Main chemical compositions and mechanical properties of typical cast Mg alloys
Accurate prediction of fatigue performance and life is a key issue in the design and applications of the high strength-to-weight ratio of many contemporary magnesium alloys, which are suitable for ultimate weight reduction purposes in automotive and aircraft components. For example, the ever increasing demands for higher efficiency and light weight typical cases of power generation, aerospace and automotive industries call the maximum exploitation of the material’s properties. The combination of low density (about 1.74 g/cm3), high specific strength and excellent castability qualifies magnesium alloys as ideal materials for the lightweight constructions [1]. Thus, purely empirical models that heavily rely on larger safety factors are of limited uses. It is now widely recognized that fatigue damage models that are closely related to the microstructural features to provide a more reliable basis for a life prediction, provided that the relevant microstructural damage mechanisms are accurately accounted for. Therefore, there are increasing interests in the fatigue tests combined with the high-resolution microscopic techniques, environmental influencing factors, and especially in understanding their fatigue crack initiation and propagation behaviors with process rationalization [2-4]. Subsequently experimental observations on cast magnesium alloys have accumulatively revealed that the dendrite cell size, pores, secondary phase particles, persistent slip bands and twinning in the dendrite cells considerably affect on the fatigue durability and fatigue cracking behavior or crack growth mechanism of dendritic magnesium alloys [5-8]. The quantitative estimation of small fatigue crack growth rate of cast magnesium alloys is whether simply and effectively to assist the reversed design of cast magnesium alloys or ceaselessly to improve the strength and toughness of cast magnesium alloys. At the same time, it is necessary how to understand that these microstructural features of cast magnesium alloys play role in the fatigue cracking behavior or that the microstructural evolution reacts to the applied loadings. However, it is difficult to use conventional alloying techniques to improve some of their properties, e.g. elastic modulus, elastic-plastic deforming property and the different thermal expansion between phases during the shrinking at the high elevated temperatures. Under these conditions the elastic, and the possible plastic, properties of the secondary phase will influence the mechanical response during an applied loading since the interface of secondary phase will transmit stresses from the matrix around the secondary phase when the interface both the matrix and secondary phase has a compatible strain field. If the elastic modulus or elastic-plastic property of the secondary phase is larger than that of the surrounding matrix in the secondary phase will take up a larger load than the matrix next to the secondary phase so that the stresses are reduced in the vicinity of the secondary phase. On the other hand, the modulus of elasticity of the secondary phase is smaller that that of the matrix, the secondary phase will take up a smaller load than the matrix next to the secondary phase so that the stresses are increased in the vicinity of the secondary phase. From the above analysis it is obvious that the secondary phase with different thermal expansion properties or elastic properties compares to the matrix will behave differently with respect to crack initiation and early growth during fatigue loading. Therefore, one must resort to fiber/particle reinforcement in order to reduce the difference of thermal expansion properties or elastic properties between the secondary phase and the matrix. The solubility of alloying elements in magnesium alloy is limited, which restricts the possibility of improving the mechanical properties and chemical behavior of this material. The crystal structure of magnesium is hexagonal which limits its inherent ductility. The only alloying element, which causes a useful phase change to bcc, in this respect, is lithium. The property profiles demanded by automobile and other large-scale potential users of magnesium alloys have revealed the need for alloy development. A direct transfer of high performance aircraft alloys is not possible on economic grounds and the property profile does not coincide. Ebert et al. [1] previously indicated that there are four development trends based on their main requirements, which are as following respectively: First trend of specific strength is Mg-Al-Mn, Mg-Al-Zn, Mg-Zn-Cu, Mg-Al-Ca (-Re), Mg-Li-X. Second trend of good ductility is Mg-Si, Mg-Al-Ca (-re), Mg-Li-X. Third trend of good creep resistance is Mg-Al-Re, Mg-Al-Ca-X, Mg-Ag-Re-Zr, Mg-Y-Re-Zr, and Mg-Sc-X-Y. And the final trend of good wear, creep, thermal expansion is fibre/particle reinforced Mg-MMC’s. Therefore, the mechanical properties and microstructure of magnesium alloys can be improved by above mentioned development trends [1,9-11]. No matter what development trends in the alloying processes of this material, some microstructural defects are impossibly to be avoided. And, the effects of these microstructural defects on the cracking behavior, the interactions on the microstructural defects and differential phases with different elastic or thermal expansion properties occur mainly in the ranges of meso/micro scales; therefore, the investigations have to localize in the techniques with high-resolution microscope, especially
Dating back to the seventies of the last century, the potential of
Following discussions and analyses about the fatigue cracking behaviors and influencing factors of typical cast magnesium alloys are the main aims of this chapter. These involve the considerations of materials science, engineering mechanics and experimental technology at the microstructural level including to the microstructural defects. Principles of these sciences and technology are utilized for a design of microstructures having superior fracture/failure resistance. The fatigue micro crack initiation and propagation behaviors are especially useful the design against fracture, in providing the improving the approach about the mechanical properties of cast magnesium alloys. The design philosophy inherent to fracture mechanics is that the operating stress must be less than the magnesium alloys’ critical fracture stress. The critical stress may be much less in “real” engineering structures than in “flaw-free” magnesium alloy as a result of notches, cracks and pores of macroscopic dimensions that are present to one degree or another in all structural parts. Therefore, the room temperature tests conducted on the cast magnesium alloys are addressed first, as these demonstrate that substantial environmental effects on the fatigue damage evolution can be observed in certain materials even at room temperature. The second part of the chapter focuses on high-temperatures
Scanning electron micrographs at the lower and higher magnifications of typical cast magnesium alloys, such as AZ91D, AZ91, AM60, AM60B, AM50 and additions some mischmetals into these magnesium alloys, were shown in as following Figures. In these SEM images, we see clearly the mainly microstructural components of primary α-Mg cells and β-Mg17Al12 phase as shown in Figs. 1 A -1E. With increasing of aluminum content, the distribution density of β-Mg17Al12 phase becomes larger and larger. As the typical cast AM50 alloy, the microstructural components should consist of the following:
\n\t\t\t\tHexagonal α-Mg cells having a linear intercept average size of about 20 μm. However, larger α-Mg cells with an average size of about 50 μm appear in groups within isolated nodules (Figs. 1E). The microstructure of other cast magnesium alloys such as AM60, AZ91, has a similar to that of AM50. The obvious difference of their microstructures is at the size and distribution of α-Mg phase or in the geometrical shape of β-Mg17Al12 phase. For example, microstructural morphology of AM60 or AZ91 alloy consists also of α-Mg matrix and secondary phase of β-Mg17Al12 or β-Mg17Al12X (X denotes another element) along grain boundaries as shown in Figs. 1 B and 1C, especially in thick section with lower cooling rate.
In these microstructures, there is a little other Mn rich phase inclusion juxtaposed of two particles (as shown in Figs. 1D). As illustrated result in Figs. 1D, this small white particle on the secondary phase represents a distinct phase in a polygonal shape more enriched in Mn and centered on an oval grey precipitate. The polygonal particle is reminiscent of the hexagonal crystal structured Al8Mn5 phase reported by Wang et al. in their transmission electron microscopy (TEM) analysis [32]. From the electron probe microanalysis mapping, this phase still contains Mn element but with more enrichment in Al element and a maximum localization of Si element. It may correspond then to an agglomeration of Al6Mn or/and AlMnSi phase reported in Refs [33] and [34], respectively. I agree much more that the aforementioned superposition of Mn-rich particles is referred to as Mn-rich inclusion [4].
Typical microstructure of cast magnesium alloys
In addition, the shrinkage pores or other casting defects are also the microstructural feature of cast magnesium alloys as shown in Figs. 2. The shrinkage pores or casting defects are caused by the different deformation rates because there are different thermal expansions and elastic properties between the two phases. These defects of shrinkage clusters located disjointedly in the interdendritic regions. These pores cause the hydrogen penetration into the dendritic structure during solidification, in which the surface of pores occurs easily in the significant plastic striations in micro scale under the applied loading [4].
Typical microstructural defect of cast AM50 alloy
The microstructure of typical cast AM50 alloy is present in the brittle eutectic phase (β-Mg17Al12) that its micro-hardness is about 88.34 MPa, and is present the softer matrix of primary phase (α-Mg) that its micro-hardness is about 66.86 MPa [15]. As the existent difference of micro-hardness between the two phases, the interface of two phases occurs easily in the deformation mismatch under the applied loading [4,6,10,14-17]. It is thus clear that a pore which is debonded from the matrix will act as a preferential site for crack initiation and crack early growth. The only significant difference between a surface and an internal pore/debonded β-Mg17Al12 is that the former will show more rapid crack growth once the crack has circumvented around the pore/debonded β-Mg17Al12.
Refinement microstructure of cast magnesium alloys with addition of Ca/Sr
MgxAly)Sr phase distribution of cast magnesium alloys with addition of Sr
The rare earths (REs) or Ca etc. have been used in magnesium alloys for many years, whereas the alloys of Mg-Al-RE/Ca/Sr system have been developed in the recent decade [35,36]. For example, the refinement influence of the separated and composite addition of Ca and Sr is showed in Figs. 3. We can see that the microstructural features of cast magnesium alloys after refinement influence based on the addition some elements into the matrix. One of many influencing factors is that the β-phase becomes more and more slender when the addition of 0.4 wt%Ca into AZ91D was carried out as shown in Figs. 3 A -3B. And other phase such as (MgxAly)Sr located mainly on the β-Mg17Al12 phase thus it can classify as the secondary phase as shown in Figs. 4. Through the addition RE or Ca/Sr into the Mg alloys, formed the α-Mg grain boundaries can cause the interface to become a more steady than that prior to addition. The behavior of addition REs or Ca/Sr can improve the mechanical, corrode and hot-crack resistance properties, especially the mechanical property of cast magnesium alloys at high temperatures [9-11,37,38].
As above mentioned, some microstructural features, such as a dendrite, interdendritic pore, shrinkage pores, and secondary phase particles, are the important factors to affect on the mechanical properties. On the other hand, the boundary strengthening by addition RE or Ca/Sr elements can improve the mechanical properties of cast magnesium alloys. Therefore, the main chemical compositions and mechanical properties of typical cast magnesium alloys used the fatigue cracking tests in this chapter were listed in Table 1. And in these typical cases, the effects of addition Ca/Sr into AZ91D alloy on the mechanical properties were listed as shown in Table 2.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AM50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.5-5.3 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.2-0.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t<0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t135 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t200 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t9-10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AM60 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.99 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.22 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.2 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t160 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t210 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4-7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AM60B | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t5.5-6.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.2-0.6 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.25 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t150 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t240 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t10-12 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AZ91 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8.2-9.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.15-0.4 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.92 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.05 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t180 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t250 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.0-3.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AZ91D | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t8.3-9.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.15-0.5 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.35-1.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.10 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t160 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.7-1.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Main chemical compositions and mechanical properties of typical cast Mg alloys
In Table 2, it is clearly seen that the yield stress of AZ91D increase slightly but the tensile stress and elongation decreases slightly with the increasing addition Ca amount into the cast AZ91D at RT. The mechanical properties improved well under the slightly composite addition of Ca and Sr. It is because that ductility parameter as mechanical properties of cast magnesium alloy is determined by the number of operative slip systems. Mg being hexagonal slips at room temperature on the base plane (0001) <1120> and secondary slip on vertical face planes (1010) in the <1120> direction. This limits ductility at the lower temperatures. At elevated temperatures slip also occurs in the <\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Composition (Wt %) | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t||||
Yield stress | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTensile stress | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tElongation | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tYield stress | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tTensile stress | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tElongation | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
AZ91D | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t72 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t160 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.67 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t58 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t105 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t4.8 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AZ91D-0.40Ca | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t83 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t145 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.0 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AZ91D-0.60Ca | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t84 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t143 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.30 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AZ91D-1.00Ca | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t86 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t138 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.99 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t- | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AZ91D-0.40Ca-0.05Sr | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t80 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t152 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.49 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t68 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t112 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.7 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
AZ91D-0.40Ca-0.10Sr | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t76 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t150 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.51 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t65 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t108 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.9 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Mechanical properties of the typical cast Mg alloys with an addition Ca/Sr
which offer the possibility of having a phase mixture of bcc and hcp phase, there has been punch work into the development of fine grain material. One such technique, which has been proved successful in the case of aluminum and copper based alloys and steels, is spray forming fine grain material [1]. However, the composite addition a little Ca/Sr into AZ91D caused the yield stress of cast magnesium alloy much more to be improved than that single addition Ca into AZ91D. Another importance mechanical property of cast magnesium alloy is the tensile behavior (including to the tensile strength and ductile properties of material), which comes from the typical tensile tests about the cast AM60B and AZ91D at room and elevated temperatures were carried out with the smooth specimens. The tensile behaviors by these tensile curves of cast magnesium alloys as shown in Figs. 5 are better than that by Table 2. In the Figs. 5A, the effect of the elevated temperature (which is over than 150 ºC or 423K) on the strength of cast AM60B can be not ignored but the effect of the elevated temperature on the strength of cast AM60B+0.05wt%Sr is not obvious as shown in Figs. 5A. This is because the addition slight Sr into AM60B caused the α-Mg grain coarsening [38]. The coarsening grain will influence the tensile properties of AM60B compared with the results before and after addition of slight Sr amount at the RT condition but with a slight influence on the tensile properties at the elevated temperature. However, for the cast AZ91D, before and after addition 0.05-0.10 wt%Sr, you can clearly see that the effect of elevated temperature and addition a slight Sr amount on the strength and ductile properties can be also not ignored as shown in Figs. 5B. But, there is still not clear issue on the influence mechanism of cast magnesium alloys nowadays during these additional processes and at the critical transferred temperature of cast magnesium alloys. Many researchers thought that mischmetal has grain refinement effect on AZ31, AZ61 and AZ91 alloys, and put forward the grain refinement mechanism as follows. During the solidification process, mischmetal enriched in front of solid/liquid interface, and gave rise to growth of α-Mg dendrites was suppressed and resulted in grain refinement. But no micrographs were given showing grain structures before and after mischmetal addition into AZ31, AZ61 and AZ91 alloys [38]. Another literature mentioned that small addition of pure cerium and mischmetal consisting of La and Ce led to considerable grain coarsening in AM50 alloy, and grain structures before and after mischmetal addition were shown, however, there was no explanation about the grain coarsening mechanism [39]. Although the experimental conditions in each researcher were different, the influence of mischmetal addition on grain size of Mg-Al alloys should be the same. The main reason for the discrepancy ascribed to the difficultly etching technique for revealing the grain boundaries of casting magnesium alloys. Li et al. [38] reported that small amount addition of mischmetal ranging from 0.10 wt% to 1.20 wt% (mass fraction) causes considerable grain coarsening in Mg-Al alloys. After adding 1.20 wt% (mass fraction) mischmetal into AZ31, AM60 and AZ91 alloys respectively, the average grain size is approximately twice as larger as that of the original alloy. The change of microstructure must cause the change of mechanical properties of cast Mg-Al alloys.
\n\t\t\t\tThe tensile behavior of typical cast magnesium alloys
We previously reported that with increasing the amount of addition Ca into AZ91D, the hot-crack property decreases but the α-Mg grain-refinement of AZ91D alloy was improved [9-11]. The hot-cracking mechanism of Ca addition into AZ91D alloy was conjectured to be that Ca addition elevates the tendency of the divorce eutectic and formation temperature of the Al2Ca phase. The Ca-contained phase was distributed as a net-shape on the grain boundary and debases the boundary tension of liquid film, deteriorating the filling capacity and lowering the hot-crack property of cast magnesium alloys [9,11]. The influence of addition Sr on the microstructure of Ca-containing AZ91D alloy is shown in Figs. 3C. The Sr element aggregates also to the grain boundary just as Ca element does. Some of Ca element combined with Sr and formed a certain compound phase labeled MgAlCaSr phase. Sr addition to Ca-containing AZ91D alloy effectively suppresses the influence Ca addition on AZ91D alloy, which can assist in improving hot-crack resistance of Ca-containing AZ91D alloy. The effects of Ca/Sr separate and composite additions into cast AZ91D magnesium alloy on the microstructure and tensile behavior indicated that Ca refines both grain and eutectic phase of AZ91D magnesium alloy. However, Sr can weaken the refinement effect of Ca when Ca/Sr composite is added. Ca/Sr addition evidently improves the microstructural stability of AZ91D magnesium alloy at elevated temperature. Addition of small Ca amount into AZ91D magnesium alloy improves yield strength but decreases the elongation of this alloy. Appropriate Ca/Sr composite addition into AZ91D magnesium alloy can improve the elongation and maintain the excellent yield strength of AZ91D magnesium alloy containing Ca. It is deduced that separate Ca addition to AZ91D magnesium alloy is able to refine grain size and consequently improve the yield strength, based on the Hall-Petch relation, which is shown in Fig. 6. With decreasing the α-Mg grain diameter (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Yield stress at different temperatures versus the diameter of
Based on the above mentioned microstructural features of typical cast magnesium alloys, including addition Ca/Sr or RE elements into these alloys, the low-cycle fatigue (LCF) crack initiation and propagation tests were carried out at RT by using scanning electron microscopy. Majority experiment results indicated that the fatigue crack initiation occurred preferentially at the pores, grain boundary because of the slip incompatibilities between adjacent dendrite cells as shown in Figs.7 [6,12,13-17]. In the Figs. 7A, the fatigue crack initiation occurred at the root of manual notch which its radius is about 50 μm and it is slightly larger than the average size of α-Mg grain of cast AM50 alloy. The micro crack propagated in interdendritic regions, along crystallographic planes. The propagation behavior of small fatigue crack depended strongly on the effect of both high temperature and microstructure. When there is a pore as shown in Figs. 7B, the crack occurred at the pore and accompanied by slight plastic deformations in the adjacent α-Mg grain surface. Another aspect of cracking shows in Figs. 7C, which shows that the crack initiation mechanism of general cast magnesium alloys is due to the plastic deformation incompatibilities to occur at the boundary or pores between the adjacent grains. Even if there are not the slip vestiges on the surface α-Mg grains under the applied stress, the crack occurred also at the boundary because the deformation mismatch between the α-Mg phase and β-Mg17Al12 phase as shown in Figs. 7 D -7F. One of important reasons is caused by the difference of micro-hardness between both two phases [6,13-16]. As this reason, the fatigue crack propagated mainly along the boundary or β-Mg17Al12 phase of cast magnesium alloys at the RT as the typical cases shown in Figs. 8. The fatigue crack propagation process of cast typical AM50 alloy indicated that the crack propagated microscopically in the zigzag manner but macroscopically in a projection to the loading direction. With increasing of cyclic number under the maximum applied stress of 128 MPa (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Micro fatigue cracking images of different cast magnesium alloys at R=0.1
crack propagation path in front of a α-Mg grain resulted a deflective angle then around the boundary of this grain after N=5060 cycles as shown in Figs. 8C, this fatigue crack propagation direction evolved gradually a macroscopical crack after N=5222 cycles as shown in Figs. 8 D. As the fatigue crack propagation test of cast AM50 alloy, the fatigue crack initiation occurred in the root of notch and propagation was along the boundary of α-Mg grain or interface between α phase and β phase as shown in Figs. 7 C and 7D. In addition, the fatigue crack initiation and propagation accompanied always by the obvious plastic deformation vestiges, where occurred mainly on α-Mg phase surface as shown in Figs. 7 B and 7C.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFatigue crack evolutive process of cast AM50 alloy at RT.
For majority investigations on the fatigue crack initiation and propagation of cast magnesium alloys, their fatigue cracking mechanism has the similar result at room temperature. For example, the fatigue crack initiation of cast AM60 alloy occurred also at the root of manual notch as shown in Figs. 9A, where accompanied by some plastic deformation vestiges around the fatigue crack. With increasing the cycles, the fatigue crack propagated along the boundary or β-Mg17Al12 phase compared with the results in Figs. 9 A and 9B. In addition, the incontinuous crack initiated points were gradually linked as a main fatigue crack or to be defined as the Stage II of fatigue crack growth as shown in Figs. 9B with increasing of cyclic numbers. A larger number of studies devolving on microstructural observations have been conducted, however, and these allow us qualitatively to describe fatigue initiation as it is found to take place in the majority metallic materials. Fatigue fractures in these materials originate almost exclusively at internal or external surfaces, the latter being more common. In all materials there are regions of local inhomogeneity, that result in local “softening,” or surface defect to cause local stress concentrations. Either or both of these factors can result in localized plastic flow, which, under the action of a cyclical stress (/strain), can produce surface features that bear, in some senses, a resemblance to a crack or flaw. The plastic vestiges around the crack to be about 45º tilted to the applied loading as shown in Figs. 9A, in which indicated that the “extrusions” and “intrusions” occurred on the surfaces of α-Mg grains. We note that this nucleation stage, Stage I, of fatigue fracture is crystallographic in nature; that is, it is dictated by flow, rather than by tensile fracture, considerations. As a consequence, the initial fatigue crack plane normal is not parallel to the principal tensile axis, and the nucleated crack propagates initially at an angle other than 90º to this axis. Following these nucleation and initial crack-propagation events, slow crack growth (Stage II of fatigue) ensues after the Stage I crack has grown to some critical size determined by material mechanical properties and the applied stress level and state as shown Figs. 9 B.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFatigue cracking images of cast AM60 alloy under applied stress of 120 MPa at R=0.1.
The relations of all fatigue crack growth lengths versus the cyclic numbers can be expressed by \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Crack growth length versus cyclic number of cast magnesium alloys.
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
As the curves of the fatigue crack growth at different conditions, if the crack growth length is as a constant, such as\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Based on the both parameters of applied stress level and measurable crack growth length in this empiric equation, which involves to the ultimate capable measurement of fatigue crack length \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Above mentioned the estimation of fatigue crack growth life, there is an obvious benefit that the fatigue crack growth law is rather simple because it is based on the engineering stress amplitude or maximum stress at the certain stress ratio and the measurable crack growth length. In addition, as a general engineering fatigue life of materials, it is able to include to two parts of fatigue life, one is the fatigue crack initiated life and another is the fatigue crack propagation life. The farmer is mainly to be decided by the fatigue experiments of smooth specimens or to be deduced by
As above mentioned results that the fatigue crack initiation and propagation behavior of cast AM50, AM60, AZ91 alloys are at room temperature. In this section, we introduce simply the effect of the elevated temperature on the fatigue crack initial and propagated mechanism of typical cast magnesium alloys. For example, Figs. 13 shown that the typical fatigue cracking features of cast AM50 alloy at the different elevated temperatures but under the same applied stress of 125 MPa. In the Figs. 13A, the fatigue crack initiation occurred still at the root of notch but the early stage of crack propagation is along either the boundary of α-Mg grain or to cleave the α-Mg grain in front to the crack tip. The fatigue cracking mechanism in the microscopically zone is analogous to the quasi-brittle or quasi-ductile (intervenient brittle and ductile) fracture mechanism of engineering materials. At room temperature, we did not find that the α-Mg grain of cast AM50 alloy was cleaved. However, the fatigue crack propagation is either along the boundary of α-Mg grain or to cleave the α-Mg grain as shown in Figs. 13C. In addition, the fatigue crack propagation mechanism of cast AM50 alloy at the elevated temperature indicated that the fatigue branch crack was found as shown in Figs. 13B. This means that the fracture mechanism of cast magnesium alloy at the elevated temperature which is dominated by the couple of Mode I and Mode II, which differs obviously from that which is main fracture Mode I at room temperature in microscopically zone. Although the cyclic force acting normal to the crack surface serves to open up the crack and to propagate it in a direction normal to the tensile stress, a shear component of stress is applied normally to the leading edge of the crack, which propagates in a direction parallel to the sense of the applied stress to be caused by the plastic deformation in local region at the elevated temperature state. Therefore, the branched probability of fatigue crack is along about 45º tilted to the crack propagation direction as shown in Figs. 13B. This is because there is the maximum shear component of applied normal stress in this direction. Corresponding effect of the elevated temperatures on the fatigue cracking mechanism of cast magnesium alloys has analogous to composite fractures Mode I/II. Therefore, the effect of the elevated temperature on the fatigue cracking mechanism of cast magnesium alloys can be not ignored. This effect of the elevated temperature on the fatigue branched cracking can be contributed by the hardness of β-Mg17Al12 to have a softness trend so that the plastic deformation mismatch in the boundary or interface becomes decreasing or weak. This is a competitive result of the interface strength and the fracture strength of α-Mg grain.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFatigue cracking characterizations of cast AM50 alloy at the elevated temperatures under the maximum applied stress of 125MPa at R=0.1.
All typically measured results of fatigue crack propagation length of cast AM50 alloy at the different elevated temperatures according to the projection to the loading direction can be plotted in Figs. 14. These curves of fatigue crack growth length at the different elevated temperatures are still similar to the linear trends under the different applied stress levels. It means that the fatigue crack growth rate (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Crack growth length versus cyclic number at the elevated temperatures
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
At the different elevated temperatures, the dominated index
Measurements or estimation of the crack growth rates are useful for an engineering design, and they also add to our understanding of the fatigue process. For example, knowledge of the Stage II as shown in Figs. 9B crack-growth arte and the cast magnesium alloys’ fracture toughness permits an estimation of the number of Stage II cycles prior to catastrophic final fracture. Thus, for a cast magnesium alloy subject to LCF (
Index
Constant
Measurement of Stage II crack growth rates are commonly performed in many laboratories. A pre-notch sample of the kind used for fracture-mechanics tests (cf. in next section of 2.4) suffices also for the measurements of fatigue-crack growth rate. The sample is typically subjected to a fixed stress (or in some cases, strain) amplitude at a specified mean stress or stress ratio (
Where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Schematic of crack-growth rate as a function of the cyclical stress intensity factor for different
Although \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Crack growth rate as a function of SIF at the different temperatures.
Therefore, based on the results of fatigue crack propagation tests at the different elevated temperatures and SIF, the experimental results were plotted as shown in Figs. 20. These results have a larger scatter at RT and 100 ºC than that at over than at 150 ºC when the maximum applied stress amplitudes are 120 MPa, 125 MPa, 128 MPa and 140 MPa, respectively. It means that the fatigue crack growth rate at both RT and 100 ºC can not be characterized uniquely by SIF as shown in Figs. 20A although the fatigue crack growth rate can be uniquely characterized by the term of \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Stress parameters needed to characterize the push-pull fatigue test (and other types of, such as rotating-beam fatigue test) are related to the maximum (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Only a few of structural parts prone to fatigue failure experience cycles that are simulated by alternating compression and tension stresses of equal magnitude. Thus, the tests other than the rotating-beam test are better suited for assessing the fatigue resistance of other parts. A cyclical tensile test is often suitable for this purpose. In it, a specified stress amplitude is cyclically imposed on a finite mean stress; a typical stress-time history for such a procedure is shown in Figs. 21.
\n\t\t\t\t\tCharacteristic stress-time variations in (A) an engineered structure subject to a positive mean stress on which is superimposed random loading, (B) a rotation beam fatigue test in which the material experiences alternating compressive and tensile stresses of equal magnitude, and (C) a cyclical tensile test in which a time-varying sinusoidal stress is imposed on a constant mean stress.
Because of the important role of plasticity in fatigue damage, it is fundamentally more sounds to assess a cast magnesium alloy’s fatigue response under different conditions of a specified cyclically applied strain, rather than stress. Nonetheless, stress-controlled tests are still traditional and are also conveniently performed; the results from them are widely used in engineering design against fatigue damage. Based on the results of stress-controlled tests, it is possible to estimate the relation of the cyclical stress-strain of cast magnesium alloys. For example, during high-cycle fatigue (HCF) (when the number of cycles to failure is very larger (>103~104)) the macroscopic stress level is such that the structure as a whole undergoes only elastic deformation, and, in this case, the elastic strain range (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
where
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Therefore, the plastic strain range is related to applied stress range by knowing the cast magnesium alloys’ cyclical hardening response. In the general case, the plastic strain range is still decided by Eqs. (4-4) and (4-5). Thus, the strain is also as a simple function of the term of\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Cast magnesium alloys behave “differently” when subjected to a cyclical stress-strain environment from the way they do when subjected to a monotonously increasing stress or strain as in a tension test. Knowledge of this cyclic behavior enhances our understanding of the fatigue process. Moreover, data obtained from such studies are useful for engineering design against fatigue fracture. The fatigue behavior of cast magnesium alloys under a cyclical mechanical environment can be investigated by subjecting them to either specified cyclical stress or strain amplitude. The latter is more commonly done and the results from this kind of test constitute the focus of our discussions. If fixed strain amplitude (consisting of some plastic strain component) is imposed on a cast magnesium alloy, the stress range is not fixed but varies with the number of cycles or strain reversals. The cast magnesium alloy may either soften (the stress amplitude decreases with increasing of time/cycles) or harden (when it increases with number of cycles). Moreover, the extent of softening or hardening is a function of the plastic strain range. The behavior of a cyclically hardening material is illustrated in Figs. 22A. Hear we see that the stress amplitude required maintaining the specified strain range increases with the number of cycles, and this is also manifested by an increase in the area of the hysteresis loop (the trace of stress and strain over the course of one cycle). When the magnesium alloy cyclically softens as shown in Figs. 22B, the hysteresis loop becomes smaller concomitantly with the decrease in the stress amplitude necessary to maintain the fixed strain range.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThe hysteresis loop of materials
As an investigation on the fatigue cracking mechanism of cast magnesium alloys relates to the microstructural features, the SEM
SEM
All fatigue crack propagation tests are by the loading control at R=0.1 in this chapter. Therefore, the displacements and temperatures have to be performed by two computers. And the experimental data are also recorded in a random time during the fatigue test.
\n\t\t\t\tIn addition, the system can provide pulsating, such as sine wave etc., loads at different frequencies about general not over than 10 Hz of a certain load capacity. Due there is a deformation on the surface of sample under the applied loadings, it is difficult to observe the clear damaged characteristics in the microscope. Therefore, the special technique was used by Shimadzu Inc. Japan as shown in Figs. 24. Based on the principle of SEM
The principle of SEM
As the typical plate with some pores in engineering applications and their especial mechanical properties of cast magnesium alloys, the effects of spacing and alignment pores on the fatigue cracking behaviors have to be considered as an issue in majority studies. Above mentioned the fatigue crack initiation behavior indicated that the effect of stress concentrate at a notch on the fatigue crack initiation can be not ignored. Therefore, the interaction of multi-cracks to occur at the multi-pores on the plate of cast magnesium alloys and the influence of intersectional stress concentrate regions between the multi-pores on the fatigue crack initiation and propagation are also not to avoid. These issues refer the experimental and simulated methods, which can investigate the existent pores whether to contribute faster growth from the origins of crack. In this section, we investigated the effects of different spacing and alignments of manually small pores (as shown in Table 3) on the fatigue crack propagation and fracture behaviors of cast magnesium alloys based on SEM
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
90º inclined pores | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t45º inclined pores | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|||
AM60B | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
0.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
AZ91 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t0.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
0.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t1.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\tx | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
0.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t2.00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t|
0.50 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t3.00 | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t√ | \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Spacing and alignments of small pores for cast magnesium alloys
Effect of 45º orientations at the two small pores on the fatigue crack growth behavior of cast AM60B alloy. (A) σmax=100MPa, D=2.0mm, N=5000; (B) σmax=100MPa, D=2.0mm, Nf=9744; (C) σmax=100MPa, Nf=9075, D=3.0mm.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigs. 25 given the typical fracture cases with two 45º orientations and different spaces under the same stress amplitude and
Effect of 45º orientations at the two small pores on the fatigue crack growth behavior of cast AZ91 alloy. (A) σmax=145MPa, D=2.0mm, N=0; (B) σmax=145MPa, D=2.0 mm, Nf=952.
As another typical case with the 45º orientations at the two pores specimen of cast AZ91 alloy, the fatigue crack propagation behavior is shown in Figs. 26A-26B when the applied stress level was changed at R=0.1. The spacing between the 45º orientations at the two small pores is still about 2.0 mm. The result indicates that fatigue crack initiation stochastically occurred at the root of one pore and the fatigue multi-cracks initiation to occur at the roots of two small pores. Thereinto, the fatigue crack in closed edge of specimen propagated along the 90º tilted the applied loading direction and the fatigue cracks between two pores easily produce a coalescence of crack with another one so that the fatigue cracks propagation directions have to deflect an angle in the stress concentration overlapped regions as shown in Figs. 26B. Compared with the results above mentioned cast AM60B, the different mechanical properties of materials (especially the fracture toughness) affect on the difference of fatigue crack propagation path at the approximately experimental conditions as shown in Figs. 25 and Figs. 26. For the specimens with two small pores tilted about 45º orientations to the applied loading axis, the fatigue crack propagation path depends not only on the spacing of two small pores, but also on the fracture toughness of cast magnesium. In contrast, the fatigue crack initiation and propagation behaviors follow as the principle of the maximum strength of material. That is, the fatigue crack initiation occurs at the region of stress concentration and the fatigue crack preferentially propagated along the overlapped region of stress concentration. In addition, the influencing range of two pores with 45º orientations on the fatigue crack growth path is the critical spacing value, which is not over than 2.0 mm when the diameter of pore is about 0.5 mm. If the smaller spacing of two pores is, the greater in the probability of the fatigue crack propagated interaction between two small pores. As the elongation of AZ91 is about 3%, which is less than that of AM60B, the fatigue crack initiation easily occurs at the many sites around each pore even if there is a strong influence of stress concentrate region. Therefore, these multi-cracks propagated as the manner as shown in Figs. 26B. This reflects the fact that the fatigue crack initiation behavior is a competitive result of the interactions both fracture toughness properties and notch effect of cast magnesium alloys.
\n\t\t\t\tEffect of 90º orientations at the two pores on the fatigue crack growth behavior of cast AZ91 alloy at R=0.1. (A) σmax=100MPa, N=0; (B) σmax=100MPa, N=52464; (C) σmax=100MPa, N=38543.
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigs. 27A to Figs. 27C show the fatigue crack initiation and propagation behaviors of cast AZ91 alloy for the 90º tilted to the two small pores and the spacing of about 2.0 mm, 1.0 mm, respectively. These results indicated that the fatigue crack initiation occurred still at the root of notch in each pore. Due the spacing between two pores is greater than the distance to edge of sample, the fatigue crack propagated preferentially to the edge of sample as shown in Figs. 27B. However, if the spacing between two pores is less than 2.0 mm as shown in Figs. 27C, the fatigue crack propagation direction is preferentially to the insider between the two small pores (to refer the mark A zone in Figs. 27A). And the fatigue cracks to occur at the sides between the two pores were easily linked a main fatigue crack so that it cause rapidly the fatigue fracture of specimen as shown in Figs. 27C. That is, the fatigue crack initiation and propagation behaviors depend strongly on the spacing between two small pores and on the two pores with 90º or 45º tilted to the applied loading direction.
\n\t\t\t\tCast AM60B alloy with the different spacing of 45º orientations at the two pores under σmax=120MPa,
Cast AM60B alloy with the different spacing of 90º orientations at the two pores under σmax=120MPa.
To validate the critical spacing value of two pores above mentioned 2.0 mm, Figs. 28 and Figs. 29 show the experimental evidences which are the effective results of different spacing and alignments of cast AM60B alloy under the same applied stress amplitude, respectively. For the specimens with the 45º orientations at the two pores as shown in Figs. 28, the effect of spacing between two pores on the fatigue fracture is obvious. In the Figs. 28C, the final fracture of specimen did not cause the coalescence of cracks at one pore with another pore when the spacing between two pores is over than 3.0 mm. But the spacing between two pores is less than 2.0 mm, the fatigue crack occurred at the two pores finally linked with each other. Therefore, we can obtain that the fatigue life increases with the increasing of spacing with the 45º orientation at the two pores. This reflects the fact that the interaction of fatigue cracks affects on the fatigue life. Likewise, when the alignment of two pores was changed as the 90º orientation as shown in Figs. 29, the experimental results indicated that the fatigue life of cast AM60B alloy is also affected by the spacing between two pores. And the critical value of spacing between two pores is approximate 2.0 mm. That is, when the spacing is over than 3.0 mm, the effect of alignment with two pores on the fatigue life of cast AM60B can ignore although there is slight difference in their fracture lives. One of reasons about this difference focus on the fatigue crack initiation life because of the quality of drilled pores. For example, the effect of the quality of drilled pores on the fatigue life of cast AZ91 alloy shown in Figs. 30. Although there are the same experimental conditions such as the spacing and alignment of two pores as well as under the applied stress level, the fatigue life exists in the slight difference after 5.25×104 cycles. This is because the fatigue crack initiation occurs preferentially at the rather bigger pore as shown in Figs. 30A. And if the fatigue crack occurs synchronously at the edges of two pores, the fatigue cracks cause easily a coalescence of cracks with another one, especially like as the rapidly linked cracks in the spacing between two pores as shown in Figs. 30B.
\n\t\t\t\tAlternatively, for 45º orientations at the two pores with the spacing (which is 1.5 mm, 2.0 mm, 3.0 mm, respectively) of cast AZ91 alloy, the fatigue life and fracture manners under the different applied stress amplitudes are respectively shown in Figs. 31. The fatigue cracks propagation path difference of cast AZ91 alloy with two pores specimens is very obvious. The interaction of fatigue cracks did not occur when the spacing is 3.0 mm.
\n\t\t\t\tCast AZ91 alloy with the same spacing of 90º orientations at the two pores under σmax=100 MPa.
Cast AZ91 alloy with the different spacing of 45º orientations at the two pores (1.5 mm, 2.0 mm, 3.0 mm)
For majority cast magnesium alloys, their fatigue lives are still dependence on the mechanical properties, especially the fracture toughness or elongation (%) of cast magnesium alloys. In general state, the greater of the fracture toughness or elongation (%) of cast magnesium alloys is, the longer their fatigue lives are as shown in Fig. 32. For example, the elongation of cast AM60B alloy is about 10% and the elongation of cast AZ91 alloy is about 3% so that the fatigue life of the former is longer than that of the latter under the same experimental conditions. This is because the brittle property of cast AZ91 alloy causes much easier multi-cracks initiation at the β-Mg17Al12 phase or interface both α-Mg grain and β-phase than that of cast AM60B alloy, alternatively the effect of smooth specimen and specimen with a notch on the fatigue life of cast AM50 alloy is also obvious, especially in the higher applied stress levels. However, when the cyclic numbers arrives at the 2×105, the effect of small notch on the fatigue life is gradually weaken because the notch of cast magnesium alloys depends mainly on the fatigue crack initiation life, which is to occupy a little part of total fatigue life of cast magnesium alloys under the lower stress levels. The investigations results indicated that the fatigue crack propagation life of cast AM50, cast AM60, AM60B and AZ91D alloys occupies approximately about 70%. Therefore, the high cyclic fatigue life of smooth specimen and specimen with a small notch has not almost difference under a low stress level as shown in Figs. 32. These curves indicated still that the relative fatigue life relation among cast magnesium alloys. These accurate relations of fatigue live were validated by cast AM50, AM60, AM60B and AZ91. It is fact that the fatigue life of cast AZ91 alloy with a lower elongation is shorter than that of either cast AM60 alloy or cast AM50 alloy with a higher elongation under the same experimental conditions, especially in higher stress levels. Therefore, the fatigue property of cast AZ91 alloy (3%-elongation ratio) is weak to compare with cast AM60 alloy (7-10% elongation ratio) or cast AM50 alloy (9-11% elongation ratio). This is because the elongation ratio of material relates to the fracture toughness of material. The higher facture toughness of material is, the greater fatigue crack propagation resistance is.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
Above mentioned many results about the effects of spacing and orientations with the two pores on the fatigue cracking behavior of cast magnesium alloys, these results indicated that there is a critical spacing value of two pores with the 90º or 45º orientation whether to tack place the coalescence of crack at one pore with another one. To validate the critical value whether is correct and reliable, the tensile tests of cast AM60 alloy with 90º and 45º orientations of two pores were carried out by using the optical displacement microscope, which is usually stretched at a specific rate, and the force required that it is measured to cause an extension of a crack length\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Evolutive deformation process under the different strains for 90º orientations with the two pores.
As another typical tensile testing images of cast AM60 alloy specimen with two pores at a 45º orientations as shown in Figs. 34, the stress concentration region at the edges of two pores is different from above mentioned results as shown in Figs. 33, especially after the applied strain value being over than 2.0%. This means that the stress overlapped manner will influence on the fatigue crack propagation behavior according to the fracture mechanism of cast magnesium alloys. At the same time, you can see that the stress concentration diffusion process of cast magnesium alloy maybe result the multi-cracks. When the applied strain value increases to about 2.0-3.0% as shown in Figs. 34C and 34D, the stress concentration areas occur at much more overlapping or diffusion part. The crack propagation path has to deflect to the overlapping regions as shown in Figs. 34E and 34F. In addition, the cracks initiation and propagation result the release of stress concentration compared with the change of white regions in both Figs. 34D and 34E. Compared with the results as shown in Figs. 33 and Figs. 34, the effect of two pores orientations on the evolutive process of the stress concentration or on the crack propagation path can be not ignored. The visible tensile and fatigue cracks of cast AM60 alloy occur almost at the root of any pore under the different orientations of two pores. Therefore, the effect of two pores orientations on the crack initiation behavior is rather slight. For example, the crack initiation of cast AM60 specimen with either 90º or 45º orientations occur at the root of any pore when the applied strain is about 3.7% and 4.0%, respectively. However, the effect of orientations of two pores on the strength or fatigue life of cast AM60 alloy can be not ignored. This means that this effect mainly focus on the crack propagation behavior of cast magnesium alloys.
\n\t\t\t\tEvolutive process of plastic deformation under the different strain levels for 45º orientations with the two pores.
To validate the effect of different orientations on the fracture strength of cast AM60 alloy, we give the stress-strain curves of cast AM60 specimens with different orientations of two pores as shown in Figs. 35. These pores can be defined as an initial crack or defect. These results indicated that the effect of different orientations on the fracture strength and fracture toughness of cast AM60 alloy under the static tensile loading is obvious. That is, the fracture strength and toughness of a specimen with 90º orientations are lower than that of a specimen with 45º orientations. This means that the former damages or fractures prior to the latter. As the engineering stress as shown in Fig. 35, the original and strained dimensions are related through\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
When the tensile test of cast magnesium alloy is at low strains, the deference between \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Stress-strain curves
Stress concentrate diffusion curves
Alternatively, to compare with the difference between the effects of different orientations on the damage of cast magnesium alloys, the relationship curves between the stress concentrated areas near the different orientations of two pores and the applied strain (%) were plotted in Fig. 36. It is clearly seen that the curves of the stress concentrated area fraction versus the applied strain indicates the effect of 90º orientations on the fracture of cast magnesium alloy is much obvious than that of 45º orientations at the same spacing. That is, the stress concentrated overlapping region or diffusion area with 90º orientations of two pores is greater than that with 45º orientations of two pores under the same strain level as shown in Fig. 36. This means that the former easily cause the crack initiation and propagation at these regions because of the theory of fracture mechanics of materials. Especially it is much obvious for the effect of orientation on the stress concentrated degree when the applied strain value is over than 3%. At the same time, these results validated effectively that the effects of two pores’ spacing and orientation on the fatigue crack initiation and propagation behavior are correct based on SEM
There are several interesting aspects of the critical fracture condition when we consider the effect of two pores with the different spaces and orientations on the failure of cast magnesium alloys. One is that the yield strength and cracking criterion are the same tension as in fatigue of cast magnesium alloys. As mentioned, when the local stress ahead of a crack tip exceeds a critical strength value of cast magnesium alloy, the crack will cause to failure of material. In majority states, the von Mises yield stress can be as the failure criterion value. It is expressed as
\n\t\t\t\tThe condition states that yielding will not take place for principal stress combination such that the von Mises stress (\n\t\t\t\t\t\t
von Mises stress and plastic strain distributions around the two pores
To validate the evolutive process of stress concentration region closed to the two pores, we simulated the von Mises stress and maximum plastic strain distributions closed to the two pores. These von Mises stress and plastic strain distributions around the two pores can tell quantitatively us the crack initiation and crack propagation path of material as shown in Figs. 37. The contour plots of stress triaxiality and effective plastic strain at about 2% indicated that the von Mises stress evolutive direction is approximate 90º tilted the applied loading direction, which it causes the main reason of crack initiation as shown in Figs. 37A. All SEM
Where \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
A mixed fracture mode in the crack tip
From the solution Eq. (4-10) obtained, the angle of maximum tangential stress \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Above mentioned fatigue life of typical cast magnesium alloys as shown in Fig. 32, these results involve that the effects of samples with a single side notch and with two pores at different orientations, spaces and vacuum states on the fatigue life can be not ignored. However, it is difficult to distinguish that the fatigue lives of cast magnesium alloys are how to be affected by these testing conditions even if we known that the fatigue damage mechanism and fatigue crack growth rate at the different conditions of cast magnesium alloys.
\n\t\t\tAs majority cast magnesium alloys, the fatigue life can be divided into two parts: fatigue crack initial life and fatigue crack propagation life. The fatigue crack propagation life can be estimated by the fatigue crack growth rate such as Eq. (4-1) and the fatigue crack initial life has to be deduced based on the
\n\t\t\t\t\tFig. 39 shows that the
\n\t\t\t\t\t\t\t
amplitude is a constant, it is found that the fatigue failure mechanism is mainly cleavage fracture of α-Mg grains and Mg-dendrites as shown in Figs. 40A (It can be classified as the Mode I crack.). This cleavage fracture is produced by repeated cycling on the crack tip plastic zone. Fatigue small cracks in vacuum chamber were accelerated with the increasing thermal-mechanical loading because the β-phase (Mg17Al12) in cast AM50 magnesium alloy began to soften at the high temperature. Compared with properties of fatigue cracks propagated at different temperatures in a vacuum chamber indicated that the propagation of fatigue small cracks mainly along the interdendrite region or along the boundary of α-Mg grains at the room temperature [14,15] and the fatigue small cracks propagated passing through inside of the Mg grains because these regions were soften at higher temperatures. As shown in Figs. 40B, there are some significant plastic slip vestiges which appeared on the up and down of the crack tip and lied at about 45º inclined with respect to the crack, so that the growth rate of small fatigue cracks at higher temperatures is larger than that at room temperature in a vacuum chamber. The fatigue small crack path is clear in Figs. 40C and Figs. 40D either cleft the α-Mg grains or passed along the boundary of the α-Mg grains. The former (transgranular fracture) was occurred more frequently than the latter at the high temperatures. Our observation results indicated that the small fatigue cracks preferentially grew in a Mode I direction. Microstructural small cracks, however, frequently deviate in order to avoid an obstacle or to link with a weakened material zone. Gall et al. have also
\n\t\t\t\tSEM images of fatigue crack growth under different loadings at R=0.1. (A) σmax=128 MPa, T=150ºC, N=4109; (B) σmax=125 MPa, T=150ºC, N=5819; (C) σmax=128 MPa, T=150ºC, N=4260; (D) σmax=120 MPa, T=180ºC, N=12526.
obtained a similar conclusion for AM60B specimens tested in vapor environment [30]. Thus, the propagation rates of small fatigue cracks of Mg-Al alloys are strongly dependent on the temperatures.
\n\t\t\tTo observe fatigue small crack initiation and propagation process, a notch in the edge of specimens were cut manually. As the typical case, the notch radius and depth of all notch specimens are approximately 50 μm, 100 μm, respectively. The fatigue tests with the smooth specimens of cast AM50 Mg alloy were also carried out to compare the difference between fatigue life of smooth and notched specimens either in the vacuum or in air. The corresponding
Effect of notch and oxidation on
The maximum von Mises stress value in the stress concentration region around the notch tip increases with the applied stress increasing. If the stress level in the stress concentration region reaches a certain magnitude such as over than 70% yield stress of cast magnesium alloy, the fatigue crack will occur in the stress concentration region after a several hundreds cycles. However, at the lower stress level such as less than 60% yield stress of cast AM50 alloy, the differences of the total fatigue lives of specimens with a notch and smooth are mainly contributed by the fatigue crack initiation life, which is controlled by stress concentration degree such as it refers to two parameters both different radiuses and depths of a notch. For example, this effect was reported that the number of cycles spent on fatigue crack initiation is less than one half of the total fatigue life for smooth specimens of the general metals [52]. Therefore, the effect of a notch on the fatigue life of cast magnesium alloys is similar to the reported results in Literature [52].
\n\t\t\t\tIn addition, cast Mg alloys have generally a low oxidation resistance, thus there is a difference about fatigue life of cast magnesium alloys under different fatigue tests. For example, the two
As cast magnesium alloys, the mechanical properties (especially the elongation (%) or fracture toughness) differ observably from each other, such as cast AM50 alloy and cast AZ91 alloy. Therefore, the fatigue crack initiation life of these materials is observably different. For example, Fig. 42 shows the fatigue curves of cast AM60 and AZ91 alloys at the different fatigue crack initiation and propagation tests. Due the fatigue tests are LCF, the fatigue life of cast magnesium alloys depends on the plastic strain energy so that the elongation (δ%) (or fracture toughness) of cast magnesium alloy dominates its fatigue life. The many fatigue cracks for quasi-brittle secondary phase in the cast magnesium alloy occur easily at their interface or boundary as shown in Figs. 43A. At the same time, the plastic
\n\t\t\t\tEffect of environmental vacuum and magnesium alloys on
Fatigue crack characteristics of different cast magnesium alloys
deformation will present at rather softness α-Mg phase near the fatigue crack as shown in Figs. 43B. Therefore, the fatigue propagation life of multi-cracks is rather shorter than that of single fatigue crack because there is combined near these cracks so that it causes to accelerate the fatigue crack growth rate of cast magnesium alloy. For the fatigue life of cast AM60 alloy in air and vacuum conditions, the differences both conditions can be not ignored as shown in Fig. 42.
\n\t\t\tFatigue refers to mechanical failure (and the processes leading to it) when a cast magnesium alloy is subjected to a cyclical stress or strain amplitude that would not result in fracture during monotonic loading. This kind loading can take place in all classes of materials. However, it was not commonly thought to happen in a quasi-brittle cast magnesium alloy, for small cracks formed during fatigue of quasi-brittle cast magnesium alloy quickly lead to catastrophic fracture owing to the low fracture toughnesses of majority cast magnesium alloys. As a result, fatigue small crack initiation and propagation behavior, and relative several central issues dealing with the effects of some factors (temperature, notch and pores etc.) on the fatigue cracking behaviors and life of cast magnesium alloys (including AZ91D, AZ91, AM60B, AM60 and AM50) were investigated by the different experimental methods. The fatigue cracking behavior, fatigue life of cast magnesium alloys and the influencing factors were detailedly discussed in this chapter.
\n\t\t\tThe fatigue crack initiation behavior (Stage I of the fatigue process) of cast magnesium alloys are formed initially at surface flaws and/or defects (including to the manual notch) that promote localized flow in their vicinity. Less frequently they nucleate at internal inhomogeneities (e.g., interdendritic pore, pores, secondary phase particles etc.) that likewise serve to promote stress concentrations region in the cast magnesium alloys surrounding them. These types of fatigue nucleation events are common to metals. This leads to the development of a feature that, at some stage, can be characterized as a Stage I crack as shown in Figs. 9B. In the initial growth of such, it propagates in a direction determined by slip crystallography, and this direction is not normal to the principal stress axis. Thus, Stage I crack propagation is defined by a flow, rather than a fracture, criterion. After such a crack has progressed a certain distance, it alters its direction so that it becomes normal to the principal stress axis or applied loading direction. At this point further advance depends on other factors similar to those applying to tensile fracture as shown at the 3.2 section in this chapter. However, the effects of rather smaller radius of notch and the different spacing and orientations of two pores can be not ignored.
\n\t\t\tFollowing this alteration of its course in micro scale, continued propagation of the crack takes place in an intermittent manner (the crack growth region, Stage II of fatigue). The crack growth rate, \n\t\t\t\t\t
For most cast magnesium alloys are best suited to LCF application. This is related to the fact that the Stage II growth occupies most of the material’s life during low-cycle fatigue. It is clear that hard, quasi-brittle cast magnesium alloys do not resist crack advance.
\n\t\t\tTemperature has an influence on fatigue response of cast magnesium alloys. This is important for evaluated temperature of cast magnesium alloys influence on the fatigue crack propagation mechanism. For example, the fatigue crack initiation of cast AM50 alloy occurred at the root of notch (when the radius of notch is less than the 50 μm) but the early stage of crack propagation is along either the boundary of α-Mg grain or to cleave the α-Mg grain in front to the crack tip. The fatigue crack propagation mechanism in the microscopically zone is analogous to the quasi-brittle or quasi-ductile (intervenient brittle and ductile) fracture mechanism of engineering alloys. At RT, we did not find that the α-Mg grain of cast AM50 alloy was cleaved. When the elevated temperature is over than 100 ºC, the fatigue crack propagation is also either along the boundary of α-Mg grain or to cleave the α-Mg grain. In addition, the fatigue crack propagation mechanism of cast AM50 alloy at the elevated temperature indicated that the branch fatigue crack was found as shown in Figs. 13B. This means that the fracture mechanism of cast magnesium alloy at the elevated temperature which is Mode I and Mode II differs obviously from that which is only Mode I at room temperature in microscopically zone. Corresponding effect of the elevated temperatures on the fatigue cracking mechanism of cast magnesium alloys has analogous to composite fractures of Mode I/II. Therefore, the effect of the elevated temperature on the fatigue crack propagation mechanism of cast magnesium alloys can be not ignored. This is because the elevated temperature easily causes the β-Mg17Al12 becomes a softness so that the deformation mismatch between the α-Mg grain and β-Mg17Al12 phase becomes weak at the elevated temperatures. This is a competitive result of the interface strength and the fracture strength of α-Mg grain.
\n\t\t\tSmall pores or radius of notch has an influence on the fatigue crack propagation behavior of cast magnesium alloys, which involves the FE calculation for the stress/strain distribution around each pore. All calculated von Mises stresses can be scaled with respect to magnitude of the applied stress or transmit strain based on the constitutive equations of cast magnesium alloys. The stress distribution will be illustrated by the principal stress and the von Mises effective stress on crack propagation plane around the pore. It is approximately equivalent to the axial stress and vanishes at the pole and takes its largest values at the overlap region of plastic deformation of cast magnesium alloy.
\n\t\t\tAs the effects of spacing and orientations with two pores on the fatigue cracking behavior of cast magnesium alloys, these experimental results indicated that there is a critical spacing value of two pores with the 90º or 45º orientations whether to tack place the coalescence of crack at one pore with another one, which is about 2.0 mm either 90º or 45º orientations with two pores. The effect of different orientations on the fracture strength and fracture toughness of cast AM60 alloy under the static tensile loading is obvious. That is, the fracture strength and fracture toughness of a specimen with 90º orientations are lower than that of a specimen with 45º orientations. This means that the former damages or fractures prior to the latter. These experimental conclusions can be validated and explained by the difference of stress concentration area fraction as shown in Fig. 36.
\n\t\t\tCast magnesium alloys have generally a low oxidation resistance, thus there is a difference about fatigue life of smooth and notch specimens under different fatigue tests. For example, the two S-N curves of cast AM50 Mg alloy indicates that the fatigue life in air is shorter than that in vacuum under the same stress amplitude as shown in Fig. 41. This means that the effect of air corrosion on the fatigue life of this alloy is not to be ignored, especially in an absence of surface barriers on cast magnesium alloys, e.g. in the case without oxide films or anodized coating [30,52]. At the same time, the S-N curves indicated still that environmental effect both in air and vacuum on the fatigue life of cast magnesium alloy has the different trends at low and high stress levels. At the lower stress level, the effect of environmental effect both in air and vacuum states becomes smaller and smaller, contrarily larger and larger at the higher stress level for the smooth specimens as shown in Fig. 41.
\n\t\tThe author would like to thank Prof. Fan Jing-Hong, Prof. Tang Bin and Dr. Wu Bi-Sheng to be cooperated in past decades. At the same time, the author would like to thank the projects (Grants No. 50571047, 11072124) supported by NSFC, National Basic Research Program of China through Grants No. 2007CB936803, 2010CB631006 and by State Key Lab of Advanced Metals and Materials in Uni Sci Tech Beijing (2010ZD-04).
\n\t\tCellulases are inducible enzymes which breakdown cellulose (the most widely available source of fermentable sugars on earth) into glucose and synthesized during the growth of microorganisms on cellulosic substrates [1, 2]. Cellulase is biotechnological important enzyme due to various industrial applications including biofuel production [3]. Variety of microorganism having cellulose degrading capability, few of them produce considerable quantity of extracellular enzymes. Fungi are the main cellulase producing microorganisms.
A large number of industries are based upon the agricultural raw materials and it alone accounts for about 10% of the total wages from export. At present, in terms of agricultural production, country holds 2nd position in world (http://www.agrifest.in/aboutagrifest.php). Availability of lignocellulosic biomass varies from one region to another region in our country because of specific patterns of cultivation of crops in different regions. As estimated by the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE), Report 2009, Government of India (GOI) every year about 500 Mt/yr residues are generated in India. Out of total residue generated, highest contributor is Utter Pradesh (60 Mt/yr), followed by Punjab (55 Mt/yr) and Maharashtra (46 Mt/yr). Among different crops, cereals crops contribute for the generation of 352 Mt residue followed by fiber crops (66 Mt/yr), oilseed (29 Mt/yr), pulses (13 Mt/yr) and sugarcane (12 Mt/yr). Among the cereal crops up to 70% is contributed by rice, wheat, maize and millets. Rice crop alone accounts for 34% followed by wheat contributing 22% of total residue generated by cereal crops. As depicted above, out of total residues generated from all crops, 13% is contributed by fiber crops. Among fibers, cotton holds 1st position by generating 53 Mt/yr (11% of crop residues) and coconut ranks 2nd with 12 Mt/yr of residue generation. The sugarcane residue (foliage and tops) generates 12Mt/yr, i.e., 2% of crop residues (Figure 1) (www.nicra.iari.res.in/Data/FinalCRM.doc).
\nContribution of various crops in residue generation (
The amount of crop residues, which have not any valuable uses is either left in the fields to rot or burnt away as such, is termed as surplus biomass. A brief idea about the amount of residue generated in different states of India, surplus residues left behind after conventional use, residue burned as reported by IPCC and [6] is shown in Table 1. Two reports dictated the burnt surplus agricultural biomass approximately 83.66 Mt/yr and 92.81 Mt/yr respectively. The data from two reports vary by 11% and this difference can be due to the climatic conditions, geographic separation, sample size and time of sampling used in above mentioned studies. However, in comparison to the total surplus residues, observed difference can be considered as insignificant. Besides biomass a massive quantity of industrial residues is disposed off as such in environment generating pollution and other related problems [7]. This huge amount of lignocellulosic biomass can likely be converted into different valuable products including biofuels, cheap energy sources for microbial fermentation, enzyme production and useful fine chemicals [8].
\nStates | \nResidue generation (MNRE, 2009) | \nResidue surplus (MNRE, 2009) | \nResidue burned (IPCC coeff.) | \nResidue burned [6] | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
\n | ||||
Andhra Pradesh | \n43.89 | \n6.96 | \n5.73 | \n2.73 | \n
Arunachal Pradesh | \n0.4 | \n0.07 | \n0.06 | \n0.04 | \n
Assam | \n11.43 | \n2.34 | \n1.42 | \n0.73 | \n
Bihar | \n25.29 | \n5.08 | \n3.77 | \n3.19 | \n
Chhattisgarh | \n11.25 | \n2.12 | \n1.84 | \n0.83 | \n
Goa | \n0.57 | \n0.14 | \n0.08 | \n0.04 | \n
Gujarat | \n28.73 | \n8.9 | \n6.69 | \n3.81 | \n
Haryana | \n27.83 | \n11.22 | \n5.45 | \n9.06 | \n
Himachal Pradesh | \n2.85 | \n1.03 | \n0.20 | \n0.41 | \n
Jammu and Kashmir | \n1.59 | \n0.28 | \n0.35 | \n0.89 | \n
Jharkhand | \n3.61 | \n0.89 | \n1.11 | \n1.10 | \n
Karnataka | \n33.94 | \n8.98 | \n2.85 | \n5.66 | \n
Kerala | \n9.74 | \n5.07 | \n0.40 | \n0.22 | \n
Madhya Pradesh | \n33.18 | \n10.22 | \n3.46 | \n1.91 | \n
Maharashtra | \n46.45 | \n14.67 | \n6.27 | \n7.41 | \n
Manipur | \n0.9 | \n0.11 | \n0.14 | \n0.07 | \n
Meghalaya | \n0.51 | \n0.09 | \n0.10 | \n0.05 | \n
Mizoram | \n0.06 | \n0.01 | \n0.01 | \n0.01 | \n
Nagaland | \n0.49 | \n0.09 | \n0.11 | \n0.08 | \n
Orissa | \n20.07 | \n3.68 | \n2.57 | \n1.34 | \n
Punjab | \n50.75 | \n24.83 | \n8.94 | \n19.62 | \n
Rajasthan | \n29.32 | \n8.52 | \n3.58 | \n1.78 | \n
Sikkim | \n0.15 | \n0.02 | \n0.01 | \n0.01 | \n
Tamil Nadu | \n19.93 | \n7.05 | \n3.55 | \n4.08 | \n
Tripura | \n0.04 | \n0.02 | \n0.22 | \n0.11 | \n
Uttarakhand | \n2.86 | \n0.63 | \n13.34 | \n21.92 | \n
Uttar Pradesh | \n59.97 | \n13.53 | \n0.58 | \n0.78 | \n
West Bengal | \n35.93 | \n4.29 | \n10.82 | \n4.96 | \n
India | \n501.76 | \n140.84 | \n83.66 | \n92.81 | \n
Residue generated, surplus and burned (www.nicra.iari.res.in/Data/FinalCRM.doc).
Lignocellulosic biomass is consist of cellulose, hemicelluloses, lignin, water, protein and other compounds (Table 2). Cellulose and hemicelluloses provide strength to fiber and lignin act as the concrete which hold the fibers [9].
\nLignocellulosic materials | \nCellulose (%) | \nHemicelluloses (%) | \nLignin (%) | \nReference | \n
---|---|---|---|---|
Sugar cane bagasse | \n42 | \n25 | \n20 | \n[11] | \n
Sweet sorghum | \n45 | \n27 | \n21 | \n[11] | \n
Hard wood | \n40–55 | \n24–40 | \n18–25 | \n[12] | \n
Soft wood | \n45–50 | \n25–35 | \n25–35 | \n[12] | \n
Corn cobs | \n45 | \n35 | \n15 | \n[13] | \n
Corn stover | \n38 | \n26 | \n19 | \n[14] | \n
Rice straw | \n32.1 | \n24 | \n18 | \n[13] | \n
Nut shells | \n25–30 | \n25–30 | \n30–40 | \n[15] | \n
Newspaper | \n40–55 | \n25–40 | \n18–30 | \n[16] | \n
Grasses | \n25–40 | \n25–50 | \n10–30 | \n[12] | \n
Wheat straw | \n29–35 | \n26–32 | \n16–21 | \n[17] | \n
Bagasse | \n54.87 | \n16.52 | \n23–33 | \n[18] | \n
Composition of lignocellulosic materials [10].
About 50% of the CO2 fixed by plants through photosynthesis get stored in cell wall in the form of cellulose [19]. It is a homo-polysaccharide of glucose residues connected by β-1,4 linkages in linear un-branched fashion (Figure 2). Basic repeating unit of the cellulose polymer is a cellobiose unit, made up of two glucose anhydride [20]. The long-chain cellulose polymers are attached to each other by van der Waals and hydrogen bonds which results in packing cellulose chains into microfibrils [21, 22]. Overall structure is found to be consisted of two different types of regions: region where the chains are highly ordered is crystalline and the region with less ordered chain is amorphous [23]. The crystalline regions of cellulose are highly stiff thus these are not easily reachable to endo-cellulases [24]. Amorphous region is more readily hydrated and more accessible to enzyme.
\nStructure of cellulose [
Other significant component of lignocellulose is hemicellulose (Figure 3). Hemicellulose usually contributes for about 25–35% of the mass in dry wood, about 28% of softwoods, and 35% of hardwoods [26]. As compared to cellulose these possesses low molecular weight. These are found to consist of comparatively shorter chains of about 500–3000 monosaccharide units as compared to 7000–15,000 glucose residues cellulose [27]. The monosaccharides of hemicelluloses include pentoses (arabinose, rhamnose and xylose,), hexoses (glucose, galactose and mannose), and uronic acids (d-glucuronic, d-galacturonic acids and 4-o-methylglucuronic). The backbone of hemicelluloses can be a homopolymer or a heteropolymer having β-1,4 or sometimes β-1,3 glycosidic linkages. In hardwood, xylose is the principal pentose sugar but in various agricultural residues and other herbaceous, arabinose is the chief pentose sugar of hemicelluloses [28].
\nXyloglucan: a component of hemicelluloses [
Lignocellulosic microfibrils are found to be surrounded by a complex aromatic heteropolymer known as lignin which provides a tough protective shield to highly energetic cellulose fibers [30]. Lignin comprises of β-aryl ether, biaryl ether, phenylcoumaran, pinoresinol, or diaryl propane linked p-coumaryl, coniferyl and sinapyl alcohol units (Figure 4). It is categorized as softwood lignin when the coniferyl alcohol derivatives predominant, hardwood lignin where both coniferyl and synapyl alcohol derivatives exist together and grass lignin where it chiefly consisted of p-coumaryl alcohol derivatives [31].
\nChemical structure of lignin (
Lignin is a recalcitrant component of the lignocellulosic biomass. Resistance to chemical and enzymatic attack increases with increase in lignin content [32]. Lignin the natural cement, acts as a ceiling for microbial/enzymatic attack. Hence, it is one of the major hurdles in using lingo-cellulosic materials in fermentation. Pretreatment is one of the most important steps in the process of converting renewable lignocellulosic biomass into useful products. The main target of any pretreatment is to alter or remove structural and compositional resistant to hydrolysis which further enhance digestibility of biomass [33]. It exposes cellulose and hemicellulose chains by breaking the crystalline matrix (Figure 5). To remove the obstacles for enzymatic scarification of lignocellulosic material following pretreatment used.
\nEffect of pretreatment on lignocellulosic biomass [
Major mechanical treatment includes chiping, grinding and milling to reduce the particle size which is responsible to increase surface area and increased surface area responsible for better interaction between substrate and enzyme [21, 35]. Physical treatment includes un-catalyzed steam explosion, hot water pretreatment and high energy radiations. By the process size reduces to 10–30 mm after chipping the biomass and finally after milling or grinding 0.2–2 mm size is attained.
\nMason [36] first time introduced steam explosion in which biomass is pretreated at 180–240°C under 1–3.5 MPa pressure for 1–10 min with hot steam, followed by an explosive decompression which bursts the rigid biomass fibers [37]. Nature of material to be processed and particle size are the determining factor for relationship between temperature and time [38]. Quick expansion in steam explosion vaporizes the saturated water present in fibril structure linkages between molecules, and produces a better lignocellulosic matrix [39]. Recoveries ranged from 46 to 90% indicated that significant autohydrolysis and degradation of sugars can occur during this pretreatment process [40]. Steam provides an effective mean to rapidly attain the required temperature without diluting the resulting sugar syrup. At the end, a rapid release of pressure brings temperature down and arrests the reaction [41].
\nScanning electron microscopy images reveal that ultrasonic treatment have the capacity to modify structure of lignocellulosic biomass [42]. Ultrasonic waves work by creating pressure difference within a solution [43]. The pressure wave travels through the liquid medium creating alternate regions of high (compression) and low (rarefaction) pressure (Figure 6).
\nA pressure wave traveling through a solution [
In this method lignocellulosic material is dipped in an acidic solution (typically H2SO4), and subjected to optimum temperature. Dilute sulfuric acid had been used at commercial scale for pretreatment of various biomasses such as Switch grass [44] Corn Stover [45] and Poplar [46]. By acid catalyzed hydrolysis (Figure 7) most of the hemicelluloses are almost removed from the micro fibrils of the biomass but delignification is achieved to a lesser extent. Dilute acids are highly effective in removing hemicelluloses as dissolved sugars as a result of which glucose yield from cellulose increase to almost 100%. The optimal conditions to attain maximum sugar yield depends on the target to be achieved [47].
\nCellulose hydrolysis in acidic media [
It is responsible for the saponification of inter molecule delignification of the hemicelluloses. The biomass is exposed for the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicelluloses. As compared to other methods of pretreatment, alkali pretreatment is carried out for longer duration at low temperature and pressure [39]. It is supposed to act by saponification of inter-molecular ester bonds which are found to present between hemicelluloses and other components [48] (Figure 8). It is mainly responsible for delignification of lignocellulosic biomass. But it also removes some acetyl and uronic acid substitutions on hemicelluloses, which expose the biomass for enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulose and hemicelluloses [49]. A major limitation of alkaline pretreatments is formation of some salts which are either irrecoverable or incorporated as salts into the biomass [50]. Reactor costs for alkali pretreatment are lower than those for acid pretreatments [51]. For a given quantity of biomass, lowest operating cost is for lime pretreatment [39]. However the use of more pricey salts at higher concentrations is the major drawback that poses environmental threats and may also hinder the recycling process [52].
\nEther bond cleavage in alkaline solution [
Cellulases are classified as hydrolases, i.e., they add water molecules to cleave glycosidic bonds. Cellulases purified from different microorganisms found to poses different molecular characteristics including molecular weight, amino acid composition, isoelectric point) absorbability for cellulose, catalytic activity and substrate specificity [53]. Three chief classes of cellulases recognized to date are:
Endo-β-1,4-glucanases (Cx) attacks soluble cellulose derivative in a random fashion forming nonreducing ends, producing new chain ends to be attacked by exoglucanases. These enzymes may be processive or nonprocessive. In processive enzymes, enzyme-substrate complex formation is followed by several successive breaks in a polysaccharide chain [23].
Exo-β-1,4-glucanases (C1) (avicelase) attack the reducing or nonreducing end of the cellulose polymer. Processive exo-β-1,4-glucanases are named as cellobiohydrolases. The end product of exo-glucanase hydrolysis are cellobiose and glucose units,
β-Glucosidases finally breaks cellobiose to glucose.
These enzymes act synergistically (Figure 9) [54]. An endo-acting enzyme generates new reducing and nonreducing ends. Exo-acting enzyme releases cellobiose from ends produced by endo-enzymes acting which is finally hydrolyzed by β-glucosidases to glucose [55]. Mainly four types of synergism have been identified [56]:
Endo-exo: among exo-glucanases and endo-glucanases.
Exo-exo: among exo-glucanases those processing from different ends (reducing and nonreducing ends).
Synergy between exo-glucanases and β-glucosidases that removes cellobiose.
Intramolecular synergy between catalytic domains and CBHs.
Mechanism of action of cellulases [
In general cellulases comprise of two distinct domains, i.e., Small cellulose-binding module (CBM) which is noncatalytic, Large domain having catalytic characteristics (CD). Both the domains are found to be connected by a linker region (Figure 10) [57]. Till date, about 300 different CBMs have already been identified. CBMs are categorized into 45 families on the basis of their amino acid similarity [58]. This variation in affinity may be due to variation in spatial structure created by the presence of CBMs [60].
\nCellulases [
Cellulases are the hydrolytic enzymes which are produced by a diversity of microbes like actinomycetes, bacteria and fungi when grown on cellulosic substrates [61]. Among these organisms fungi are studied most extensively [62]. Filamentous fungi are the chief sources known for producing cellulases and hemicellulases [63]. Crude cellulases from
Two fundamental approaches used for measuring cellulase activity are:
Measuring individual cellulase (endoglucanases, exoglucanases and β-glucosidases) activities.
Measuring the total cellulase (FPase) activity [77].
Quantitatively cellulase activity can be assayed in three ways:
Accumulation of products after hydrolysis.
The reduction in substrate quantity.
Change in the physical properties of substrates.
The first one is ideal for measuring individual cellulase activity within a short time however the third one is a chosen for measuring total enzyme activity within a given time [77].
\nTotal cellulase activity assay is always performed using insoluble substrates having pure cellulosic substrates such as Whatman No. 1 filter paper. The filter paper activity (FPase activity) is the key method for analysis of total cellulase activity which was developed by Mandels, cotton linter, microcrystalline cellulose, bacterial cellulose, algal cellulose and cellulose-containing substrates such as pretreated lignocellulose [78]. This standard filter paper method has been revised by Ghose which was established and published by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) [79]. He used Whatman No. 1 filter paper (1 × 6 cm strip) as the substrate. It is used as the standard substrate because of its readily availability and inexpensiveness [80].
\nCommercial avicel is also used for measuring exoglucanase activity because it has a low degree of polymerization (DP) and it is moderately hard to be attacked by endoglucanases [81]. Endoglucanase activity can be measured using a soluble cellulose derivative with a high degree of polymerization (DP) such as carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC). It can be measured by both methods, i.e., reduction in substrate viscosity/increase in reducing sugar. CMCase activity using CMC is measured by determining reducing sugars released after 5 min of enzyme reaction with 0.5% CMC at pH 4.8 and 50°C [78]. Exoglucanases are known to cleave the easily accessible ends of cellulose molecules liberating glucose and cellobiose. β-glucosidases cleaves soluble cellobiose and other cellodextrins having DP up to 6 and liberates glucose as end product [82]. Various chromogenic and nonchromogenic substrates could be evaluated. In chromogenic method, p-nitrophenol-β-glucoside (P-NPG) can be used as the substrate. However, in the case of nonchromogenic substrates different methods used are based on nature of substrates. For example, when oligo or disaccharides (such as cellobiose) are used, released glucose can be evaluated by the GOD (glucose oxidase) method with a commercial kit but when polysaccharide are used a substrate, reducing sugars released is measured by the DNS (dinitrosalicylic acid) method [81].
\nThe technique which are mainly used for the enzyme production are Submerged fermentation (SmF) and solid state fermentation (SSF) [83].
\nWhen fermentation is performed with some free flowing nutrient media; it is termed as SmF [84]. In industry, enzymes are produced mostly by SmF, primarily due to the much simplified processes associated with scale-up compared to those involved for scale-up in SSF [85]. In fact, some other important factors like indulgence in controlling process parameters, monitoring and downstream processing makes SmF more significant [86]. Only a few designs are available in literature for SSF based bioreactors. This is principally due to several problems encountered in case of SSF for controlling various parameters like pH, temperature, aeration and moisture content. Fungal cellulase production is largely dependent on media composition and culture conditions. Thus development of a suitable fermentation strategy is necessary for full exploitation of potential of microorganism used for fermentation [87]. Several reports are available for cellulase production using SmF. Karthikeyan et al. [88] reported cellulase production from
When fermentation is performed on nonsoluble materials in the absence of free flowing nutrient media, so that the material used can serve as a platform for support as well as nutrients; it is termed as solid state fermentation. While compared for their potential it was found SSF offers various opportunities over SmF because they are eco-friendly on account of lower energy requirements, produce lesser wastewater and they are based on employment of waste solid biomass [90]. Further advantages of SSF over SmF include prevalence of nonaseptic conditions, a wide variety of substrate are available, low capital cost, inexpensive downstream processing [91], higher product concentration, high reproducibility, lesser space requirements (compact fermenters), easy contamination management [92]. It is observed that production cost was decreased about 10 fold in SSF over SmF.
\nFermentation condition play the main role for the standardization of process parameters such as incubation period, inoculum size, pH, carbon and Nitrogen source, metal ions, etc. Maximum cellulase production may vary from 1 day to weeks. It is usually observed that fungal cultures require longer incubation period for cellulase production than bacterial cultures. The highest cellulase level was achieved 96 hrs of the fermentation while using
The age and concentration of inoculum also plays an important role in the production of cellulases. An increase in inoculum size up to an optimum limits results in rapid proliferation and biomass synthesis which leads to produced higher amount of cellulase [96]. On the other hand higher inoculum volume beyond optimum size leads to increases in the water content of medium in case of SSF creating aeration problems in SSF and it will responsible for reduction in overall yield [97].
\nBacterial and fungal cellulase production found to be significantly affected by pH. Milala et al. [95] reported maximum cellulase activity at pH 4.0 by
The fermentation temperature plays a very significant role on the growth and metabolic activity of microbial cells. Optimum temperature for cellulase production under solid-state fermentation by
Various carbon sources such as metabolizable sugars, commercial cellulose and agricultural residues/by-products have been used for cellulase production. Some carbon sources resulted good growth with low enzyme production while some supported good growth along with high yield of enzyme secretion. Commercially available carbon sources used for cellulase production were Powdered cellulose by
Supplement | \nSmF (U/mL) | \nSSF (U/gDMB) | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|
CMCase | \nFPase | \nCMCase | \nFPase | \n|
Carbon sources (5% w/v in SmF and 4% w/w in SSF) | \n\n | |||
Control | \n0.7 | \n0.4 | \n3.7 | \n2 | \n
Glucose | \n1.52 | \n0.54 | \n11.1 | \n6.5 | \n
Xylose | \n1.2 | \n1.42 | \n15.7 | \n6.6 | \n
Lactose | \n3 | \n1.71 | \n18 | \n10.9 | \n
Maltose | \n1.51 | \n1.5 | \n17.5 | \n6.3 | \n
Sucrose | \n1.54 | \n1.51 | \n13.7 | \n6.2 | \n
Effect of supplementation of various carbon sources [106].
Different researchers studied the effect of various nitrogen sources for cellulase production by employing different microbes. Peptone was reported as most effective nitrogen source for Penicillium sp. [110],
Cellulase production by some microorganisms has been found to be influenced by metal ions, chelators, detergents and surfactants. It was reported that usually metal ions such as Ag+, Cu2+, Hg2+, Fe3+, K+, Mn2+, Mg2+, and Zn2+ are slightly or completely inhibitory of cellulase, whereas metal ions such as Ca2+, Co2+ and Na+ either stimulate or does not affect the cellulase activity [113]. Addition of Tween20 leads to a significant increase in endoglucanase and xylanase production by
It is an important step to remove any contaminants that are found to be present in the mixture. Hence, it is a vital step required for improving performance/functioning of an enzyme. Enzymes in the culture supernatant could be purified by the conventional methods which include ammonium sulfate precipitation and dialysis followed by column chromatography [117]. The most common matrix for gel exclusion chromatography is the Sephadex with different pore sizes which is employed in the purification of cellulase [118]. The purification folds and % yield are the two most important factors which are used to evaluate the efficiency of purification. First step (ammonium salt precipitation) is based upon difference in protein solubility. The solubility of protein firstly increase and then starts decreasing with increase in salt concentration and finally protein gets precipitate. This process is called Salting out [119]. Ammonium sulfate ((NH4)2SO4) is often used for this purpose because of its high solubility in water. Devi et al. [120] reported protein precipitation by addition of solid ammonium sulfate up to 80% saturation. Chen et al. [121] reported precipitation with (NH4)2SO4 at 40–60% saturation. Precipitation is followed by a concentrating step that separates proteins from salts called dialysis. For next step chromatographic technique is most widely used for the direct recovery of protein and other charged molecules. Various types of chromatography methods (gel filtration: Sephadex G-100 [73], ion exchange: DEAE-Cellulose [122] and affinity: swollen avicel [123] have been used for purification of cellulase from various fungal strains.
\nDifferent researchers reported different temperatures for maximum cellulase production. It is reported that the optimal temperature for cellulase production varies from strain to strain of microorganisms [69]. The optimum temperature of fungal cellulases ranges from 40 to 60°C and pH found to be 4.8. A battery of thermophilic fungal strains are known to produce thermostable enzymes which are stable and active at such high temperature which are not optimum for the growth of the microorganism. Filamentous fungi, e.g.,
According to Sajith et al. [87] on the global enzyme market cellulases occupy the third place (i.e., ≈15%) after amylase (≈25%) and protease (≈18%). Cellulases are currently being produced on commercial scale by several industries all over the world and widely used in various industrial applications [128].
\nToday, 90% of paper pulp is made of wood. Recycling one ton of newsprint and printing or copier paper saves about 1 ton and more than 2 tons of wood respectively [129]. Usually, the industrial process for eradicating wastepaper pollutants involves re-pulping, screening, cleaning, washing and flotation [130]. According to Shrinath et al. [131] the conventional recycling of waste papers is costly and hazardous to the environment due to the use of chemicals (hydrogen peroxide, sodium hydroxide and sodium silicate). Cellulases are mainly used for the pulping and deinking of waste papers. Enzymatic deinking as whole is an environmental friendly process [132]. Cellulase based pulping process is not only energy efficient, environment-friendly but also improve mechanical strength of the final paper product by improving the inter-fiber bonding [133]. When used with hemicellulases, cellulases improve the brightness and quality of the recycled paper [134]. Besides deinking and pulping, cellulases are also used in paper mills for drainage of clogged pipes by dissolving fiber residues [61] and for manufacturing easily biodegradable cardboards, sanitary papers [135].
\nAmong the application textile industry dominated in the market in 2017. Cellulase application in textile play main role in the growth of textile industry. In textile industry worn-out look is given to the denim using stone washing. But stone washing have some disadvantages. It causes wear and tear of the fabric, huge loss of water due to extensive washing step and high labor cost, etc. Cellulases used for bio-polishing of cotton cloths and enzyme based stoning of jeans to impart stonewashed look for denims. Cellulase treatment gives a smooth and glossy appearance to fabric by removing short fibers, surface fuzziness and improves color brightness, hydrophilicity and moisture absorbance [136]. Most of the cotton and cotton mixed garments tend to become fluffy and dull during repeated washing due to detachment of microfibrils on the surface of garments. Cellulase treatment can restore a smooth surface and original color to the garments by removing these microfibrils [137]. According to a statistics of India Brand Equity Foundation (IBEF), Indian textile market has increased from US$ 99 Billion in 2014 to US$137 Billion in 2016 and exhibited a CAGR of 17.6% during the period 2014–2016.
\nCellulases are found to be highly valuable for feed and food Recently BIO-CAT introduced a cellulase (Cellulase C500) at IPPE 2016. The enzyme have been derived from a non-GMO, AAFCO approved microbial strain. Addition of Cellulase to animal feed increases its digestibility (http://www.bio-cat.com/introducing-cellulase-c500-animal-feed-enzyme/).
\nUse of cellulases in feed processing leads to improvement in feed digestibility and animal performance. As a component of macerating enzyme complex (cellulase, xylanase and pectinase) these are used for extraction and clarification of fruits and vegetable juices, nectars and oils [138]. Along with others, cell wall degrading enzymes cellulases can be used to reduce bitterness and increase the taste and aroma of citrus fruits [61].
\nNowadays liquid laundry detergent containing anionic or nonionic surfactant, citric acid or a water-soluble salt, protease, cellulose and a mixture of propanediol and boric acid or its derivatives are employed to improve the stability of cellulases [61]. Cellulases are added to detergents for the breakdown of hydrogen bonding under harsh environmental conditions such as alkaline or thermophilic conditions [139]. Cellulases are mixed with detergents to enhance brightness and hand feel, dirt removal from cotton and cotton blended garments because they are capable of modifying the structure of cellulose fibrils [62].
\nWith the fast exhaustion of fossil fuels the need to find a substitute source for renewable energy and fuels is intensifying day by day. Thus interest in the saccharification of lignocellulosic biomass using cellulases and other related enzymes is also increasing [14, 16]. In other words, the cellulase market could be expanded considerably by using cellulases for saccharification of pretreated cellulosic material to sugars which can be fermented further to bioethanol and other bio-based products on large scale [77]. By 2020 biofuels, especially bioethanol from renewable resources is expected to replace 20% of the fossil fuel consumption [140]. Cellulases produced by various filamentous fungi mainly
Microbial glucanases and related polysaccharides are usually used to produce alcoholic beverages including beers and wines by fermentation [144]. In wine production various enzymes such as pectinases, glucanases and hemicellulases plays an important role in improving wine quality and stability by improving color extraction, skin maceration, must clarification and filtration [145]. According to the precedent literature about 10–35% increase in the wine must extraction, a 70–80% increase in the rate of must filtration, 50–120 min decreased pressing time, and 30–70% decreased must viscosity, 20–40% energy saving while cooling thus a considerably improved wine stability. Thus supplementation of enzymes like cellulase and pectinase to the process are expected to enhance the productivity of brewing production [143]. β-Glucosidases can enhance the aroma of wines by modifying glycosylated precursors. Macerating enzymes also improve the juice, press ability and settling of grapes used for wine fermentation. A number of commercial enzyme preparations are now available to the wine industry.
\nCellulolytic bacteria like Bacteroides cellulosilyticus and Ruminococcus champanellensis can be employed for the treatment of phytobezoars disease, which causes concretion of indigestible vegetable and fruit fibers in the gastrointestinal tract that may leads to surgical intrusion [128]. Moreover, cellulases have been utilized as excellent antibiofilm agents against pathogenic biofilms [146]. Further research is required to unravel yet unknown applications of cellulases in medical field.
\nDemand for industrial enzymes in developed countries such as the US, Western Europe, Japan and Canada was relatively stable during the recent times while in developing economies of Asia-Pacific, Eastern Europe, Africa and Middle East regions, demand is increasing day by day [147]. Currently, by dollar volume cellulases are the third largest industrial enzyme globally, because of their extensive applications in animal feed additives, as detergent enzymes, cotton processing, juice extraction and paper recycling. However, cellulases may become the largest quantity industrial enzyme, if ethanol produced from lignocellulosic biomass through these enzymes becomes the major transportation fuel [112, 148]. They contribute to 8% of the worldwide industrial enzyme demand [149]. The international market for biofuel enzymes is expected to reach $9.0 billion by 2017 [150]. Global demand for industrial enzyme’s projected to grow 4.0% per year to $5.0 billion in 2021. Key players in the global cellulose market are Amano enzyme U.S.A, Worthington Biochemical Corporation, MP Biomedical LLC, Sigma-Aldrich Co. LLC, Prozmix LLC, Creative Enzymes, bio-WORLD, Amano Enzyme Inc., Zhongbei Bio-Chem Industry Co., Ltd., Hunan Hong Ying Biotech Co., Ltd., Genencor and Novozyme are major producers they are known worldwide for cellulase production. All above companies played a noteworthy role for reducing production cost of cellulase several folds by their active research and are still continuing to bring down the cost by assuming novel technologies [112]. A few suppliers and source of enzyme samples are list below (Table 4). North America accounted for largest market share in global cellulose production in 2017. Production is depended on the increasing production of biofuel. According to a report by United States Energy information Administration in July 2018, the production of biofuel has increased in the U.S. from 1891 trillion butane to 2332 trillion, increasing at a CAGR of 5.4 during 2013 to 2017.
\nEnzyme samples | \nSupplier | \nSource | \n
---|---|---|
Cellubrix | \nNovozymes, Denmark | \n|
Novozymes 188 | \nNovozymes | \n|
Viscostar 150L | \nDyadic (Jupiter, USA) | \n|
Multifect CL Genencor | \nIntl. (S.San Francisco, CA) | \n|
Energex L | \nNovozymes | \n|
Ultraflo L | \nNovozymes | \n|
Viscozyme L | \nNovozymes | \n|
GC 440 | \nGenencor-Danisco (Rochester, USA) | \n|
GC 880 | \nGenencor | \n|
Spezyme CP | \nGenencor | \n|
Accelerase® 1500 | \nGenencor | \n|
Cellulase AP30K | \nAmano Enzyme | \n|
Cellulase TRL | \nSolvay Enzymes (Elkhart, IN) | \n|
Econase CE | \nAlko-EDC (New York, NY) | \n|
Cellulase TAP106 | \nAmano Enzyme (Troy, VA) | \n
Suppliers and sources of enzyme samples [122].
The demand for cellulases is increasing day by day due to its volatile and the rise in oil prices which induced a shift in interest towards the application of cellulases in producing biofuel using lignocellulosic biomass [151]. Enhancing the cellulase activity and reducing the cost of production of enzyme are two key issues regarding the enzymatic hydrolysis of cellulosic biomass. Genetic techniques can be used to clone the cellulase coding sequences into bacteria, yeasts, fungi, plants and animals to create new cellulase producing systems with improved production and activity of enzyme [152]. One of the major drawbacks of SSF is the low thermal conductivity of the solid medium used in SSF which restricts the removal of excess heat generated by microbial metabolism. The elevated temperature in bioreactors may lead to denaturation of thermo labile proteins [153]. Thus the thermo stable, modified fungal and bacterial strains are also good future prospects for cellulase production [62]. Interchangeably more advanced strategy is to engineer microbes for producing all major enzymes involved in cellulose hydrolysis in optimum ratio which may decrease the expenditure greatly [154]. Although the cellulase enzyme cost has dropped due to improvements in expression vectors and on-site production still there is a necessity of engineering a new generation cellulase cocktails that would further reduce cellulase cost. Efforts have to be made via hunting both diversity rich environments and extremophilic niches for identification of novel cellulase producers [150]. It can be made possible through following four approaches:
Mining novel cellulase genes via culturable/nonculturable strategies.
Improving production technologies by using novel bioreactors.
Designing novel cellulases through protein and metabolic engineering by understanding molecular mechanism and mode of interaction of cellulases with substrates.
Using mathematical, biophysical and enzymological approaches for cellulase production through consolidated bioprocessing in a cost-effective manner.
Lignocellulosic biomass is the most abundant biomass on the earth. They are the potential source of biofuels, and other useful chemicals. But one of the most severe hindrances in this process is the structure of biomass itself. This problem can be resolved up to a greater extent by various types of pretreatments and enzymatic hydrolysis, engineered cellulases and by consolidated bioprocessing.
\nConsolidated bioprocessing includes cellulose production, hydrolysis of cellulose and fermentation of Pentose and Hexose sugars in a single step which will reduce production cost and increase production/conversion efficiency as compared to the processes performing dedicated cellulase production. A good pretreatment should result in increased cellulose content and decreased hemicelluloses/lignin content of biomass. Another problem is the yield and efficiency of enzyme. Yield of enzyme can be increased by optimization of different parameters involved in enzyme production using one variable or statistical approach (RSM). Alternatively novel proteins with enhanced production can be synthesized by protein and metabolic engineering. Enzyme engineering must be focused on (1) to increase cellulase specific activity on pretreated biomass through enzyme cocktail (2) to increase cellulase stability for cellulase recycling, and (3) to reduce enzyme production costs. Consolidated bioprocessing microorganisms or consortium would simplify the whole process and increase productivity. The above three approaches would be integrated together for maximizing the process for lignocellulosic biomass management/conversion in to value added products.
\nAuthors acknowledge CSIR, UGC, DST and HSCST for financial support in the form of fellowship and major research project (DST/INT/UKR/P-14/2015).
\n"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges".
\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.
",metaTitle:"About Open Access",metaDescription:"Open access contributes to scientific excellence and integrity. It opens up research results to wider analysis. It allows research results to be reused for new discoveries. And it enables the multi-disciplinary research that is needed to solve global 21st century problems. Open access connects science with society. It allows the public to engage with research. To go behind the headlines. And look at the scientific evidence. And it enables policy makers to draw on innovative solutions to societal challenges.\n\nCarlos Moedas, the European Commissioner for Research Science and Innovation at the STM Annual Frankfurt Conference, October 2016.",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"about-open-access",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\\n\\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\\n\\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\\n\\nOAI-PMH
\\n\\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\\n\\nLicense
\\n\\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\\n\\nPeer Review Policies
\\n\\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\\n\\nOA Publishing Fees
\\n\\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\\n\\nDigital Archiving Policy
\\n\\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\\n\\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\\n\\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\\n\\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\\n\\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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The Open Access publishing movement started in the early 2000s when academic leaders from around the world participated in the formation of the Budapest Initiative. They developed recommendations for an Open Access publishing process, “which has worked for the past decade to provide the public with unrestricted, free access to scholarly research—much of which is publicly funded. Making the research publicly available to everyone—free of charge and without most copyright and licensing restrictions—will accelerate scientific research efforts and allow authors to reach a larger number of readers” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nIntechOpen’s co-founders, both scientists themselves, created the company while undertaking research in robotics at Vienna University. Their goal was to spread research freely “for scientists, by scientists’ to the rest of the world via the Open Access publishing model. The company soon became a signatory of the Budapest Initiative, which currently has more than 1000 supporting organizations worldwide, ranging from universities to funders.
\n\nAt IntechOpen today, we are still as committed to working with organizations and people who care about scientific discovery, to putting the academic needs of the scientific community first, and to providing an Open Access environment where scientists can maximize their contribution to scientific advancement. By opening up access to the world’s scientific research articles and book chapters, we aim to facilitate greater opportunity for collaboration, scientific discovery and progress. We subscribe wholeheartedly to the Open Access definition:
\n\n“By “open access” to [peer-reviewed research literature], we mean its free availability on the public internet, permitting any users to read, download, copy, distribute, print, search, or link to the full texts of these articles, crawl them for indexing, pass them as data to software, or use them for any other lawful purpose, without financial, legal, or technical barriers other than those inseparable from gaining access to the internet itself. The only constraint on reproduction and distribution, and the only role for copyright in this domain, should be to give authors control over the integrity of their work and the right to be properly acknowledged and cited” (reference: http://www.budapestopenaccessinitiative.org)
\n\nOAI-PMH
\n\nAs a firm believer in the wider dissemination of knowledge, IntechOpen supports the Open Access Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI-PMH Version 2.0). Read more
\n\nLicense
\n\nBook chapters published in edited volumes are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License (CC BY 3.0). IntechOpen upholds a very flexible Copyright Policy. There is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their work. All Monographs/Compacts are distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0). Read more
\n\nPeer Review Policies
\n\nAll scientific works are Peer Reviewed prior to publishing. Read more
\n\nOA Publishing Fees
\n\nThe Open Access publishing model employed by IntechOpen eliminates subscription charges and pay-per-view fees, enabling readers to access research at no cost. In order to sustain operations and keep our publications freely accessible we levy an Open Access Publishing Fee for manuscripts, which helps us cover the costs of editorial work and the production of books. Read more
\n\nDigital Archiving Policy
\n\nIntechOpen is committed to ensuring the long-term preservation and the availability of all scholarly research we publish. We employ a variety of means to enable us to deliver on our commitments to the scientific community. Apart from preservation by the Croatian National Library (for publications prior to April 18, 2018) and the British Library (for publications after April 18, 2018), our entire catalogue is preserved in the CLOCKSS archive.
\n\nOpen Science is transparent and accessible knowledge that is shared and developed through collaborative networks.
\n\nOpen Science is about increased rigour, accountability, and reproducibility for research. It is based on the principles of inclusion, fairness, equity, and sharing, and ultimately seeks to change the way research is done, who is involved and how it is valued. It aims to make research more open to participation, review/refutation, improvement and (re)use for the world to benefit.
\n\nOpen Science refers to doing traditional science with more transparency involved at various stages, for example by openly sharing code and data. It implies a growing set of practices - within different disciplines - aiming at:
\n\nWe aim at improving the quality and availability of scholarly communication by promoting and practicing:
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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Among different technologies for hydrogen production, oxygenic natural and artificial photosynthesis using direct photochemistry in synthetic complexes have a great potential to produce hydrogen as both use clean and cheap sources - water and solar energy. Photosynthetic organisms capture sunlight very efficiently and convert it into organic molecules. Artificial photosynthesis is one way to produce hydrogen from water using sunlight by employing biomimetic complexes. However, splitting of water into protons and oxygen is energetically demanding and chemically difficult. In oxygenic photosynthetic microorganisms water is splitted into electrons and protons during primary photosynthetic processes. The electrons and protons are redirected through the photosynthetic electron transport chain to the hydrogen-producing enzymes-hydrogenase or nitrogenase. By these enzymes, e- and H+ recombine and form gaseous hydrogen. Biohydrogen activity of hydrogenase can be very high but it is extremely sensitive to photosynthetic O2. At the moment, the efficiency of biohydrogen production is low. However, theoretical expectations suggest that the rates of photon conversion efficiency for H2 bioproduction can be high enough (> 10%). Our review examines the main pathways of H2 photoproduction using photosynthetic organisms and biomimetic photosynthetic systems and focuses on developing new technologies based on the effective principles of photosynthesis.",book:{id:"3587",slug:"biomimetics-learning-from-nature",title:"Biomimetics",fullTitle:"Biomimetics Learning from Nature"},signatures:"Suleyman I. Allakhverdiev, Vladimir D. Kreslavski, Velmurugan Thavasi, Sergei K. Zharmukhamedov, Vyacheslav V. 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It performs very complex tasks while occupying about 2 liters of volume and consuming very little energy. The computation tasks are performed by special cells in the brain called neurons. They compute using electrical pulses and exchange information between them through chemicals called neurotransmitters. With this as inspiration, there are several compute models which exist today trying to exploit the inherent efficiencies demonstrated by nature. The compute models representing spiking neural networks (SNNs) are biologically plausible, hence are used to study and understand the workings of brain and nervous system. More importantly, they are used to solve a wide variety of problems in the field of artificial intelligence (AI). They are uniquely suited to model temporal and spatio-temporal data paradigms. This chapter explores the fundamental concepts of SNNs, few of the popular neuron models, how the information is represented, learning methodologies, and state of the art platforms for implementing and evaluating SNNs along with a discussion on their applications and broader role in the field of AI and data networks.",book:{id:"10372",slug:"biomimetics",title:"Biomimetics",fullTitle:"Biomimetics"},signatures:"Khadeer Ahmed",authors:[{id:"320026",title:"Dr.",name:"Khadeer",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"khadeer-ahmed",fullName:"Khadeer Ahmed"}]},{id:"65418",title:"Opening the “Black Box” of Silicon Chip Design in Neuromorphic Computing",slug:"opening-the-black-box-of-silicon-chip-design-in-neuromorphic-computing",totalDownloads:1591,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Neuromorphic computing, a bio-inspired computing architecture that transfers neuroscience to silicon chip, has potential to achieve the same level of computation and energy efficiency as mammalian brains. Meanwhile, three-dimensional (3D) integrated circuit (IC) design with non-volatile memory crossbar array uniquely unveils its intrinsic vector-matrix computation with parallel computing capability in neuromorphic computing designs. In this chapter, the state-of-the-art research trend on electronic circuit designs of neuromorphic computing will be introduced. Furthermore, a practical bio-inspired spiking neural network with delay-feedback topology will be discussed. In the endeavor to imitate how human beings process information, our fabricated spiking neural network chip has capability to process analog signal directly, resulting in high energy efficiency with small hardware implementation cost. Mimicking the neurological structure of mammalian brains, the potential of 3D-IC implementation technique with memristive synapses is investigated. 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He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a Principal Investigator and Scientist at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via machine-learning-based analyses of exosomal signatures. Dr. Paul has published in more than fifty peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award, a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. In 2016, he joined Kafkas University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology as an assistant professor. Dr. Gelen has been engaged in various academic activities at Kafkas University since 2016. There he completed 5 projects and has 3 ongoing projects. He has 60 articles published in scientific journals and 20 poster presentations in scientific congresses. His research interests include physiology, endocrine system, cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular system diseases, and isolated organ bath system studies.",institutionString:"Kafkas University",institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"418963",title:"Dr.",name:"Augustine Ododo",middleName:"Augustine",surname:"Osagie",slug:"augustine-ododo-osagie",fullName:"Augustine Ododo Osagie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/418963/images/16900_n.jpg",biography:"Born into the family of Osagie, a prince of the Benin Kingdom. I am currently an academic in the Department of Medical Biochemistry, University of Benin. Part of the duties are to teach undergraduate students and conduct academic research.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Benin",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"192992",title:"Prof.",name:"Shagufta",middleName:null,surname:"Perveen",slug:"shagufta-perveen",fullName:"Shagufta Perveen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192992/images/system/192992.png",biography:"Prof. Shagufta Perveen is a Distinguish Professor in the Department of Pharmacognosy, College of Pharmacy, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia. Dr. Perveen has acted as the principal investigator of major research projects funded by the research unit of King Saud University. She has more than ninety original research papers in peer-reviewed journals of international repute to her credit. She is a fellow member of the Royal Society of Chemistry UK and the American Chemical Society of the United States.",institutionString:"King Saud University",institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"49848",title:"Dr.",name:"Wen-Long",middleName:null,surname:"Hu",slug:"wen-long-hu",fullName:"Wen-Long Hu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49848/images/system/49848.jpg",biography:"Wen-Long Hu is Chief of the Division of Acupuncture, Department of Chinese Medicine at Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, as well as an adjunct associate professor at Fooyin University and Kaohsiung Medical University. Wen-Long is President of Taiwan Traditional Chinese Medicine Medical Association. He has 28 years of experience in clinical practice in laser acupuncture therapy and 34 years in acupuncture. He is an invited speaker for lectures and workshops in laser acupuncture at many symposiums held by medical associations. He owns the patent for herbal preparation and producing, and for the supercritical fluid-treated needle. Dr. Hu has published three books, 12 book chapters, and more than 30 papers in reputed journals, besides serving as an editorial board member of repute.",institutionString:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",institution:{name:"Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital",country:{name:"Taiwan"}}},{id:"298472",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrey V.",middleName:null,surname:"Grechko",slug:"andrey-v.-grechko",fullName:"Andrey V. Grechko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/298472/images/system/298472.png",biography:"Andrey Vyacheslavovich Grechko, Ph.D., Professor, is a Corresponding Member of the Russian Academy of Sciences. He graduated from the Semashko Moscow Medical Institute (Semashko National Research Institute of Public Health) with a degree in Medicine (1998), the Clinical Department of Dermatovenerology (2000), and received a second higher education in Psychology (2009). Professor A.V. Grechko held the position of Сhief Physician of the Central Clinical Hospital in Moscow. He worked as a professor at the faculty and was engaged in scientific research at the Medical University. Starting in 2013, he has been the initiator of the creation of the Federal Scientific and Clinical Center for Intensive Care and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation, where he also serves as Director since 2015. He has many years of experience in research and teaching in various fields of medicine, is an author/co-author of more than 200 scientific publications, 13 patents, 15 medical books/chapters, including Chapter in Book «Metabolomics», IntechOpen, 2020 «Metabolomic Discovery of Microbiota Dysfunction as the Cause of Pathology».",institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"199461",title:"Prof.",name:"Natalia V.",middleName:null,surname:"Beloborodova",slug:"natalia-v.-beloborodova",fullName:"Natalia V. Beloborodova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/199461/images/system/199461.jpg",biography:'Natalia Vladimirovna Beloborodova was educated at the Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, with a degree in pediatrics in 1980, a Ph.D. in 1987, and a specialization in Clinical Microbiology from First Moscow State Medical University in 2004. She has been a Professor since 1996. Currently, she is the Head of the Laboratory of Metabolism, a division of the Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology, Moscow, Russian Federation. N.V. Beloborodova has many years of clinical experience in the field of intensive care and surgery. She studies infectious complications and sepsis. She initiated a series of interdisciplinary clinical and experimental studies based on the concept of integrating human metabolism and its microbiota. Her scientific achievements are widely known: she is the recipient of the Marie E. Coates Award \\"Best lecturer-scientist\\" Gustafsson Fund, Karolinska Institutes, Stockholm, Sweden, and the International Sepsis Forum Award, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France (2014), etc. Professor N.V. Beloborodova wrote 210 papers, five books, 10 chapters and has edited four books.',institutionString:"Federal Research and Clinical Center of Intensive Care Medicine and Rehabilitology",institution:null},{id:"354260",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Tércio Elyan",middleName:"Azevedo",surname:"Azevedo Martins",slug:"tercio-elyan-azevedo-martins",fullName:"Tércio Elyan Azevedo Martins",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/354260/images/16241_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from the Federal University of Ceará with the modality in Industrial Pharmacy, Specialist in Production and Control of Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP), Master in Pharmaceuticals and Medicines from the University of São Paulo (USP) and Doctor of Science in the program of Pharmaceuticals and Medicines by the University of São Paulo. Professor at Universidade Paulista (UNIP) in the areas of chemistry, cosmetology and trichology. Assistant Coordinator of the Higher Course in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Technology at Universidade Paulista Campus Chácara Santo Antônio. Experience in the Pharmacy area, with emphasis on Pharmacotechnics, Pharmaceutical Technology, Research and Development of Cosmetics, acting mainly on topics such as cosmetology, antioxidant activity, aesthetics, photoprotection, cyclodextrin and thermal analysis.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"334285",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Sameer",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Jagirdar",slug:"sameer-jagirdar",fullName:"Sameer Jagirdar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334285/images/14691_n.jpg",biography:"I\\'m a graduate student at the center for biosystems science and engineering at the Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India. I am interested in studying host-pathogen interactions at the biomaterial interface.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Indian Institute of Science Bangalore",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329248",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Faheem",middleName:null,surname:"Haider",slug:"md.-faheem-haider",fullName:"Md. Faheem Haider",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329248/images/system/329248.jpg",biography:"Dr. Md. Faheem Haider completed his BPharm in 2012 at Integral University, Lucknow, India. In 2014, he completed his MPharm with specialization in Pharmaceutics at Babasaheb Bhimrao Ambedkar University, Lucknow, India. He received his Ph.D. degree from Jamia Hamdard University, New Delhi, India, in 2018. He was selected for the GPAT six times and his best All India Rank was 34. Currently, he is an assistant professor at Integral University. Previously he was an assistant professor at IIMT University, Meerut, India. He has experience teaching DPharm, Pharm.D, BPharm, and MPharm students. He has more than five publications in reputed journals to his credit. Dr. Faheem’s research area is the development and characterization of nanoformulation for the delivery of drugs to various organs.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:{name:"Integral University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"329795",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd Aftab",middleName:"Aftab",surname:"Siddiqui",slug:"mohd-aftab-siddiqui",fullName:"Mohd Aftab Siddiqui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329795/images/15648_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mohd Aftab Siddiqui is currently working as Assistant Professor in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Integral University, Lucknow for the last 6 years. He has completed his Doctor in Philosophy (Pharmacology) in 2020 from Integral University, Lucknow. He completed his Bachelor in Pharmacy in 2013 and Master in Pharmacy (Pharmacology) in 2015 from Integral University, Lucknow. He is the gold medalist in Bachelor and Master degree. He qualified GPAT -2013, GPAT -2014, and GPAT 2015. His area of research is Pharmacological screening of herbal drugs/ natural products in liver and cardiac diseases. He has guided many M. Pharm. research projects. He has many national and international publications.",institutionString:"Integral University",institution:null},{id:"333824",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad Farouk",middleName:null,surname:"Musa",slug:"ahmad-farouk-musa",fullName:"Ahmad Farouk Musa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333824/images/22684_n.jpg",biography:"Dato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa\nMD, MMED (Surgery) (Mal), Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery (Monash Health, Aust), Graduate Certificate in Higher Education (Aust), Academy of Medicine (Mal)\n\n\n\nDato’ Dr Ahmad Farouk Musa obtained his Doctor of Medicine from USM in 1992. He then obtained his Master of Medicine in Surgery from the same university in the year 2000 before subspecialising in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Institut Jantung Negara (IJN), Kuala Lumpur from 2002 until 2005. He then completed his Fellowship in Cardiothoracic Surgery at Monash Health, Melbourne, Australia in 2008. He has served in the Malaysian army as a Medical Officer with the rank of Captain upon completing his Internship before joining USM as a trainee lecturer. He is now serving as an academic and researcher at Monash University Malaysia. He is a life-member of the Malaysian Association of Thoracic & Cardiovascular Surgery (MATCVS) and a committee member of the MATCVS Database. He is also a life-member of the College of Surgeons, Academy of Medicine of Malaysia; a life-member of Malaysian Medical Association (MMA), and a life-member of Islamic Medical Association of Malaysia (IMAM). Recently he was appointed as an Interim Chairperson of Examination & Assessment Subcommittee of the UiTM-IJN Cardiothoracic Surgery Postgraduate Program. As an academic, he has published numerous research papers and book chapters. He has also been appointed to review many scientific manuscripts by established journals such as the British Medical Journal (BMJ). He has presented his research works at numerous local and international conferences such as the European Association for Cardiothoracic Surgery (EACTS) and the European Society of Cardiovascular Surgery (ESCVS), to name a few. He has also won many awards for his research presentations at meetings and conferences like the prestigious International Invention, Innovation & Technology Exhibition (ITEX); Design, Research and Innovation Exhibition, the National Conference on Medical Sciences and the Annual Scientific Meetings of the Malaysian Association for Thoracic and Cardiovascular Surgery. He was awarded the Darjah Setia Pangkuan Negeri (DSPN) by the Governor of Penang in July, 2015.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Monash University Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"30568",title:"Prof.",name:"Madhu",middleName:null,surname:"Khullar",slug:"madhu-khullar",fullName:"Madhu Khullar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/30568/images/system/30568.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madhu Khullar is a Professor of Experimental Medicine and Biotechnology at the Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research, Chandigarh, India. She completed her Post Doctorate in hypertension research at the Henry Ford Hospital, Detroit, USA in 1985. She is an editor and reviewer of several international journals, and a fellow and member of several cardiovascular research societies. Dr. Khullar has a keen research interest in genetics of hypertension, and is currently studying pharmacogenetics of hypertension.",institutionString:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",institution:{name:"Post Graduate Institute of Medical Education and Research",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"223233",title:"Prof.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/223233/images/system/223233.png",biography:"Xianquan Zhan received his MD and Ph.D. in Preventive Medicine at West China University of Medical Sciences. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics at the Central South University, China, and the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC), USA. He worked at UTHSC and the Cleveland Clinic in 2001–2012 and achieved the rank of associate professor at UTHSC. Currently, he is a full professor at Central South University and Shandong First Medical University, and an advisor to MS/PhD students and postdoctoral fellows. He is also a fellow of the Royal Society of Medicine and European Association for Predictive Preventive Personalized Medicine (EPMA), a national representative of EPMA, and a member of the American Society of Clinical Oncology (ASCO) and the American Association for the Advancement of Sciences (AAAS). He is also the editor in chief of International Journal of Chronic Diseases & Therapy, an associate editor of EPMA Journal, Frontiers in Endocrinology, and BMC Medical Genomics, and a guest editor of Mass Spectrometry Reviews, Frontiers in Endocrinology, EPMA Journal, and Oxidative Medicine and Cellular Longevity. He has published more than 148 articles, 28 book chapters, 6 books, and 2 US patents in the field of clinical proteomics and biomarkers.",institutionString:"Shandong First Medical University",institution:{name:"Affiliated Hospital of Shandong Academy of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"297507",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:"Elias",surname:"Assmann",slug:"charles-assmann",fullName:"Charles Assmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297507/images/system/297507.jpg",biography:"Charles Elias Assmann is a biologist from Federal University of Santa Maria (UFSM, Brazil), who spent some time abroad at the Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München (LMU, Germany). He has Masters Degree in Biochemistry (UFSM), and is currently a PhD student at Biochemistry at the Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology of the UFSM. His areas of expertise include: Biochemistry, Molecular Biology, Enzymology, Genetics and Toxicology. He is currently working on the following subjects: Aluminium toxicity, Neuroinflammation, Oxidative stress and Purinergic system. Since 2011 he has presented more than 80 abstracts in scientific proceedings of national and international meetings. Since 2014, he has published more than 20 peer reviewed papers (including 4 reviews, 3 in Portuguese) and 2 book chapters. He has also been a reviewer of international journals and ad hoc reviewer of scientific committees from Brazilian Universities.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Santa Maria",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"217850",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarete Dulce",middleName:null,surname:"Bagatini",slug:"margarete-dulce-bagatini",fullName:"Margarete Dulce Bagatini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/217850/images/system/217850.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Margarete Dulce Bagatini is an associate professor at the Federal University of Fronteira Sul/Brazil. She has a degree in Pharmacy and a PhD in Biological Sciences: Toxicological Biochemistry. She is a member of the UFFS Research Advisory Committee\nand a member of the Biovitta Research Institute. She is currently:\nthe leader of the research group: Biological and Clinical Studies\nin Human Pathologies, professor of postgraduate program in\nBiochemistry at UFSC and postgraduate program in Science and Food Technology at\nUFFS. She has experience in the area of pharmacy and clinical analysis, acting mainly\non the following topics: oxidative stress, the purinergic system and human pathologies, being a reviewer of several international journals and books.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"38",type:"subseries",title:"Pollution",keywords:"Human activity, Pollutants, Reduced risks, Population growth, Waste disposal, Remediation, Clean environment",scope:"
\r\n\tPollution is caused by a wide variety of human activities and occurs in diverse forms, for example biological, chemical, et cetera. In recent years, significant efforts have been made to ensure that the environment is clean, that rigorous rules are implemented, and old laws are updated to reduce the risks towards humans and ecosystems. However, rapid industrialization and the need for more cultivable sources or habitable lands, for an increasing population, as well as fewer alternatives for waste disposal, make the pollution control tasks more challenging. Therefore, this topic will focus on assessing and managing environmental pollution. It will cover various subjects, including risk assessment due to the pollution of ecosystems, transport and fate of pollutants, restoration or remediation of polluted matrices, and efforts towards sustainable solutions to minimize environmental pollution.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/38.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!1,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11966,editor:{id:"110740",title:"Dr.",name:"Ismail M.M.",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"ismail-m.m.-rahman",fullName:"Ismail M.M. Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/110740/images/2319_n.jpg",biography:"Ismail Md. Mofizur Rahman (Ismail M. M. Rahman) assumed his current responsibilities as an Associate Professor at the Institute of Environmental Radioactivity, Fukushima University, Japan, in Oct 2015. He also has an honorary appointment to serve as a Collaborative Professor at Kanazawa University, Japan, from Mar 2015 to the present. \nFormerly, Dr. Rahman was a faculty member of the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh, affiliated with the Department of Chemistry (Oct 2002 to Mar 2012) and the Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering (Mar 2012 to Sep 2015). Dr. Rahman was also adjunctly attached with Kanazawa University, Japan (Visiting Research Professor, Dec 2014 to Mar 2015; JSPS Postdoctoral Research Fellow, Apr 2012 to Mar 2014), and Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (TokyoTech-UNESCO Research Fellow, Oct 2004–Sep 2005). \nHe received his Ph.D. degree in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University, Japan (2011). He also achieved a Diploma in Environment from the Tokyo Institute of Technology, Japan (2005). Besides, he has an M.Sc. degree in Applied Chemistry and a B.Sc. degree in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. \nDr. Rahman’s research interest includes the study of the fate and behavior of environmental pollutants in the biosphere; design of low energy and low burden environmental improvement (remediation) technology; implementation of sustainable waste management practices for treatment, handling, reuse, and ultimate residual disposition of solid wastes; nature and type of interactions in organic liquid mixtures for process engineering design applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201020",title:"Dr.",name:"Zinnat Ara",middleName:null,surname:"Begum",slug:"zinnat-ara-begum",fullName:"Zinnat Ara Begum",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201020/images/system/201020.jpeg",biography:"Zinnat A. Begum received her Ph.D. in Environmental Analytical Chemistry from Kanazawa University in 2012. She achieved her Master of Science (M.Sc.) degree with a major in Applied Chemistry and a Bachelor of Science (B.Sc.) in Chemistry, all from the University of Chittagong, Bangladesh. Her work affiliations include Fukushima University, Japan (Visiting Research Fellow, Institute of Environmental Radioactivity: Mar 2016 to present), Southern University Bangladesh (Assistant Professor, Department of Civil Engineering: Jan 2015 to present), and Kanazawa University, Japan (Postdoctoral Fellow, Institute of Science and Engineering: Oct 2012 to Mar 2014; Research fellow, Venture Business Laboratory, Advanced Science and Social Co-Creation Promotion Organization: Apr 2018 to Mar 2021). The research focus of Dr. Zinnat includes the effect of the relative stability of metal-chelator complexes in the environmental remediation process designs and the development of eco-friendly soil washing techniques using biodegradable chelators.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Fukushima University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},editorThree:null,series:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713"},editorialBoard:[{id:"252368",title:"Dr.",name:"Meng-Chuan",middleName:null,surname:"Ong",slug:"meng-chuan-ong",fullName:"Meng-Chuan Ong",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRVotQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-05-20T12:04:28.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universiti Malaysia Terengganu",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"63465",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohamed Nageeb",middleName:null,surname:"Rashed",slug:"mohamed-nageeb-rashed",fullName:"Mohamed Nageeb Rashed",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/63465/images/system/63465.gif",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Aswan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"187907",title:"Dr.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Anne",slug:"olga-anne",fullName:"Olga Anne",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSBE5QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-04-07T09:42:13.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Klaipeda State University of Applied Sciences",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lithuania"}}}]},onlineFirstChapters:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"82367",title:"Spatial Variation and Factors Associated with Unsuppressed HIV Viral Load among Women in an HIV Hyperendemic Area of KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105547",signatures:"Adenike O. 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