Emerging technologies and benefits in the dairy industry.
\r\n\t
",isbn:"978-1-83968-760-0",printIsbn:"978-1-83968-759-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83968-761-7",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc49d6034d85f8f2e2890c6acc3cc629",bookSignature:"Dr. Abhijit Biswas",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10285.jpg",keywords:"Mott Insulators, Semi Metals, Polycrystals, Single Crystals, Electronic Properties, Magnetic Properties, PLD, MBE, Topological Insulators, Topological Hall Effect, Devices Applications, Catalysis",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 9th 2020",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"October 7th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"December 6th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 24th 2021",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 25th 2021",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"5 months",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering researcher in the field of tailoring metal oxide crystal surfaces and growth as well as engineering of thin films for various emergent phenomena and energy applications. Dr. Biswas received his Ph.D. from POSTECH, South Korea.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"194151",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhijit",middleName:null,surname:"Biswas",slug:"abhijit-biswas",fullName:"Abhijit Biswas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194151/images/system/194151.png",biography:"Dr. Abhijit Biswas is a research associate at the Indian Institute of Science Education and Research (IISER) Pune, in India. His research goal is to design and synthesize highest quality epitaxial heterostructures and superlattices, to play with their internal degrees of freedom to exploit the structure–property relationships, in order to find the next-generation multi-functional materials, in view of applications and of fundamental interest. His current research interest ranges from growth of novel perovskite oxides to non-oxides epitaxial films, down to its ultra-thin limit, to observe unforeseeable phenomena. He is also engaged in the growth of high quality epitaxial layered carbides and two-dimensional non-oxide thin films, to exploit the strain, dimension, and quantum confinement effect. His recent work also includes the metal-insulator transitions and magneto-transport phenomena in strong spin-orbit coupled epitaxial perovskite oxide thin films by reducing dimensionality as well as strain engineering. He is also extremely interested in the various energy related environment friendly future technological applications of thin films. In his early research career, he had also extensively worked on the tailoring of metal oxide crystal surfaces to obtain the atomic flatness with single terminating layer. Currently, he is also serving as a reviewer of several reputed peer-review journals.\nDr. Biswas received his B.Sc. in Physics from Kalyani University, followed by M.Sc in Physics (specialization in experimental condensed matter physics) from Indian Institute of Technology (IIT), Bombay. His Ph.D., also in experimental condensed matter physics, was awarded by POSTECH, South Korea for his work on the transport phenomena in perovskite oxide thin films. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"65924",title:"A Synthesis of Risks in Dairy Value Chains in Southern Africa: Cases of South Africa and Zimbabwe",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84573",slug:"a-synthesis-of-risks-in-dairy-value-chains-in-southern-africa-cases-of-south-africa-and-zimbabwe",body:'\nThe Southern African Development Community (SADC) has experienced the growing demand for dairy products, increased the milk returns, employee productivity, quality milk yields, and demand, as well as the application of world-class technology. Mlambo and Zitsanza [1] contemplate this growing demand which has led to the dairy industry’s contribution to the economic development of both South Africa and Zimbabwe. Furthermore, the price fluctuations in the SADC region have led to an increase in the milk demand. The milk production, favorable trade, and job creation can be utilized as criterions to determine the economic benefits of the dairy industry.
\nThe agricultural sector contributes to the gross domestic product (GDP) of the emerging and developing countries including South Africa and Zimbabwe. Hence, the dairy demand is expected to grow by 2.3% a year over the next decade. The primary drivers of growth in demand remain population growth and growth in the per capita consumption of dairy products [2]. There is a plethora of benefits in improving the levels of milk production and profitability of dairy farmers. These include the following (Figure 1):
A growing demand for dairy products in developing countries and SADC countries are no exception.
An increase in milk returns.
An increase in labor productivity.
An increase in milk yields.
The creation of job opportunities.
Improved demand for quality of milk and its price.
Improved supply of milk yields by the utilization of production in technology.
Acceleration of women empowerment.
Development of farmers’ cooperatives.
Effects on the demands of the dairy products. Source: authors.
In Zimbabwe, the agricultural sector provides employment and livelihood to 70% of the population, contributing between 40 and 60% of exports and 15–25% of gross domestic product (GDP) [3]. The dairy sector is equally critical for the success of rural communities as it reduces poverty and ensure food and nutrition security. At the height of production in 1990, milk production reached an all-time annual high of 262 million liters [4]. However, the estimated demand for milk and milk products of 180 million liters in Zimbabwe presents a supply gap of 129 million liters, implying that there is an opportunity for import substitution through improved competitiveness and increased production, especially from local smallholder dairy farmers [4].
\nOn the contrary, the World Wildlife Fund South Africa (WWF [5]) suggests that the South African dairy products import percentage has superseded the export percentage since 2010, although the South African milk production has been changing relatively. Agriculture Statistics [6] posits that over the last 20 years, the milk production has remained constantly due to the substantial decrease of the dairy of the national herd. The sudden change in production occurred even though the number of farmers has declined since 1993 with the dairy sectors being detrimentally affected [7], whereas international dairy product prices dropped by 61% from February 2014 to May 2016. The decrease in prices was caused by higher production, fueled by higher producer prices, and a decrease in demand, especially from China [2]. Furthermore, the milk consumption in South Africa has declined, and South African farmers are unable to compete against farmers from the first world countries who receive state funding from their countries and export their products to South Africa. Hence, this slow-onset disaster (drought) had a multiplicity of repercussions including the severe depletion of the natural grazing with livestock slaughter, reduction of summer crop plantations, extreme temperatures in summer months, and grain deficits with an increase in importations. Furthermore, the inability of the agricultural sector to attract clients with purchasing power, a depreciating currency, and an increase in food prices were the effects of drought in southern Africa. It is imperative to investigate the risk issues in the dairy value chain due to the importance of the dairy industry in regional economic development, contribution to the GDP, and poverty alleviation.
\nThe scarcity of farmland and water has limited the growth of the dairy industry. The key players in the value chain are input suppliers, dairy farmers and milk processors, middlemen, government, financial institutions, nongovernmental organizations, buyers in the markets, and value chain supporters. Both large-scale and many smallholder dairy farmers in the country need several inputs from input suppliers to raise the cows and produce raw milk. South African and Zimbabwean milk production is dominated by large-scale farmers who own fairly large farms with high producing pure exotic cows. The other players in the dairy value chain in Zimbabwe are middlemen (wholesalers and retailers) who buy milk produce from farmers and processors in bulk in order to retail to the consumers. The sale of milk and milk products is through supermarkets and shops around the country. The processing companies also sell milk products directly to final consumers through their salesmen who patrol streets in towns and residential areas with refrigerated push and bicycle carts. The other key players are the consumers of the milk products themselves. Without the consumers in the value chain, there is no business; hence, milk products’ consumers are important in the milk value chain. Dairy value chain supporters provide support to the main actors to guarantee that dairy products get to the final consumer. The supporters in the dairy value chain in Zimbabwe include: dairy services, the Department of Veterinary Services, Livestock Research Institute, extension services, farmers’ unions, and nongovernmental organizations.
\nThere are a multiplicity and diverse actors in the dairy supply value chain who perform various pivotal roles that service dairy industries including educators from agricultural schools, universities and technical colleges, farmers and stock people, farm advisors, local agribusiness, policymakers, and research scientists. There are also pivotal key stakeholders in the dairy value chain in South Africa which include the Department of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries, National Disaster Management Centres, Industrial Development Corporation, Land Bank, Banking Association of South Africa, South African National Consumer Union, and National Chamber of Milling. The stakeholders aim to improve the productive performance of the training and development programs and training on the foundations of dairy production technology. Midgley [8] mentions that consumers, dairy processors, informal traders, retailers, bulk milk collectors, transport operators, importers and exporters, and large commercial and medium and small dairy producers can be considered as the dairy supply value chain. The author argues that the dairy industry has noticed the number of producers declining with the cattle sizes increasing and the milk production efficiencies improving.
\nThe SADC region has been prone to drought, which is associated with the climatic phenomena called EL NINO. This phenomenon occurred when sea temperatures surpassed the Western coast of South America affecting global weather patterns. The effects of EL NINO in South Africa has resulted in seven out of nine provinces being declared disaster zones which had catastrophic effects on the dairy supply including the milk. The severe impact of drought in the SADC region with South Africa as no exception has drastically paralyzed the milk supply value chain. This became conspicuous as most dairy farmers were unable to produce and supply sufficient milk due to the impact of drought which has increased the cost of milk drastically. Consequently, this led to the majority of dairy farmers in South Africa to experience a reduction in the milk production, which led to an increase in prices by retailers which had an adverse effect on consumers. The local supply situation remains uncertain as the final effect of the 2016 and 2017 drought remains to be seen. Lower grain prices will probably have a beneficial effect on production but the scarcity of roughage, higher beef prices, and the weaker condition of herds after the drought impacted negatively on production. Milk production growth remained slow during the rest of 2017 [2]. There are a number of factors that have necessitated some dairy processors to pay commercial farmers an exorbitant amount of money per liter per average for milk to ensure a consistent supply which includes, inter alia:
The effects of drought leading to poor pasture conditions.
Increase in grain prices.
Importation of dairy products (milk) from other countries was very expensive as the Rand was very weak despite lower international prices.
The volatile exchange rate made imports expensive.
Increase in electricity tariffs increased input costs for farmers and milk processors.
The above factors have influenced retailers to increase operating costs for the entire milk value chain, which necessitated retailers to increase the dairy milk and other dairy products which consumers purchase at a hefty price. Lakew [9] opines that the dairy farmer’s profitability on their products are negatively affected; a reduction in the production of milk and unfavorable balance of trade can be originated on the decline in the production of milk (Figure 2).
\nAdverse effects of droughts in the dairy supply. Source: authors.
Transporters collect and transport bulk raw milk from farms to processing plants, usually situated in towns. In Zimbabwe, the transport system is dominated by the National Dairy Co-operative (NDC), an organized farmers’ co-operative transport organization. The transporters use refrigerated bulk tanks to ensure that the quality of milk is maintained. The major processing companies are Dairibord Zimbabwe Private Limited (DZPL), Dendairy (Pvt) company, and Nestle Zimbabwe, which add value to raw milk by being processed into various milk products such as yogurt, cheese, pasteurized milk, ice cream, and butter.
\nThe complex dairy value chain comprises dairy farmers, transporters, processors, wholesalers, retailers, and consumers who use milk products created in the value chain [10]. The dairy supply chain is vulnerable to disruptions from numerous risks as it involves many stakeholders. Risks may arise from any component within its supply chain. According to Gertenbach [11], environmental factors which include temperature, rainfall (quantity and distribution), sun hours, and soil types contribute significantly to livestock production. Climate change has negatively affected the SADC region’s dairy farmers and industry in particular. For instance, the increased temperatures have decreased the dry matter intake for animals, reproductive performance declined, and the overall productivity declined. Heat stress impairs milk production, reproductive performance, metabolic and health status, and immune response. The dairy cows are less productive in the event of increased temperature levels. Hence, cows that are experiencing extreme heat are identified by the signs of the reduced feed intake, which directly contributes to the decreased milk yield. The extreme climatic variations which are prevalent in the SADC region have both direct and indirect impacts on the dairy cattle where the following have been identified:
Fodder and pasture yields decreased,
Increased susceptibility to diseases,
Shortage and increased feed costs.
Infrastructural destruction, and
Cost increase due to overutilization of energy.
The main risks associated with Zimbabwe dairy include financial, technology, political unrest, policy barrier, and natural disasters.
\nTo purchase the required infrastructure in the dairy industry requires large sums of money [12]. The high perishability of milk requires dairy farmers to make substantial capital investments right from production up to sale. The procedure to secure finance in Zimbabwe is burdensome and highly bureaucratic and complex [12]. Credit providers have become more risk-averse and are equally reluctant to offer loans to farmers producing on land that lacks collateral value. Women entrepreneurs are adversely affected where banks demand collateral security in the form of property in urban areas for them to access business loans. Fewer women than men own fixed assets [13]. High lending rates of up to 14% [14] make the cost of capital expensive. Available financing is more suitable for short-run farming projects, while there is limited availability of medium to long-term finance for the broader agricultural sector. Resultantly, farmers are unwilling to make long-term investments in dairy farming leaving Zimbabwe food insecure [15].
\nThe most important dairy component is the livestock itself—the heifers. Building the dairy herd takes long gestation periods of up to 9 months. The long gestation makes it difficult to grow the herd much faster to boost milk output. In like manner, dairy farmers incur high costs to breed or purchase heifers which become a production constraint [12]. An equally important input is electricity provided by a state-owned monopoly, the Zimbabwe Electricity Supply Authority (ZESA). The frequent disruptions in power supplies have seen a decrease in capacity utilization in the agricultural sector which, in turn, affects capacity utilization simultaneously fuelling input costs in the dairy industry as the dairy processors have to consider other sources of power like generators to prevent disruptions in their production lines [16]. The high-input costs push the price of the final milk products up.
\nFurthermore, the Zimbabwe dairy industry has very high labor costs negatively affecting viability. An increase in labor costs reduces returns, and income earned may not be adequate to cover costs [17]. Zimbabweans are among the heavily taxed in the world. Currently, above paying taxes to the Zimbabwe Revenue Authority, dairy producers pay levies to the Dairy Services Department, Environmental Management Authority, Agriculture Marketing Authority, Local Authorities, and Zimbabwe National Water Authority, among others [18].
\nThe poor performance in the agricultural sector is also as a result of poor government policies. During the period from 1998 to 2000, Zimbabwe experienced negative economic growth. There was political instability in Zimbabwe following the fast track land reform program. The political instability negatively affected milk production as large-scale commercial dairy farmers were among those who lost their farms land invaders [19]. Following the implementation of the fast track land reform, cattle population declined. It is estimated that the dairy herd was reduced by 50% from what it was before the land reform program in year 2000. Land tenure security is threatened by lack of title deeds, and therefore, dairy farmers are not prepared to make long-term investments, negatively affecting milk quantity and quality [20]. Political commitment to creating an enabling environment for investment growth in Zimbabwe is questionable and uninspiring [21].
\nThe other challenge that local farmers face is their limited capacity to influence policy outcomes. Intervention by NGOs is heavily restricted by the restrictive political environment. Governance concerns continue to block any progressive success made toward foreign interventions in the form of assistance from emergency interventions to long-term development support.
\nThe high costs of breeding dairy cattle translate to very uncompetitive raw milk which costs US $0.62 per liter compared to neighboring South Africa and Kenya, which costs US $0.40 and US $0.30, respectively [22]. There is fierce competition emanating from the influx of foreign milk and milk products from plants in Europe and South America, which is choking the dairy industry to date [23]. Most dairy products from South Africa are threatening the agricultural sector, thereby prompting dairy farmers and processors to come up with initiatives that promote the buying and consumption of locally produced dairy products to mitigate the unfair competition from foreign dairy products [24, 25].
\nThe disastrous drought which affected the SADC region between the period of 2015 and 2017 has negatively affected the already ailing agricultural sector (commercial, small holding, and subsistence) which left farmers financially distressed. The intensity and magnitude of drought which struck South African farmers including dairy farmers were beyond their world-class disaster contingency plans. Even though South African farmers are recognized as the best in the world in terms of their planning and production and risk assessment and planning, they did not cope with the disaster. The extreme risk to the dairy production and its value chain is associated with the climatic variations with mostly the variable weather conditions more especially droughts. The recent slow-onset disaster (drought) directly affects both rain-fed and irrigated pastures, as well as prices of purchased feeds. The climatic risks also encapsulate erratic rainfall patterns, heavy rainfall and floods, and heat waves. Extreme weather conditions have negative repercussions which include damage to water and energy infrastructure; outbreaks of pests and diseases; high costs of energy for cooling under hot conditions; and disruption of transport of perishable milk due to road and bridge destruction.
\nWhile all countries suffer from disasters, low-income countries are more susceptible to the impact of disaster risks. The natural and manmade disaster risks have severely disrupted dairy production, thereby leading to increased prices of dairy produce, decreased sales, and created perpetual vulnerability. Unexpected climate change affecting Zimbabwe and other southern African countries are exposing dairy farmers to both production and marketing risks. They tend to affect many farms and dairy processing firms. Secondary data available on climatology such as rainfall pattern erraticism and extreme weather events in Zimbabwe show that the country is already experiencing the effects of climate change [26].
\nThe unbearably high temperatures extended Zimbabwe’s dry regions that are less productive, thereby shrinking the main farming regions. These human-induced climate changes are caused by the greenhouse effect [27] and mostly affect African countries like Zimbabwe resulting in food insecurity. The challenges posed by unforeseen climate changes are depleting the most essential natural resource, water. It is increasingly becoming difficult to sustain viable agriculture given such harsh, unpredictable weather conditions for many agro-based economies like Zimbabwe. Rain-fed agriculture is becoming less reliable to maximize agricultural productivity.
\nZimbabwe, being an agro-based economy, faces severe threats from these climatic changes. Dairy farming, in particular, thrives well in regions which record high rainfall. Zimbabwe, in particular, is at risk and is vulnerable to these new climatic conditions because it heavily relies on rain for its agricultural activities [28]. These erratic rainfall patterns and dry spells are impacting negatively on the productivity of dairy farms. The low rainfall experienced in Zimbabwe country makes dairy cows breeding more difficult by the day as there are changes in feed resources [29].
\nOver a million cattle starved to death as a result of the 1991/1992 drought [30, 31]. The impact of the drought was felt by individual farmers, as well as all the industries dependent on agricultural raw materials such as milk and beef processing [31]. The 2015/2016 drought threatened food security in Zimbabwe as thousands of cattle starved to death due the drought [32]. Grazing conditions remained poor in most of the southern half of the region [32]. The foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) of year 2015 also contributed to the calamity as it resulted in a decline in the national herd [33].
\nPoor technology in Zimbabwe, among other factors, has adversely affected capacity utilization in the milk processing industry [34]. Dairy farmers face technological risks as they have problems cooling milk in areas without electricity, adversely affecting the quality of milk. Consequently, some farmers use manual milking which is quite difficult for large herds. Low agricultural output is, therefore, attributed to the low capital endowment (Zimbabwe Vulnerability Assessment Committee [35]).
\nVarious strategies which can be harnessed in order to increase domestic milk production and yield a positive contribution to the economy include, inter alia:\n
Prioritizing increasing the number of dairy farmers without emphasizing changing the average milk production per cow or farm.
Emphasizing the increasing yields per cow milk rather than expanding the population of dairy farmers.
Increasing the total number of the milking herd (cows) without changing dairy farms.
Increasing the number of dairy farms, the size of the milking cows, and per cow production combined.
Reforming small holding dairy farms to larger farms and “mega farms.”
To eliminate wastage at the production plant (farm) and by the consumer.
To avoid the high mortality rates of young stock.
The development of a national breeding center.
The importation of breeding heifers.
To have a skilled labor force.
There is no straight solution to manage risks. Each value chain possesses its uniqueness; so, the criterion for management differs from others. Various risk mitigation strategies to mitigate the risks associated with the dairy value chain are explored in this section. The dairy farmers have utilized various mitigation strategies. These strategies include the use of smaller dairy breeds like Jersey, growing fodder crops, and the utilization of crop residences.
\nFurthermore, the low-cost to high-cost adaption strategies have been utilized to counter heat stress on dairy cattle productivity and reproductive performance. The low-cost measures employed by farmers include reducing overcrowding, maximizing shade, improving ventilation, and high-cost measures included the designing and installation of thermos air conditioning. Both adaptation and mitigation strategies were utilized by dairy farmers to ensure that production and productivity inputs are at an optimal level. Sprinkler fans, changing the feeding periods to coincide with the cooler times of the day and reducing the exertion required by animals to gain access to food, minerals, and water are the mitigation strategies that were being employed by farmers.
\nTo fully implement the above strategies dairy farmers relied on collaboration, legislation and policy, education and training, insurance, technology, and international assistance [15]:
\nA plethora of commentators [36, 37, 38] opine that a key strategy to effectively mitigate risk on dairy supply is through collaboration among key stakeholders. Such key stakeholders from diverse sectors and disciplines including leaders of government ministries, NGOs, and private sector organizations play a pivotal role in risk reduction. The collaboration and partnership of stakeholders yields positive results as partner organizations share skills, technical knowledge, information and resources, experiences, and best practices resulting in saving money due to elimination of duplications and wastage. Collaboration is also evident in Zimbabwe’s dairy sector. The Zimbabwe farming community has formed collaborations with NGOs to try and mitigate exposure to risk. There are many NGOs providing assistance in the agrarian sector in Zimbabwe of which Technoserve, Land O’Lakes, European Union, United States Agency for International Development (USAID), and Zimbabwe Agricultural Competitive Program (ZimACP) are active in providing support and assistance to the dairy farming sector [21].
\nNGOs such as Land O’Lakes partner National Association of Dairy Farmers (NADF) train community livestock workers in dairy management [39]. Likewise, milk processing companies, Dairibord Zimbabwe Holdings, Nestle Zimbabwe, and Dendairy develop small, medium, and large-scale farmers across the country through heifer programs to boost milk production [40]. The livestock was distributed to farmers in an effort to ensure continuity of supply across the supply chains. According to the Dairibord Holdings Annual [40], this milk supply intervention has realized benefits as it has contributed 8% to the milk supplies for Dairibord Zimbabwe.
\nDisaster legislation is one of the instruments that can highlight the efforts and commitment a country has in disaster reduction and management practices. This section highlights the legal and institutional framework that deals with risk reduction and management in Zimbabwe. The Civil Protection Department is tasked with the mandate of preparing for and providing for prevention where possible, as well as mitigating the effects of disaster whenever it occurs, through the Civil Protection Act of 2001 [41]. This was a reflection of the government’s commitment to disaster management [42]. The Civil Protection Act of 2001 resulted in the setting up of a Civil Protection Department under the flagship of the Ministry of Local Government, Rural and Urban Development [43]. Besides the Zimbabwe Civil Protection Unit efforts, there has been an increased focus on disaster risk reduction (DRR) by other sectors of government. The Zimbabwean Civil Protection Act is complimented by other acts: Environmental Management Act (20:27), the Rural District Councils Act (29:12), the Urban Councils Act (29:14), the Water Act No. 31 of 1998, the Defence Act (11:02), the Police Act (11:10), and the Public Health Act (15:09) [44].
\nZimbabwe is among the top 40 recipients of disaster risk reduction (DRR) financing from humanitarian organizations. However, there is still a concentration of DRR financing by these humanitarian organizations within the top four recipients (Pakistan, India, Indonesia, and Bangladesh) [45]. The farming community has formed collaborations with international NGOs to try to mitigate exposure to risk. There are many NGOs providing assistance in the agrarian sector in Zimbabwe of which Technoserve, Land O’Lakes, European Union, USAID, and Zimbabwe Agricultural Competitive Program (ZimACP) are active in providing support and assistance to the dairy farming sector [21]. The activities of these organizations are coordinated by the Food and Agriculture Organization.
\nIn a plight to increase agricultural activity and curb the risks posed by natural hazards in Zimbabwe, various stakeholders have formulated the Comprehensive Agricultural Policy Framework (2012–2032) [46]. Due to changes in the socio-economic environment, such as the land reform program, there has been a need to review the national agricultural policy. The policy is aimed at, among other issues, increasing production and productivity of livestock and improved animal health and welfare in the country [46]. The Comprehensive Agricultural Policy Framework also recommended agricultural subsidies so that local farmers will be able to compete with imports. Despite these noble efforts, a gap still exists concerning agricultural policy formulation and implementation which will guide any programs directed toward mitigation of natural hazards and meteorological disasters like drought. Zimbabwe has to date made many attempts to create a comprehensive agricultural policy, which have remained in draft form to date [21].
\nEducation and training strengthen all aspects of risk management at all the stages in the risk management cycle. Risk management (RM) education can be introduced in school curricula. Zimbabwe has successfully integrated DRR and emergency preparedness into its education system. Education would be a handy strategy with most dairy farmer’s literate (96%) and are able to interact with providers of farmer training courses [47]. Similarly, conferences compliment formal education and workshop training [48].
\nZimbabwe has a total of 25 registered insurance companies and 15 insurers, representing about 60%, which currently provide agricultural insurance [49]. However, there is a low penetration of agricultural insurance products in the country. Furthermore, insurers do not provide specialized agricultural insurance packages. Insurance enables the farmers to transfer risks to insurance companies [50]. Insurance reduces individual loss exposure, thus spreading risks by collecting premiums from many individuals and paying for damage caused by natural disasters that are very large for individual households and companies. Agricultural insurance policies cover against a many risks including drought, floods, heat waves, and other natural disasters. One such insurance by Zimnat Lion Insurance, Zimnat Livestock Insurance, insures farmers against fire, theft, lightning, explosion, and death of livestock [51].
\nMost dairy farms in the developed world make use of emerging technologies to improve efficiency and profitability in dairy enterprises. In particular, automation technology is used to improve profitability, milk quality, reduce costs of production, and improved animal welfare. These new automated technologies have incorporated computers and cellphones application to manage milk production and animal health. Various technologies recommended to dairy farmers in Zimbabwe were first tested on demonstration plots before they were adopted across the country. However, adoption of these technologies was a hurdle to poor farmers because of resource unavailability [52].
\nThe dawn of the agricultural revolution which is engrained on technology has increased efficiency and profitability in the South African and Zimbabwean dairy industry. The introduction of technology has boosted milk yields, enhanced milk quality, and reduced the costs associated with producing white stuff. Table 1 depicts emerging technologies and benefits in the dairy industry.
\nTechnology | \nBenefits | \n
---|---|
Cow collars | \n\n
| \n
Drone technology | \n\n
| \n
Facial recognition technology | \n\n
| \n
Robotic milking technology | \n\n
| \n
Emerging technologies and benefits in the dairy industry.
The abovementioned technologies assist the dairy industry production as there is a scarcity of committed labor in both the developing and developed countries. Furthermore, such new technologies save time and reduce labor expenses, thus increasing efficiency, productivity, and profits.
\nThis chapter espoused the high level of preparedness and resilience by dairy farmers during and in the aftermath of droughts to selected countries. It is observed in this chapter that while drought effects have paralyzed the dairy industry, the demand of dairy products has remained constant. The increase of the demand of the dairy industry has improved the quality of life of people as it provided formal and seasonal employment. Moreover, it also increased competition among the dairy farmers coupled with profits gained. Consumers also benefited as they have purchased quality dairy products which were influenced by the competition among dairy industries. This chapter has depicted the adverse effects of drought which have affected the dairy supply value chain from the grazing fields, herd health and productivity, infrastructure, economy, and resource availability. Various technological inventions and applications have been seen as beneficial to dairy farmers which has increased the health and productivity of cows, monitoring of the entire business and detection strategies which have increased cow milk yields. The technological, financial, political, and natural disasters and input risks have been the dominant risks in the dairy supply chain and have had catastrophic effects on consumers. Various risk mitigation strategies have been implemented to mitigate the risks associated with the dairy supply chain that includes collaboration, legislation, policy, education and training, technology insurance, and international assistance. However, most strategies failed because of unavailability of resources to fully implement them.
\nA major limitation in this study is methodological in nature as this chapter only employed a document analysis. This research method makes it difficult to test the reliability and validity of the findings as inferences cannot be used to other countries. It is advisable for future researchers to employ various methodologies and approaches in both countries where reliability and validity testing will be conducted.
\nMalaria is a serious infectious disease. It is caused by parasites of the genus Plasmodium and transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes to its vertebrate hosts. This disease is an important global health problem, especially in sub-Saharan Africa [1] (Figure 1). Indeed, the African region continues to carry a disproportionately high share of the global malaria burden [1, 2]. Among five Plasmodium species which infect human, two species Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax pose the greatest threat for human health. For example, P. falciparum is the most prevalent malaria parasite on the African continent. It is responsible for most malaria-related deaths globally [3], while P. vivax is rare in sub-Saharan Africa, but it is the major malaria parasite in most countries outside of sub-Saharan Africa [4].
Map of world malaria distribution.
The origin of parasites responsible of human malaria has always been at the center of the debate [5, 6]. Understanding the origin of its infectious agents could open a door in the improvement of strategies to fight against the malaria agents which constantly surprise us by their abilities to adapt to the different means of fight put in place. So then, the questions are as follows: Where do the pathogens responsible for this disease come from in humans? This chapter is a synthesis of the available data on the origin of two most virulent agents of human malaria: P. falciparum and P. vivax.
Today, the diversity of Plasmodium parasites infecting primates is well documented. First studies based in morphological analysis have reported three species which infect African apes (Plasmodium reichenowi, Plasmodium schwetzi, and Plasmodium rodhaini), and some of these were found to resemble human parasites Plasmodium malariae, Plasmodium vivax, and Plasmodium ovale [7]. The development of molecular tools allowed for a re-examination of Plasmodium diversity [8, 9, 10]. Data collected over the past years have shown that NHPs are infected with large diversity of Plasmodium belonging to two subgenera (Laverania and Plasmodium) [11] (Figure 2).
The tree of relationship of primate Plasmodium with the currently known categories of hosts. Primate Plasmodium is subdivided in two subgenera: Laverania and Plasmodium [11].
Among species classified into Laverania group, four species infect chimpanzees (P. gaboni, P. billcollinsi, P. billbrayi, and P. reichenowi), only three infect gorillas (P. adleri, P. blacklocki, and P. praefalciparum), and only one infect bonobo (P. lomamiensis) [8, 9, 12]. Therefore, P. billbrayi [10] is not accepted as a new species by some authors [6, 13] who reported that these isolates did not seem to be sufficiently distinct from P. gaboni to warrant a separate species designation [6]. However, this species was described only in Pan troglodytes schweinfurthii and hence is the reason why we believe that could be another species [10] (Figure 2). Moreover, Mapua and colleagues reported recently several lineages of these parasites among African apes [14].
To date, all studies on natural populations of apes (based on the analysis of fecal samples) have shown that no Plasmodium species from the Laverania subgenus is able to infect in natura both hosts (gorillas and chimpanzees) [8, 13], thus suggesting the existence of a strong host specificity due to genetic barrier [6, 15]. However, a recent study revealed that this genetic barrier is not completely impermeable [16]; moreover, in this study, authors reported that the exchanges between gorillas and chimpanzees were possible in confined environments [16]. Second hypothesis was about the role played by potential vectors [17]. However, this hypothesis was refuted by a study which showed that vectors had no preference for hosts [18]. Thus, other ecological factors could play a potential role in host specificity. Furthermore the simians’ species of this group seem to be geographically located in central Africa only (Figure 3).
Distribution of the different subspecies of great apes in Africa and representation of the spread of the different Plasmodium species in these species [5].
Conversely, subgenus Plasmodium (non-Laverania) includes several species infecting a large variety of primates of varied origins [Africa, Asia (catarrhines), South America (platyrrhines) and Human] [11]. Two major facts concerning this group were the emergence of P. knowlesi in human population [19, 20] and the characterization of P. vivax-like in chimpanzees and gorillas [21, 22] which completely changed our consideration of this malaria parasite subgenus [23, 24].
In Africa NHPs, five species of this subgenus circulate among monkeys and great apes, two for monkeys (P. gonderi and P. sp. DAJ-2004 [called now Plasmodium mandrilli [25]]) and three for great apes (P. vivax-like, P. malariae-like, and P. ovale-like) [13, 16]. In African great apes, both hosts (chimpanzee and gorilla) are infected with these parasites (P. vivax-like, P. malariae-like, and P. ovale-like) (Figures 3 and 4). Thus, these Plasmodium species are not specific hosts, and it would be very interesting to establish the mechanisms which favor host switching for these parasites. Several species were reported as implicate in circulation of malaria parasites in central Africa [17, 18]. In African apes three Anopheles species (An. moucheti, An. vinckei, and An. marshallii) are known to allow the circulation of malaria parasites in forest environment [18].
Phylogenetic tree of some Plasmodium species found in apes.
Apart from African apes, Asian monkeys are also infected by many other species of Plasmodium (P. cynomolgi, P. hylobati, P. knowlesi, P. coatneyi, P. fragile, P. fieldi, P. simiovale, and P inui Plasmodium spp. [26]) (Figures 3 and 4). Several other species of Plasmodium were observed among Asian apes by microscopic analyses, but no molecular evidence of the existence of these lineages are available (e.g., P. pithecia and P. sandoshami). These malaria parasites could infect many apes’ hosts. Several studies reported of the different NHP species with same parasites [27] or many parasites which were found in one species of NHP, for example, four species of simian malaria parasites were characterized in the pig-tailed macaques (Macaca nemestrina) [28, 29]. In this part of the world, the situation of P. knowlesi gives a good example of the risk that these parasites could present to humans. Recently, the probable existence of three divergent subpopulations of P. knowlesi with the different origins was reported [30].
Finally, in South America some Plasmodium species were described as infecting NHPs. The species found in Southern American primates are Plasmodium brasilianum and Plasmodium simium, and these parasite species naturally infect monkeys from the Cebidae and Atelidae families [31] (Figure 3). However, P. brasilianum infects 11 species of monkeys (Alouatta spp, Ateles spp, Brachyteles arachnoides, Cacajao calvus, Callicebus spp, Cebus spp, Chiropotes satanas, Lagothrix spp, Saimiri spp, Saguinus midas, and Pithecia pithecia), while Plasmodium simium infects only 2 species (Alouatta spp and Brachyteles arachnoides). In recent studies, P. simium was found for the first time in capuchin monkeys from the Brazilian Atlantic Forest [32]. P. brasilium and P. simium are similar and indistinguishable from human P. malariae and P. vivax. These similarities occur at the morphological, genetic, and immunological levels [31, 32].
The understanding of origin of human malaria parasites has been the subject of numerous studies that have been based on the morphology, biology, and affiliation of parasites to their hosts [33]. However, recent development of molecular tools in diagnosis has made considerable progress in understanding the evolutionary history of malaria parasites. Indeed, the contribution of several new sequences by this new approach will clarify the debate on many theories developed on the subject [34]. Moreover, several of these parasites have been found to be associated with humans by lateral transfer from other vertebrate host species [35, 36]. We will present the probable origin of two most virulent Plasmodium species that infect human.
The debate on the origin of P. falciparum most spread in world (Figure 5) was opened with the study of Waters and his collaborators who proposed an avian origin of this parasite that is to say that the man would have recently acquired this parasite of a transfer from birds to humans [37]. Indeed, phylogenetic analyses based on the study of ribosomal RNA subunit (rRNA) sequences showed that P. falciparum formed a monophyletic group with Plasmodium spp. of birds (see Figure 6), hence the conclusion of the authors.
Distribution of Plasmodium falciparum in the world [42].
Phylogenetic tree of malaria parasites obtained by Waters and colleagues [37].
Three years after the first hypothesis on the origin of P. falciparum, Escalante and Ayala [38], in their study also based on 18S RNA, take into account for the first time P. reichenowi, an isolated parasite in a chimpanzee African (Figure 7). They will show that this parasite is the closest parent of P. falciparum; therefore, this observation allowed authors to conclude that Plasmodium falciparum origin was not a recent lateral transfer of this parasite of birds to humans [38, 39]. In this study, P. falciparum and P. reichenowi form a large group with primate parasites of the subgenus Plasmodium (non-Laverania), rodents, and birds [38, 40, 41] (Figure 7). This will further fuel the debate on the origin of P. falciparum.
Two ML phylogenetic trees obtained by grouping 11 Plasmodium species as indicated (the six unlisted species are grouped as Plasmodium spp.) [38].
The disputes surround the probable origin of P. falciparum, whether it comes from birds or rodents, will be raging. Authors as Prugnolle et al. believe that the problems or weaknesses of many studies were based essentially on two aspects [5]: firstly the low number of plasmodial species and sequences integrated in these analyses and secondly the limited number of molecular markers used for the development of phylogenies. Despite all this controversy, P. falciparum will be considered to have an African origin [43, 44, 45].
The year 2009 will completely change our understanding of the evolutionary history of P. falciparum, because prior to this year, only one species (P. reichenowi) was known to be closer to P. falciparum. After the discovery of Plasmodium gaboni parasite that infects chimpanzees [46], several other sequences from African great apes will definitively bring elements of answers to question on the origin of this parasite.
Indeed, in 2010, Prugnolle and colleagues will highlight for the first time P. falciparum-like in gorillas and several other lineages. These studies will prove that the Laverania group that includes P. falciparum has a great diversity of species that circulate in African primates [9]. This will make it possible to show that the origin of P. falciparum is not found in birds or rodents but in the gorillas that have recently transmitted it to humans via anophobic zoo-anthropophilic mosquito [17, 18]. P. falciparum-like of gorillas will be named P. praefalciparum to distinguish it from that which infects humans [11, 13].
In 2011, the hypothesis of a gorilla origin of P. falciparum seems to be weakened by the discovery of P. praefalciparum in a small African monkey (Cercopithecus nictitans) [47]. This study also will reveal the existence of at least two types of P. praefalciparum: 1 and 2. P. praefalciparum-1 infects gorillas and monkeys (C. nictitans), and P. praefalciparum-2 infects only gorillas [11]. Other studies will focus on African monkeys, but will not find P. praefalciparum [48]. Thus, we believe that the hypothesis of Plasmodium falciparum from monkeys is not solid and that C. nictitans species is not a natural reservoir for this parasite [48].
Today, after numerous studies that analyzed more than 5000 samples of wild and captives apes [8, 9, 10, 12, 13, 16, 21, 22, 47] (Figure 8), it appears that gorillas are the reservoir for the P. praefalciparum, even though several hypotheses concerning the origin of P. falciparum have been proposed for primates [10, 47].
Origin of human Plasmodium falciparum. This phylogenetic tree illustrates the remarkable diversity of Plasmodium parasites infecting African apes (Holmes 2010).
The hypothesis according to which Plasmodium falciparum would come from gorillas seems to be the most plausible at the moment. Indeed, several P. praefalciparum sequences had been found from numerous wild-living gorillas in different areas [8, 13]. Loy and colleagues suggested that this parasite strain that was able to cross the host species barrier by carried one or more highly unusual mutations that conferred him an ability to colonize humans [49]. This theory comes to the fact that recent studies in human populations living close to the wild apes did not reveal the presence of parasites of great apes belonging to Laverania subgenus in humans [50, 51]. Thus, then it would seem that P. falciparum comes from African gorillas according to available data at the moment.
Plasmodium vivax is particularly prevalent in Asia, Southeast Asia, South America, and the Western Pacific region [52] (Figure 9). Already the first studies on malaria of the great apes had revealed the presence of parasites resembling P. vivax [53, 54]. Despite its first observations, the question on the origin of P. vivax remained uncertain for several years. Concerning this interesting question of the P. vivax origin, several hypotheses have been proposed in recent years.
The spatial distribution of Plasmodium vivax in the world [52].
The first hypotheses about the origin of P. vivax had suggested that it originated in Southeast Asia [24, 49]. These hypotheses were based on the fact that P. vivax shares morphological and biological traits with several macaque parasites and that Plasmodium simian’s species are abundant in this Asian region [36]. This hypothesis was supported by the phylogenetic analyses that placed P. vivax among the Plasmodium spp. of Asian monkeys with like closest parent, Plasmodium cynomolgi, which infects macaques in Asia [40, 55]. The consensus view has thus been that P. vivax emerged in southeastern Asia following the cross-species transmission of a macaque parasite [23, 56, 57].
In addition to the first hypothesis, another hypothesis will articulate around of the negative Duffy receptor and would suggest African origin of P. vivax [58, 59]. Indeed, the presence of negative Duffy blood group in central and West African populations was correlated with the absence of P. vivax. This character would confer resistance to P. vivax infection, which suggested that this mutation arose in response to prolonged selection pressure from P. vivax [60]. Currently, Duffy antigen is the only receptor known to be used by parasite to invade the red blood cell. Thus, it has been proposed that P. vivax co-evolved with African populations for longer than with other human populations [24, 61].
However, the recent studies using the development of molecular tools allow to have a clear view on the origin of this parasite. These studies have shown that chimpanzees and gorillas from central and West Africa harbor a large diversity ofP. vivax-like parasites [10, 21, 22, 62]. This discovery accentuates the African origin of Plasmodium vivax and reveals that African great apes are potential sylvatic reservoir of P. vivax [21, 22]. However, elucidation of the origin of P. vivax in African apes needed complementary studies of wild-living populations across central Africa [22].
Also, Prugnolle et al. have shown that P. vivax-like found among African great apes form a distinct and much more diverse genetic group than that of human parasites [21]. In this study authors revealed also an older origin of the African simian lineages and the fact that these lineages are able to infect the Caucasian population today [21] (Figure 10). Thus, the discovery of P. vivax in large numbers of chimpanzees and gorillas provides compelling evidence for an African, rather than an Asian, origin of human P. vivax.
The diagram presents a possible two-step scenario for the transfer and establishment of ape malarias in humans. Sylvatic anopheline vectors were transmitting malaria between apes; in the first step, one (or more) bridge vector(s) would also transfer infective Plasmodium parasites to humans. In a second step, human-adapted Plasmodium parasites adapted to domesticated mosquito vector species that share the same ecological niche with humans [63].
Today, an interesting question would be to understand how this passage of apes to man had been done. To this question, in view of current data and analyses, we agree to say, instead, it is much more likely that extant human P. vivax could represent a lineage that survived after spreading out of Africa [21, 64, 65], because this theory could explain the fact that we observed today a reduced diversity of the human parasites which would result from an out-of-Africa bottleneck, such as observed in P. falciparum [45, 66].
It is true that many Plasmodium parasites circulating in African NHPs could produce symptoms of this disease in apes [67]. However, no Plasmodium species particularly parasites belonging to Laverania subgenus has been found to infect human to date. Studies conducted in rural population in central Africa (Cameroon and Gabon) have shown that Laverania parasites were absent of human populations living in villages that are in very close proximity to wild forest [50, 51] and even those working in very close contact with NHPs [16]. On the other hand, several studies reported that P. falciparum is able to infect African apes, for example, Bonobos, chimpanzees [10, 26], and recently the mandrills [16]. The question is why these transfers are rare or why the ancestral parent of P. falciparum (P. praefalciparum) appear incapable of infecting humans today. Loy et al. suggest that gorilla parasite strain that was able to cross the host species barrier must have carried one or more highly unusual mutations that enable it to colonize humans [49]. But, supplementary studies would be necessary to support this hypothesis.
In contrast, many parasites of Plasmodium subgenus were reported to infect humans. The major case known is P. knowlesi that infects NHPs in south Asia and now is considered as the fifth Plasmodium species that infects human and cause malaria in southern Asian population [19]. Other cases of natural or accidental infections of humans with simians Plasmodium were reported in literature. Indeed, a total of seven species of monkey malaria have been reported via mosquitoes (P. cynomolgi, P. brasilianum, P. eylesi, P. knowlesi, P. inui, P. schwetzi, and P. simium) [11, 68, 69]. Recently, ape P. vivax has been found to cause clinical malaria in Caucasians who stayed during some days in African forest [21]. Thus, parasites of Plasmodium subgenus are apparently able to cross the species barrier to humans. So the emergence of these parasites should be monitored in areas where an influx of contact between humans and NHPs increases with anthropization, which destroys ape habitat and favors contact. In view of the rare faction of monkeys and the increase of the human population, it is feared that human infection of simians Plasmodium will become more frequent which could lead to humans becoming simians’ major host [70].
The potential for zoonosis is influenced by human habitation and behavior as well as the adaptive capabilities of parasites and vectors. Indeed, the existence of potential sylvatic reservoirs of P. vivax and P. falciparum in Africa could compromise malaria control and eradication efforts. Actually, there is lack of knowledge about the real extent of malaria zoonosis. Thus, this aspect of zoonosis malaria parasites must be taken into account by the public health authorities responsible for the fight against malaria. African structures health need to put appropriate strategies of prevention against zoonotic malaria parasites that could be developed. However, they must be based on good data of research on diagnosis and treatment of zoonotic malaria. Moreover, all people living in the locality or monkeys are known to grass a large variety of malaria parasite, which must take their precaution when they venture into forest environment, in order to avoid mosquito bites.
The development of the tools of molecular biology allowed us to see clearer in the history of parasite that infects the man, especially Plasmodium species. Indeed, these tools allowed us to highlight large diversity of the malaria parasites that circulate to the nonhuman primates, so to understand better the origin of the most virulent parasite responsible for human malaria (Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium vivax). Therefore, on the basis of available data, it is more than likely that its parasites have an African origin and that African gorillas and chimpanzees would constitute potential reservoirs of its parasites. Thus, in this context, it is important to determine or develop appropriate preventive strategies. It is necessary to set up monitoring systems in forest areas and to make sensitization campaigns.
Diversity: the condition of having or being composed of differing elements (variety). It can also include of different species or genetic lineages.
Gorilla sp.: designs all species belonging to Gorilla genus. This genus has three subspecies of gorilla (Gorilla gorilla gorilla; Gorilla gorilla graueri and Gorilla gorilla beringei).
Laverania: is a subgenus of the Plasmodium genus of parasites. The parasites belonging to this subgenus have a strong host specificity.
Outgroup: outgroup is a more distantly related group of organisms that serves as a reference group when determining the evolutionary relationships of the ingroup, and it is used as a point of comparison for the ingroup and specifically allows for the phylogeny to be rooted.
Phylogenetic tree: a phylogenetic tree is a diagram that represents evolutionary relationships among organisms.
Plasmodium GorA (Prugnolle et al. 2010): Plasmodium adleri.
Plasmodium gorB (Prugnolle et al. 2010): Plasmodium blacklocki.
Plasmodium (non-Laverania): non-Laverania subgenus includes many parasites such as P. malariae, P. vivax, P. ovale-curtisi, and P. ovale-wallikeri as well as the monkey parasites P. inui and P. hylobati.
Pan sp.: Pan sp. designs all species belonging to Pan genus (the common name of member of this genus chimpanzees and bonobo).
RNA subunit (rRNA): ribosomal ribonucleic acid (rRNA) is the RNA component of the ribosome and is an essential element for protein synthesis in all living organisms.
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