More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
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Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
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“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
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Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
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We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\n
Simba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
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IntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\n
Since the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\n
Our breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n
“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\n
Additionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\n
We are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n
\n\n
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She became an assistant professor in 2012. She has been working at the Gümüşhane University Faculty of Health Sciences since 2019. She has been assigned to the scientific committees of several national and international conferences. She has published numerous books and articles in several countries in the index. 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Nurses usually act as first responders to complex humanitarian crises and disasters; protectors and advocates for the community and communicators and co-ordinators within teams. Communication is a core component of sound relationships, collaboration and co-operation, which in turn are essential aspects of professional practice. The quality of communication in interactions between nurses and patients has a major influence on patient outcomes. Increases in nursing communication can lessen medical errors and make a difference in positive patient outcomes. This chapter explores how effective communication and interpersonal skills can enhance professional nursing practice and nursing relationships with various stakeholders. 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Knowing what cultural practices are done in the target communities and identifying the cultural barriers to offering quality health care positively affects the caring process. 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1. Introduction
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Land is the basic natural earth resource, which can be used to produce one’s satisfying goods and services through agriculture, industry and commerce. Land in the Niger Delta area is in large demand because of traditional and cultural beliefs attached to the possession of land [1]. Land is regarded in this area as the best form of asset investment because of the prestige attached to its ownership. The cost of land appreciates and has no depreciative value. But a land or coastal area that has been plundered and polluted may loss its economic value [2]. The aim of acquiring land varies, but is mainly for possession and or production of goods and services to satisfy socio-economic and socio-cultural needs. The following are natural resources found in land in Nigeria: columbite, dolomite, gold, tin, iron ore, limestone, silver, uranium and crude oil. The crude oil resource is mainly present in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria, which is the centripetal force on which the nation’s economy revolves [3]. Land is highly priced and many have died for its sake through fratricidal wars and communal clashes because of its scarcity. This situation had precipitated the uncontrolled reclamation of coastal lands [4]. People go as far as buying land in the bottom of the river for the purpose of future reclamation and development.
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Land policy in Nigeria is influenced by government and culture. This is encapsulated in the Land Use Act promulgated in 1978, which states that all lands in Nigeria belong to the Federal Government, this include but not limited to under-water land that is 200 nautical miles from the shore. The Governors of each states of the federation hold the land in trust for the Federal Government, and are entitled to be the sole signatory of all certificate of occupancy (C of O) before a piece of land is legally owned by an individual or group of individuals. Therefore with the enormous power conferred on the governments in each state, they can easily acquire or seize land in the name of public good and repossess it as private property for their personal aggrandizement. Before coastal lands are to be acquired proper environmental impact assessment (EIA) studies need to be conducted to develop proper management plan aimed at forestalling loss and extinction of common and rare species. But in most cases no proper EIA or landscape assessment is carried out [5]. It is the responsibility of the Government to protect the land against illegal landscape reclamations. However, in many communities coastal lands are protected traditionally if they have cultural significance to the people [1]. Despite the negative consequences of coastal land reclamation to aquatic species, it can add some economic value if used for non-intrusive agricultural activities. Nevertheless, land utilization is influenced by nature and characteristics of soil, soil moisture and temperature, topography and land location, flora, fauna and climate. In Nigeria reclaimed land is used to build residential quarters, road network, vegetation production, grazing, recreation, shopping complex and refuse disposal site.
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Land reclamation is also known as land fill, it is the process of creating new land from ocean, riverbeds or lake beds. It is the returning of lands to an improved state. It is also referred to as the process of improving lands to make them suitable for more intensive use. Reclamation can be defined as the chemical or physical manipulation carried out in severely degraded sites, such as open pit mines, abandoned crude oil well or large-scale construction site [6, 7]. Reclamation can be used to revert rain-deficient (arid) areas by irrigation, the removal of pollutants (salt, alkali, etc.) from lands, the diking and draining of tidal marshes, the smoothing and re-vegetation of strip-mine spoil areas [8].
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Historically, reclamation meant irrigation projects that brought wetlands and deserts (considered useless wastelands) into agricultural production. The major purpose of land reclamation is to restore degraded land, but in the Niger Delta land reclamation is used to acquire land from coastal communities for the purpose of expanding land surface for construction of houses for human habitation. Land reclamation in the Niger Delta passes through five phases, which in all ramifications affect the environment. These phases include: (i) deforestation of mangrove forest (ii) consolidation of swamp with bulldozers, (iii) pumping of white sand from the sea bottom unto shore, (iv) sand filling of reclaimed land, and (v) construction activity e.g. roads, buildings, industries and parks.
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Land can either be physical or economic. Physical land covers all the earth including land surface, sub-surface, under water and super surface (atmosphere). Economic land on the other hand, is part of physical land that can be used to produce economic commodities for man’s satisfaction [2]. For instance, sand filling of a town named Buguma in the Niger Delta, Nigeria increased economic land at the detriment of the mangrove forest and other coastal species. Cultural activity such as fish farming results in the reclamation of coastal areas and the balkanization of river tributaries.
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2. Reasons for land reclamation in the Niger Delta
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The Niger Delta is found in the southern part of Nigeria and borders the Atlantic Ocean (Figure 1). Mangrove vegetation is the dominant species found at the interface between the land and the sea. Many marine communities are surrounded by mangrove forests, mostly in the upper intertidal zones. Population increase has led to the migration of people towards the coastal locations. The causes of land reclamation in the Niger Delta are grouped into two: (1) direct and (2) indirect causes. The direct causes include: (i) land expansion, (ii) construction activities, (iii) land acquisition and (iv) succession (land-forming activities of mangroves). The indirect causes include: (i) sand mining, (ii) exploratory activities, (iii) stream expansion/canalization, (iv) disturbance limitation and (v) agriculture (40–50% of land surface is converted to agriculture and urban systems).
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Figure 1.
Map of Niger Delta Nigeria (circled) bordering the Atlantic Ocean has the biggest mangrove forests in Africa.
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2.1 Direct causes
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2.1.1 Land expansion
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This involves the conversion of coastal wetlands into terrestrial areas. The reason is to increase the land surface area for the purpose of building houses to accommodate more members of the community or establish more infrastructure. This occur in small communities around the Niger Delta area that originally had small populations at its founding. But due to increase in population size through births and emigrations the town no longer has enough space to accommodate the increasing population. This situation thus necessitated the reclamation of coastal areas to create more space for human habitation. An example is Buguma, an island town in the Niger Delta, which formerly had less than 100,000 people, but over the years rose to over 300,000 people. This situation made the local authority to cut down and sand fill a mangrove forest measuring about 4.2 million m2 in 1984 (Figure 2). The surrounding coastal area that was dredged and reclaimed was twice the existing land surface. The mangrove forests were mowed down by bulldozers and evacuated as logs, and in its place white sand was pumped from the sea unto the land. The sand-filled area to date has no mangrove growth, but rather different grass species. Presently buildings have been erected on the site, which are occupied by some people. The loss to the environment is permanent and enormous because for over 34 years no coastal species had grown in this area.
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Figure 2.
Dredged and sand filled areas in Buguma, Niger Delta, Nigeria. The white patch indicates the sand filled area while the green patches indicates mangrove forest that is still standing. The white patches sum up to give a total of 4.2 million m2 of mangroves removed in 1984. This estimate was made using Arc GIS [9].
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The second example is another site known as Borikiri in the outskirts of Port Harcourt, the capital city of Rivers State. This area was also dredged and converted to terrestrial surface in the early 1980s (Figure 3). So far in this location thousands of houses had been built, which houses over half a million persons. The implication of these landscape reclamations is that the destruction of mangrove forests lead to a colossal loss of ecosystem services to the environment. Anthropogenic activities around the coast is detrimental to its sustainability because of the addition of pollutants and contaminants [5].
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Figure 3.
Map of some areas around Port Harcourt that had been converted from coastal to terrestrial area.
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2.1.2 Construction activities
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This is the reclamation of a river for the purpose of constructing roads, residential quarters and industries [4]. These activities are common in areas where there are coastal vegetation e.g. mangrove wetlands. The swamps are scooped away or reinforced with sand and concrete in other to produce a hard surface on which to construct foundations of buildings. Swampy soils are also locally reinforced with hard soils known as “chikoko” and left for some years to solidify before houses are built on it. Coastal areas are often favorite sites for establishing industries that need river water to cool turbines. Industries also flock around coastal areas because of the ease of transportation of goods and equipments.
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Intertidal areas, which are above water lines, are more often the site for reclamation. These areas are naturally covered with water during high tides, but are filled with soil and consolidated to prevent tidal flooding during high tide. The solidified area is used as a platform for construction activities. Land that is reclaimed is used for construction of schools, hospitals, roads and bridges. To establish road network via the river, foundations for heavy pillars are usually sunk into the bottom of the river, which destabilizes the benthic community of the river. Areas close to the shore are also sand filled to connect bridges. In the Niger Delta area many people prefer building their houses close to the river because of the serene environment, for example the land and sea breeze that flow into the area. Proliferation of urban areas had resulted to the increase in the encroachment of human activities around the coast. Over population is a major factor that had led to the extension of cities beyond coastal limits. This action had further reduced the width of the coasts, leading to increased tidal flooding of terrestrial areas. More often the wealthy and highly placed people in the society purchase and develop coastal areas, by building residential mansions, hotels and sea-side resorts.
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2.1.3 Land acquisition
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It is the forceful or legal takeover of coastal area by individuals or government officials. Highly placed individuals prefer constructing their houses along coastal areas. Through the use of police power they acquire and take over mangrove forest they bulldoze the forest, dredge and sand fill the site, which they allow to lie fallow for some years or reinforce and develop immediately. Coastal sites are preferred by land speculators because they usually off-city limits and isolated from the rest of the population.
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2.1.4 Succession as a primer for land reclamation
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Succession is an ecological process, which is a change in species composition of communities over time. It is the result of abiotic (physical and chemical) and biotic agents of change. Mangroves are regarded as land forming organisms [10]. Thus mangroves are natural land reclaimers. This is because their adventitious root system traps sediments during tidal flow, and accumulate it over a long period of time. Presence of sediments leads to the gradual formation of terrestrial areas, which becomes the habitat for plants. Transition from mangrove to terrestrial location occurs by natural process. Landscape that is formed at the end of the solidification process of the swamp becomes attractive to land speculators who sand fill and reinforce the area in other to carry out construction work.
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2.2 Indirect cause
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2.2.1 Sand filling
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Almost every coastal area in the Niger Delta has had one abandoned project or the other, one of which is sand dump. Sand mining activity is a lucrative business in the Niger Delta and is embarked upon by both private individuals and government officials. Local sand mining is done manually by the digging of sand from the bottom of the river during low tide and conveyed ashore in hand dug canoes. Sand mining is also done with more sophisticated machines, where pumps are used to convey sand from the bottom of the river unto land via long pipes. The continuous pumping and pouring of sand ashore after a while lead to the formation of sand mountains, which are more often abandoned at the end of the business (Figure 4). Deposited sand is usually evacuated by trucks to buyers. The environmental problem of this practice is that the sand dumped by the shore smothers plants and animals around the area and changes the coast from a marshy to a sandy area.
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Figure 4.
Former mangrove forest that was converted to sand fill in Buguma, Niger Delta, Nigeria.
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2.2.2 Exploratory activities
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Oil and gas exploration is the main exploratory activity that occurs in the Niger Delta region. It occurs at on-shore or off-shore locations [3]. Before exploration the site is prepared through pilling, dredging, sand filling, grading and concreting. Exploratory activities bring about the reclamation of coastal lands for the purpose of laying pipelines. It also involves the establishment of well heads and booth camps. During exploration the coast is first dredged, cleared of vegetation and reclaimed in other to create a plat form for mounting pillars that carry oil pipelines and well heads. This occurs during off-shore drilling in mangrove swamps. Surrounding areas of the swamps are usually dredged and sand-filled to enable it to support the mounting of crude oil well head and the laying of pipelines (Figure 5). Concrete bases are constructed on this platform to carry the pipes from the drilling point, which may be at an off-shore or on-shore site to the refinery. These activities automatically put pressure on the coastal community when other infrastructural activities such as living quarters for staff, health facility, recreational ground and educational facilities are established for workers and their families. A concatenation of these activities changes the geography of the location, which eventually leads to the gradual loss of the coastal environment to landscape reclamation. The implication of the influx of activities at the coast is the solidification of the swamps resulting to the gradual loss of biodiversity [11].
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Figure 5.
Crude oil pipeline and well head situated in reclaimed coastal area in the Niger Delta, Nigeria.
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2.2.3 Stream expansion and canalization
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This is a situation where rivers near ports are expanded to accommodate large ocean going ships. Canalization is done to enable ships to berth at the wharf, without running aground. During canalization, earth moving dredgers are deployed to excavate the benthic soil. The scouring of the river bottom crushes and destroys a lot of organisms such as shell and non-shell fish community in that location. The dredged soil that is evacuated from the river bottom is dumped on land surface and smothers coastal vegetation such as mangroves. Accumulation of dredged spoil converts the swamp to terrestrial area and also changes the physico-chemistry of the coasts [3]. Expansion of creeks allow for navigational activities, commerce and construction. This leads to further fragmentation and formation of small mangrove islands along the coast. Changes in land form lead to changes in the biogeography of the area. Terrestrial land form eventually evolves from an aquatic environment after solidification.
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2.2.4 Disturbance
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Invasion of foreign species in coastal areas is another precursor to land reclamation activity aimed at remediating the sites in the Niger Delta region. Nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) is the major invasive species [12, 13] in the Niger Delta area and has over taken many mangrove forest and coastal areas. The problem is that mangroves provide numerous ecosystem services to the local people while the palms provide no ecosystem service to the people. Because of the non-use of the palms they had been removed from several locations with the aid of swamp buggies as a means of mitigating their negative environmental effect. The entry of big machinery into the swamp had added more stress to the coast by destroying many soil-dwelling and benthic organisms. The problem of this action is that the nipa palm forest after being cleared is repossessed by the government for infrastructural developments, which rather than reduce the negative effect worsen the situation of the coast. An example of this pattern of landscape reclamation is found in a place called Eagle Island, Niger Delta where the mangrove forests were cut down and sand filled and later the area was used for developmental project (Figure 6).
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Figure 6.
A conceptualized reclamation pattern in coastal communities in the Niger Delta, Nigeria.
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2.2.5 Agriculture
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Agricultural activities such as rice paddies and aquaculture are embarked upon in swampy coastal locations [14]. These activities are economically beneficial to farmers, but inimical to the environment. This is because such activities lead to the clearing of the mangrove forest and other coastal vegetation. It also changes the coastal structure and lead to flooding of upland areas. The soil chemistry is also affected by the manures and fertilizers that come from the farm and the waste from fish ponds. A combination of these activities leads to the acidification of the river causing fish deaths and physiological and reproductive problems of numerous marine organisms.
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3. Impact of land reclamation on mangrove and coastal environment
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Land reclamation impact the coastal environment in several ways (Table 1).
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Table 1.
Potential environmental impact of land reclamation in the Niger Delta, Nigeria.
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3.1 Environment
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3.1.1 Site vegetation clearing
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Before reclamation the site is cleared, which leads to the destruction of native plant species within the reclaimed area [3]. This could lead to permanent loss of mangroves or other plant species of economic/medicinal importance and habitat for marine organisms and wildlife and their emigration to unaffected areas, thereby upsetting the ecological balance. During clearing heavy machinery fell trees. This further denigrates the soil structure and converts the aquatic environment to marshy environment. The swampy environment is a mixture of mud and water, after a long period of perturbation the swampy soil gets solidified and changes to a terrestrial environment.
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3.1.2 Increased erosion of the cleared areas/river banks
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Once the bulldozer rolls in to mow down the mangroves, it creates depressions for tidal pressure to wash in ashore. This is because the adventitious roots of the mangrove forest serve as tidal breaks. The presence of mangroves along the coast stabilizes and reinforces the soil against erosion. Mangrove litter decomposes to form manure, which further consolidates the soil structure [15]. Thus the removal of vegetation loosens the soil and makes it susceptible to the force of erosion. In the same vein the wheel of the bulldozers fragments the soil particles and makes it porous and prone to leaching or wind erosion.
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3.1.3 Increase access for hunting and logging
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Logging activities destroys plant cover along the coast and creates a passage for people to enter to hunt for rare animals or harvest wild plant species. Similarly, reckless and indiscriminate hunting in opened forest reduces population and thus reduces species diversity, which may lead to extinction of some species.
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3.1.4 Changes in topography of sand filled area/river bed and dredged areas
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This could lead to the death of soil dwelling organisms. Changes in river channel via canalization or dredging changes the river system by increasing the length and breadth of the river which affects the flow dynamics and hydrology of the river [3]. This situation affects the fish survival and population. Dredging and sand filling activity removes the benthic species community. It also deepens the sea bed, which affects the water level. Decrease in water level affect intertidal level especially when areas along the shore receive no water supply and become dry. This leads to the death or migration of amphibious species along the coast. The dehydration of the intertidal areas cuts off dissolved oxygen and food supply to aquatic species.
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3.1.5 Increased turbidity
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This could lead to the reduction in species composition and diversity of aquatic resources. It could also lead to fish kills and smothering of aquatic organisms. Increased turbidity leads to the blockage of light beyond water surface, thus hampering photosynthetic activities below the water surface such as the benthic region.
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3.1.6 Disturbance of aquatic life
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This includes zooplankton, phytoplankton, benthic organisms and fisheries. It also affects soil-dwelling organisms from adverse impact on water and soil quality. The felling of trees and the uprooting of their stumps leads to soil fragmentation. Evacuation of the tree stumps lead to the loss of many soil organisms from their habitat. Sand filling of the coasts lead to the burial of millions of species. Loss of trees leads to increased soil erosion and increased sedimentation of river.
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3.1.7 Ground water/soil quality could be impaired by leachates from generated dredged soil
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The dumping of dredged soil on mangrove vegetation smothers the plants and increases the heavy metal concentration of the soil [3]. This affects the survival of soil-dwelling organisms by increasing the acidity and alkalinity of the soil. Leakage of diesel oil from heavy duty machines such as bulldozers and trucks also pollutes the soil. Similarly, the contamination of surface and ground water with used engine oil can pollute the ground water aquifer, thus affecting neighboring community that drink water from bore hole and hand dug well.
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3.1.8 Impairment of environmental quality
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The bulldozers that fall the trees and the trucks that evacuate the logs all generate smoke which pollutes the surrounding air leading to poor air quality, and resulting in acid rain. This leads to the impairment of the health of aquatic and terrestrial organisms around the reclaimed area.
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3.1.9 Improper disposal of solid waste
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This could lead to the contamination of soil surface and ground water, disruption of fishing activities and decrease in aesthetic value of the environment.
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4. Impact of landscape reclamation on marine ecosystem
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The marine coastal ecosystem is made up of different zones. The uppermost layer or photic zone is 10 m of water and absorbs 80% of solar energy, which carries out primary productivity. The warm shallow waters of the continental shelves are most biologically productive and support the greatest species diversity. Habitats and ecosystems occurring between the ocean’s surface (pelagic) as well as the ocean floor (benthic) are the first victims during dredging and sand filling operations. This is because the organisms that reside in these areas are wiped out during the first phase of reclamation.
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Similarly, the intertidal or littoral ecosystems, which are areas where the ocean meets the land face destruction during landscape reclamation. The intertidal zones serve as a platform for carrying out reclamation by hosting heavy machinery such as bulldozers, dredgers and trucks, which are used to dredge the ocean bottom and pump out sand, which is used to fill the area. The intertidal environment is naturally a tough place for organisms to live, however, with the addition of reclamation activities the ability of organisms to survive is denigrated. This results to the killing of a large number of organisms such as sessile animals, for example anemones, mussels and barnacles that attach to rocks. There are also some burrowing organisms that dig into shore sand. Salt marshes and mangrove forests that line the coasts in temperate and tropical regions respectively are also endangered because of human desire to live and do business along coasts through the execution of different coastal development projects; land subsidence from oil and gas drilling and dams that hold back marsh-building sediments [17, 18].
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Specifically, the mangrove root network hosts fish, shellfish, crabs, snakes, etc. In the same vein, birds feed and nest in the dense foliage. Mangroves provide various ecosystem services such as food, medicine, tools and construction materials. Globally, half of the world mangroves have been destroyed [16] as people have reclaimed those areas as a result of coastal development. Shrimp farming in particular has resulted to the conversion of large areas of mangroves. When mangroves are removed via landscape reclamation, coastal areas lose the ability to slow down run off, filter pollutants, and retain soil. As a result, offshore systems such as coral reefs and eel grass beds are readily degraded. Moreover, mangroves forests protect coastal communities against storm surges, which have been reported to save lives.
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5. The role of human ecology in land reclamation
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People participation is very important in landscape reclamation because it would provide a consensus view on land use to the host community [19]. Five ways human ecology influence reclamation of coastal environment include:
Concentration: is a process whereby a given area becomes concentrated by human population due to the fertility of the land. Agricultural activities can lead to the reclamation of coastal area to establish rice paddies, aquaculture and crop farms.
Centralization: these are lands that are regarded as focal points as a result of their economic value. These areas dominate the hinter land and are often reclaimed and sand filled to expand their economic potential. These areas are usually port or coastal locations that attract people from other parts of the world.
Segregation: this is when units or communities cluster together based on homogeneity of ideals or goals. Homogeneous ideals such as customs, educational goals, and occupational goals all make up segregation. For instance, establishment of refinery in a locality leads to the reclamation of more coastal lands to harbor the cluster of people who come to seek for jobs.
Invasion: this is as a result of the migration of people into coastal communities in search of new technologies that provide job opportunities. An example is the establishment of the liquefied natural gas (LNG) plant in Bonny Island in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. This facility is situated at a coastal community that is land-locked. Thus in other to expand the land area to accommodate the industrial complex, surrounding creeks were mowed down; sand filled and solidifies to build offices and apartments for workers.
Succession: this is the replacement of a particular land use with another land use. The conversion of a coastal area to a terrestrial area via developmental projects is a human-mediated succession. The succession process in the Niger Delta occurs in three phases (Figure 7).
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Figure 7.
Conversion of coastal environment to terrestrial area through deforestation and solidification to terrestrial environment in the Niger Delta, Nigeria.
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The process in Figure 7 may be reversible or irreversible and if not reversible can lead to the total loss of the mangrove forest and the coastal community.
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6. Restoration and management methods
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Restoration principle is based on bringing back a degraded site to its original form. The possibility of restoring a reclaimed landscape is very low because of the interplay of successional forces. The conversion of a coastal environment to a terrestrial environment is absolute and cannot be reversed. Therefore, the best option is to remediate it so that it will carry out its ecological functions even if it results to another landform. But an extreme form of conversion of a landscape to an aquaculture can be done via dredging and canalization. This means areas that had been cleared and sand filled could be opened up again to be interconnected with the river, so that it will gradually become alive and revert to its original form [11]. This will however, take 10─20 years to stabilize. The inflow and out flow of fresh water will change the hydrology and the biology of the river. The area can be strictly protected against further anthropogenic activities to allow for evolutionary forces to change the restored environment. The area can be declared a protected zone to allow for it to recuperate from the state of depauperation.
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6.1 Case study: seedling recruitment experiment
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Areas that have mangrove vegetation before can be restored through the exportation of mangrove soil and mangrove propagules and allowed for 20─30 years to develop into a mature mangrove forest. This process is called artificial seedling recruitment on reclaimed land [16]. In a natural seedling recruitment, after a disturbance event the first set of species that settle and colonize an area are the pioneer species. They gradually occupy the area through seedling recruitment process. In a classical case of land recuperation after landscape reclamation at Eagle Island in the Niger Delta, recruitment occurred through natural process within a space of 1–3 years. In 2014, an area measuring 100 m × 50 m was dredged and sand filled. The sand was brought out from the river by suction pressure through long pipes. The sand filled area became the dumping ground for sand, where trucks evacuated the sand to buyers. The side of the sand filled area was piled up to form balkanization against the inflow of river water. The sand mining activity was abandoned after 2 years of operation. In the course of this period a small outlet was created by the side of the sand filled area, which allowed the entry of river water into the sand filled area during high tide. Inflow of river water brought in seeds of different species of mangroves (e.g. red, white and black mangroves) and seeds of nipa palm and Heritiera littoralis. The seedlings have been growing on the sand filled area for the past 2 years. The plants growing on the sand fill area are between 0.5 m and 1.0 m tall. A field observation made indicates that seeds at the end of the sand filled area had better growth than seeds at the mouth of the entrance of the balkanized sand. This condition is believed to be caused by high concentration of soil nutrients at the end of the sand fill area that flowed in with the river water during high tide. Growth may also be facilitated by the absorption of soil nutrients embedded in the first layer of soil brought in by tides. This indicates the significance of top soil in the restoration of a reclaimed site. This is a natural ecological restoration. It is a regular progress or change by plant and animal due to natural or anthropogenic disturbances. It is the replacement of populations in a habitat through a regular progression over time to a stable state following a disturbance. In a preliminary study conducted in the sand dredged area, soil samples were collected for physico-chemical analysis at three sites (T1, T2 and T3) from the back of the sand filled area to the entrance of the sand fill area (Figure 8). Furthermore, census of species found in the area was made at the three study sites. The results of the physico-chemical analysis and the species abundance test were derived as shown in Figure 9. The result indicates that Potassium and magnesium had the highest concentration. Although they were not significantly different from each site (F2, 12 = 0.19, P = 0.83). However, there was significant difference in species abundance in the study site T1 (130 species), T2 (116 species) and T3 (60 species). The most dominant species found was white mangroves (Laguncularia racemosa) (108) followed by red mangroves (Rhizophora racemosa) (104), black mangroves (Avicennia germinans) (77) and nipa palm (Nypa fruticans) (17). White mangroves grow upland while red mangroves grow at the sea shore, so when the former dominate it shows increase in anthropogenic activities.
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Figure 8.
Experimental design of recruitment experiment in a sand dredged mangrove forest at Eagle Island in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Sites T1, T2 and T3 are the end, middle and mouth of the sand fill area.
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Figure 9.
(A) Graph of species population along sampling points (T1, T2 and T3) indicates a decrease in number of species from point T1 (high nutrient content) to point T3 (low nutrient content); and (B) graph of concentration of physico-chemicals along within sites T1, T2 and T3.
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The next kind of management is human management [19]. It involves human beings because they are the ones that cause problems for biodiversity. It is a system where plants and animals have advantage in reserved area. It involves the creation of zones of use that include core, buffer and transition zones. The aim is to prevent the destruction of the ecosystem by human activities such as sand mining, exploration, hunting and fishing.
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7. Ecosystem management
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Together the system of management is called ecosystem management, which is a way of managing reserve to benefit biodiversity and people. It is a strategy for protecting or restoring the function, structure and species composition of an ecosystem while providing for its sustainable socioeconomic use. The method is a natural recovery and a passive method of accomplishing restoration. However, there are other ways of actively restoring reclaimed landscape. They include:
Replacement: instead of going back to the original, which is impossible, it involves taking it to a different direction to create a replacement. We basically try to establish new habitat type because we cannot establish historic ecosystem. For instance, oil field that is established in mangrove swamp. Degraded coastal landscape would be remediated by taking away excavated polluted soil and replacing it with swamp soil. The water channel has to be set up to facilitate interconnectivity. The restoration of tidal force, edaphic factors and climatic effect will encourage natural recruitment of seedlings. The colonization of pioneer species will accelerate the establishment of other successional stages (e.g. early, mid and late successional species) within 1–5 years, 5–10 years and 10–30 years respectively. Another example is the replacement of invasive nipa palm forest with native mangrove forests.
Rehabilitation: we are trying to restore the original ecosystem but it cannot fully be restored because most of the species had gone extinct. An example is a construction project such as the installation of infrastructure on reclaimed coastal areas e.g. sea-side resort, roads, houses, light poles and shopping malls.
Restoration: it is the attempt to fully restore the original ecosystem. An example is a nipa palm invaded area. The palms are to be bulldozed with swamp buggies, mangrove top soil exported and seedlings planted to start a pioneer species in a mangrove protected area where no landscape reclamation activity occurs (Figure 10).
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Figure 10.
A proposed mangrove protect ted area design where no exploration, exploitation or reclamation activity will occur in the Niger Delta, Nigeria.
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8. Conclusion
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Landscape reclamation is used to remediate polluted and devastated area in many parts of the world such as abandoned coal mine, crude oil exploration site and abandoned aquaculture. But in the Niger Delta landscape reclamation is used to convert coastal areas to terrestrial areas. Two major activities that devastate coastal areas are sand mining and off-shore dredging. Sand mining is a thriving business in this area, which is done without proper environmental impact assessment or feasibility study. Continuous mining leads to the deformation of the coast lines and the destruction of aquatic organisms, which results in extinction of species. Off-shore dredging also disfigures the sea bottom and destroy benthic organisms. Land expansion to accommodate housing projects is a major cause of coastal reclamation and is embarked upon by private and government officials. The suggested solution to revert an already devastated area is by applying natural and human mediated ecological principles to facilitate land and coastal recovery [20].
\n
\n
\n\n',keywords:"Niger Delta, urbanization, invasive species, hydrocarbon pollution, mangrove, exploration, seismic activities, oil spillages, pipelines",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/64407.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/64407.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64407",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64407",totalDownloads:904,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,totalAltmetricsMentions:4,introChapter:null,impactScore:1,impactScorePercentile:69,impactScoreQuartile:3,hasAltmetrics:1,dateSubmitted:"June 20th 2018",dateReviewed:"October 15th 2018",datePrePublished:"January 8th 2020",datePublished:"February 19th 2020",dateFinished:"November 15th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Coastal area is in serious danger from land reclamation in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. This is because of land expansion activities such as urban development. Landscape reclamation is intended for urban city expansion, road construction, housing project, crude oil exploration and sand mining. Reclamation is carried out by both government and private developers. The government sometimes forcefully acquires coastal areas from the native community, remove the mangrove forest and sand fill the area in other to establish projects beneficial to the public. Private investors reclaim coastal areas to execute private business that would boost their economic fortunes. Oil companies clear coastal forest and set up oil wells and pipelines in swampy locations. Increasing population in small communities had also led to the reclamation of coastal areas to create room for the construction of houses to accommodate more people. However, many land reclamation activities are not development-centered, but business-centered. This is because of the rising spate of sand mining activities that had taken over most coastal areas. Sand mines are often abandoned after some years of operation. Reclamation is done without proper environmental impact assessment. This situation had led to the loss of many species.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/64407",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/64407",book:{id:"8295",slug:"landscape-reclamation-rising-from-what-s-left"},signatures:"Aroloye O. Numbere",authors:[{id:"215285",title:"Dr.",name:"Aroloye O.",middleName:null,surname:"Numbere",fullName:"Aroloye O. Numbere",slug:"aroloye-o.-numbere",email:"aroloyen@yahoo.com",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",institution:{name:"University of Port Harcourt",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nigeria"}}}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Reasons for land reclamation in the Niger Delta",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Direct causes",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"2.1.1 Land expansion",level:"3"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"2.1.2 Construction activities",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.1.3 Land acquisition",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.1.4 Succession as a primer for land reclamation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.2 Indirect cause",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.1 Sand filling",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"2.2.2 Exploratory activities",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.2.3 Stream expansion and canalization",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.2.4 Disturbance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"2.2.5 Agriculture",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14",title:"3. Impact of land reclamation on mangrove and coastal environment",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"3.1 Environment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"3.1.1 Site vegetation clearing",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"3.1.2 Increased erosion of the cleared areas/river banks",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"3.1.3 Increase access for hunting and logging",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"3.1.4 Changes in topography of sand filled area/river bed and dredged areas",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"3.1.5 Increased turbidity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"3.1.6 Disturbance of aquatic life",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"3.1.7 Ground water/soil quality could be impaired by leachates from generated dredged soil",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"3.1.8 Impairment of environmental quality",level:"3"},{id:"sec_22_3",title:"3.1.9 Improper disposal of solid waste",level:"3"},{id:"sec_25",title:"4. Impact of landscape reclamation on marine ecosystem",level:"1"},{id:"sec_26",title:"5. The role of human ecology in land reclamation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27",title:"6. Restoration and management methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"6.1 Case study: seedling recruitment experiment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29",title:"7. Ecosystem management",level:"1"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Macnaghten P. Theory, culture and society. Nature. 2006;23:347-349'},{id:"B2",body:'Birol E, Karousakis K, Koundouri P. Using economic valuation techniques to inform water resources management. A survey and critical appraisal of available techniques and an application. Science of the Total Environment. 2006;365:105-122'},{id:"B3",body:'Numbere AO. The impact of oil and gas exploration: Invasive nypa palm species and urbanization on mangroves in the Niger River Delta, Nigeria. In: Makowski C, Finkl C, editors. Threats to Mangrove Forests. Coastal Research Library. Vol. 25. Cham: Springer; 2018'},{id:"B4",body:'Brooks CN. A model for redeveloping complex, highly contaminated sites in the Industri-plex site in Woburn, Massachusetts. WIT Transactions on Ecology and Environment. 2006;94:229-238'},{id:"B5",body:'Panagopoulos T. Linking forestry, sustainability and aesthetics. Ecological Economics. 2009;68:2485-2489'},{id:"B6",body:'Loures L, Burley J, Panagopoulos T. Post industrial landscape redevelopment: Addressing the past envisioning the future. International Journal of Energy and Environment. 2011;5(5):714-724'},{id:"B7",body:'Manzoor A, Hussain N, Niazi BH. Use of chemical amendments for reclamation of saline-sodic soils. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology. 2001;3(3):305-307'},{id:"B8",body:'Panagopoulos T. Reclamation of sites mined for lignite in northern Greece. In: Fantechi R, Balabanis PP, Rubio JL, editors. Desertification in European Context: Physical and Social Economic Aspects. Belgium: European Commission Brussels; 1995. pp. 575-582'},{id:"B9",body:'ESRI. Arc GIS 9.1. Redlands, CA, USA: Environmental Systems Research Institute; 2006'},{id:"B10",body:'Kathiresan K, Bingham BL. Biology of mangrove ecosystems. Advances in Marine Biology. 2001;40:81-251'},{id:"B11",body:'Punter J. The welsh development agency design guide. In: Its Role in Raising Standards in Wales. Cardiff: Welsh Development Agency; 2002'},{id:"B12",body:'CEDA. Coastal Profile of Nigeria. Abuja: Federal Environmental Protection Agency; 1997'},{id:"B13",body:'Numbere AO. Impact of invasive nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) on mangrove forest in the Niger Delta. In: Makowski C, Finkl C, editors. Coast in Crisis. Coastal Research Library. Vol. 28. Cham: Springer; 2018'},{id:"B14",body:'De Sousa CA. Turning brown fields into green space in the city of Toronto. Landscape and Urban Planning. 2003;62:181-198'},{id:"B15",body:'Numbere AO, Camilo GR. Mangrove leaf litter decomposition under mangrove forest stands with different levels of pollution in the Niger River Delta, Nigeria. African Journal of Ecology. 2017;55(2):162-167'},{id:"B16",body:'Alongi DM. Mangrove forest: Resilience, protection from tsunamis, and responses to global climate change. Estuarine, Coast and Shelf Science. 2008;76(1):1-13'},{id:"B17",body:'Pinno BD, Sherr I, Errington RC, Shea K. Islands-soil patches and plant community dynamics on a news oil sands reclamation design. Journal of American Society of Mining and Reclamation. 2016;5(1):28-44'},{id:"B18",body:'Loures L, Panagopoulos T. Reclamation of derelict industrial land in Portugal: Greening is not enough. International Journal of Sustainable Development and Planning. 2010;5(4):343-350'},{id:"B19",body:'Loures L, Crawford P. Finding public consensus: The relevance of public participation in post-industrial landscape reclamation. In: 1st WSEAS International Conference on Landscape Architecture (LA’08); Agarve, Portugal. 2008'},{id:"B20",body:'Ayala R, Ramirez J, Camargo S. Volaracion de la calidad fragilidad visual del paisage en el valle de zapotitlan de las Salinas, Puebla (Mexico). Spain: Faculdade de Geografia e Historia da Universidade de Madrid; 2003'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Aroloye O. Numbere",address:"aroloyen@yahoo.com",affiliation:'
Department of Animal and Environmental Biology, University of Port Harcourt, Choba, Nigeria
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1. Introduction
Sexual health is part of the human experience, yet it is often ignored, especially regarding students with disabilities [1, 2, 3]. Sexual health education for people with disabilities is important to help and ensure the capacity of each individual to make informed and educated choices regarding personal safety, developing and maintaining healthy relationships, and understanding how to maintain sexual health and hygiene. The application of self-determination skills plays an integral role in the ability of students with disabilities to attain sexual health [4, 5, 6, 7, 8].
Educators are fearful and anxious when they attempt to educate students with disabilities (SWD) about their sexual health [3, 5, 6]. There are numerous and valid reasons for this fear and anxiety. General and special educators report not feeling qualified to teach sexual health education, fear of repercussions from administration, questions over obtaining parental consent and liability, a lack of professional knowledge, concern that they will do more harm than good, and a lack of awareness on how to help a student develop a positive sexual identity [9, 10, 11, 12, 13]. This discomfort originates in cultural taboos, rules, and restrictions embedded in school and state policy, and an overall lack of preparation. Figure 1 outlines critical facts regarding the sexual health of individuals with disabilities (IWD).
Figure 1.
Facts regarding sexual health of individuals with disabilities (IWD) [1, 2, 3, 6, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18].
2. Barriers to sexual health education for SWD
Over the last decade, there has been growing acknowledgment of the need for sexual health education for SWD, especially in the United States [4, 7, 8, 15, 19]. However, researchers have identified several existing barriers that have made providing this education difficult [10, 11, 12, 13, 16, 19]. First and foremost would be the social and political controversy that exists in the United States over comprehensive sexual health education (CSE) for all students, much less SWD. Funding for school-based sexual health education programs is only provided for programs that are abstinence-based, despite research demonstrating that CSE programs that cover safer sex methods to prevent sexually transmitted infections, issues of consent, and methods of preventing pregnancy are more effective in reducing rates of adolescent sexual activity, pregnancy, and sexually transmitted infections [3, 19, 20, 21, 22].
Additional barriers exist specifically in providing sexual health education to SWD. The primary barriers that researchers have identified include—the sexuality of SWD viewed as deviant, the lack of valid and reliable sexual health education materials for students with disabilities, parental anxiety and fear, lack of teacher preparation, and lack of teacher knowledge that leads to fear, concern, and anxiety [19].
2.1 Views of sexuality of IWD as deviant
A key barrier to providing sexual health education to SWD is the view that IWD is asexual or that sexuality for IWD is abnormal or deviant [8, 23]. IWD finds that they are often portrayed as having libidos that are uncontrollable, particularly those with intellectual disabilities [24, 25]. When sexual health education is provided to IWD, it is primarily focused on preventing abuse or pregnancy, and generally does not discuss relationships or entertain the idea that IWD might enter into sexual relationships for pleasure [26, 27, 28]. Finally, when sexual health education is provided to IWD, it is typically only presented as heterosexual sexual health information. IWD can present as LGBTQ+, just as nondisabled individuals can, and they are entitled to sexual health education on those issues. Caregivers have reported homosexual behaviors as experimentation [29], and individuals with intellectual disabilities reported confusion about what it means to be gay and having questions about LGBTQ+ individuals, indicating a need for clearer education [30].
2.2 Lack of valid and reliable sexual health education materials for SWD
Materials to provide sexual health education to SWD generally lack reliability and validity, and when used, they are not implemented with fidelity [6, 31]. Materials that are promoted to provide sexual health education for SWD sometimes are more focused on the students’ disabilities than actually providing the needed information regarding sexual health [32]. Other researchers have attempted making adaptations and modifications to existing sexual health curricula using methods, such as Universal Design for Learning principles [33]; however, since most prepared curricula rely heavily on written materials, adapting these for SWD who have limited literacy or are nonverbal will be extremely difficult, and again, will lack validity and reliability.
2.3 Parental anxiety and fear
A key component in providing sexual health education to SWD is parental consent and support. Many parents of SWD either believe their children do not require sexual health education because they view their child as an asexual being or they simply have fears and anxiety about their child engaging in sexual activity [9, 10, 11, 34, 35, 36, 37, 38]. In discussing their own fears about their child engaging in sexual activity and how to properly educate their child on sexual health matters, parents will often voice views that contradict other views. In some cases, parents state that they do not know enough to be able to properly provide sexual health education to their child with a disability [39], while in other studies, they clearly indicate a preference for being the primary providers of sexual health information to their child [37]. In cases where parents do provide information, IWD often reports that the information is provided in late adolescence or adulthood and is focused on avoiding pregnancy, sexually transmitted infection, or abuse, and that they need more information on how to establish and maintain healthy sexual relationships with others [38]. Parents need to be provided information on how to teach their children with disabilities about sexual health and what the proper information is to teach and when it should be taught [40].
2.4 Lack of teacher preparation and teacher knowledge
Teachers receive a great deal of training to teach content in a number of areas, but sexual health is typically not one of them. When asked about their comfort levels to provide sexual health education in general, teachers report feeling unprepared and having little to no formal training to do so [6, 8, 41, 42]. This becomes more acute when teachers are asked to provide sexual health education to students with disabilities. Even special educators, trained to provide education to SWD, report feeling unprepared to provide sexual health education to those students while acknowledging the necessity of the material [43].
This lack of preparation leads to low rates of teacher knowledge about the necessary components of comprehensive sexual health education and how to teach it to SWD, as well as anxiety and fear about teaching the content to SWD [44]. Studies have found teachers are afraid to teach sexual health education in the general education setting, fearing parental responses and lack of support from the administration [41, 45]. These fears intensified when examining teaching sexual health education to SWD [11]. Instructors have reported feeling that family members do not want sexual health information provided to their child with a disability until the child acts out in some sexual manner or shows interest in a relationship, then the professionals feel they are responding in only a reactionary way, not educating [46].
3. Issues in sexual health education for IWD worldwide
These barriers outlined in the sections above are not unique to the United States or the European Union. While some parts of the world may have introduced comprehensive sexual health education earlier than others, the concept is now worldwide. Additionally, recognition of the need to educate IWD about sexual health is also widespread and is being researched in many countries outside of the United States and Europe. Typically, researchers find some of the same barriers in African and Asian countries that have been demonstrated previously, such as the contradiction between parents’ desire to teach children sexual health education themselves and their ability to do so [36, 37]. Researchers in countries as widespread as Canada, Ghana, and China report that sexual health education for IWD is limited in those countries by the typical belief that IWD is asexual and do not need information regarding sexual practices [47, 48, 49]. Additionally, cultural and religious beliefs in many countries make comprehensive sexual health education difficult, as it would not be accepted to discuss sexual intercourse outside of marriage, birth control, or topics related to LBTQ+ relationships, and in some cultures even discussing sex at all is unusual [36, 47, 48]. However, it is encouraging that researchers are examining the need for sexual health education for IWD in countries worldwide and how parents, caregivers, and professionals are addressing the need within their own cultural and religious landscapes.
4. The need for sexual health education
Sexual health education includes the teaching of issues relating to human sexuality including human sexual anatomy, sexual reproduction, sexual intercourse, or other sexual activity, reproductive health, emotional relations, reproductive rights and responsibilities, abstinence, and birth control [3, 50]. Common avenues for sexual health education are parents or caregivers, formal school programs, and public health campaigns.
Educating IWD about sexual health issues is critical for their own personal health, safety, and because as with any individual, they are entitled to self-agency to make decisions about their own bodies. When working with IWD, we call this concept self-determination. Self-determination is a life goal for persons with disabilities. It is a set of attitudes and skills that allow a person to care for themselves and carve out goals to achieve as much independence as possible. Self-determination is essentially the ability of a person to be responsible for their life. The components of self-determination include: self-awareness and self-awareness; goal setting and attainment skills; independence, risk-taking, and safety skills; self-observation, evaluation, and reinforcement; self-instruction, self-advocacy and leadership skills; internal locus of control; and positive attributions of efficacy [51].
The teaching of sexual health to SWD is not typically included in the curriculum of self-determination. However, learning about sexuality embodies the very core of self-determination. While many of the self-determination components have been incorporated into the curriculum for SWD since the 1990s, sexual health has not been directly included [8, 52]. It is easy to deny SWD opportunity and access to sexual health education if it is assumed that students will generalize their self-determination strategies to include sexual health. Educators understand that the generalization of skills and strategies must often be explicitly taught to students with disabilities [53]. Educators need to connect sexual health with self-determination for SWD.
5. Potential solutions to improve sexual health education for IWD
While early research was focused on spotlighting the need for sexual health education for IWD, more recent areas of research have focused on how this education can be effectively delivered. This area of research is much more recent and still relatively recent. There appear to be two primary methods of delivering this education to IWD: preparing parents/caregivers of IWD to provide sexual health education and preparing educators to provide sexual health education. These do not have to be separate tracks of preparation. Even if educators will be providing sexual health education, it is important to also prepare parents/caregivers, because they need to have a perception and understanding of their child with a disability as an individual who is a sexual being with needs and feelings [8].
5.1 Preparing parents
It is recognized that the most effective means of proving sexual health education to SWD involve partnerships between parents/caregivers and education professionals [40, 48, 49]. This will be especially true in cultures in which parents prefer to be the main provider of sexual health information to their children, but perhaps are unsure of what information to provide or when [37]. Additionally, collaborating with parents/caregivers on functional life skills that students will need as they transition into adult life is already a recognized evidence-based practice [51, 52], so including sexual health education along with the discussion on job skills and independent living may make it a more comfortable conversation for parents to have with educators.
Several studies have piloted workshops or education programs educators can use to prepare parents/caregivers to provide sexual health education to their children with disabilities [34, 40, 54, 55, 56]. These studies are not limited to the United States and Europe, but worldwide, and all have demonstrated that when parents participate in preparation programs, they gain a greater appreciation of the need to provide sexual health education to their child and gain knowledge on how to provide that education themselves. The modalities of these programs vary (online, booklets, in-person groups), but one study conducted in Iran demonstrated that training conducted with mothers in group settings was more effective than via other modalities [56]. Another set of researchers is currently piloting a full curriculum that can be used to lead in-person trainings with parents to prepare them to comfortably provide sexual health education to their children with disabilities [57]. This research will further support collaboration between parents and professionals.
5.2 Preparing teachers
A significant barrier to teaching sexual health to students with disabilities is the teacher’s discomfort with the topic and a general lack of pre-service and/or in-service preparation [6, 9, 10]. The only way to move through this barrier is to have the teacher become comfortable with the uncomfortable. Below, we will provide an example from our own experience as teacher educators that address this issue.
To start this process, sexual health for students with disabilities was added to special education teacher education coursework. One course within the teacher education program was identified by the program coordinator as appropriate for this project. The course included content on self-determination, transition, and methods for teaching students with disabilities in secondary schools. The course was positioned in the program during the last semester of coursework prior to internship (student teaching) with 25–30 students typically enrolled. Students in the course completed their teacher education program as a soft cohort, meaning most of the students took their courses together. All students took at least one course with the cohort prior to this course. The fact that students were well known to each other was an important consideration in selecting the course. This allowed students to feel safe and comfortable discussing sexuality and expressing their concerns. It is important to note that in this configuration the professor was often the only person in the room that was unknown to the students.
Sexual health is a topic that is presented in the course syllabus, but it is always placed at the end of the semester. This allows time for the professor to create a safe environment and to build rapport with the students. When students are asked to look through the course topics and talk about what excites them and what concerns them, sexual health is consistently mentioned as a concern. It is never a topic the student teachers are excited to learn about. There is anxiety regarding the topic. This informal data point is important in terms of building community and preparing for the topic.
To prepare pre-service teachers for instruction in sexual health, the course included short mini-lectures reviewing adolescent development. Additionally, pre-service teachers completed a series of community and school observations focusing on body language, touching, sexual innuendo, followed by a review of media and music that adolescents find engaging.
The course focused on strategies teachers could use to develop self-determination and student engagement in the individualized education program (IEP) and transition process. This section of the course was essential, as it developed specific skills, and perhaps equally important was the development of a teacher’s disposition to promote self-determination development in all students with disabilities [58, 59].
Observations combined with instruction and skill development in self-determination served as precursors to instruction in sexual health. By this time in the course, pre-service teachers and the professor had formed a strong and comfortable relationship. Further, pre-service teachers had enough practicum and substitute teaching hours to have encountered sexual health situations that they had felt unprepared to address. This confluence of professional experiences reduced the pre-service teachers’ anxiety about sexual health as a course topic.
To provide the sexual health content, the professor of the course collaborated with a health educator, who had training in sexual health and special education. The health educator worked within the College of Education and was familiar with the teacher education program. This model demonstrated to the pre-service teachers that collaboration and partnerships can be an effective approach when teaching topics in which they lacked expertise. Collaboration with the health educator bridged the knowledge between special education and sexual health education. Instruction in sexual health was provided by the health educator during a guest lecture and was divided into two sections. Initially, pre-service teachers were introduced to the topic through a more traditional lecture presentation merging the topic of sexuality in relation to self-determination for students with disabilities. After the lecture section, the pre-service teachers participated in a structured activity that included six real-life dilemmas practicing special education teachers had encountered. This activity was designed to develop teacher confidence in the topic.
A class activity entitled the “Real Life Dilemma” was introduced. The class was divided into six groups with each group receiving one unique dilemma. Each dilemma was an actual situation that had occurred locally or nationally within the past 6 years in the United States. The class was given 30 min to review a dilemma and make a decision (i.e., what action will you take?). Each group shared with the class their dilemma, the key issues discussed, and their decision. After the conclusion of each such discussion, the health educator shared the actual outcome with the class. The actual outcome was then discussed and evaluated in a short debriefing of the dilemmas. The discussions were led by both the health educator and the course professor. The following questions were posed during the debriefing of the activity:
Why is this issue important?
How does this issue and the outcome influence you as a teacher?
What is your position on the issue? Why?
Does your response and the actual outcome promote self-determination?
Pre-service teachers responded to the dilemmas within a positive self-determination framework in 8 out of 12 responses (67% of the responses were positive). In four instances, pre-service teachers’ responded with a solution that did not promote self-determination for students with disabilities. The actual outcomes of the six dilemmas were situations involving practicing special education teachers. Those teachers took action within a positive self-determination framework in 4 out of the 6 dilemmas (67% of the responses were positive). For both groups the responses that did not promote self-determination were ambivalent, or safe responses, perhaps reflecting the anxiety teachers feel when approaching sexual health topics.
Pre-service teacher responses favored solutions promoting self-advocacy, self-awareness, and self-efficacy. These are considered more internally focused components of self-determination. These components are not directly taught, but rather they must be facilitated over a long period of time and in a variety of situations. Teachers whose responses were the actual outcomes in this project used decision-making and goal setting as the favored self-determination components. Interestingly, pre-service teachers in the course focused their responses more on the student-centered components of self-determination, whereas, practicing teachers focused more on student thinking and planning. These components could be directly taught. Most importantly, self-determination components were strongly represented throughout the dilemmas in terms of how teachers and students should solve dilemmas related to sexual health for students with disabilities.
6. Conclusions
Great advances have been made in the last two decades in teaching sexual health education to individuals with disabilities and this means we are making advances toward recognizing IWD as self-determined individuals with autonomy and rights over their bodies. But while we have done much to illuminate the need for sexual health education for IWD and identify existing barriers, our next steps must be in researching the most effective ways to provide it. Current research indicates that we should take a two-pronged approach: prepare both parents and educators to work together and be able to provide knowledgeable, appropriate sexual health education to students with disabilities.
Acknowledgments
The authors wish to thank Anna Treacy, Ph.D. for the passion and inspiration she gave us as we were developing this work.
Conflict of interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Previous work has identified several barriers to providing sexual health education to adolescents and youth with disabilities, including lack of teacher preparation, lack of teacher knowledge that leads to fear, concern, and anxiety, parental anxiety and fear, the lack of valid and reliable sexual health education materials for students with disabilities, and the sexuality of students with disabilities viewed as deviant. This chapter will review those issues and discuss methods to improve sexual health education for youth with disabilities.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81652",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81652",signatures:"Shanon S. Taylor and Tammy V. 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Barriers to sexual health education for SWD",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Views of sexuality of IWD as deviant",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Lack of valid and reliable sexual health education materials for SWD",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Parental anxiety and fear",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Lack of teacher preparation and teacher knowledge",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Issues in sexual health education for IWD worldwide",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. The need for sexual health education",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Potential solutions to improve sexual health education for IWD",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"5.1 Preparing parents",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"5.2 Preparing teachers",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"Conflict of interest",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Alriksson-Schmidt AI, Armour BS, Thibadeau JK. 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If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
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Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
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Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
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In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at funders@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
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He was elected a Yangtze River Scholars Distinguished Professor in 2013, a member of the International Statistical Institute (ISI) in 2016, a member of the board of the International Chinese Statistical Association (ICSA) in 2018, and a fellow of the Institute of Mathematical Statistics (IMS) in 2021. He received the ICSA Outstanding Service Award in 2018 and the National Science Foundation for Distinguished Young Scholars of China in 2012. He serves as a member of the editorial board of Statistics and Its Interface and Journal of Systems Science and Complexity. He is also a field editor for Communications in Mathematics and Statistics. His research interests include biostatistics, empirical likelihood, missing data analysis, variable selection, high-dimensional data analysis, Bayesian statistics, and data science. He has published more than 190 research papers and authored five books.",institutionString:"Yunnan University",institution:{name:"Yunnan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"1177",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"J. R.",surname:"José Ribeiro Neves",slug:"antonio-jose-ribeiro-neves",fullName:"António José Ribeiro Neves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1177/images/system/1177.jpg",biography:"Prof. António J. R. Neves received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from the University of Aveiro, Portugal, in 2007. Since 2002, he has been a researcher at the Institute of Electronics and Informatics Engineering of Aveiro. Since 2007, he has been an assistant professor in the Department of Electronics, Telecommunications, and Informatics, University of Aveiro. He is the director of the undergraduate course on Electrical and Computers Engineering and the vice-director of the master’s degree in Electronics and Telecommunications Engineering. He is an IEEE Senior Member and a member of several other research organizations worldwide. His main research interests are computer vision, intelligent systems, robotics, and image and video processing. He has participated in or coordinated several research projects and received more than thirty-five awards. He has 161 publications to his credit, including books, book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers. He has vast experience as a reviewer of several journals and conferences. As a professor, Dr. Neves has supervised several Ph.D. and master’s students and was involved in more than twenty-five different courses.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"11317",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Javier Gallegos-Funes",slug:"francisco-javier-gallegos-funes",fullName:"Francisco Javier Gallegos-Funes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/11317/images/system/11317.png",biography:"Francisco J. Gallegos-Funes received his Ph.D. in Communications and Electronics from the Instituto Politécnico Nacional de México (National Polytechnic Institute of Mexico) in 2003. He is currently an associate professor in the Escuela Superior de Ingeniería Mecánica y Eléctrica (Mechanical and Electrical Engineering Higher School) at the same institute. His areas of scientific interest are signal and image processing, filtering, steganography, segmentation, pattern recognition, biomedical signal processing, sensors, and real-time applications.",institutionString:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",institution:{name:"Instituto Politécnico Nacional",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428449",title:"Dr.",name:"Ronaldo",middleName:null,surname:"Ferreira",slug:"ronaldo-ferreira",fullName:"Ronaldo Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428449/images/21449_n.png",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"165328",title:"Dr.",name:"Vahid",middleName:null,surname:"Asadpour",slug:"vahid-asadpour",fullName:"Vahid Asadpour",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165328/images/system/165328.jpg",biography:"Vahid Asadpour, MS, Ph.D., is currently with the Department of Research and Evaluation, Kaiser Permanente Southern California. He has both an MS and Ph.D. in Biomedical Engineering. He was previously a research scientist at the University of California Los Angeles (UCLA) and visiting professor and researcher at the University of North Dakota. He is currently working in artificial intelligence and its applications in medical signal processing. In addition, he is using digital signal processing in medical imaging and speech processing. Dr. Asadpour has developed brain-computer interfacing algorithms and has published books, book chapters, and several journal and conference papers in this field and other areas of intelligent signal processing. He has also designed medical devices, including a laser Doppler monitoring system.",institutionString:"Kaiser Permanente Southern California",institution:null},{id:"169608",title:"Prof.",name:"Marian",middleName:null,surname:"Găiceanu",slug:"marian-gaiceanu",fullName:"Marian Găiceanu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/169608/images/system/169608.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Marian Gaiceanu graduated from the Naval and Electrical Engineering Faculty, Dunarea de Jos University of Galati, Romania, in 1997. He received a Ph.D. (Magna Cum Laude) in Electrical Engineering in 2002. Since 2017, Dr. Gaiceanu has been a Ph.D. supervisor for students in Electrical Engineering. He has been employed at Dunarea de Jos University of Galati since 1996, where he is currently a professor. Dr. Gaiceanu is a member of the National Council for Attesting Titles, Diplomas and Certificates, an expert of the Executive Agency for Higher Education, Research Funding, and a member of the Senate of the Dunarea de Jos University of Galati. He has been the head of the Integrated Energy Conversion Systems and Advanced Control of Complex Processes Research Center, Romania, since 2016. He has conducted several projects in power converter systems for electrical drives, power quality, PEM and SOFC fuel cell power converters for utilities, electric vehicles, and marine applications with the Department of Regulation and Control, SIEI S.pA. (2002–2004) and the Polytechnic University of Turin, Italy (2002–2004, 2006–2007). He is a member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and cofounder-member of the IEEE Power Electronics Romanian Chapter. He is a guest editor at Energies and an academic book editor for IntechOpen. He is also a member of the editorial boards of the Journal of Electrical Engineering, Electronics, Control and Computer Science and Sustainability. Dr. Gaiceanu has been General Chairman of the IEEE International Symposium on Electrical and Electronics Engineering in the last six editions.",institutionString:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',institution:{name:'"Dunarea de Jos" University of Galati',country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"4519",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaydip",middleName:null,surname:"Sen",slug:"jaydip-sen",fullName:"Jaydip Sen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/4519/images/system/4519.jpeg",biography:"Jaydip Sen is associated with Praxis Business School, Kolkata, India, as a professor in the Department of Data Science. His research areas include security and privacy issues in computing and communication, intrusion detection systems, machine learning, deep learning, and artificial intelligence in the financial domain. He has more than 200 publications in reputed international journals, refereed conference proceedings, and 20 book chapters in books published by internationally renowned publishing houses, such as Springer, CRC press, IGI Global, etc. Currently, he is serving on the editorial board of the prestigious journal Frontiers in Communications and Networks and in the technical program committees of a number of high-ranked international conferences organized by the IEEE, USA, and the ACM, USA. He has been listed among the top 2% of scientists in the world for the last three consecutive years, 2019 to 2021 as per studies conducted by the Stanford University, USA.",institutionString:"Praxis Business School",institution:null},{id:"320071",title:"Dr.",name:"Sidra",middleName:null,surname:"Mehtab",slug:"sidra-mehtab",fullName:"Sidra Mehtab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002v6KHoQAM/Profile_Picture_1584512086360",biography:"Sidra Mehtab has completed her BS with honors in Physics from Calcutta University, India in 2018. She has done MS in Data Science and Analytics from Maulana Abul Kalam Azad University of Technology (MAKAUT), Kolkata, India in 2020. Her research areas include Econometrics, Time Series Analysis, Machine Learning, Deep Learning, Artificial Intelligence, and Computer and Network Security with a particular focus on Cyber Security Analytics. Ms. Mehtab has published seven papers in international conferences and one of her papers has been accepted for publication in a reputable international journal. She has won the best paper awards in two prestigious international conferences – BAICONF 2019, and ICADCML 2021, organized in the Indian Institute of Management, Bangalore, India in December 2019, and SOA University, Bhubaneswar, India in January 2021. Besides, Ms. Mehtab has also published two book chapters in two books. Seven of her book chapters will be published in a volume shortly in 2021 by Cambridge Scholars’ Press, UK. Currently, she is working as the joint editor of two edited volumes on Time Series Analysis and Forecasting to be published in the first half of 2021 by an international house. Currently, she is working as a Data Scientist with an MNC in Delhi, India.",institutionString:"NSHM College of Management and Technology",institution:{name:"Association for Computing Machinery",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"226240",title:"Dr.",name:"Andri Irfan",middleName:null,surname:"Rifai",slug:"andri-irfan-rifai",fullName:"Andri Irfan Rifai",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/226240/images/7412_n.jpg",biography:"Andri IRFAN is a Senior Lecturer of Civil Engineering and Planning. He completed the PhD at the Universitas Indonesia & Universidade do Minho with Sandwich Program Scholarship from the Directorate General of Higher Education and LPDP scholarship. He has been teaching for more than 19 years and much active to applied his knowledge in the project construction in Indonesia. His research interest ranges from pavement management system to advanced data mining techniques for transportation engineering. He has published more than 50 papers in journals and 2 books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universitas Internasional Batam",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"314576",title:"Dr.",name:"Ibai",middleName:null,surname:"Laña",slug:"ibai-lana",fullName:"Ibai Laña",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314576/images/system/314576.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ibai Laña works at TECNALIA as a data analyst. He received his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence from the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Spain, in 2018. He is currently a senior researcher at TECNALIA. His research interests fall within the intersection of intelligent transportation systems, machine learning, traffic data analysis, and data science. He has dealt with urban traffic forecasting problems, applying machine learning models and evolutionary algorithms. He has experience in origin-destination matrix estimation or point of interest and trajectory detection. Working with large volumes of data has given him a good command of big data processing tools and NoSQL databases. He has also been a visiting scholar at the Knowledge Engineering and Discovery Research Institute, Auckland University of Technology.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"314575",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus",middleName:null,surname:"L. Lobo",slug:"jesus-l.-lobo",fullName:"Jesus L. Lobo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/314575/images/system/314575.png",biography:"Dr. Jesús López is currently based in Bilbao (Spain) working at TECNALIA as Artificial Intelligence Research Scientist. In most cases, a project idea or a new research line needs to be investigated to see if it is good enough to take into production or to focus on it. That is exactly what he does, diving into Machine Learning algorithms and technologies to help TECNALIA to decide whether something is great in theory or will actually impact on the product or processes of its projects. So, he is expert at framing experiments, developing hypotheses, and proving whether they’re true or not, in order to investigate fundamental problems with a longer time horizon. He is also able to design and develop PoCs and system prototypes in simulation. He has participated in several national and internacional R&D projects.\n\nAs another relevant part of his everyday research work, he usually publishes his findings in reputed scientific refereed journals and international conferences, occasionally acting as reviewer and Programme Commitee member. Concretely, since 2018 he has published 9 JCR (8 Q1) journal papers, 9 conference papers (e.g. ECML PKDD 2021), and he has co-edited a book. He is also active in popular science writing data science stories for reputed blogs (KDNuggets, TowardsDataScience, Naukas). Besides, he has recently embarked on mentoring programmes as mentor, and has also worked as data science trainer.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"103779",title:"Prof.",name:"Yalcin",middleName:null,surname:"Isler",slug:"yalcin-isler",fullName:"Yalcin Isler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRyQ8QAK/Profile_Picture_1628834958734",biography:"Yalcin Isler (1971 - Burdur / Turkey) received the B.Sc. degree in the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering from Anadolu University, Eskisehir, Turkey, in 1993, the M.Sc. degree from the Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering, Suleyman Demirel University, Isparta, Turkey, in 1996, the Ph.D. degree from the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey, in 2009, and the Competence of Associate Professorship from the Turkish Interuniversity Council in 2019.\n\nHe was Lecturer at Burdur Vocational School in Suleyman Demirel University (1993-2000, Burdur / Turkey), Software Engineer (2000-2002, Izmir / Turkey), Research Assistant in Bulent Ecevit University (2002-2003, Zonguldak / Turkey), Research Assistant in Dokuz Eylul University (2003-2010, Izmir / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering in Bulent Ecevit University (2010-2012, Zonguldak / Turkey), Assistant Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering in Izmir Katip Celebi University (2012-2019, Izmir / Turkey). He is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biomedical Engineering at Izmir Katip Celebi University, Izmir / Turkey, since 2019. In addition to academics, he has also founded Islerya Medical and Information Technologies Company, Izmir / Turkey, since 2017.\n\nHis main research interests cover biomedical signal processing, pattern recognition, medical device design, programming, and embedded systems. He has many scientific papers and participated in several projects in these study fields. He was an IEEE Student Member (2009-2011) and IEEE Member (2011-2014) and has been IEEE Senior Member since 2014.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Izmir Kâtip Çelebi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"339677",title:"Dr.",name:"Mrinmoy",middleName:null,surname:"Roy",slug:"mrinmoy-roy",fullName:"Mrinmoy Roy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/339677/images/16768_n.jpg",biography:"An accomplished Sales & Marketing professional with 12 years of cross-functional experience in well-known organisations such as CIPLA, LUPIN, GLENMARK, ASTRAZENECA across different segment of Sales & Marketing, International Business, Institutional Business, Product Management, Strategic Marketing of HIV, Oncology, Derma, Respiratory, Anti-Diabetic, Nutraceutical & Stomatological Product Portfolio and Generic as well as Chronic Critical Care Portfolio. A First Class MBA in International Business & Strategic Marketing, B.Pharm, D.Pharm, Google Certified Digital Marketing Professional. Qualified PhD Candidate in Operations and Management with special focus on Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning adoption, analysis and use in Healthcare, Hospital & Pharma Domain. Seasoned with diverse therapy area of Pharmaceutical Sales & Marketing ranging from generating revenue through generating prescriptions, launching new products, and making them big brands with continuous strategy execution at the Physician and Patients level. Moved from Sales to Marketing and Business Development for 3.5 years in South East Asian Market operating from Manila, Philippines. Came back to India and handled and developed Brands such as Gluconorm, Lupisulin, Supracal, Absolut Woman, Hemozink, Fabiflu (For COVID 19), and many more. In my previous assignment I used to develop and execute strategies on Sales & Marketing, Commercialization & Business Development for Institution and Corporate Hospital Business portfolio of Oncology Therapy Area for AstraZeneca Pharma India Ltd. Being a Research Scholar and Student of ‘Operations Research & Management: Artificial Intelligence’ I published several pioneer research papers and book chapters on the same in Internationally reputed journals and Books indexed in Scopus, Springer and Ei Compendex, Google Scholar etc. Currently, I am launching PGDM Pharmaceutical Management Program in IIHMR Bangalore and spearheading the course curriculum and structure of the same. I am interested in Collaboration for Healthcare Innovation, Pharma AI Innovation, Future trend in Marketing and Management with incubation on Healthcare, Healthcare IT startups, AI-ML Modelling and Healthcare Algorithm based training module development. I am also an affiliated member of the Institute of Management Consultant of India, looking forward to Healthcare, Healthcare IT and Innovation, Pharma and Hospital Management Consulting works.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Lovely Professional University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"1063",title:"Prof.",name:"Constantin",middleName:null,surname:"Volosencu",slug:"constantin-volosencu",fullName:"Constantin Volosencu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1063/images/system/1063.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Constantin Voloşencu graduated as an engineer from\nPolitehnica University of Timișoara, Romania, where he also\nobtained a doctorate degree. He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. He has developed automation equipment for machine tools, spooling\nmachines, high-power ultrasound processes, and more.",institutionString:'"Politechnica" University Timişoara',institution:null},{id:"221364",title:"Dr.",name:"Eneko",middleName:null,surname:"Osaba",slug:"eneko-osaba",fullName:"Eneko Osaba",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/221364/images/system/221364.jpg",biography:"Dr. Eneko Osaba works at TECNALIA as a senior researcher. He obtained his Ph.D. in Artificial Intelligence in 2015. He has participated in more than twenty-five local and European research projects, and in the publication of more than 130 papers. He has performed several stays at universities in the United Kingdom, Italy, and Malta. Dr. Osaba has served as a program committee member in more than forty international conferences and participated in organizing activities in more than ten international conferences. He is a member of the editorial board of the International Journal of Artificial Intelligence, Data in Brief, and Journal of Advanced Transportation. He is also a guest editor for the Journal of Computational Science, Neurocomputing, Swarm, and Evolutionary Computation and IEEE ITS Magazine.",institutionString:"TECNALIA Research & Innovation",institution:{name:"Tecnalia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"275829",title:"Dr.",name:"Esther",middleName:null,surname:"Villar-Rodriguez",slug:"esther-villar-rodriguez",fullName:"Esther Villar-Rodriguez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/275829/images/system/275829.jpg",biography:"Dr. Esther Villar obtained a Ph.D. in Information and Communication Technologies from the University of Alcalá, Spain, in 2015. She obtained a degree in Computer Science from the University of Deusto, Spain, in 2010, and an MSc in Computer Languages and Systems from the National University of Distance Education, Spain, in 2012. Her areas of interest and knowledge include natural language processing (NLP), detection of impersonation in social networks, semantic web, and machine learning. Dr. Esther Villar made several contributions at conferences and publishing in various journals in those fields. 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