnetic Field Laboratory at Grenoble, France, at the Technion, Haifa, Israel. Dr. B. I. Lembrikov is an author of the book \\Electrodynamics of Magnetoactive Media\\, a number of chapters in scientific books, a large number of papers in international peer reviewed journals and reports delivered at the international scientific conferences. He actively participated in a number of research projects concerning optics of nanoparticles, optical communications, UWB communications. The main research fields of interest of Dr. B. I. 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6. 1. Introduction
Up to now, many efforts have been made to produce smart materials with extraordinary properties usable in broad range of technological applications. In particular, within the last two decades, it has been demonstrated that properties of new prospective materials depend not only on their chemical composition but also on the dimensions of their building blocks which may consist of common materials [1,2].
A nanoparticle consists of a few atoms forming a cluster with size in the nanometer range. A nanometer represents a magical size of matter around which the vast majority of materials possess extraordinary, novel physico-chemical properties compared to its bulk form. Considerable attention has been focused during the last few decades on developing and optimizing methods for the preparation of gold nanoparticles to size and shape. Especially properties of 0D spherical and non-spherical particles, as applications of nanostructured materials, may differ considerably depending on the particle shape itself. Simple and straightforward example of the shape dependent behaviour of nanometer-sized particles is its colour. Ultrasmall gold spheres or clusters has been known for centuries as the deep red ruby colour of stained glass windows in cathedrals and domestic glassware. The colour results from the plasmon resonances in the metal cluster. Nowadays, most gold nanoparticles are produced via wet, chemical routes. Nevertheless, synthesis of metal nanoparticles (NPs) has been extensively studied since early 80’s [3-9]. Some pioneering works on synthesis of gold nanoparticles were even published as far back as in early 50’s by Turkevich [6]. Since that, many techniques have been developed, however, predominately based on wet, chemical processes [4-9]. Currently the most common noble-metal nanoparticle synthesis techniques are those developed by Brust-Shiffrin in 1994 [5]. The method based on reduction of AuIII+ complex compound with NaBH4 stabilized by thiols enables preparation of high stable particles with pretty narrow distribution and well-controlled size around 1 nm.
Besides interesting properties of nanostructured gold systems such as catalytic effects or magnetism [2,10], which both originate from surface and quantum size effects, they are also extremely usable those, which are closely connected with the average number of atoms in the nanoparticles. The properties and behavior of extremely small gold particles completely differ from those of bulk materials, e.g., their melting point [2,11,12], density [13], lattice parameter [13-15], and electrical or optical properties [13,14,16] are dramatically changed. Gold is also critical component in certain therapies, more specifically, in the treatment of cancer by hyperthermia and thermoablation. These two therapies use heat to kill cancer cells. In the case of hyperthermia, the cancerous tissue is heated to enhance conventional radiation and chemotherapy treatments, while in thermoablation the tissue is heated so that the cancer tissue is destroyed by the localised heat. In principle, there are two methods which can be used to provide heating, i.e. infra-red absorption and the application of an oscillating magnetic field to magnetic nanoparticles. Owing to this, nanosized gold is nowadays used in a vast range of cancer therapy applications such as cancer therapy agents [17] or cancer cell imaging [18,19]. Moreover, gold nanoparticles have often been conjugated with antibodies [20], or grafted to other carriers for surface property enhancement [21,22].
Besides above mentioned 0D nanostructures (nanodiscs, nanoparticles, nanoclusters) increasing efforts have been recently devoted also to one-dimensional (1D) nanostructures. 1D nanostructures in the form of wires, rods, belts and tubes have long been the focus of intensive research owing to their unique applications in mesoscopic physics and fabrication of nanoscale devices [23-25]. It is generally accepted that 1D nanostructures provide a good system for the investigation of the dependence of electrical and thermal transport or mechanical properties on dimensionality and size reduction (quantum confinement) [26]. Of the many elements and compounds from which nanowires may be made, gold is technologically important for its low electrical resistivity (2.21 μΩ cm) [27], its inertness to attack by air and its resistance to sulfur-based tarnishing [28]. Additionally, gold is more biocompatible than most metals, rendering it suitable for implantation [29,30] or electrical interfacing with cells [31,32] and tissues in nanobiological applications [33-35].
Nanostructured materials with high aspect ratios such as nanorods, nanowires, and nanoline patterns often exhibit anisotropic electronic and optical properties that differ from those observed in the bulk materials. These unique materials can be used to create many interesting devices, including fast responding chemical and biochemical sensors [36-40]. The high aspect ratio of nanowires should also make them interesting for the use in two dimensional photonic crystals, where vertical nanowires would constitute an array of high refractive index pillars in air [41]. Field emission from nanowires has also been reported [42], suggesting the possibility of devices such as field emission displays (FEDs) with nanowires acting as cathodes.
A variety of fabrication techniques have been developed in the past decade that yield high quality nanowires. Fabrication of ordered arrays of metallic nanoparticles supported on transparent substrate by sequential techniques like electron beam lithography has been demonstrated [43]. Such top-down approaches, however, are cumbersome and have a low yield, which hinders practical applications. High throughput approaches for the synthesis of metallic nanowires are thus intensely searched [44-48]. In general, the production of arrays of nanostructures on substrates by lithographic techniques presents the disadvantage of high cost and a restriction in the number of materials to which it can be applied. The method can also prove to be complex and inefficient. Template based methods overcome those disadvantages, but the obtained structures often present a high number of imperfections due to packing defects in the original templates [49].
Above mentioned applications, however, usually require gold nanostructures (0D or 1D) to be either suspended in colloid solution or attached to another support medium. Concerning this, creation of nanostructured gold directly on appropriate support may be technologically valuable since one can avoid additional preparation step oriented on metal-substrate mutual attachment. Therefore, this chapter focuses on new possible approaches for nanostructuring of gold layers either formerly deposited on solid substrates (polymer or glass) or during deposition itself (polymer). The formerly mentioned technique is based on the intensive post-deposition thermal annealing of sputtered layers on polytertaflouroethylene (PTFE) or glass, whereas the latter technique is based on forced (preferential) growth of gold on nanostructured polymer template. The method, combining nanoscale patterning of the polyethyleneterephtalate (PET) substrate by polarized light of excimer laser with glancing angle deposition of the gold, provides an interesting alternative to time consuming sequential lithography-based nanopatterning approaches.
First part of the text is focused on the study of selected physico-chemical properties of deposited gold layers and its changes induced by post-deposition annealing. The gold nanostructures of different thicknesses were sputtered onto glass or polymer (PTFE) substrate and then the samples were annealed from room temperature to 300°C. The effects of annealing on gold structures sputtered onto substrate, their surface morphology and roughness were studied using Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), lattice parameter and crystallites size and their distribution by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and by SAXSess. Hall mobility, volume resistance and free carrier concentration were measured by Van der Pauw method, an electric permitivity by ellipsometry, an optical band gap by UV-Vis spectroscopy and a sheet resistance of gold nanostructures by 2-point method.
In the next part special attention will be given to the irradiation of PET surface with linearly polarized light of a pulsed KrF excimer laser to produce templates for preparation of laterally ordered self-organized arrays of metallic nanowires. Different fluences and angles of incidence of the laser beam were applied. The periodicity of the ripples created on the polymer surface was controlled by changing the incidence angle of laser light during irradiation. Subsequently the modified polymer surface was coated with gold using two deposition techniques (sputtering and evaporation). The surface of nano-patterned coated/uncoated PET was analyzed by AFM and a scanning electron microscopy equipped with a focused ion beam (FIB-SEM), allowing to cut cross-sections of the laser patterned substrate surface and the deposited gold layers
2. Gold nanostructures on glass substrate
An overview of growth process, morphology, electrical and optical properties of ultra-thin gold layers sputtered on glass is provided in following sections. Insight into the phenomena taking place during post-deposition thermal treatment is also given.
2.1. Thickness, morphology and inner structure
Thickness of sputtered layers was measured by AFM. Thickness in the initial stage of deposition (sputtering time less than 50 s) was determined from the SEM image of the sample cross-section (FIB-SEM). Dependence of the layer thickness on sputtering time is shown in Fig. 1. Linear dependence between sputtering time and structure thickness is evident even in the initial stage of the layer growth. This finding is in contradiction with results obtained earlier for Au sputtering on PET [50]. In that case, the initial stage of the layer growth was related to lower deposition rate which is due to different morphology.
Figure 1.
Dependence of the gold structure thickness on sputtering time [13].
In Fig. 2, a SEM picture of the cross-section of the Au layer at its initial stage of growth is shown. It is obvious that after approximately 20 s of Au deposition, flat, discrete Au islands (clusters) appear on the substrate surface. The flatness may indicate preferential growth of gold clusters in a lateral direction. When the surface coverage increases and the clusters get in close contact with each other, a coarsening sets in and becomes the dominant process. After the surface is fully covered, additional adsorption causes only the vertical layer growth, while the lateral growth is dominated by cluster boundary motion [51].
Figure 2.
SEM scan of the FIB section of gold structure on glass substrate. Deposition time was 20 s. [13].
The AFM images that illustrate the surface morphology and roughness (Ra) of gold-coated glass before and after annealing are shown in Fig. 3. For the sake of comparison only images of the samples with identical vertical scale were chosen. From Fig. 3 it is clear that the surface morphology of the as-sputtered structures does not depend significantly on the sputtering times. Monotonous decrease of surface roughness with deposition time is related to the stage of the layer growth. During initial stages of metal growth the layer is formed over isolated islands. After that, during ongoing deposition, interconnections between clusters are formed and the deposited layers become homogeneous and uniform. Decrease of surface roughness is direct evidence of the formation of a thicker layer during sputtering process on flat substrate. After annealing, however, the surface morphology changes dramatically. Similar changes in the morphology of the thin gold structures have also been observed on the samples annealed at 200°C for 20 hours [52] and at 450°C for 2 hours [11]. It is seen from Fig. 3 that the annealing leads to the formation of “spherolytic and hummock-like” structures in the gold layers. The formation may be connected with an enhanced diffusion of gold particles at elevated temperature and their aggregation into larger structures. It is well known that the melting point of the gold nanoparticles decreases rapidly with decreasing particle size [2,11,12].
The migration of the gold nanoparticles and formation of larger structures may be connected with lower thermodynamic stability of the gold nanoparticles and lower gold wettability of glass. This idea is supported by some previous XRD experiments in which dominant (111) orientation of gold crystals in the sputtered gold layers was determined [11, 53]. The (111) oriented gold crystals are known to be thermodynamically unstable and their melting and cracking starts from the edge parts that should be bounded to Au (110) surface [11].
Metallic nanoparticles and generally nanostructures composed of metals often exhibit different values of structure parameters compared to their bulk form e.g. contraction of lattice parameter in nanostructures increases material density [13,53]. Lattice parameters a of the face-centered cubic gold nanostructures determined before and after annealing are shown in Fig. 4 as a function of the sputtering time (i.e. effective layer thickness). Lattice parameters were calculated using the Rietveld procedure (full pattern fitting). For this purpose the five strongest diffraction lines were taken into account. For very thin films the diffraction lines are weak and the resulting values of the lattice parameters are loaded by a higher error. The error is especially large for the as-sputtered samples. A dramatic difference is found in the dependences of the lattice parameter on the sputtering time between as-sputtered and annealed samples. For as-sputtered samples the lattice parameter varies rapidly with the increasing sputtering time, i.e. with the increasing mean size of the gold crystallites [16,53,54]. It is seen that a maximum lattice parameter is observed after 100 s of sputtering, i.e. for the layer thickness of about 18 nm. For both the thinner and thicker layers the lattice parameter declines significantly. The same trend in the lattice parameter vs. sputtering time dependence was reported also for silver structures, for which the lattice parameter increases slightly up to the structures size of 12 nm and then decreases [55]. In contrast to the as-sputtered gold structures at the annealed ones the lattice parameter is nearly independent on the sputtering time and the size of the structures.
Figure 3.
AFM scans of gold structures sputtered for 75, 200 and 400 s on glass substrate before (RT) and after annealing (300°C). Ra is the average surface roughness in nm [16].
Figure 4.
Dependence of the gold lattice parameter on the sputtering time (i.e. effective thickness) measured before (-●-) and after annealing at 300°C (-■-)[14].
The dependence of the crystallite size on the sputtering time before and after annealing is shown in Fig. 5. The dependences are quite different for the as-sputtered and annealed samples. While in the as-sputtered samples the crystallite size is amonotonously increasing function of the sputtering time, in the annealed ones the crystallite size first increases rapidly up to the sputtering time of 250 s, achieves a maximum and then it decreases. A dramatic increase of the Au crystallite size with the annealing temperature was published also by Santos et al. [56].
Size distribution of the Au crystallites determined by SAXSess method is presented in Fig. 6. The mean crystallite size values (modus) determined by SAXSess (S) and by XRD (X) are compared in Fig. 5. It is obvious that before annealing both methods (SAXSess, XRD) give the same values of the mean crystallite size, which increase slightly with the deposition time. Both SAXSess and XRD measurements prove dramatic increase of the mean crystallite size after annealing. However, there is an obvious dissimilarity between SAXSess and XRD results regarding longer sputtering time which is caused by inability of the SAXSess method to examine crystallites larger than ca 90–100 nm. The different behavior may be due to a crystallites’ re-crystallization in the annealing process. The crystallite size determined by the XRD technique is based on the determination of the so-called coherently diffracting domains with their mean dimensions in direction perpendicular to the film surface. This is the reason why the crystallites determined in this way significantly exceed their size in some cases.
Figure 5.
Dependence of the size of the gold crystallites on the sputtering time (i.e. layer effective thickness) measured before (-○- S, -●- X) and after annealing at 300°C (-□- S, -■- X) using S – SAXSess, X – XRD methods [14].
Figure 6.
Pair distance distribution functions (PDDF) of gold crystallites by different sputtering time (in seconds) before (solid line) and after annealing (dashed line) measured by SAXSess method [14].
2.2. Optical and electrical properties
Besides interesting catalytic and electronic properties, nanoparticles of noble metals exhibit also distinctive, shape-dependent optical properties that have attracted great technological interest. This is particularly true for gold nanostructures [11]. Images of the sample surface for different sputtering times and for sputtered and annealed samples are shown in Fig. 7.
Figure 7.
Images of the glass samples with gold structures sputtered for increasing times. The as-sputtered (RT) and annealed samples (300°C) are shown for comparison [16].
The deposited samples become darker with increasing sputtering time, the darkening being related to increasing thickness of the gold structures. Also a gradual change of the structures colour from blue to green is seen. After annealing all structures exhibit reddish colour, regardless of the sputtering time. The changes in the layer colour indicate pronounced alteration in the gold nanostructure caused by the annealing (see Fig. 3). It could be in accordance with previously presented results, the small gold sample about 10 nm absorbs green light and thus appears red [2]. This effect was confirmed also by UV-Vis spectroscopy. For the sake of clarity only some of UV-Vis spectra from as-sputtered and annealed samples are shown in Fig. 8 (RT and 300°C). The absorbance of gold structures increase with increasing sputtering time and structure thickness as could be expected. From comparison of the spectra of the sputtered and annealed samples it is seen that the annealed structures have qualitatively different shapes and lower absorbance. Both phenomena point at structural changes due to annealing. The observed shift of the 530 nm absorption peak (corresponding to surface plasmon resonance) with increasing sputtering time towards longer wavelengths is probably related to interconnection and mutual interaction of gold nanosized islands in the structure. From present UV-Vis spectra it is evident that the as-sputtered samples prepared for deposition time of 30 s and that annealed one (sputtering time 200 s) are the first ones, which do not exhibit the peak of plasmon resonance. Qualitative difference between absorbances of the sputtered structure and that annealed may indicate a transition from the structure comprising discrete gold islands to continuous gold coverage.
The UV-Vis spectra were also interpreted in the frame of the well-known Tauc’s model [57] and the optical band gap (Egopt) was calculated as a function of the sputtering time for sputtered and annealed samples. This dependence is shown in Fig. 9. Also the gold structure thickness vs. sputtering time measured by AFM method on the scratch step is presented. These values, inclusive the result that the AFM-scratch technique is not applicable on annealed structures due to their altered morphology, were taken from our previous work [53]. It is seen from Fig. 9 that the structures sputtered for times below 150 s exhibit non-zero Egopt. Rather dramatic change in the Egopt is observed after annealing, where the values of the Egopt are much higher in comparison with those of the sputtered sample. For samples sputtered for times around 300 s a non-zero Egopt is observed. For behaviour of ultra-thin metal structures (<10 nm) the surface-size and quantum-size effects must be considered [2,53,58]. This quantum-size effect in small structures leads e.g. to a semi-conducting character, which is accompanied by non-zero Eg (band gap) or Egopt. This effect was observed in the present case.
Figure 8.
UV-Vis spectra of gold structures sputtered on glass before (RT) and after annealing (300°C). The numbers in Figs. are sputtering times in s [16].
The dependence of the volume resistivity on the sputtering time is seen from Fig. 10a. For as-sputtered samples a rapid drop of the resistivity over a narrow thickness interval is observed. The drop indicates a transition from electrically discontinuous to continuous gold coverage. For annealed samples the resistivity drop is shifted towards thicker layers. The difference is obviously connected with changes in the layer structure taking place during annealing i.e. gold coalescence and formation of isolated islands [16]. The onset of the rapid resistivity drop is observed after 50 and 150 s of sputtering for as-sputtered and annealed samples, respectively. Free carrier volume concentration and their Hall mobility significantly affect the electrical conductance of materials. The dependence of the free carrier concentration and the mobility on the sputtering time is shown in Figs. 10b and 10c, respectively. As can be seen from Fig. 10b, with increasing sputtering time the carrier concentration increases dramatically and the layers become conductive (see Fig. 10a). As in the case of resistivity the onset of the rapid increase of the free carrier concentration on annealed samples is shifted towards longer sputtering time. Thus the constant level of the free carrier concentration is achieved later compared to the as-sputtered samples. A similar dependence of the free carrier concentration on the layer thickness was recently observed on PET and PTFE sputtered with gold [59]. The carrier mobility also changes dramatically with increasing sputtering time for non-annealed and annealed samples (Fig. 10c). The mobility first declines rapidly to a point when an electrically continuous layer is formed. The decline may be due to the fact that in a discontinuous layer the mobility mechanism differs from classical electron conductivity common in metals. For annealed structures the continuous layer is formed after a longer deposition time. For thicker, electrically continuous gold layers the mobility is a slowly increasing function of the sputtering time.
Figure 9.
Dependence on the sputtering time of the optical band gap of gold structures before (RT) and after annealing (300°C) (-□- for RT and -■- for 300°C) and thickness (-○-) [16].
There is a clear correspondence between mobility (Fig. 10c), free carrier volume concentration (Fig. 10b) and volume resistivity (Fig. 10a). A similar dependence of the free carrier concentration on the thickness of the gold layers deposited by sputtering on PET and PTFE was observed [59]. Simple and straightforward interpretation of the above described observations is that during electrical measurement on discontinuous gold layers an electron injection due to the tunneling effect occurs [13,16]. With ongoing deposition time the discrete structures become interconnected and form an electrically continuous, homogeneous layer in which the concentration of free carriers is saturated.
Figure 10.
Dependence of the volume resistivity (A), surface free carrier volume concentration (B) and surface free carrier Hall mobility (C) on the sputtering time measured by van der Pauw technique before (-●-) and after annealing at 300°C (-■-) [14].
The IR part of optical constants of the as-deposited and annealed Au films determined from ellipsometry also supports the results of electrical transport measurements. Fig. 11 presents the real part of electric permittivity in the studied spectral range.
Spectroscopic features in the Drude (IR) region clearly show the tendency of Au films to lose their metallic behavior with decreasing thickness due to gold coalescence, leading to a layer discontinuity [16]. Film discontinuity of the as-deposited thin layers is a natural consequence of the mechanism of the layer growth. Percolation threshold is reached at the layer thickness of about 7 nm [60] corresponding to the deposition time of about 25 s in the present case. Fig. 11 also shows that the strong change in the surface morphology induced by the annealing shifts the metal-to-insulator transition towards greater layer thicknesses (i.e. deposition times). The thickness variation of IR end of the real part of the electric permittivity spectra of annealed gold layers (positive value reaching the maximum and then passing through zero to negative values with increasing deposition times) is consistent with previous studies of metallic films around the percolation threshold [60]. For the annealed layers with sputtering times equal to or smaller than those corresponding to the metal-to-insulator transition, a strong signature of plasmons is expected in the VIS part of optical constants. This is documented in Fig. 12, where the spectral dependence of the imaginary part of the electric permittivity is shown.
Figure 11.
Real part of the electric permittivity spectra of as-sputtered (RT, upper part) and annealed (300°C, lower part) gold structures obtained by spectroscopic ellipsometry for the different sputtering times [14].
Plasmon oscillator band for the layer sputtered for 50 s is centered at around 2.3 eV (540 nm). With increasing deposition time the band becomes broader and shifts to longer wavelengths (lower photon energy). For 200 s sputtering time the plasmon band splits into two and for longer sputtering times it integrates into the Drude term in the IR spectral limit. This change in the optical constants around the metal-to-insulator transition is the reason for the color variation of the annealed layers.
Figure 12.
Imaginary part of the electric permitivity spectra of annealed (300°C) gold structures. The presence and evolution of the plasmon bands should be noted (for details see the text). Coloured sign of curves is the same as in Fig. 11 [14].
The temperature dependence of the sheet resistance for two particular structure thicknesses is displayed in Fig. 13. One can see that the temperature dependence of the sheet resistance strongly depends on the structure thickness. For the layer about 89 nm thick, the resistance is an increasing function of the sample temperature, the expected behavior for metals. For the structure about 6 nm thick, the sheet resistance first decreases rapidly with increasing temperature, but above a temperature of about 250 K, a slight increase in resistance is observed. The initial decrease and the final increase of the sheet resistance with increasing temperature are typical of semiconductors and metals, respectively. It has been referred elsewhere [2] that a small metal cluster can exhibit both metal and semiconductor characteristics just by varying the temperature. It is due to temperature-affected evolution of band gap and density of electron states in the systems containing low number of atoms.
From the present experimental data, it may be concluded that for the thicknesses above 10 nm, the sputtered gold layers exhibit metal conductivity. In the thickness range from 5 to 10 nm, the semiconductor-like and metal conductivities are observed at low and high temperatures, respectively. Our further measurements showed that the layers thinner than 5 nm exhibit a semiconductive-like characteristic in the whole investigated temperature scale. Except for band gap evolution theory, typical semiconductor-like behavior may also originate from the tunneling effect of electrons through the discontinuous, separated Au clusters during electrical measurements. Since the probability of electron tunneling depends on the temperature, similarly, typical course of sheet resistance and, as will be shown later, CV characteristic may be affected right by this phenomenon.
Figure 13.
Temperature dependence of the sheet resistance for two different structure thicknesses indicated in the figure [13].
From presented measurements of sheet resistance results the semiconductor-like character of Au at specific structure conditions (thickness, temperature). The observed semiconductor-like character (decreasing resistance with increasing temperature) of ultrathin Au structures may originate from two undistinguishable phenomena. The first one results from a tunneling effect which occurs at discontinuous structures during resistance measurements [59]. The second one originates from the semiconductor characteristic of the intrinsic cluster itself, which occurs in metal nanostructures of sufficiently small proportions [2].
3. Gold nanostructures on polymeric substrate
In this section special attention is given to the changes in surface morphology and other physico-chemical properties of gold nanolayers, sputtered on polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) surface induced by post-deposition annealing.
3.1. Electrical properties
The dependence of the electrical sheet resistance (Rs) of the gold layer on its thickness before and after annealing (at 100, 200 and 300°C) is shown in Fig. 14. For the as-sputtered samples the sheet resistance decreases rapidly in the narrow thickness range from 10 to 15 nm when an electrically continuous gold coverage is formed. The resulting sheet resistance is saturated at a level of aproximately 200 Ω. From the measured Rs and effective layer thickness, layer resistivity R (Ohm centimeter) was calculated, which appears to be few orders of magnitude higher than that reported for metallic bulk gold (RAubulk = 2.5 × 10−6 Ω cm [61], e.g., for 100 nm thick Au layer RAu100 nm = 1 × 10−3 Ω cm). As in the case of Au coated glass substrate (see section 2), the higher resistivity of thin gold structures is due to the size effect in accord with the Matthiessen rule [62]. Annealing at temperatures below 200°C causes only mild shift in the resistance curve towards thicker layers. Transition from electrically discontinuous to electrically continuous layer in case of low temperature annealed samples is more gradual and occurs between the effective layer thicknesses from 10 to 20 nm regarding the annealing temperature. After annealing at 300°C a dramatic change in the resistance curve is observed. The annealed layers are electrically discontinuous up to the Au effective thickness of 70 nm above which the continuous coverage is created and a percolation limit is overcome. However, for longer sputtering times up to 550 s, the sheet resistance changes slowly and it achieves a saturation which is observed on the as-sputtered layers and layers annealed at low temperatures.
Figure 14.
Dependence of the sheet resistance (Rs) on Au layer thickness for as-sputtered samples (RT) and the samples annealed at 100, 200 and 300°C [63].
Compared to electrical properties discussed in chapter 2 (Au layers on glass substrate), one can see that in case of PTFE substrate the transition from electrically discontinuous to continuous layer is shifted towards thicker layers. This fact is due to incomparable value of surface roughness of substrate used which is in the case of PTFE one order of magnitude higher (see section 3.3).
3.2. Chemical composition
Besides the sheet resistance measurements, information on the layer structure and homogeneity can be obtained in another way too. Here, complementary information on the layer homogeneity is obtained from XPS spectra. Fig. 15 A,B shows intensity normalized XPS spectra (line Au 4f) of 20 and 80 nm thick sputtered gold layers, respectively. Black line refers to as-sputtered layer and blue line to the one annealed at 300°C. Annealing of the 80 nm thick gold layer does not change the XPS spectrum. In contrast, the annealing of the 20 nm thick layer results in strong broadening of both lines which is due to the sample charging in the course of the XPS analysis. The charging is closely related to the change in the layer morphology: from electrically continuous one for as-sputtered sample to discontinuous one after the annealing procedure [16]. This observation is in agreement with above described results of the sheet resistance measurements (see Fig. 1, section 3.1).
Figure 15.
Intensity normalized XPS spectra (line Au (4f)) of 20 (A) and 80 nm (B) thick sputtered Au layers on PTFE before (black line) and after (blue line) annealing at 300°C [63].
Concentrations of chemical elements on the very sample surface (accessible depth of 6 to 8 atomic layers) determined from XPS spectra are summarized in Table 1. The XPS data were obtained for the samples with 20 and 80 nm thick gold layers, both as-sputtered and annealed at 300°C. Total carbon concentration and the carbon concentration coming from PTFE (calculated from XPS data) are shown in columns 1 and 2 of the table, respectively. Major part of the carbon is due to sample contamination. Fluorine to PTFE carbon ratio F/CPTFE is close to that expected for PTFE (about 2). By the annealing at 300°C, the ratio decreases to 1.7 for both layer thicknesses. The decrease may be due to reorientation of polar C-F groups induced by thermal treatment. Oxygen detected in the samples may result from oxygen incorporation during gold sputtering which may be accompanied by partial degradation and oxidation of PTFE macromolecular chain or degradation products. Subsequent annealing leads to reorientation of the oxidized groups toward the sample bulk and corresponding decrease of the surface concentration of oxygen. The same effects have been observed earlier on plasma-modified polyolefines [64]. It is also evident from Table 1 that annealing causes resorption of contamination carbon both hydrogenated and oxidized one [65]. Changes in the morphology of the gold layer after the annealing are manifested in changes of the gold and fluorine concentrations as observed in XPS spectra. After the annealing, the observed gold concentration decreases and fluorine concentration increases dramatically, these changes clearly indicate formation of isolated Au islands similar to those in case of Au-coated glass substrate [16].
Au layer
Temperature
Atomic concentrations of elements in at. %
Thickness
C
CPTFE
O
Au
F
F/CPTFE
20 nm
RT
43.5
4.4
6.5
41.6
8.5
1.93
300°C
37.8
34.8
0.4
3.4
58.4
1.68
80 nm
RT
41.0
3.1
4.4
48.6
6.0
1.94
300°C
36.8
27.2
1.2
14.8
47.2
1.74
Table 1.
Atomic concentrations (in at. %) of C (1s), O (1s), Au (4f) and F(1s) in Au sputtered PTFE samples with Au effective thickness 20 and 80 nm after deposition (RT) a after annealing (300°C) measured by XPS. CPTFE represents calculated concentration from XPS data of carbon (in at. %) originating from PTFE only, F/CPTFE stands for fluorine to PTFE carbon ratio [63].
3.3. Surface properties and morphology
Another quantity characterizing the structure of the sputtered gold layers is zeta potential determined from electrokinetic analysis. Dependence of zeta potential on the gold layer thickness for as-sputtered samples (RT) and annealed samples at 300°C is shown in Fig. 16. For as-sputtered samples and very thin gold layers, the zeta potential is close to that of pristine PTFE due to the discontinuous gold coverage since the PTFE surface plays dominant role in zeta potential value. Then, for thicker layers, where the gold coverage prevails over the original substrate surface, the zeta potential decreases rapidly and for the thicknesses above 20 nm remains nearly unchanged, indicating total coverage of original substrate by gold. For annealed samples, the dependence on the layer thickness is quite different. It is seen that the annealing leads to a significant increase of the zeta potential for very thin layers. This increase may be due to thermal degradation of the PTFE accompanied by production of excessive polar groups on the polymer surface, which plays the important role when the gold coverage is discontinuous. Moreover, the surface roughness increases at this moment too (see Table 1 and Fig. 17 below) [66]. Then, for medium thicknesses, ranging from 20 to 70 nm, the zeta potential remains unchanged and finally it decreases again for higher thicknesses due to the formation of continuous gold coverage. It appears that the results of electrokinetic analysis (Fig. 16) and measurement of the sheet resistance (Fig. 13) are highly correlated.
Figure 16.
Dependence of zeta potential on the Au layer thickness for as-sputtered samples (RT) and the samples annealed at 300°C [63].
Figure 17.
AFM images of pristine (PTFE) and Au coated (PTFE/Au) samples (thickness of 20 nm) before (RT) and after annealing at 300°C. Numbers in frames are measured surface roughnesses Ra in nm [63].
The rapid decrease in the sheet resistance occurs at the same layer thickness as the decrease in zeta potential. Both correlated changes are connected with creation of continuous, conductive gold coverage. Another interesting fact is that even for the layers with thicknesses above 80 nm, the values of the zeta potential measured on as-sputtered and annealed samples differ significantly. This can be due to higher fluorine concentration in the annealed samples and the fact that the C-F bond is more polar and exhibits higher wettability. It should be also noted that the value of the zeta potential may be affected by the surface roughness too. In general, it follows that the thicker the gold coverage the lower the zeta potential is, reflecting the electrokinetic potencial of metal itself.
The changes in the surface morphology after the annealing were studied by AFM. AFM scans of pristine and Au-coated (20 nm) samples before and after annealing are presented in Fig. 17. One can see that the annealing causes a dramatic increase in the surface roughness of the pristine polymer. Since the annealing temperature markedly exceeds PTFE glassy transformation temperature (TgPTFE = 126°C) the increase in the surface roughness is probably due to thermally induced changes of PTFE amorphous phase. The gold sputtering leads to a measurable reduction of the sample surface roughness. The reduction may be due to preferential gold growth in holes at the PTFE surface. Annealing of the gold-coated sample leads to significant increase of the surface roughness too. In this case, the increase is a result of both, the changes in the surface morphology of underlying PTFE and the changes in the morphology of the gold layer. After annealing, the surface roughness of pristine and gold-coated samples is practically the same. This finding is in contradiction with similar study accomplished on gold layers deposited on glass substrate [16]. Possible explanation of this fact probably lies in much better flatness of the glass substrate and in lower thermal stability of PTFE substrate during annealing.
4. Self-organized gold nanostructures
Purpose of this section lies in description of phenomena taking place during both interaction of polarized laser light with the surface of polymeric material and its subsequent coating by metal. It will be shown that modification of the polyethylenetherephtalate (PET) surface with linearly polarized light from pulsed KrF laser has a significant effect on the properties of subsequently deposited gold nanolayers and the choice of the deposition technique is crucial owing to the quality of prepared coatings.
4.1. Surface morphology and structure parameters
It has been shown [67] that by the KrF laser irradiation with several thousand of pulses a periodic ripple structure is formed at a PET surface for a fluence range from about 4.2 to 18.8 mJ cm−2. The ripples have a fluence-independent width Λ, which is given by the formula Λ = λ/(1 – sin(θ)), Eq. (1) [68], where λ is wavelength of a laser light used, n the effective refractive index of material, and θ the angle of incidence. Fig. 18 displays AFM images of pristine PET and PET irradiated at different laser fluences. The sample irradiated with the laser fluence of 3.4 mJ cm−2 exhibits a rougher surface than the flat un-irradiated pristine PET. There is a noticeable modulation, although no ripple formation is visible. At higher laser fluences periodic ripple structures have developed in the irradiated area. At a laser fluence of 6.6 mJ cm−2, a regular and uniform coverage of the PET surface with ripples is reached. These results are based on AFM measurements, as those shown in Fig. 18. There is a good correlation between height and surface roughness of ripples over the whole laser fluence range shown in the figure. Both parameters reach the maximum value at a fluence of 6.6 mJ cm−2, which corresponds to a ripple height of about 90 nm.
Figure 18.
AFM images of the PET irradiated at different KrF laser fluences; the numbers in the inset refer to the laser fluence in mJ cm−2 employed for irradiation of the PET foils, while pristine stands for unirradiated pristine PET [70].
The height and the roughness of the ripples as a function of the applied laser fluence are shown in Fig. 19.
Figure 19.
Dependence of the ripple height (○) and roughness (□) on the KrF laser fluence employed for the PET irradiation [70].
Fig. 20 shows AFM images of the PET irradiated under different incidence angles of the laser beam. For larger angles of incidence, the spacing between two neighboring ripples is wider. For the incidence angle of 0° and 22.5°, the observed spacing of the ripples is in good agreement with the value calculated by Eq. (1) with an effective index of refraction n ≈ 1.2. The agreement for the incidence angle of 45° is less pronounced. The discrepancy may be due to changes of the polymer refractive index induced by the UV laser irradiation as reported earlier [69].
Figure 20.
AFM images of the PET irradiated at a KrF laser fluence of 6.6 mJ cm−2 under the different incidence angle of laser beam (0, 22.5 and 45°). The numbers in the insets in the upper left corner refer to the angle of incidence of the laser beam and in the insets in the upper right corner to the ripple period in nm [70].
FIB cuts of laser irradiated and gold coated PET samples were investigated by SEM (see Fig. 21). After sputtering, the gold is deposited in the form of “nanowires”, which grow mainly at the ridges of the ripples. The FIB cuts reveal that there could be gaps between the individual wires and that the metal layer may be discontinuous. The width of the gold nanowires directly correlates to the width of the ripples formed before gold deposition. Additionally, a granularity is visible along the wires, but the FIB cut images suggest that the grains may be interconnected. The morphology of the gold layers deposited by evaporation is distinctly different. The gold is also deposited in the valleys of the ripple structure.
Figure 21.
FIB-SEM images of the gold coatings on PET samples irradiated by a KrF laser under incidence angles 0 and 22.5° (fluence 6.6 mJ cm−2). The gold deposition was performed either by sputtering (Sputt.) and evaporation (Evap.) [70].
The nanowire structure of the sputtered gold layer can be observed also after gold deposition onto PET samples irradiated by the laser under an angle of incidence of 45°. Again, the evaporation of gold leads to a continuous coverage copying nanostructured polymer surface. The reason for the different observed gold morphologies after sputtering (nanowires) and evaporation (homogeneous gold coverage) is still unclear. The different particle energies in both processes are one possible reason. For sputtering, the particle energy may be considerably higher because of sample charging effect¸ while the evaporated materials should be slower (i.e., colder) and closer to thermodynamical equilibrium. The electrical charge of the sputtered particles can have also direct influence on layer formation, while the evaporated material should be mainly neutral. Other reasons may be the different deposition rates, which were a factor of two lower for sputtering than for evaporation, and possible differences of the substrate and gold layer temperature during the deposition in the two different techniques.
5. Summary
In summary, this chapter gives a comprehensive insight into the problematic of ultrathin gold films formed by physical deposition techniques on glass and polymeric substrates. Particular emphasis is given to the processes taking place during post-deposition annealing of prepared layers. In the case of glass substrate, the sputtering times and the layer effective thicknesses were chosen to span the region of the transition from discontinuous to continuous gold layer. For short sputtering times electrically discontinuous layers are obtained comprising discrete gold crystallites. The crystallite size in the as-sputtered samples is a monotonously increasing function of the sputtering time. The dependence of the lattice parameter of the gold crystallites forming the layer on the sputtering time is rather complicated with a rapid increase for shorter sputtering times and subsequent decrease for longer sputtering times. The decrease can be explained by relaxation processes in the thicker layers. The annealing has significant influence on the properties of the gold layers. For the annealed samples the lattice parameter practically does not depend on the sputtering time. The crystallite size first increases rapidly up to the sputtering time of 250 s, achieves a maximum and then decreases. The electrical properties (concentration, mobility of charge carriers and volume resistivity) and NIR optical properties of the gold layers change dramatically as the function of the sputtering time. Other significant changes, especially for electrically discontinuous layers, are observed as a result of the annealing. This is probably due to the different mechanism of free charge carrier transport, where also the quantum surface effects could be present in case of observed island structure mainly after annealing. For electrically continuous layer the concentration and the mobility are invariable. Similar behaviour exhibits also gold layers on polymeric substrate. From the measurement of the sheet resistance the transition from discontinuous to continuous gold coverage was found at the layer thicknesses of 10-15 nm for as-sputtered samples. After annealing at 300°C the transition point increases to about 70 nm, the increase indicating substantial rearrangement of the gold layer. The rearrangement is confirmed also by XPS measurement and an electrokinetic analysis. By XPS measurement contamination of the gold coated PTFE samples with carbon and the presence of oxidized structures, created during gold sputtering were proved. The annealing results in significant increase of the surface roughness of both pristine and gold sputtered PTFE.
Modification of the PET surface with linearly polarized light from pulsed KrF laser has a significant effect on the properties of subsequently deposited gold nanolayers and the choice of the deposition technique is crucial owing to the quality of prepared coatings. Subsequent deposition of 200 nm thick gold layer caused a decrease of the surface roughness. While by evaporation a continuous metal coverage is formed, copying nanostructured polymer surface, in the case of sputtering a nanowire-like structure of the gold coating can be observed. It was shown that the width of the nanowires can be tailored by the width of the ripples formed by preceding laser irradiation. We demonstrate a technique for the controlled patterning of polymer surfaces, including the creation of nanopatterned, regular gold structures (nanowires). In principle, this technique could be employed for the creation of metal-polymer composites with interesting electrical, mechanical, and optical properties, which could find novel applications in micro and nanotechnology.
Acknowledgement
Financial support of this work from the GACR projects No. P108/11/P337, P108/10/1106 and 106/09/0125 is gratefully acknowledged.
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Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Gold nanostructures on glass substrate",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Thickness, morphology and inner structure",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2. Optical and electrical properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5",title:"3. Gold nanostructures on polymeric substrate",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.1. Electrical properties",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.2. Chemical composition",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"3.3. Surface properties and morphology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9",title:"4. Self-organized gold nanostructures",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.1. Surface morphology and structure parameters",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. 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Katsanos",authors:[{id:"169242",title:"Dr.",name:"Sunday",middleName:"Onyebuchi",surname:"Nwaubani",fullName:"Sunday Nwaubani",slug:"sunday-nwaubani"}]},{id:"46235",title:"Corrosion Detection for Automated Visual Inspection",slug:"corrosion-detection-for-automated-visual-inspection",signatures:"Francisco Bonnin-Pascual and Alberto Ortiz",authors:[{id:"124589",title:"Prof.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",fullName:"Alberto Ortiz",slug:"alberto-ortiz"},{id:"169256",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Bonnin-Pascual",fullName:"Francisco Bonnin-Pascual",slug:"francisco-bonnin-pascual"}]},{id:"46219",title:"Corrosion of Biomaterials Used in Dental Reconstruction Dentistry",slug:"corrosion-of-biomaterials-used-in-dental-reconstruction-dentistry",signatures:"I. Patrascu, E. Vasilescu, E. Gatin and R.R. Cara-Ilici",authors:[{id:"169224",title:"Dr.",name:"Ion",middleName:null,surname:"Patrascu",fullName:"Ion Patrascu",slug:"ion-patrascu"},{id:"170546",title:"Dr.",name:"V.",middleName:null,surname:"Vasilescu",fullName:"V. Vasilescu",slug:"v.-vasilescu"},{id:"152661",title:"Dr",name:"R.",middleName:null,surname:"Cara-Ilici",fullName:"R. Cara-Ilici",slug:"r.-cara-ilici"},{id:"153007",title:"Prof.",name:"Eduard",middleName:null,surname:"Gatin",fullName:"Eduard Gatin",slug:"eduard-gatin"}]},{id:"46216",title:"Investigation of Al-Fe Aerospace Alloy Laser-Treated with Different Corrosion Characterization Techniques",slug:"investigation-of-al-fe-aerospace-alloy-laser-treated-with-different-corrosion-characterization-techn",signatures:"Moisés Meza Pariona",authors:[{id:"38666",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Moises",middleName:"Meza",surname:"Pariona",fullName:"Moises Pariona",slug:"moises-pariona"}]},{id:"46244",title:"Developments in Reliability-Based Assessment of Corrosion",slug:"developments-in-reliability-based-assessment-of-corrosion",signatures:"Zahiraniza Mustaffa",authors:[{id:"169262",title:"Dr.",name:"Zahiraniza",middleName:null,surname:"Mustaffa",fullName:"Zahiraniza Mustaffa",slug:"zahiraniza-mustaffa"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"70791",title:"Surface Measurement and Evaluation of Fiber Woven Composites",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90813",slug:"surface-measurement-and-evaluation-of-fiber-woven-composites",body:'\n
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1. Introduction
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Fiber woven composites (FWCs) are a kind of new fiber composites. The fibers inside are woven to form a preform, and then the matrix grows on the preform to generate the final composites. The woven fibers can heighten the reinforcing effect of the fibers and improve the mechanical property of the composite. Therefore, FWCs could perform better than other fiber composites.
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Among FWCs, woven ceramic matrix composites (WCMCs) are star materials, widely used in aerospace, military, national defense, and some other advanced fields [1, 2, 3, 4], because of their high specific strength and rigidity, corrosion and wear resistance, and other excellent characteristics [5, 6]. For the industrial application of WCMCs, it is of vital importance to objectively evaluate the surface processing quality and, on this basis, judge the type and degree of processing damage. To do so, it is essential to measure the surface topography both accurately and efficiently and select proper indexes to evaluate the surface process quality. However, WCMCs are far more complicated than traditional materials. On the one hand, their surfaces are anisotropic and inhomogeneous and have obvious directionality and complex structures, which means that there are difficulties and challenges in measuring and evaluating their surfaces. Traditional surface measurement and evaluation approaches for isotropic materials are no longer suitable to WCMCs [7, 8, 9]. On the other hand, the surfaces of an WCMC present more types of processing damage than isotropic materials, including fiber pullout, debonding, and matrix cracking [10]. Each shows a different influence on the composite application, and thus judging the type and degree of processing damage to a WCMC is a new but difficult task.
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To date, there have been no uniform measurement standards to ensure that undistorted WCMC surface features are obtained or proper evaluation approaches accurately assess the surface damage [11, 12]. It is widely believed that only 3D measurements can obtain the complete surface information [7, 13, 14]. However, a traditional evaluation method used to assess the isotropic materials is limited to a quantitative description of the entire surface through some typical surface topography parameters, which ignores the subtle details of the surface. Such judgment standards are brief with respect to the direct relation to the surface damage. Moreover, to date, a majority of composite surface evaluations still use the profile arithmetic mean error Ra as the only evaluation parameter [15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20], which is fairly incomplete.
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As such, the complexity of a WCMC surface calls for a newer and more targeted methodology that is tightly connected with the topography characteristic. When we look into the WCMC surface, it is obvious that its composition sequence is as follows: fiber -fiber bundle -cell body -whole surface [21]. Here, a fiber is the smallest composing unit, a fiber bundle is the smallest structural unit, and a cell body is the smallest repeatable unit. A cell body is made up of fiber bundles and matrix and has a nearly fixed surface microstructure. The material surface is formed through its repeating copy and translation [22, 23]. Thus, fiber damage influences the fiber bundle surface, damage to the fiber bundle surface influences the cell body surface, and damage to the cell body surface influences the whole surface property. Merely depicting the entire surface at one time without considering the surface structure composition of a WCMC is inadvisable.
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In this chapter, it is proposed that the measurement and evaluation of a WCMC surface should adopt a grading evaluation system based on its complex surface structure, which includes the four levels: fiber, fiber bundle, cell body, and the whole surface. On the fiber level, the typical forms of fiber damage and their effects on the surface morphology of WCMCs are analyzed, which lays a foundation for the measurement and evaluation methods on the next three levels. On each subsequent level, the system proposes a set of surface measurement sampling parameter determination methods and surface quality evaluation methods based on the principle of statistics.
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2. Fundamental concepts, devices, and materials of the research
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2.1 The microstructure of a WCMC surface
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According to the common fabrication process of WCMCs (shown in Figure 1), single fibers are surface modified to improve the bonding strength between fibers and matrix, and then several fibers are twined to form a fiber bundle. Multiple fiber bundles are woven in a certain way to a preform. The preform is then immersed into an environment with the elements or components of the matrix. The matrix can grow on the preform to generate the final WCMCs.
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Figure 1.
The fabrication process of an WCMC.
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The schematics of the WCMC surfaces of different woven methods (shown in Figure 2(a–c)) and process angles (shown in Figure 2(d,e)) indicate that there exists a minimum repeatable unit, which is marked with a red block in the figures. The unit is composed of the fiber bundles of every directions and the ceramic matrix. The whole surface can be formed through its repeating copy and translation. The unit is defined as the “cell body” in this chapter. It is obvious that the shape of a cell body is not uniform for a WCMC. In fact, the appearance of a cell body can change with different woven methods and process angles.
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Figure 2.
Schematic diagram of different woven patterns of WCMC. (a) 2D, (b) 2.5D, (c) 3D, and (d) 2D woven style with a processing angle of 90° and (e) 2D woven style with a processing angle of 45°.
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In summary, fiber is the minimum characteristic of a WCMC, which forms fiber bundle. Fiber bundles are woven to different directions. The cell body consists of fiber bundles of every directions and the matrix. Eventually, the whole surface is generated by copy and translation of the cell body. Therefore, fiber is the minimum evaluable unit of WCMCs. Its damage form can influence the surface state of fiber bundles. Fiber bundles build a bridge between the “microscale” of the fiber and the “macroscale” of the cell body. Their surfaces include the information of the fibers and impact the surface quality of the cell body. Cell body is a key feature. On the one hand, its components are as complicated as the whole surface, which means that the evaluation results of a cell body can be used to represent and estimate a certain range of a whole surface. On the other hand, it is obviously affected by the fiber bundles and matrix inside; thus the analysis of fiber and fiber bundle can be used to evaluate the cell body.
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In this chapter, it is believed that the measurement and evaluation of WCMCs should employ a grading system. The evaluation of fiber, fiber bundle, cell body, and the whole surface should be separately researched and then integrated. On the fiber level, the typical damage forms of fibers should be identified and classified, and how the damage influence the using properties should be research. On the subsequent levels, two tasks should be accomplished. The first one is to select proper sampling methods to acquire the undistorted surface information. And the second one is to propose and test reliable evaluation indexes to quantitatively estimate the main damage type and degree of the surfaces. With all the work above, a grading measurement and evaluation system for the surface of a WCMC can be eventually built. The following parts of this chapter introduce the methodologies on each level.
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2.2 The effect of fiber damage on the surface measurement and evaluation of WCMCs
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When processed by machining tools, the surfaces of WCMCs interact with the cutting edges, leading to fiber damage. The damage of fiber on the one hand causes the removal of fibers and, on the other hand, turns into the machining defects on the surfaces. The multifarious types of the damage of WCMCs are the main feature of difference to the traditional homogeneous materials and, meanwhile, are the main source of technological difficulty of the evaluation of WCMCs.
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The typical forms of damage on the surfaces of WCMCs are the following:
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Fiber fracture, which is caused by the cutting edges directly cutting the fibers off, often happens when the fibers at the cutting area are tightly fixed by the matrix or by other fibers nearby. The cutting section of fiber fracture is V-shape, and the bottom of the V often appears plastic deformation, which is caused by the friction and squeezing between the fibers and the cutting edges. Fiber fracture is the most common material removal form of WCMCs. If the materials are mainly removed by fiber fracture, the finished surfaces are always of good quality and with low roughness.
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Fiber pulled-off is caused by the cutting edges breaking the matrix without cutting off the fibers or the cutting edges pulling the fibers out of matrix without cutting them off. This type of damage can leave fibers exposed or form holes on the finished surface, which decreases the surface quality. When the finished surface is assembled with another part, the raised fiber can act as a tiny cutting edge, harming the counterpart surface. When the finished surface performs as a friction surface, the holes may help contain lubricating oil and wear debris, alleviating three-body wear, thus improving its tribological performances.
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Fiber debonding, which is caused by the cutting edges removing the entire layer of fibers, often occurs when the fibers at cutting area are poorly connected with the matrix. Fiber debonding can result in collapses of large areas on the surface and greatly reduce the surface quality.
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From the analysis above, it is clear that the machining process can cause manifold types of damage on the surface of WCMCs. Each kind of damage can affect the quality and performance of the surface in its own way. Therefore, the evaluation technology of WCMCs is required to recognize the main type of damage on a surface and quantitatively estimate the degree of the damage.
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Moreover, fiber bundles, cell bodies, and the whole surface are, basically speaking, made up of fibers. Because of the directional arrangements of fibers, the height of the surface of WCMCs could fluctuate with the period of fiber diameter. The fiber diameter acts as an obvious fundamental frequency on the surface of WCMCs. It can influence the sampling parameters, such as sampling step, sampling length, and sampling area, on other levels. Meanwhile, the direction of fibers determines the direction of the fundamental frequency and can eventually influence the sampling direction. Thus, the direction and diameter of fibers are tightly connected with the surface measurement technology of WCMCs.
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In conclusion, fiber, as the minimum evaluable unit of a WCMC surface, significantly influences the grading surface measurement and evaluation system of WCMCs. On the one hand, when considering whether an evaluation index is appropriate for WCMC surface, it should be checked whether this index can help recognize and estimate the type and degree of damage. On the other hand, when determining the proper sampling parameters, the directionality and the diameter of fibers must be taken into consideration.
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2.3 Surface measurement technology and devices
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The measurement of a surface is a process that obtains the height information of the surface. Surface measurement methods are divided into two classes: contact measurement, which uses a probe to measure the height data of points on the surface, and non-contact measurement, which uses light to measure. It was always believed that contact measurement could achieve higher measurement accuracy, although its efficiency was quite low and the measurement process was time-consuming. However, thanks to the development of optical theories and technologies, the non-contact measurement technology based on white light interferometry can get extremely high level of accuracy now as well. NANOVEA ST400 (shown in Figure 3), an optical non-contact measurement system, is used to measure the surface micro-topography in the research of this chapter.
Because the measurement of a surface is in fact the measurement of the points on the surface, it has to be determined which points are chosen to be measured. This topic is related to the sampling strategy, which means how to choose a proper set of points to measure, in order to make the measurement results of these samples able to reflect the information of the entire surface. The first question is to use 2D measurement or 3D measurement.
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If a 2D measurement is adopted, points in a line are measured and calculated as one data set. In this term, sampling step (the length between two adjacent sampled points), sampling length (the length of the entire sampling line), and sampling direction (the angle between the sampling line and the structure of the surface) should be determined. In most instances of 2D measurement, one line of sampling is not able to reflect the entire surface because of the measuring error and the random surface damage. Several lines should be selected and measured in order to improve the stability of the measurement results. Therefore, sampling number (the number of the sampling lines) is also to be determined.
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If a 3D measurement is adopted, an array of points inside the entire surface are measured and calculated as one data set. That’s to say, the sampling area is the area of the entire surface. When sampling step is determined, the points to be measured are selected. It was believed that 3D measurement was more adaptable for complex surfaces because it could get more information of the surfaces. However, the research of this chapter proved that, if the surface to be measured is obviously directional, 3D measurement will lose its advantages and 2D measurement should be adopted. On the other side, 3D measurement always means long sampling time, huge data processing work, and, thus, low efficiency.
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Selecting proper sampling parameters, including sampling step, length, direction, number of 2D measurement, and sampling step of 3D measurement, is a complex work. Small step and large length and number are always related to higher measuring accuracy but low efficiency and vice versa. Proper sampling parameters balance both two sides, maintain undistorted sampling, and, on this basis, reduce sampling points.
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2.4 Surface evaluation technology
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The task of surface evaluation technology is to select proper statistical characteristics (defined as evaluation indexes in this chapter), which can be calculated from the measurement data of the heights of the sampling points. The following are the indexes adopted in the research of the chapter:
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For 2D measurement data:
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For each sampling profile j, its average is defined as μ0j\n, the standard deviation is σ0j\n, and the normalized height of every sampling point is Z0ij\n, and thus
where the height of every sampling point is defined as Zij\n, j is the jth profile on the fiber bundle surface, and the number of sampling points within the sampling profile is M, where M = the sampling length/sampling step.
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Based on the above, the four 2D evaluation indexes used in the chapter are profile arithmetic mean error Ra, profile square root deviation Rq, profile skewness Rsk, and profile kurtosis Rku, which can be calculated as follows:
Here, Ra and Rq are quite similar in reflecting the surface roughness, although Rq is in general more sensitive than Ra to the degree of surface roughness.
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The normalized R\n\nsk0 and R\n\nku0 of the jth profile can be obtained as follows:
According to the definition of Rsk, the closer it is to 0, the more approximate the sampling profile is to a Gaussian distribution. When Rsk > 0, the profile presents a positive peak. This indicates that the profile has more crests or the crest height is larger than the trough height. In contrast, if a profile has more troughs, or the trough height is larger than the crest height, it presents a negative peak.
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On the other hand, Rku is compared with 3. The closer it is to 3, the more approximate the sampling profile is to a Gaussian distribution. That is, the degree of dispersion of the profile data is similar to a Gaussian distribution profile. The more Rku is greater than 3, the smaller the degree of data dispersion is, and in contrast, the more Rku is less than 3, the larger the degree of data dispersion is.
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For 3D measurement data:
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The four 3D evaluation indexes used in the chapter are surface arithmetic mean deviation Sa, surface square root deviation Sq, surface skewness Ssk, and surface kurtosis Sku, which can be calculated as follows:
where the height of every sampling point is defined as Zij\n and the number of sampling points within the sampling area is M and N, where M and N = the sampling length (of X and Y direction, respectively)/sampling step.
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2.5 Materials used as examples in the chapter
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In order to illustrate the measurement and evaluation method, several materials were measured and evaluated as examples in this chapter. The information of the materials is shown as follows:
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The carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide ceramic matrix composite (Cf/SiC) was fabricated through chemical vapor infiltration (CVI) combined with a liquid melt infiltration process (LMI) [24]. The preform was prepared using a 3D needling method and densified using CVI to form a porous carbon/carbon (C/C) composite. Next, the porous C/C composite was converted into Cf/SiC during LMI, in which silicon carbide (SiC) matrix was formed through a reaction with carbon and melted silicon [25]. The density of the Cf/SiC composite is 1.85 g/cm3.
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The fiber diameter of the material is about 7 μm, and size of the cell body is about 1.6 mm × 1.6 mm.
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The Cf/SiC specimens were ground with four different processing angles. For 90° processing angle, the fiber bundles are divided into side fiber bundles and end fiber bundles, according to their directions (shown in Figure 4).
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Figure 4.
Definition of the processing angle of Cf/SiC [26].
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3. The measurement and evaluation of fiber bundle surfaces
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3.1 Measurement strategy and sampling direction
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When measuring fiber bundle surfaces, 2D measurement should be adopted because of the obvious directionality of the surfaces. Here we take the surface of Cf/SiC with a processing angle of 90° as an example. Owing to the directionality of the fiber bundles, different sampling directions often result in different numerical characteristics, as shown in Figures 5 and 6. We can see that no matter what type of measurement direction is applied, there is no influence on the 3D surface topography. That is, a 3D sampling and evaluation method may not be able to reflect the surface details of the fiber bundle. The use of one or a group of 3D evaluation indexes based on a 3D sampled data fails to reflect the damage types related to the fiber orientation and machining direction.
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Figure 5.
Side surface topography of a fiber bundle with a scanning track perpendicular and parallel to the fiber direction [27]. (a) Surface topography-scanning track perpendicular to the fiber direction. (b) Surface topography-scanning track parallel to the fiber direction. (c) Original profile 1, scanning track perpendicular to the fiber direction. (d) Original profile 1, scanning track parallel to the fiber direction. (e) Original profile 2, scanning track perpendicular to the fiber direction. (f) Original profile 2, scanning track parallel to the fiber direction.
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Figure 6.
End surface topography of a fiber bundle with a scanning track perpendicular and parallel to the machining direction [27]. (a) Surface topography-scanning track perpendicular to the machining direction. (b) Surface topography-scanning track parallel to the machining direction. (c) Original profile 1, scanning track perpendicular to the machining direction. (d) Original profile 1, scanning track parallel to the machining direction. (e) Original profile 2, scanning track perpendicular to the machining direction. (f) Original profile 2, scanning track parallel to the machining direction.
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On the side surface of a fiber bundle, the bonding strength between the fiber and matrix is weaker than that of the end surface. The most direct reflection of the machining direction is fiber damage such as fiber debonding, fiber fractures and delamination. The fiber direction scale is more notable than the machining direction scale, and the directionality of the surface topography mainly depends on the fiber orientation. On the end surface of a fiber bundle, the fiber is mainly subjected to a shear force. The main fiber damage is fiber shearing and fiber pullout. The machining direction scale is more notable than the fiber orientation scale, and the directionality of the surface topography mainly depends on the machining direction.
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On the side surface of a fiber bundle, as shown in Figure 5(c,e), when the scanning track is perpendicular to the fiber direction, the profile shows damage between fibers, whereas the profiles only show single fiber damage when the scanning track is parallel to the fiber direction (Figure 5(d,f)), which means that the profiles cannot reflect the machining effect on the whole fiber bundle surface. The same phenomenon occurs in the end surface of a fiber bundle. When the scanning track is perpendicular to the machining direction, the profile shows the integrated influence of the processing (Figure 6(c,e)); however, when the scanning track is parallel to the machining direction, the profiles simply show the effect of a single grain on the surface (Figure 6(d,f)).
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From the analysis above, it can be seen that the 2D sampling and evaluation method is more suitable for a fiber bundle scale measurement. To guarantee measurement accuracy and consider the influence of the fiber orientation and machining direction on the surface topography, the scanning track should be perpendicular to the fiber orientation on the side surface of a fiber bundle and perpendicular to the machining direction on the end surface.
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According to our research, it may be reasonably inferred that, for planes which are not truly along the fibers, the influence of the fiber orientation and machining direction should be considered. When the surface is full of processing traces and the fiber orientation is so obscure, the sampling direction should be perpendicular to the machining direction. In other cases, the sampling direction should still be perpendicular to the projection direction on the vertical plane along the fiber axis. However, a definite conclusion in this regard still requires further research.
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3.2 Determination of sampling length and number
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The side surface of Cf/SiC with processing angle of 90° is taken as an example to illustrate the determination method of sampling length when measuring a fiber bundle surface. Since the diameters of the fibers are approximately 7 μm, a set of candidate sampling length are chosen as the integral multiple of 7 μm, namely, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35, 42, 49, 56, 63, 70, 77, 84, 91, 98, 105, 112, 119, 126, 133, 140, and 147 μm. In each sampling length, 1500 surface profiles are measured with a constant sampling step of 0.1 μm. And 2D surface roughness Ra of each profile is obtained.
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According to the numerical values of 1500 Ra, a frequency histogram is made. It can be seen that the distribution of 2D surface roughness Ra in every sampling length is almost of its normal distribution. The result shown in Figure 7 is the one using normal distribution function to fit the frequency histogram. With the growth of sampling length (Figure 8(a)), the curves are thinner and higher. Their shapes do not change any more in the case that sampling length is more than a certain value (Figure 8(b)). It is known to all that normal distribution has two parameters: the mean value \n\nμ\n\n and the standard deviation \n\nσ\n\n. \n\nμ\n\n is the location parameter and describes the central tendency position of the normal distribution. \n\nσ\n\n demonstrates the discrete degree of data. The larger the \n\nσ\n\n is, the more decentralized the data is, leading to a fact that the curve is fatter and lower. On the contrary, the more concentrated the data is, the thinner and taller is the curve. That is to say, Ra is gradually convergent and concentrated while the sampling length increases.
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Figure 7.
The distribution of 2D surface roughness Ra under different sampling length [24]. (a) With the sampling lengths of 7,42 84 125 and 147. (b) With the sampling lengths of 119,126 133 140 and 147.
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Figure 8.
The changing trends of \n\nσ\n\n and Raave under different sampling length [24].
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\nFigure 8 clearly shows the changing trends of standard deviation \n\nσ\n\n and the mean value Raave\n of 1500 2D surface roughness Ra under different sampling length. It can be found that with the increase of sampling length, both \n\nσ\n\n and Raave\n are gradually decreasing and becoming steady. When the sampling length reaches to 120 μm, Raave\n is stable around 1297.3 nm.
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Based on the results obtained above, a speculation is proposed that the mean value of a few number of Ra can steadily estimate the entire surface roughness of fiber bundle. The average value of Ra under the changing sampling number from 10 to 150 and the constant sampling length 120 μm could be obtained, which is represented by Raavg. Under every sampling number, the measurement process repeats 50 times independently. Then the maximum relative error of every sampling number, calculated by Eq. (13), is demonstrated in Figure 9. It is shown that with the rise of sampling numbers, the maximum relative error would decrease dramatically. Once the number of Ra reaches to 70 or above, it is stable under 2%, which is acceptable in terms of accuracy.
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Figure 9.
The changing trend of the maximum relative error under different number of Ra [24].
According to the analysis given above, the conclusion can be made that as long as extracting surface profiles averagely distributed on the side surface of Cf/SiC composite fiber bundle with the appropriate sampling length and sampling number, the mean value of Ra is steady and can estimate the whole surface roughness. For Cf/SiC composite used in the present work, the critical sampling length is 119 μm, which is about 17 times of the fiber diameter, and sampling number is 70.
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3.3 Determination of sampling step
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In this section, the side surface and end surface of Cf/SiC with processing angle of 90° are taken as an example to illustrate the determination method of sampling step, under the condition that the critical sampling length is 150 μm and sampling number is 200. It is clear that using a smaller sampling step can achieve more accurate surface data, whereas a too small step may cause an unnecessary sampling time and data processing cost. A method is proposed to determine the maximum sampling step (MaxSS) that can minimize the data size under the premise of undistorted surface sampling.
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We start from setting the data measured at the step of 0.05 μm as a certain type of real value μ of surface topography parameters. The data measured using larger steps are to be compared with the real values μ to determine whether they are acceptable in terms of accuracy. To set a range of acceptance, the idea of a confidence interval in probability theory is used. If the real value is μ, a measurement result that is acceptable based on confidence level of 1-α must fall into a computable interval. Based on the probability theory, when the mean value of the overall sample μ is known and the standard deviation σ is unknown, the confidence interval of the mean value μ with the confidence level (1 − α) is
where S is the standard deviation of the samples and n is the number of the samples.
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By looking up the table-α quantile of the t-distribution, \n\n\nt\n\nα\n/\n2\n\n\n\n\nn\n−\n1\n\n\n\n is available, and thus the corresponding confidence intervals are obtained. Therefore, the sampling step gradually increases until the measurement result falls out of the acceptance range at that step. This means that this step, and the steps larger than it, can no longer achieve accurate surface data. The largest permitted sampling step can be determined under each single evaluation index. Combining all indexes, the global MaxSS can be determined.
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Here, Raave\n, Rqave\n, Rskave\n, and Rkuave\n on a Cf/SiC fiber bundle surface are taken as the evaluation standards. For each index, the real value is determined as the value measured based on a sampling length of 150 μm, sampling number of 200, and sampling step of 0.05 μm. In addition, \n\n\nt\n\nα\n/\n2\n\n\n\n\nn\n−\n1\n\n\n\n can be found to be 2.326 when the confidence coefficient is 98%. After that, μ and S can easily be calculated. The acceptance range of each index is obtained through Eq. (14). The sampling length and sampling number are invariable, and the sampling step is gradually increased. All measurement results are shown in Figure 10 (side surface) and Figure 11 (end surface).
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Figure 10.
Changing trends of four evaluation indexes with increasing sampling steps on fiber bundle side surface [27]. (a) Raave, (b) Rqave, (c) Rskave, and (d) Rkuave.
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Figure 11.
Changing trends of four evaluation indexes with increasing sampling steps on fiber bundle end surface [27]. (a) Raave, (b) Rqave, (c) Rskave, and (d) Rkuave.
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What needs to be mentioned is that the data used in Figures 10 and 11 are acquired using a sampling direction perpendicular to the fiber orientation on the side surface and the machining direction on the end surface. For each index, the upper and lower limits express the acceptance range. The measurement result that first falls out of range is marked with a red box, and the last sampling step before it is the MaxSS of this index. Combining all four indexes on each surface, the global MaxSS is 0.75 μm on a side surface and 1 μm on an end surface, which are approximately 1/10 of the fiber diameter.
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3.4 Evaluation indexes
\n
This chapter proposes four indexes for evaluating a fiber bundle surface, namely, Ra, Rq, Rsk, and Rku. To illustrate how the four indexes can estimate the main type and degree of damage of a fiber bundle surface, the side surface and end surface of Cf/SiC with processing angle of 90° are taken as a demonstration. The surfaces of Cf/SiC were process with three machining methods: a) ground using a grinding wheel with a wheel speed of 15 m/s, grinding depth of 0.15 mm, feed rate of 4 m/min, and grain mesh size of 80#; b) polished using a 1200# sandpaper under a constant force of 5 N, spindle speed of 0.1 m/s, and sliding time of 60s; and c) friction against a ZrO2 disk under a constant force of 30 N, spindle speed of 0.5 m/s, and sliding time of 3600 s. The three different methods caused different surface topographies and damages. Therefore, a proper set of indexes should be able to reflect the difference of the six kinds of surfaces.
\n
After measuring the six surfaces with the sampling length of 280 μm and sampling number of 200, the scanning track perpendicular to the fiber orientation and machining direction, and the sampling step of 0.5 μm, four indexes can be calculated for every surface. The results are shown in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Fiber bundle surface
\n
\nRaave\n/μm
\n
\nRqave\n/μm
\n
\nRskave\n\n
\n
\nRkuave\n\n
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Side surface, ground
\n
1.97 ± 0.03
\n
2.44 ± 0.03
\n
−0.55 ± 0.05
\n
3.29 ± 0.10
\n
\n
\n
Side surface, sandpaper polished
\n
0.98 ± 0.02
\n
1.41 ± 0.05
\n
−2.15 ± 0.09
\n
6.48 ± 0.59
\n
\n
\n
Side surface, friction
\n
0.56 ± 0.02
\n
0.78 ± 0.02
\n
−0.84 ± 0.07
\n
7.96 ± 0.44
\n
\n
\n
End surface, ground
\n
1.23 ± 0.02
\n
1.56 ± 0.03
\n
−0.31 ± 0.04
\n
3.60 ± 0.12
\n
\n
\n
End surface, sandpaper polished
\n
0.26 ± 0.01
\n
0.36 ± 0.01
\n
−1.39 ± 0.35
\n
12.80 ± 0.55
\n
\n
\n
End surface, friction
\n
0.20 ± 0.01
\n
0.24 ± 0.01
\n
−0.34 ± 0.19
\n
21.14 ± 2.88
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Fiber bundle surface parameters of three processing methods [27].
\n
The data in Table 1 reflect that, regardless of the surface processing method used, the side surfaces are rougher than the end surfaces, which can be indicated by all side surfaces having larger Raave\n and Rqave\n than the end surfaces. This phenomenon can be explained as follows. During the machining process, the anti-shear strength of the end surface is stronger; it is thus not easy for the fibers to be pulled-out and form surface damage, and the end surface becomes smoother than the side surface. However, fiber debonding and fiber delamination are more likely to appear, leading to more damage and a rougher surface on the side surface. In addition, for both fiber orientation surfaces, Raave\n and Rqave\n of the friction-applied surfaces are the smallest, followed by sandpaper-polished surfaces, and finally ground surfaces. A conclusion can be made that Raave\n and Rqave\n are both valid in evaluating the degree of surface roughness. The rougher the surface is, the larger Raave\n and Rqave\n are.
\n
As a comparison, Rkuave\n of either a ground side surface or a ground end surface is roughly equal to 3. That is, the height distribution approximately obeys a Gaussian distribution on both surfaces. Polishing with sandpaper or sliding against a ZrO2 disk can make the surfaces flat, thus decreasing the amount of surface damage. Meanwhile, they show larger Rkuave\n values. It is clear that the surfaces after friction turn out to have the fewest numbers of surface defects, and Rkuave\n of the friction surfaces has the biggest value among the three processing methods on both the side and end surfaces. It can be seen that Rkuave\n is related to the amount of surface damage. The less damage a surface has, the larger Rkuave\n is.
\n
For both ground surfaces, Rskave\n is close to 0, which is consistent with their Gaussian distribution characteristic. For the surfaces polished by a sandpaper, the crests are chipped off during this processing, with the original troughs remaining, and thus it is reasonable for these two surfaces to have a larger negative Rskave\n. After friction is applied, however, their Rskave\n values reach closer to 0 again, which can be explained by the wear debris embedded into the troughs during the friction process decreasing the height of the troughs. Thus, it can be inferred that Rskave\n is able to reflect the damage type or degree of the surface. A larger negative Rskave\n value is caused by a trough-dominant surface, and a larger positive Rskave\n value is caused by a crest-dominant surface. The surface state can be inferred by combining Rskave\n and Rkuave\n.
\n
\nFigure 12 shows the fiber bundle surface topographies of three processing methods. Figure 13 shows the microscopic surface topography of six surfaces. It is clear that the values of the four proposed indexes have a strong and direct connection with the surface damage and, thus, have a good feasibility and interpretability for a surface evaluation.
\n
Figure 12.
Topographies of the six surfaces [27].
\n
Figure 13.
SEM images of the six surfaces [27].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. The measurement and evaluation of cell body surfaces and the whole surfaces
\n
\n
4.1 Measurement strategy
\n
Cell body contains different fiber bundle orientations, and the whole surface is composed of cell bodies; thus standard procedures designated to 2D profile sampling at fiber bundle are in general not applicable for 3D topography measurement for cell body and the whole surfaces, because 2D measurement is of directionality which mainly reflects the damage between fibers, the fiber, and the matrix. Whereas for cell body and the whole surfaces, the scales are bigger, thus the measurement and evaluation mainly reflect the damage between fiber bundles and the matrix, which cannot consider the integrated effect of the fiber orientation and the processing direction simultaneously. Therefore, a 3D surface measurement and evaluation method should be adopted at these two grades.
\n
\n
\n
4.2 Determination of MaxSS on cell body surfaces
\n
A proper sampling step can make the surface information of a cell body extracted accurately and meanwhile save the cost of data collection and processing. MaxSS refers to the balance point of the accuracy and sampling cost. If a sampling step larger than the MaxSS is adopted, the information of a surface is distorted; if a sampling step larger than the MaxSS is adopted, unnecessary data sampling cost is spent. Therefore, how to determine the MaxSS on a cell body surface is very important. This section proposes a method for this topic, based on the principle of residual estimation.
\n
For a cell body surface, the following steps can be executed to determine the MaxSS:
\n
Sample the surface using a small sampling step of the measurement device which is at least one third of the WCMC fiber diameter.
\n
Calculate Sa, Sq, Ssk, and Sku based on the sampling results, and set them as surface standard values θ (the standard value here does not refer to the ideal measurement result which has no error, rather, it means a standard which can be used to check whether other measurement results are acceptable).
\n
Generally speaking, this standard value θ, containing measurement error, can be regarded as a random variable, which obeys Normal distribution, so, θ ∼ N (μ\n1, σ\n1\n2). A measurement result \n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n\n that is obtained from a larger sampling step obeys Normal distribution as well, so, \n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n\n ∼ N (μ\n2, σ\n2\n2). Because θ and \n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n\n are both the measurement results of the same surface, their expectation is equal to the ideal real value (with no errors) of the surface. Therefore,
\n
\n\n\nμ\n1\n\n=\n\nμ\n2\n\n\nE15
\n
Set e as the difference between \n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n\n and θ,
\n
\n\ne\n=\n\nθ\n¯\n\n−\nθ\n\nE16
\n
Since \n\n\nθ\n¯\n\n\n and θ are independent identically distributed (IID), their difference e obeys Normal distribution too:
Based on the analysis above, for a set of measurement results obtained from different sampling steps, the Residual Errors (REs) between each of them and the standard value θ are IID to Normal distribution, so
\n
\n\nRE\n∼\nN\n\n0\n\nσ\n2\n\n\n\nE19
\n
For every actual engineering question, it is reasonable to find an acceptable range of RE according to the actual requirements of measurement. For example, if the ±15% smallest REs are acceptable, the acceptable measurement results fall into the range of
When the sampling step is small enough, the measurement result is in the range above. However, if the sampling step grows larger, the measurement result will go out of the range sooner or later. The largest sampling step that holds the measurement result within the range of Eq. (20) can be defined as the MaxSS for cell body surface measurement.
\n
Here we take the measurement of a cell body of the Cf/SiC with processing angle of 90° as an example. The sampling steps of 1–45 μm were adopted to measure the cell body. The measurement results of 1 μm were set as the standard values. The rest of the results were compared with the standard values to calculate the REs. The acceptable ranges of measurement results are available through Eq. (20).
\n
The changing trends of the measurement results of the four evaluation indexes under different sampling steps are illustrated in Figure 14. The red and blue lines refer to the boundaries of the acceptable ranges calculated from Eq. (20). It is clear that when the sampling steps exceed a certain value (in red blocks), the corresponding results begin to go out of the ranges. Then the MaxSS can be determined for each index. Combining the four MaxSSs together, the MaxSS is available and for this material, it is 7 μm.
\n
Figure 14.
The changing trends of (a) Sa (b) Sq (c) Ssk and (d) Sku with sampling steps on cell body surface [28].
\n
It can also be proved that the MaxSS of a cell body is approximately equal to the diameter of its reinforcing fiber.
\n
\n
\n
4.3 Relationship between the measurement of cell body and the whole surface
\n
The whole surface of a WCMC consists of many cell bodies. Some cell bodies nearby each other faced the same fabrication and machining process and may perform similar surface quality. Therefore, the measurement and evaluation of a cell body can be used to estimate the surface quality state of a certain area nearby it. It has been proved that, for the exampled Cf/SiC with processing angles of 0°, 30°, 45°, and 90°, the measurement results of the four indexes of one cell body have the similar values with the results of the nearby four cell bodies (shown in Figure 15).
\n
Figure 15.
Evaluation parameters with processing angles on cell body surface of Cf/SiC (a) Sa, (b) Sq, (c) Ssk, and (d) Sku.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
This chapter aims at providing a grading surface measurement and evaluation system for woven ceramic matrix composites. The system contains four grading of fiber, fiber bundle, cell body, and the whole surface. The main conclusions are as follows:
The type and degree of the damage on fibers influence the processing quality and property of the surface. The diameter and the direction of the fibers determine the measurement parameters when sampling fiber bundle or cell body surfaces.
2D measurement should be adopted on fiber bundle surfaces. Sampling parameters, including sampling length, number, step, and direction should be determined carefully to balance the accuracy and the efficiency. Four evaluation indexes, namely, Ra, Rq, Rsk, and Rku, are usable for fiber bundle surface evaluation.
3D measurement should be adopted on cell body surfaces. Maximum sampling step can be determined with the principle of residual estimate. Sa, Sq, Ssk, and Sku are usable on this grade.
The whole surface is consist of many cell bodies. Therefore, a small number of cell bodies can be used to represent a larger area nearby. This idea can help reduce the workload when measuring and evaluating a large area of WCMC surface.
\n\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
Special thanks the National Natural Science Foundation of China (Nos. 51375333 and 51805366) for financial assistance.
\n
Conflict of interest
All the authors listed have approved the manuscript, and no interest of any third parties is infringed.
\n',keywords:"woven ceramic matrix composites, grading surface evaluation, surface sampling method, confidence interval, residual error estimate",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/70791.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/70791.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70791",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70791",totalDownloads:169,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"July 18th 2019",dateReviewed:"December 10th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 30th 2020",datePublished:"July 15th 2020",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"The surfaces of fiber woven composites (FWCs), especially woven ceramic matrix composites (WCMCs), are obviously anisotropic. Many kinds of damage, which are different from traditional homogeneous materials, could be caused by the fabrication and machining process. The old surface evaluation system appropriate for isotropic materials is no longer suitable to WCMCs, thus causing many difficulties in terms of their wide industrial applications. This chapter presents a grading surface measurement and evaluation system for WCMCs based on their microstructures. The system includes four levels: fiber, fiber bundle, cell body, and the whole surface. On the fiber level, the typical forms of fiber damage, and their effects on the surface morphology of WCMCs are analyzed, which lays a foundation for the measurement and evaluation methods on the next three levels. On each subsequent level, the system proposes a set of surface measurement sampling parameter determination methods and surface quality evaluation methods based on the principle of statistics. As demonstrations, the surface measurement and evaluation on each level were processed on a carbon fiber-reinforced silicon carbide matrix composite (Cf/SiC) to illustrate the methodology of the system.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/70791",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/70791",signatures:"Bin Lin, Haoji Wang and Jinhua Wei",book:{id:"8768",title:"Composite and Nanocomposite Materials",subtitle:"From Knowledge to Industrial Applications",fullTitle:"Composite and Nanocomposite Materials - From Knowledge to Industrial Applications",slug:"composite-and-nanocomposite-materials-from-knowledge-to-industrial-applications",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",bookSignature:"Tri-Dung Ngo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8768.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"208798",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tri-Dung",middleName:null,surname:"Ngo",slug:"tri-dung-ngo",fullName:"Tri-Dung Ngo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"309698",title:"Prof.",name:"Bin",middleName:null,surname:"Lin",fullName:"Bin Lin",slug:"bin-lin",email:"linbin@tju.edu.cn",position:null,institution:null},{id:"309699",title:"Dr.",name:"Jinhua",middleName:null,surname:"Wei",fullName:"Jinhua Wei",slug:"jinhua-wei",email:"15222527210@163.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"309700",title:"Dr.",name:"Haoji",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Haoji Wang",slug:"haoji-wang",email:"loomply@sina.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Fundamental concepts, devices, and materials of the research",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 The microstructure of a WCMC surface",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 The effect of fiber damage on the surface measurement and evaluation of WCMCs",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Surface measurement technology and devices",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Surface evaluation technology",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Materials used as examples in the chapter",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"3. The measurement and evaluation of fiber bundle surfaces",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"3.1 Measurement strategy and sampling direction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"3.2 Determination of sampling length and number",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3 Determination of sampling step",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.4 Evaluation indexes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. The measurement and evaluation of cell body surfaces and the whole surfaces",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"4.1 Measurement strategy",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"4.2 Determination of MaxSS on cell body surfaces",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"4.3 Relationship between the measurement of cell body and the whole surface",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_21",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nSöderfjäll M, Herbst HM, Larsson R, Almqvist A. Influence on friction from piston ring design, cylinder liner roughness and lubricant properties. Tribology International. 2017;116:272-284\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nErol O, Powers BM, Keefe M. Effects of weave architecture and mesoscale material properties on the macroscale mechanical response of advanced woven fabrics. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2017;101:554-566\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nHosseini Monazzah A, Pouraliakbar H, Bagheri R, Seyed Reihani SM. Al-Mg-Si/SiC laminated composites: Fabrication, architectural characteristics, toughness, damage tolerance, fracture mechanisms. Composites Part B: Engineering. 2017;125:49-70\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nCao HM, Zhou X, Li XY, Lu K. Friction mechanism in the running-in stage of copper: From plastic deformation to delamination and oxidation. Tribology International. 2017;115:3-7\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nKrenkel W, Heidenreich B, Renz R. C/C-SiC composites for advanced friction systems. Advanced Engineering Materials. 2002;4:427-436\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nManocha LM, Prasad G, Manocha S. Carbon-ceramic composites for friction applications. Mechanics of Advanced Materials and Structures. 2014;21:172-180\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nSullivan P. J and blunt L, Three-dimensional characterization of indentation topography: Visual characterization. Wear. 1992;159:207-221\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nSenin N, Ziliotti M, Groppetti R. Three-dimensional surface topography segmentation through clustering. Wear. 2007;262:395-410\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nZhao F. 3D evaluation method of cutting surface topography of carbon/phenolic (C/Ph) composite. Journal of Wuhan University of Technology—Materials Science Edition. 2011;26:459-463\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nHintze W, Cordes M, Koerkel G. Influence of weave structure on delamination when milling CFRP. Journal of Materials Processing Technology. 2015;216:199-205\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nCao X, Lin B, Wang Y, Wang S. Influence of diamond wheel grinding process on surface micro-topography and properties of SiO2/SiO2 composite. Applied Surface Science. 2014;292:181-189\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nCao X, Lin B, Zhang X. Investigations on grinding process of woven ceramic matrix composite based on reinforced fiber orientations. Composites Part B: Engineering. 2015;71:184-192\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nZhao F-L, Al C-Z, Yang D-J, Yang Z-X, Wang J-M, Ao M. Study on the evaluation method and evaluation parameters of cutting surface roughness of carbon/carbon composite. Acta Metrologica Sinica. 2006;27:206-211\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nSenin N, Ziliotti M, Groppetti R. Three-dimensional surface topography segmentation through clustering. Wear. 2007;262:395-410\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nHocheng H, Tai N. H and Liu C S, Assessment of ultrasonic drilling of C/SiC composite material. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 2000;31:133-142\n'},{id:"B16",body:'\nTashiro T, Fujiwara J, Takenaka Y. Grinding of C/C-SiC Composite in Dry Method. London: Springer; 2007\n'},{id:"B17",body:'\nXu W, Zhang LC. On the mechanics and material removal mechanisms of vibration-assisted cutting of unidirectional fibre-reinforced polymer composites. International Journal of Machine Tools and Manufacture. 2014;80–81:1-10\n'},{id:"B18",body:'\nZhang L, Ren C, Ji C, Wang Z, Chen G. Effect of fiber orientations on surface grinding process of unidirectional C/SiC composites. Applied Surface Science. 2016;366:424-431\n'},{id:"B19",body:'\nFabre D, Bonnet C, Rech J, Mabrouki T. Optimization of surface roughness in broaching CIRP. Journal of Manufacturing Science and Technology. 2017;18:115-127\n'},{id:"B20",body:'\nBian R, He N, Ding W, Liu S. A study on the tool wear of PCD micro end mills in ductile milling of ZrO2 ceramics. The International Journal of Advanced Manufacturing Technology. 2017;92:2197-2206\n'},{id:"B21",body:'\nCao X. Lin B and Zhang X, A study on grinding surface waviness of woven ceramic matrix composites. Applied Surface Science. 2013;270:503-512\n'},{id:"B22",body:'\nChou T-W, Ko FK. Textile structural composites. In: Composite Materials Series. Vol. 3. Amsterdam, New York, USA: Elsevier Science Publishers; 1989\n'},{id:"B23",body:'\nMouritz A, Baini C, Herszberg I. Mode I interlaminar fracture toughness properties of advanced textile fibreglass composites. Composites Part A: Applied Science and Manufacturing. 1999;30:859-870\n'},{id:"B24",body:'\nWei J, Lin B, Cao X, Zhang X, Fang S. Two-dimensional evaluation of 3D needled Cf/SiC composite fiber bundle surface. Applied Surface Science. 2015;355:166-170\n'},{id:"B25",body:'\nFan SW, Xu YD, Zhang LT, Cheng LF, Yu L, Yuan YD, et al. Three-dimensional needled carbon/silicon carbide composites with high friction performance. Materials Science and Engineering: A. 2007;467:53-58\n'},{id:"B26",body:'\nWei J, Lin B, Wang H, Sui T, Yan S, Zhao F, et al. Friction and wear characteristics of carbon fiber reinforced silicon carbide ceramic matrix (Cf/SiC) composite and zirconia (ZrO2) ceramic under dry condition. Tribology International. 2018;119:45-54\n'},{id:"B27",body:'\nWei J, Wang H, Lin B, Sui T, Wang A, Zhao F, et al. Measurement and evaluation of fiber bundle surface of long fiber reinforced woven composites. Surface Topography: Metrology and Properties. 2019;7:015003\n'},{id:"B28",body:'\nWei J, Wang H, Lin B. Measurement of cell body and the whole surfaces of long fiber reinforced woven composites. In: IOP Conference Series: Materials Science and Engineering. Vol. 678. 2019. p. 012029\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Bin Lin",address:"linbin@tju.edu.cn",affiliation:'
Key Laboratory of Advanced Ceramics and Machining Technology of Ministry of Education, Tianjin, China
Key Laboratory of Advanced Ceramics and Machining Technology of Ministry of Education, Tianjin, China
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"8768",title:"Composite and Nanocomposite Materials",subtitle:"From Knowledge to Industrial Applications",fullTitle:"Composite and Nanocomposite Materials - From Knowledge to Industrial Applications",slug:"composite-and-nanocomposite-materials-from-knowledge-to-industrial-applications",publishedDate:"July 15th 2020",bookSignature:"Tri-Dung Ngo",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8768.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"208798",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tri-Dung",middleName:null,surname:"Ngo",slug:"tri-dung-ngo",fullName:"Tri-Dung Ngo"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"111893",title:"Dr.",name:"Tinuade",middleName:null,surname:"Afolabi",email:"tinuafolabi@yahoo.com",fullName:"Tinuade Afolabi",slug:"tinuade-afolabi",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"Ladoke Akintola University of Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Crude Oil Transportation: Nigerian Niger Delta Waxy Crude",slug:"crude-oil-transportation-nigerian-niger-delta-waxy-crude-oil",abstract:null,signatures:"Elijah Taiwo, John Otolorin and Tinuade Afolabi",authors:[{id:"105162",title:"Dr.",name:"Elijah",surname:"Taiwo",fullName:"Elijah Taiwo",slug:"elijah-taiwo",email:"eataiwo@yahoo.com"},{id:"111892",title:"Mr.",name:"John",surname:"Otolorin",fullName:"John Otolorin",slug:"john-otolorin",email:"johnotolorin@yahoo.com"},{id:"111893",title:"Dr.",name:"Tinuade",surname:"Afolabi",fullName:"Tinuade Afolabi",slug:"tinuade-afolabi",email:"tinuafolabi@yahoo.com"}],book:{title:"Crude Oil Exploration in the World",slug:"crude-oil-exploration-in-the-world",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"104550",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed",surname:"Younes",slug:"mohamed-younes",fullName:"Mohamed Younes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/104550/images/system/104550.jpg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Mohamed Abdel-Aziz Younes has recently rejoined the staff of Geology Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Egypt as a Professor of Petroleum Geology and Geochemistry in 2007.\nMohamed has B. Sc. Honors (1981) in Special Geology and M. Sc. (1985) in Petroleum Geology. He obtained his Ph. D. in Petroleum Geology and Geochemistry of the Gulf of Suez in (1991) from Alexandria University, Egypt.\nHe is an active member in the American Association of Petroleum Geologists (AAPG), European Association of Organic Geochemists (EAOG), the American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS) and the Egyptian Geological Survey (EGS). 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He is the head researcher in the Environmental\nChemistry and Toxicology Unit and the immediate past head of\ndepartment. Nduka is one of the most cited authors at Nnamdi Azikiwe University and a number of his papers are indexed\nin Scopus. He is involved in mentoring young academics at his\nuniversity and has participated in the National University (NUC) Accreditation of\nChemistry Program in a number of Nigerian universities. He received the RULA\nAward from India for International Best Researcher of 2020 in Environmental\nChemistry and Toxicology. 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BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
BKCI is a part of Web of Science Core Collection (WoSCC) and the world’s leading citation index with multidisciplinary content from the top tier international and regional journals, conference proceedings, and books. The Book Citation Index includes over 104,500 editorially selected books, with 10,000 new books added each year. Containing more than 53.2 million cited references, coverage dates back from 2005 to present. The Book Citation Index is multidisciplinary, covering disciplines across the sciences, social sciences, and arts & humanities.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, BIOSIS Previews research database provides researchers with the most current sources of life sciences information, including journals, conferences, patents, books, review articles, and more. Researchers can also access multidisciplinary coverage via specialized indexing such as MeSH disease terms, CAS registry numbers, Sequence Databank Numbers and Major Concepts.
Produced by the Web Of Science group, Zoological Record is the world’s oldest continuing database of animal biology. It is considered the world’s leading taxonomic reference, and with coverage back to 1864, has long acted as the world’s unofficial register of animal names. The broad scope of coverage ranges from biodiversity and the environment to taxonomy and veterinary sciences.
Provides a simple way to search broadly for scholarly literature. Includes peer-reviewed papers, theses, books, abstracts and articles, from academic publishers, professsional societies, preprint repositories, universities and other scholarly organizations. Google Scholar sorts articles by weighing the full text of each article, the author, the publication in which the article appears, and how often the article has been cited in other scholarly literature, so that the most relevant results are returned on the first page.
Microsoft Academic is a project exploring how to assist human conducting scientific research by leveraging machine’s cognitive power in memory, computation, sensing, attention, and endurance. Re-launched in 2016, the tool features an entirely new data structure and search engine using semantic search technologies. The Academic Knowledge API offers information retrieval from the underlying database using REST endpoints for advanced research purposes.
The national library of the United Kingdom includes 150 million manuscripts, maps, newspapers, magazines, prints and drawings, music scores, and patents. Online catalogues, information and exhibitions can be found on its website. The library operates the world's largest document delivery service, providing millions of items a year to national and international customers.
The digital NSK portal is the central gathering place for the digital collections of the National and University Library (NSK) in Croatia. It was established in 2016 to provide access to the Library’s digital and digitized material collections regardless of storage location. The digital NSK portal enables a unified search of digitized material from the NSK Special Collections - books, visual material, maps and music material. From the end of 2019, all thematic portals are available independently: Digital Books, Digitized Manuscripts, Digitized Visual Materials, Digital Music Materials and Digitized Cartographic Materials (established in 2017). Currently available only in Croatian.
The official DOI (digital object identifier) link registration agency for scholarly and professional publications. Crossref operates a cross-publisher citation linking system that allows a researcher to click on a reference citation on one publisher’s platform and link directly to the cited content on another publisher’s platform, subject to the target publisher’s access control practices. This citation-linking network covers millions of articles and other content items from several hundred scholarly and professional publishers.
Dimensions is a next-generation linked research information system that makes it easier to find and access the most relevant information, analyze the academic and broader outcomes of research, and gather insights to inform future strategy. Dimensions delivers an array of search and discovery, analytical, and research management tools, all in a single platform. Developed in collaboration with over 100 leading research organizations around the world, it brings together over 128 million publications, grants, policy, data and metrics for the first time, enabling users to explore over 4 billion connections between them.
The primary aim of DOAB (Directory of Open Access Books) is to increase discoverability of Open Access books. Metadata will be harvestable in order to maximize dissemination, visibility and impact. Aggregators can integrate the records in their commercial services and libraries can integrate the directory into their online catalogues, helping scholars and students to discover the books.
OAPEN is dedicated to open access, peer-reviewed books. OAPEN operates two platforms, the OAPEN Library (www.oapen.org), a central repository for hosting and disseminating OA books, and the Directory of Open Access Books (DOAB, www.doabooks.org), a discovery service for OA books.
OpenAIRE aims at promoting and implementing the directives of the European Commission (EC) and the European Research Council on the promotion and funding of science and research. OpenAIRE supports the Open Access Mandate and the Open Research Data Pilot developed as part of the Horizon 2020 projects.
An integrated information service combining reference databases, subscription management, online journals, books and linking services. Widely used by libraries, schools, government institutions, medical institutions, corporations and others.
SFX® link resolver gives patrons and librarians a wealth of features that optimize management of and access to resources. It provides patrons with a direct route to electronic full-text records through OpenURL linking, delivers alternative links for further resource discovery, access to journals, and more. Released in 2001 as the first OpenURL resolver, SFX is continuously enhanced to support the newest industry developments and meet the evolving needs of customers. The records include a mix of scholarly material – primarily articles and e-books – but also conference proceedings, newspaper articles, and more.
A non-profit, membership, computer library service and research organization dedicated to the public purposes of furthering access to the world's information and reducing information costs. More than 41,555 libraries in 112 countries and territories around the world use OCLC services to locate, acquire, catalogue, lend and preserve library materials.
The world’s largest collection of open access research papers. CORE's mission is to aggregate all open access research outputs from repositories and journals worldwide and make them available to the public. In this way CORE facilitates free unrestricted access to research for all.
Perlego is a digital online library focusing on the delivery of academic, professional and non-fiction eBooks. It is a subscription-based service that offers users unlimited access to these texts for the duration of their subscription, however IntechOpen content integrated on the platform will always be available for free. They have been billed as “the Spotify for Textbooks” by the Evening Standard. Perlego is based in London but is available to users worldwide.
MyScienceWork provides a suite of data-driven solutions for research institutions, scientific publishers and private-sector R&D companies. MyScienceWork's comprehensive database includes more than 90 million scientific publications and 12 million patents.
CNKI (China National Knowledge Infrastructure) is a key national information construction project under the lead of Tsinghua University, and supported by PRC Ministry of Education, PRC Ministry of Science, Propaganda Department of the Communist Party of China and PRC General Administration of Press and Publication. CNKI has built a comprehensive China Integrated Knowledge Resources System, including journals, doctoral dissertations, masters' theses, proceedings, newspapers, yearbooks, statistical yearbooks, ebooks, patents, standards and so on. CNKI keeps integrating new contents and developing new products in 2 aspects: full-text academic resources, software on digitization and knowledge management. Began with academic journals, CNKI has become the largest and mostly-used academic online library in China.
As one of the largest digital content platform in China,independently developed by CNPIEC, CNPeReading positions herself as “One Platform,Vast Content, Global Services”. Through their new cooperation model and service philosophy, CNPeReading provides integrated promotion and marketing solutionsfor upstream publishers, one-stop, triune, recommendation, online reading and management servicesfor downstream institutions & libraries.
ERIC (Education Resources Information Center), sponsored by the Institute of Education Sciences (IES) of the U.S. Department of Education, provides access to education literature to support the use of educational research and information to improve practice in learning, teaching, educational decision-making, and research. The ERIC website is available to the public for searching more than one million citations going back to 1966.
The ACM Digital Library is a research, discovery and networking platform containing: The Full-Text Collection of all ACM publications, including journals, conference proceedings, technical magazines, newsletters and books. A collection of curated and hosted full-text publications from select publishers.
BASE (Bielefeld Academic Search Engine) is one of the world's most voluminous search sengines especially for academic web resources, e.g. journal articles, preprints, digital collections, images / videos or research data. BASE facilitates effective and targeted searches and retrieves high quality, academically relevant results. Other than search engines like Google or Bing BASE searches the deep web as well. The sources which are included in BASE are intellectually selected (by people from the BASE team) and reviewed. That's why data garbage and spam do not occur.
Zentralblatt MATH (zbMATH) is the world’s most comprehensive and longest-running abstracting and reviewing service in pure and applied mathematics. It is edited by the European Mathematical Society (EMS), the Heidelberg Academy of Sciences and Humanities and FIZ Karlsruhe. zbMATH provides easy access to bibliographic data, reviews and abstracts from all areas of pure mathematics as well as applications, in particular to natural sciences, computer science, economics and engineering. It also covers history and philosophy of mathematics and university education. All entries are classified according to the Mathematics Subject Classification Scheme (MSC 2020) and are equipped with keywords in order to characterize their particular content.
IDEAS is the largest bibliographic database dedicated to Economics and available freely on the Internet. Based on RePEc, it indexes over 3,100,000 items of research, including over 2,900,000 that can be downloaded in full text. RePEc (Research Papers in Economics) is a large volunteer effort to enhance the free dissemination of research in Economics which includes bibliographic metadata from over 2,000 participating archives, including all the major publishers and research outlets. IDEAS is just one of several services that use RePEc data.
As the authoritative source for chemical names, structures and CAS Registry Numbers®, the CAS substance collection, CAS REGISTRY®, serves as a universal standard for chemists worldwide. Covering advances in chemistry and related sciences over the last 150 years, the CAS content collection empowers researchers, business leaders, and information professionals around the world with immediate access to the reliable information they need to fuel innovation.
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I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. 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