\\n\\n
IntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\\n\\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\\n\\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\\n\\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\\n\\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\\n\\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\\n\\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\\n\\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\\n\\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"",originalUrl:"/media/original/237"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
After years of being acknowledged as the world's leading publisher of Open Access books, today, we are proud to announce we’ve successfully launched a portfolio of Open Science journals covering rapidly expanding areas of interdisciplinary research.
\n\n\n\nIntechOpen was founded by scientists, for scientists, in order to make book publishing accessible around the globe. Over the last two decades, this has driven Open Access (OA) book publishing whilst levelling the playing field for global academics. Through our innovative publishing model and the support of the research community, we have now published over 5,700 Open Access books and are visited online by over three million academics every month. These researchers are increasingly working in broad technology-based subjects, driving multidisciplinary academic endeavours into human health, environment, and technology.
\n\nBy listening to our community, and in order to serve these rapidly growing areas which lie at the core of IntechOpen's expertise, we are launching a portfolio of Open Science journals:
\n\nAll three journals will publish under an Open Access model and embrace Open Science policies to help support the changing needs of academics in these fast-moving research areas. There will be direct links to preprint servers and data repositories, allowing full reproducibility and rapid dissemination of published papers to help accelerate the pace of research. Each journal has renowned Editors in Chief who will work alongside a global Editorial Board, delivering robust single-blind peer review. Supported by our internal editorial teams, this will ensure our authors will receive a quick, user-friendly, and personalised publishing experience.
\n\n"By launching our journals portfolio we are introducing new, dedicated homes for interdisciplinary technology-focused researchers to publish their work, whilst embracing Open Science and creating a unique global home for academics to disseminate their work. We are taking a leap toward Open Science continuing and expanding our fundamental commitment to openly sharing scientific research across the world, making it available for the benefit of all." Dr. Sara Uhac, IntechOpen CEO
\n\n"Our aim is to promote and create better science for a better world by increasing access to information and the latest scientific developments to all scientists, innovators, entrepreneurs and students and give them the opportunity to learn, observe and contribute to knowledge creation. Open Science promotes a swifter path from research to innovation to produce new products and services." Alex Lazinica, IntechOpen founder
\n\nIn conclusion, Natalia Reinic Babic, Head of Journal Publishing and Open Science at IntechOpen adds:
\n\n“On behalf of the journal team I’d like to thank all our Editors in Chief, Editorial Boards, internal supporting teams, and our scientific community for their continuous support in making this portfolio a reality - we couldn’t have done it without you! With your support in place, we are confident these journals will become as impactful and successful as our book publishing program and bring us closer to a more open (science) future.”
\n\nWe invite you to visit the journals homepage and learn more about the journal’s Editorial Boards, scope and vision as all three journals are now open for submissions.
\n\nFeel free to share this news on social media and help us mark this memorable moment!
\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"8122",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",title:"Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:'Vectors and Vector-Borne Zoonotic Diseases is about a group of diseases that can infect humans and animals, and that are transmitted by vectors. These diseases are called vector-borne zoonotic diseases. This book is meant to be used by veterinarians, medical doctors, entomologists, and other experts, as well as students, animal owners, nature lovers, etc. The book has several sections: "Introduction," "Vectors", "Vector-Borne Diseases and Pathogens," and "Vector Control." Each of the sections concerns one stage of a vector-borne disease. Each group of authors has dedicated their work to one of the topics with key roles on pathogens or vectors that are of great public health interest in their country or region. In this book, the authors have tried to show which vectors and diseases are the most interesting, having in mind that their spreading represents a danger to health. With this book, we hope to broaden readers\' knowledge by sharing experiences with vector-borne diseases,with the aim to upgrade the knowledge of general public health from a One Health perspective.',isbn:"978-1-78985-294-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-293-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-045-4",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77985",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"vectors-and-vector-borne-zoonotic-diseases",numberOfPages:132,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"5a088c3ab82e499c8d5d2f8ceec6a601",bookSignature:"Sara Savić",publishedDate:"February 20th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8122.jpg",numberOfDownloads:8691,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:14,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:23,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 25th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 16th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 15th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 2nd 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",middleName:null,surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/92185/images/system/92185.jfif",biography:"Sara Savić, Ph.D., DVM, is a researcher, working in a diagnostic laboratory within the Scientific Veterinary Institute 'Novi Sad” from Novi Sad, Serbia.\n Her main work is based on the diagnostic procedures for zoonotic diseases and vector-borne zoonoses. Dr. Savić has completed her Ph.D. degree on Diagnostics of Lyme disease in dogs and ticks, after which her interests and career went toward One Health issues. \nThe significance of multidisciplinary, transdisciplinary, and interdisciplinary work has become most interesting during the past decade. Her expertise is in bacterial and parasitic vector-borne zoonoses, especially in blood parasites. Dr. Savić has published over 200 publications so far as a leading author or as a co-author, in different scientific journals and proceedings from different scientific meetings.",institutionString:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:'Scientific Veterinary Institute "Novi Sad"',institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Serbia"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"909",title:"Parasitology",slug:"parasitology"}],chapters:[{id:"65273",title:"Introductory Chapter: Vectors and Vector-Borne Pathogens around Us",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84276",slug:"introductory-chapter-vectors-and-vector-borne-pathogens-around-us",totalDownloads:1198,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Sara Savić",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65273",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65273",authors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic"}],corrections:null},{id:"63773",title:"Aedes: What Do We Know about Them and What Can They Transmit?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81363",slug:"aedes-what-do-we-know-about-them-and-what-can-they-transmit-",totalDownloads:1357,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mosquitoes thrive mostly in the tropics and act as the vectors of some of the most debilitating human diseases caused by bioagents. Among the plethora of mosquitoes, Aedes transmit arboviruses, which have caused large-scale outbreaks throughout the world. Stegomyia is the most important subgenus of Aedes, which includes Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus vectors that are widespread and transmit a wide variety of arbovirus belonging to Togaviridae with the genus Alphavirus (Sindbis virus, equine encephalitis viruses, chikungunya virus), Flaviviridae with the genus Flavivirus (yellow fever virus, dengue 1–4 viruses, West Nile virus, Japanese and St. Louis encephalitis/SLE-viruses) and the Bunyaviridae with the genera Bunyavirus (California Group), and Phlebovirus (Rift Valley fever). In India, dengue and chikungunya are the most important arboviral diseases transmitted by Ae. aegypti and Ae. albopictus in recent time. Chikungunya and dengue are acute debilitating arthritogenic and hemorrhagic (dengue) disease, caused by enveloped single-stranded RNA virus belonging to Alphavirus and Flavivirus, respectively. In this chapter, we will comprehensively delineate the taxonomy of Aedes mosquitoes, their geographical distribution, evolutionary biology of chikungunya and dengue viruses, mechanism of transmission, and proposed vector control strategies against Aedes mosquitoes.",signatures:"Biswadeep Das, Sayam Ghosal and Swabhiman Mohanty",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63773",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63773",authors:[null],corrections:[{id:"65669",title:"Corrigendum to: Aedes: What Do We Know about Them and What Can They Transmit?",doi:null,slug:"corrigendum-to-aedes-what-do-we-know-about-them-and-what-can-they-transmit",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,correctionPdfUrl:null}]},{id:"64079",title:"Ixodes ventalloi Gil Collado, 1936: A Vector Role to be Explored",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81615",slug:"ixodes-ventalloi-gil-collado-1936-a-vector-role-to-be-explored",totalDownloads:1086,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ixodes Latreille, 1795 is the largest and broadest distributed genus of the family Ixodidae Murray, 1877. Its members are present in all zoogeographic regions, remote islands, and territories close to the poles. Plus, 63 species out of the 244 described have been recorded to feed on humans. Some are mega vectors, as those belonging to Ixodes ricinus-I. persulcatus complex, but others are so poorly studied that their vector role is difficult to access. This is the case of Ixodes ventalloi Gil Collado, 1936. This species is recorded in Northern Africa and Western Europe, mostly in Mediterranean basin countries, occurring along with other moisture-demanding ticks, as Haemaphysalis spp., I. frontalis, and I. ricinus. In fact, I. ventalloi not only shares vertebrate hosts (including humans) with the latter but may as well play a role in the enzootic cycle of some Ixodes-borne agents. This chapter updates information regarding this poorly studied tick, revising the available systematic, ecological, and microbiological data, discussing the potential public health relevance.",signatures:"Ana Sofia Santos and Maria Margarida Santos-Silva",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64079",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64079",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"63519",title:"Sandfly-Borne Viruses of Demonstrated/Relevant Medical Importance",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81023",slug:"sandfly-borne-viruses-of-demonstrated-relevant-medical-importance",totalDownloads:1378,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sandflies show distribution in a vast geographical area from Europe to Asia, Africa, Australia, and Central and South America where they can transmit a large number of viruses. Between these viruses, the most important are grouped into the Phlebovirus genus (family Phenuiviridae). Among them, several sandfly-borne phleboviruses cause self-limiting febrile disease (sandfly fever) or central and peripheral nervous system infections. Data concerning the geographic distribution of these phleboviruses has drastically increased during the last decade in both the new and the old worlds. The current situation depicts a high viral diversity with taxonomic groups containing human pathogenic and non-pathogenic viruses. This merits to provide insight to address the question of medical and veterinary public health impact of all these viruses, which are poorly studied. To do so, integrated and translational approaches must use ecological, epidemiological, serological and direct clinical evidence. Beside, other viruses transmitted by sandflies and belonging to Rhabdoviridae and Reoviridae families can also be of veterinary and public health importance. The chapter aims to provide a comprehensive view of the sandfly-borne viral pathogens of the public health impact on humans and other vertebrates in the old and new worlds.",signatures:"Nazli Ayhan and Remi N. Charrel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63519",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63519",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64068",title:"An Overview of Leishmaniasis: Historic to Future Perspectives",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81643",slug:"an-overview-of-leishmaniasis-historic-to-future-perspectives",totalDownloads:1090,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Human leishmaniasis is a major public health problem with a wide clinical spectrum. Despite there is an epidemiological diversity of the disease, cases mostly occur in the developing countries around the subtropical region, and the incidence is significantly rising. The disease is usually classified into three groups: cutaneous leishmaniasis, mucosal leishmaniasis, and visceral leishmaniasis. But to ensure their survival in different conditions, Leishmania spp. have developed many adaptation mechanisms and can be seen in different clinical forms as well. Herein, an overview of the characteristics of the disease and the parasite, interactions with the host, clinical aspects, and latest developments in the diagnosis and treatment is presented.",signatures:"Mümtaz Güran",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64068",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64068",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64206",title:"Vector-Borne Infections in Bulgaria",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81916",slug:"vector-borne-infections-in-bulgaria",totalDownloads:1182,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Bulgaria is an endemic country for Lyme borreliosis and Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever (CCHF). Sporadic cases of tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) and West Nile virus (WNV) encephalitis have been also reported. The reported incidence of Lyme borreliosis in Bulgaria is about 6/100,000 population. Two peaks in the seasonal distribution of cases and more frequent presentation of neuroborreliosis than of Lyme arthritis appear to be characteristics of Lyme borreliosis in Bulgaria. Borrelia afzelii is highly prevalent in Bulgarian Ixodes ricinus ticks. With sporadic cases or small outbreaks, CCHF appeared every year since the 1950s. For the last 10 years, a total of 60 CCHF cases were officially recorded. There is a tendency for CCHF to spread in previously non-endemic areas. The strains causing CCHF in the country belong to lineage Europe 1. A mean of 3.7% CCHF seroprevalence among the Bulgarian population is established. Both Europe 1 and Europe 2 CCHF virus lineages are present in ticks in Bulgaria. Tick-borne encephalitis (TBE) is very unusual. Only a few cases of TBE have been detected. Overall seroprevalence of 0.6% for TBE virus was found in humans. In 2015, a few WNV human cases were detected caused by lineage 2. Overall WNV seroprevalence in human population in the country is 1.5%.",signatures:"Iva Christova",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64206",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64206",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"64098",title:"Use of Artificial Intelligence on the Control of Vector-Borne Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.81671",slug:"use-of-artificial-intelligence-on-the-control-of-vector-borne-diseases",totalDownloads:1400,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Artificial intelligence has many fields of application with an increasing computational processing power, and the algorithms are reaching human performance on complex tasks. Entomological characterization of insects represents an essential activity to drive actions to control the vector-borne diseases. Identification of the species and sex of insects is essential to map and organize the control measurements by the public health system in most areas where transmission is actively occurring. In many places in the world, the methodology done for identification of the mosquitos is by visual examination from human trained researchers or technicians. This activity is time-consuming and requires several years of experience to have skills to do the job. This chapter addresses the application of artificial intelligence for identification of mosquitos associated with vector-borne diseases. Benefits, limitations, and challenges of the use of artificial intelligence on the control of vector-borne diseases are discussed in this review.",signatures:"Daniel da Silva Motta, Roberto Badaró, Alex Santos and Frank Kirchner",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64098",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64098",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"23",label:"women in science book program"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6179",title:"Antibiotic Use in Animals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"330ad6b360324a533411aa736563fbee",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-animals",bookSignature:"Sara Savic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6179.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92185",title:"Dr.",name:"Sara",surname:"Savic",slug:"sara-savic",fullName:"Sara Savic"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1692",title:"Parasitology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b2110e81c765897e4ffdfbd340495e25",slug:"parasitology",bookSignature:"Mohammad Manjur Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1692.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94128",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohammad Manjur",surname:"Shah",slug:"mohammad-manjur-shah",fullName:"Mohammad Manjur Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5527",title:"Natural Remedies in the Fight Against Parasites",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d705be119e74a50305952521b2b5ece0",slug:"natural-remedies-in-the-fight-against-parasites",bookSignature:"Hanem Khater, M. 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\r\n\tThis book on "Soldering - New Techniques and Approaches" will intend to provide a comprehensive discussion into the diverse topics in soldering and modern interconnection technology. One of the goals of the book will be to bridge this gap while moving from conventional to advanced lead-free soldering technology. Recent developments in high-density interconnection require the development of cost-effective and lightweight miniaturized devices such as flip-chip packages and through Si via technology. The micro joining of these miniaturized appliances needs low-cost interconnect materials and approaches in a practical scenario. The evolution of microelectronic devices and circuits towards drastic miniaturization and high density-high speed platforms for rapid data processing necessitates the development of new advanced and reliable solder materials. The usage of conventional Sn-Pb solders has been now regulated worldwide due to the various toxicity issues and directives, i.e., the Restriction of Hazardous Substances (RoHS), Waste Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), and End-of-Life Vehicles (ELV). This book will aim to cover a broad overview of modern soldering and micro joining materials and new technologies developed over the years in this discipline.
",isbn:"978-1-80356-747-1",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-746-4",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-748-8",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"a4b9a00a0b9b0718ef37413d53a5c146",bookSignature:"Dr. Ashutosh Sharma",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11940.jpg",keywords:"Materials, Conventional Soldering, Modern Soldering, Shear Strength, Wetting, Intermetallic Growth Kinetics, Fracture Toughness, Solder Pastes, Solder-Joints, Wire Bonding, Flip Chip Packages, Metallization",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"July 31st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 19th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 18th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"A pioneering scientist in the field of advanced microelectronic packaging and fabrication technologies, holder of Extraction and Processing Division (2016) Award, TMS USA, and 17 registered patents and several publications.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"145236",title:"Dr.",name:"Ashutosh",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"ashutosh-sharma",fullName:"Ashutosh Sharma",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/145236/images/system/145236.jpeg",biography:"Ashutosh Sharma is currently working in the Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Ajou University, Suwon, South Korea. He earned his Ph.D. degree in Metallurgical and Materials Engineering from the Indian Institute of Technology (IIT) Kharagpur, India. His research interests include electrochemical deposition, lead-free soldering and brazing, additive manufacturing, high entropy alloys, gas sensors, and composites. Dr. Sharma is a life member of various scientific and professional bodies. In a very short time, he has contributed more than 100 international journals, 17 patents, 8 book chapters, and 1 authored book, and 1 edited book so far. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"117",title:"Artificial Neural Networks",subtitle:"Methodological Advances and Biomedical Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"artificial-neural-networks-methodological-advances-and-biomedical-applications",bookSignature:"Kenji Suzuki",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/117.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3095",title:"Prof.",name:"Kenji",surname:"Suzuki",slug:"kenji-suzuki",fullName:"Kenji Suzuki"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"872",title:"Organic Pollutants Ten Years After the Stockholm Convention",subtitle:"Environmental and Analytical Update",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f01dc7077e1d23f3d8f5454985cafa0a",slug:"organic-pollutants-ten-years-after-the-stockholm-convention-environmental-and-analytical-update",bookSignature:"Tomasz Puzyn and Aleksandra Mostrag-Szlichtyng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/872.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"84887",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomasz",surname:"Puzyn",slug:"tomasz-puzyn",fullName:"Tomasz Puzyn"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"43070",title:"Alzheimer Disease and Metabolism: Role of Cholesterol and Membrane Fluidity",doi:"10.5772/54091",slug:"alzheimer-disease-and-metabolism-role-of-cholesterol-and-membrane-fluidity",body:'Alzheimer\'s disease (AD) is an age-related disorder characterized by deposition of amyloid β-peptide (Aβ) and degeneration of neurons in brain regions such as the hippocampus, resulting in progressive cognitive dysfunction. The causes of Alzheimer\'s disease (AD) have not been fully discovered, there are three main hypotheses to explain the phenomenon: a) The deficit of acetylcholine; b) The accumulation of beta-amyloid (Aβ and / or tau protein; and c) Metabolic disorders.
The clinical criteria for diagnosing AD were defined in 1984 by the NINCDS-ADRDA; (National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke; Alzheimer\'s Disease and Related Disorders). It states that for the diagnosis of disease is required to prove the existence of chronic and progressive cognitive impairment in adults or elderly patients, without other underlying causes that can explain this phenomenon. However, using this criterion, it is difficult to differentiate between AD and other causes of deterioration in early stages of the disease.
A number of recent research has been related AD with metabolic disorders, particularly hyperglycemia and insulin resistance. The expression of insulin receptors has been demonstrated in the central nervous system neurons, preferably in the hippocampus. In these neurons, when insulin binds to its cellular receptor, promotes the activation of intracellular signaling cascades that lead to change in the expression of genes related to synaptic plasticity processes and enzymes involved in clearing the same insulin and Aβ. These enzymes degrading of insulin promotes the reduction of toxicity due to amyloid in animal models.
People with neuritic plaques accumulate in brain regions that correspond to brain regions in healthy people that rise in a metabolic process called aerobic glycolysis. While some regions such as prefrontal and parietal cortex, which is thought to have a role in self-recognition and control tasks, showed high levels of aerobic glycolysis, others such as the cerebellum and the hippocampal formation, believed to affect the control motor and memory, showed low levels. Brain cells use aerobic glycolysis for energy derived quickly from small amounts of glucose while obtaining the mass of its energy through a biochemical process effective to burn glucose. Since aerobic glycolysis may help the brain generate cell constituents, toxic metabolic byproducts manage and regulate programmed cell death; the findings suggest a possible link between brain function that provides energy to aerobic glycolysis and the onset of AD.
The causes of the late AD appear to be multifactorial, and cell biology studies point to cholesterol as a key factor in protein precursor of beta Amyloid (APP) processing and Aβ production. An alteration in cholesterol metabolism is attractive hypotheses, thus the carriers of the Apolipoprotein E4 genes, which is involved in cholesterol metabolism, are at increased genetic risk for Alzheimer\'s disease. Cholesterol is a component of cell membranes and particularly is found in microdomains functionally linked to the proteolytic processing of APP. In sporadic AD, a marked diminution of both membrane phospholipids and cholesterol has been found.
Epidemiological studies indicate that mild hypercholesterolemia may increase the risk of AD and decreased synthesis of cholesterol through statin administration can reduce the development of AD. Moreover, high cellular cholesterol content has been shown to favor the production of Aβ. Genetic studies have suggested links between AD and cholesterol control several genes including cholesterol acceptor ApoE (ε4 polymorphism). Liver X receptors (LRXs) are ligand-activated transcription factors of the nuclear hormone receptor superfamily LXRs and also are expressed in the brain. LXRs stimulate the expression of genes involved in cellular cholesterol transport, regulation of lipid content of lipoproteins (apoE, lipoprotein lipase, cholesterol ester transfer protein, and phospholipid transfer protein), metabolism of fatty acids and triglycerides (sterol regulatory element binding protein 1-c, fatty acid synthase, stearoyl coenzyme A desaturase 1, and acyl coenzyme A carboxylase). Many questions remain, but as a master regulator of cholesterol homeostasis, LXR may be considered as a potential molecular target for the treatment of AD.
In summary, numerous studies on the role of cholesterol in AD suggest that high cholesterol is a risk factor for early and late AD development.
Dementia is a syndrome that cause cognitive and memory alterations; problems of orientation, attention, language and solving problems. Dementia involves a progressive decline in cognition that goes above and beyond the normal changes that come with age due to injuries or brain diseases. The two most common causes of dementia are AD and vascular dementia. More than 33% of women and 20% of men aged 65 year or more will develop dementia during their lifetime, and many more develop a milder form of cognitive impairment. Worldwide, the adult population is rapidly growing; prospective epidemiological studies suggest that there will be an increase of 50% of the total number of people with cognitive disorders in the next 25 years. Dementia is associated with increased mortality and disability, health care costs they mean a huge expenditure on health systems as well as a significant increase in social and economic responsibilities for caregivers and their families. With a current affection about 10% of the population over the 65 year-old Alzheimer\'s disease (AD) is the most common cause of progressive dementia [1].
AD is a progressive neurological disorder resulting in irreversible loss of neurons, particularly in the cortex and hippocampus, accounting for about one third of dementia syndromes, with a range that varies from 42 to 81% of all dementias. The clinical findings are characterized by progressive loose of memory, loss of: judgment, decision making, physical orientation and language disorders. The diagnosis is based on neurological examination and differential diagnosis with other dementias, but the definitive diagnosis is made only by autopsy. The pathological findings at microscopic level are: neuronal loss, gliosis, neurofibrillary tangles, neuritic plaques, Hirano bodies, granulo-vacuolar degeneration of neurons and amyloid angiopathy [2, 3]. A very early change in AD brain is the reduced glucose metabolism [4], and a recent analysis suggests that diabetes plays a role in the acceleration of brain aging. But, although it is known that type 2-diabetes may be associated with an increased risk of dementia, the exact mechanisms and mitigating factors still are not completely understood. The public health implications of this phenomenon are enormous. Although initially the association between type 2 diabetes and vascular dementia appeared to be more consistent than the relationship between type 2 diabetes and AD, there are recent studies that have yielded more consistent evidence of the relationship between diabetes and AD [5,6].
Neuritic plaques, neurofibrillary tangles and other proteins in AD brain are glycosylated [7]. Since people with diabetes have an increased blood glucose level is plausible to suspect that they have a higher chance of having AD. Animal models of induced diabetes suggest a direct neurodegenerative effect of diabetes; most of these studies show damage in the hippocampus, an area associated with learning and memory, and first structure to be affected by the neurodegeneration of AD disease. A post-mortem study revealed that people with diabetes and ApoE 4 allele, had more neuritic plaques and neurofibrilar tangles in the hippocampus and cortex, also cerebral amyloid angiopathy, in which the associated protein AD disease is deposited on the walls of blood vessels in the brain. It has been shown that those with diabetes have a greater cortical atrophy, independent of hypertension, the blood concentration of total cholesterol, smoking, coronary heart disease and sociodemographic factors than people without the condition. Today we know that obesity increases the risk of dementia and brain atrophy. However, the molecular mechanisms that are behind metabolic disorders caused by excess body fat are not fully understood yet, especially regarding its role in neurodegenerative diseases (see Figure 1). Preliminary evidence suggests that some adipocytokines could cross the blood brain barrier, and have some function in learning and memory [8].
Abnormal metabolism increases risk for Alzheimer disease.
Recent findings from several longitudinal population studies have confirmed a link between obesity and risk of dementia. People with a body mass index (BMI) indicating obesity (≥ 30) have a greater probability of developing dementia (75%) compared with those with normal BMI (18.5 to 24.9). We must emphasize that abdominal obesity is more closely associated with dementia risk, that obesity spread throughout the body. Even for those with a healthy weight, abdominal obesity increases the risk of dementia [9].
Insulin signaling in the central nervous system has gained much interest for his participation in cognitive processes such as learning and memory and its possible relation to neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer\'s disease. In peripheral tissues, mainly regulates insulin metabolism energetic and cell growth. The insulin receptor and several components of its signaling pathway are abundantly distributed in the mammalian brain and their activation modulates neuronal growth and synaptic plasticity [10].
It has been suggested that some alterations in the insulin signaling appear to be responsible for cognitive deficits and play an important role in the development of AD disease. Indeed, Type II diabetes is a risk factor for developing this type of dementia. Recently it has been observed that Aβ, which is overproduced in AD disease, causes alterations in the signaling pathway of insulin, supporting the causal relationships between this condition interesting and insulin [11]. In recent years the effects of insulin in the brain have drawn attention for his participation in mental processes such as memory and learning. Insulin in the brain plays an important role in the regulation of metabolism, and alterations in their activity are directly related to metabolic diseases such as obesity, diabetes or metabolic syndrome. In the mammalian brain, insulin anorexigenic effects, induces weight loss and regulates hypothalamic control of food intake. Also regulates glucose homeostasis by stimulating peripheral neurons producing pro-opiomelacortina (POMC) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP) through the IR and PI3K [12, 13].
Insulin can be generated in different brain sites. It is known that insulin is produced in the beta cells of the pancreas and can enter the brain through the blood brain barrier by active transport mediated by IR. Furthermore, the presence of messenger RNA in mammalian brain neurons, suggests that insulin can be produced locally. Likewise, there has been a strict regulation of the levels of insulin and its receptor (IR) in the brain, which may suggest that insulin level in the brain does not depend exclusively on the periphery [14]. However, if the source is local cerebral insulin, peripheral or shared has not been clarified yet. The IR is very abundant in the brains of rodents and humans with the highest concentration in the olfactory bulb, the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, hippocampus, cerebral cortex and cerebellum [15,16]. In addition, most of the proteins of the insulin signaling pathway have expression patterns that overlap with the IR in the brain. The IR is found abundantly in the hippocampus and its expression is increased after spatial learning tasks in rodents. The IR is widely found in the synapses of the dendritic trees which regulate the release of neurotransmitters and receptor recruitment [17] (see Figure 2).
Insulin regulates glutamatergic and GABAergic receptors, through the activation of the PI3K and MAPK. It is also known that the processes of long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD), are associated with the molecular events underlying the establishment of memory and learning are regulated by the activation of PI3K through Complex formation with NMDA receptors, which regulates PI3K NMDA receptor translocation to the membrane. The response of the IR is reduced by the action of glutamate and depolarization, probably involving calcium influx of Ca2+ and activation of Ca2+-dependent kinases (Figure 3). This suggests a possible role of insulin in the synaptic plasticity and modulation of neuronal activity [18-20].
Insulin is produced in the Beta cells of the pancreasand enters the brain through the BBB ( Brain Blood Barrier) via the IR (Insulin Receptor). Insulin levels on the brain do not depend exclusively on peripherical levels. The IR is very abundant in the brain of rodents and humans, showing its highest concentration in the following areas (in descending order): Olfactory bulb, hypothalamus, pituitary gland, cerebral cortex, hippocampus and the cerebellum. Most of the proteins involved in the insulin signaling pathway have expression patterns that overlap with the IR in the brain [
The presence of components via postsynaptic regions, such as mTOR, p70S6K, eIF-4E, 4E-BP1 and 4EBP2 suggest the existence of the regulation of protein synthesis at synapses. Insulin regulates the levels of the postsynaptic density protein PSD-95, which binds to the NMDA receptors in the synaptic membrane, through mTOR activation and modulation of protein translation at synapses. Furthermore, mTOR modulates synaptic plasticity Thus, insulin not only modulates neuronal synaptic activity [21]
Different strategies can be proposed to prevent the characteristics of AD-related dysfunction of the insulin signaling pathway. An important factor is the signal transduction through Akt. Akt activity can be improved with appropriate levels of omega-3 and DHA, which can help reduce βA levels and amyloid burden, as has been observed in transgenic mice Tg2576 regulating the activity of the enzyme IDE [22]. The loss of inhibition of GSK3 is involved in the production of neurofibrillary tangles and tau aggregation, which leads to oxidative stress, damage and toxicity in the neuronal synapses, so that GSK3 inhibitors could be used to prevent hyperphosphorylation of tau and the production of neurofibrillary tangles. Insulin has been used to improve memory and learning in healthy subjects and also in behavioral tasks in rats, suggesting a role in enhancing memory in humans, however, the actual effects of insulin on the CNS are just being elucidated [23,24].
Insulin can enter the brain through the blood barrier by active transport mediated by IR. The IR is found abundantly in the hippocampus and synapses of dendritic trees, wich regulates the release of neurotransmitters and receptor recruitment. Insulin regulates glutamatergic and GABAergic receptors throug PI3K and MAPK [
Among the compounds which have been proposed as reducing agents include βA charging the statins, which lower cholesterol levels, some peptides that prevent Aβ fibril formation as PBT-531 and NC-1 (a chelating metals) and modulators of the activity of the secretases as Bryostatin. Finally, the use of antioxidants such as vitamin E, have shown effectively to counter the effects of oxidative stress produced in the EA [25].
Cholesterol, the most common steroid in humans, is a structural component of cell membranes and is a precursor of steroid hormones and bile salts. Since an excess of cholesterol is a major risk factor for the development of cardiovascular disease, it is essential a balance between cholesterol synthesis, uptake, and catabolism. Cholesterol is only synthesized in the liver and brain. The brain contains about 20% of total body cholesterol but only 2% of total body weight. The majority of this cholesterol is found in myelin membranes. Brain cholesterol is synthesized exclusively by
After synthesis and secretion from glia via the ABCA1 transporter, cholesterol is packaged into lipoprotein particles resembling HDL. These HDL particles contain apoE. HDL is taken up into neurons through recognition of ApoE by a variety of lipoprotein receptors including the LDL receptor (LDLR); the LDL receptor related protein (LRP), the apoE receptor, as well as other lipoprotein receptors. Elimination of cholesterol from the brain occurs mainly via oxidation at the 24 and 27 positions to produce a class of compounds termed oxysterols. Water solubility of oxysterols is higher than cholesterol and diffuse across the BBB where they enter the peripheral circulation for excretion.
Studies
Clinic-epidemiological studies suggest that increased serum cholesterol levels did not correlate substantially with AD in older ages [45,46]. However, all epidemiological studies, genetic, metabolic and laboratory show that many factors regulation of cholesterol metabolism are involved in the physiopathology of AD. The most prevalent risk factor identified to date is the Apolipoprotein E4 (Apo-E4), which is a protein carrier of cholesterol, Apo-E exists in the brain and the periphery. Although the E4 genotype appears to confer a risk for AD independent of plasma levels of cholesterol, the data do not clearly discriminate whether the polymorphism of the Apo E4 contributes to Alzheimer through a direct effect on Aβ, or an indirect effect through involving the catabolism of cholesterol (Figure 4). The levels of 24-hydroxycholesterol (24-OHC) is increased with age in subjects with AD, and recent studies suggest that genetic factors related to this molecule contribute to the pathogenesis of the disease [47].
Cholesterol catabolites also regulate the processing of the APP. Pharmacological inhibition of acyl-CoA:cholesterol acyltransferase (ACAT), which produces cholesterol esters, decreases Aβ. This is significant because the ACAT inhibitors are in development for the pharmaceutical companies for the treatment of atherosclerosis and such drugs may become useful for testing in AD. On the other hand, synthetic oxysterol, 22-hydroxycholesterol and synthetic LXR agonist reduces Aβ generation in murine models of AD via elevated apoE protein levels and increased lipidation of apoE, rather than through suppression of Aβ generation [48]. Furthermore, LXR agonist preserves cognitive function at a dose far below required to observe decreased Aβ levels [49] and AD neuropathology was exacerbated in mice lacking LXRs, providing further support for the central role of LXR target genes in the pathogenesis of AD. The enzyme that catalyzes the cleavage of β APP β-secretase is the (BACE) and their activity is particularly dependent on cholesterol levels [50] (Figure 5).
Studies on the cholesterol use in the brain of AD patients are also significant and consistent; cholesterol is removed from the brain to become 24-OHC, which appears in the plasma. The 24-OHC levels are increased in patients with AD or any other degenerative disease. The increase is probably, because cholesterol from degenerating neurons is captured and removed to maintain homeostasis. It has been shown that neurons with degenerative tangles showed increased levels of cholesterol. However, there is a striking difference between serum and brain levels of 24-OHC in AD, because the first increase; while the latter decrease. This perhaps reflects the decline in the number of neurons and synapses in the brains of subjects who died with AD [47]. Cholesterol is synthesized through a complex route that is blocked by a class of enzymes generically called statins. The clinical utility of statins has been demonstrated across multiple epidemiological studies, some of which have suggested that these drugs might be effective in treating AD disease. Advances in understanding the relationship between the biology of cholesterol and the production of Aβ peptide, crucial in the development of amyloid plaque, will lead to new therapeutic approaches for AD disease.
In Alzheimer’s Disease (AD) animal models, hypercholesterolemia accelerates the development of Alzheimer’s amyloid protein. Genetic, metabolic, clinical and epidemiological studies have shown that many factors involved in cholesterol’s metabolism are involved in the pathophysiology of AD. The most prevalent risk factor is the APOE-4 (Apolipoprotein E4) genotype.
Statins are inhibitors of the enzyme 3-hydroxy-3-methylglutaryl coenzyme A (HMG-CoA) reductase, which converts HMG-CoA into mevalonate; this is the rate-limiting step in cholesterol biosynthesis [51]. These drugs decrease cholesterol levels about 30% and with few adverse effects. The first statin was lovastatin was synthesized, and since then have appeared fluvastatin, pravastatin, simvastatin and atorvastatin. Simvastatin and lovastatin are administered as pro-drugs and must be activated. These drugs differ in their lipid solubility; lipophilic statins, such as pravastatin, enter cells via an ATP-dependent anion transport system [52]. Pravastatin was not previously thought to cross the blood-brain barrier, however, it was recently demonstrated in mice that oral pravastatin treatment results in measurable pravastatin levels in the brain [53]. Pravastatin use is associated with a reduced risk of AD [54,55]. Statins inhibit cholesterol synthesis but also seem to affect other processes, because they can increase apoptosis and alter neuronal proliferation. Also decrease the immune response, anti-inflammatory property that has made recently has made the proposal to treat multiple sclerosis. Also appear to inhibit bone turnover and thereby reduce osteoporosis. The probable protective effects of statins in AD seem stronger than any association between plasma cholesterol and disease.
The inhibition of Acetyl-CoA and Acetoacyl-CoA (ACAT) produces cholesterol esters and decreases Amyloid Beta (AB). Synthetic oxysterol, 22-hydroxychoresterol and synthetic LXR agonists reduce AB generation in murine models of AD via elevated ApoE protein levels and increased lipidation of ApoE [
Oral administration of statins, in addition to inhibiting cholesterol synthesis, also affects gene expression the mouse brain [53]. Therefore, statins may protect the brain from AD by a mechanism independent of their effect on cholesterol. In addition to inhibition of cholesterol synthesis, statins block mevalonate formation and subsequently prevent formation of isoprenoids such as famesylpyrophosphate and geranylpyrophosphate. Statins inhibit isoprenylation of proteins, including the Rho family of small GTPases, in neuronal cells [56] and cultured microglia [57,58]. RhoA is a monomeric G-protein that is negatively coupled to cell growth; prevention of RhoA isoprenylation increases neurite extension [59]. At this regard, treatment of neurons with pravastatin enhanced neurite number, length and branching, and that this effect is mediated by inhibition of mevalonate synthesis and subsequent inhibition of isoprenylation of Rho GTPases and subsequent prevention of neuritic dystrophy and deterioration [60].
Epidemiological studies have found an inverse relationship between usage of the cholesterol-lowering drugs and risk of developing AD [54,55,61]. Statins are inhibitors of the enzyme HMG-CoA reductase, which converts HMG-CoA into mevalonate; this is the rate-limiting step in cholesterol biosynthesis [51]. However, reduction of cholesterol levels may or may not correlate with reduced risk of AD in patients taking statin drugs [62-64]. Furthermore, statin usage is associated with a decreased risk of depression and anxiety, which is not correlated with plasma cholesterol levels [65]. Oral administration of statins, in addition to inhibiting cholesterol synthesis, also affects gene expression in the mouse brain [53]. Thus, statins might prevent onset of AD by a mechanism independent of their effect on cholesterol.
Apolipoprotein E (apoE) is the major apolipoprotein in the brain and is a structural component of triglyceride-rich lipoproteins, chylomicrons, very-low-density lipoproteins (VLDL), and high-density-lipoproteins (HDL). ApoE is synthesized and secreted from astrocytes and microglia. Variation in the APOE gene sequence results in the 3 common alleles (ε2, ε3 and ε4), which can produce 6 different genotypes (ε2/ε2, ε2/ε3, ε2/ε4, ε3/ε3, ε3/ε4 and ε4/ε4). The ε2, ε3 and ε4 alleles encode three distinct forms of apoE (E2, E3 and E4) that differ in their amino acid composition at positions 112 and 158 [66]. ApoE3 seems to be the normal isoform, while apoE4 and apoE2 can each be dysfunctional [67]. Inheritance of apoE4 is associated with a greater risk of developing AD at an earlier age [68], whereas inheritance of apoE2 correlates with lower risk and later onset of AD [69]. individuals with the APOE ε4 allele show higher levels of plasma cholesterol, especially LDL cholesterol [70]. Subjects with APOE ε3/ε4 and ε4/ε4 genotypes absorb cholesterol effectively and have higher non-fasting serum triglyceride values than ε4 negative individuals [71,72]. A ApoE gene mutation (allele 4), the main risk factor for AD, may influence the risk of dementia more strongly among those with diabetes, in fact, findings from population studies show that people with diabetes and ApoE 4 are at greatest risk of AD compared with those without diabetes and without the ApoE 4. Although we know that people with diabetes are at increased risk of stroke, little is known about the effect of diabetes on the pathophysiology of neurodegeneration.
The role of the physical–chemical properties of intracellular membranous structures such as membrane fluidity in AD pathogenesis has been extensively studied. Membrane fluidity is a complex parameter, influenced both through some biophysical (temperature, electrical charges, pH) and biochemical factors (protein/phospholipids ratio, phospholipids/cholesterol ratio, degree of fatty acids unsaturation). It is a parameter that reflects the main membrane characteristic organization (gel or liquid crystal structure). Experiments provide consistent data about membrane fluidity relations to various cellular processes, especially membrane processes. Changes in the membrane composition and structure could alter the conformation and function of transmembranal ion channels, as well as affect the interaction of receptors and effectors, leading to altered signal transduction, handling of Ca”, and response to exogenous stimuli [73].
Cholesterol distribution within the plasma membrane is not homogeneous: the highest level of free cholesterol inside the plasma membrane is found in cytofacial bilayer leaflet [74]. The exofacial leaflet contains substantially less cholesterol, and it is mostly condensed in lipid rafts, which are more tightly packed than nonlipid raft domains due to intermolecular hydrogen bonding involving sphingolipid and cholesterol [75]. This asymmetric distribution of cholesterol is altered by aging: it is significantly increased in exofacial leaflet with increasing age [76,77]. It has been reported that membrane fluidity of lipid membranes in the brain cortex of AD samples were significantly thinner (that is, had less microviscosity) than corresponding age-matched controls. This change in membrane width correlated with a 30% decrease in the ratio cholesterol/ phospholipid [78].
In our group of research we assessed the membrane fluidity in platelet submitochondrial particles and erythrocyte membranes from Mexican patients with Alzheimer disease. Submitochondrial particles are mainly constituted of inner mitochondrial membrane and are the site of oxidative phosphorylation and other enzymatic systems involved in the transport and utilization of metabolites. Membrane fluidity was estimated measuring the intramolecular excimer formation of the fluorescent probe 1,3 dipyrenylpropane incorporated in membranes. Similarly to the data reported from mitochondria in AD brains fluidity [79]., a reduced fluidity in the platelet inner mitochondrial membrane was found. It can partially be due to increased levels of lipid peroxidation [80]. Reduced membrane fluidity can diminish the activities of the enzymes of oxidative phosphorylation and other transport and receptor proteins, in as much as these enzymes are regulated by the physicochemical state of the lipid environment of the membrane. It may diminish significantly the ATP generation from the mitochondria. Interestingly, dysfunctional mitochondria and oxidative damage has been involved in Alzheimer’s disease [81]. In agreement with previous reports, membrane fluidity from erythrocyte was not altered in AD [82], regardless of increased lipid oxidation in erythrocyte AD patients. This suggests that, in AD, mitochondrial membranes are more sensitive to oxidative stress than erythrocytes. In contrast to platelet inner mitochondrial membrane, it has been reported an increase in fluidity in whole membranes from platelets of AD patients [83]. This increase results from the elaboration of an internal membrane compartment resembling endoplasmic reticulum that is functionally abnormal [84]. At this regard, it is worth noting that the contribution of mitochondrial membranes to the whole cell membranes in platelets could be minimized since platelets contain few mitochondria [85].
On the other hand, it has been reported that using diphenil-hexatriene (DPH) and trimethylammonium-diphenyl-hexatriene (TMA-DPH) as fluorescent probes, the membrane fluidity in mitocondrial membranes was similar in platelets from AD patients and controls [86]. That discrepancy with our data may be due to intrinsic differences in the populations tested, the purity of the used mitochondrial fraction and the nature of the probes used. Additionally, it’s clear that the lipophilic probes are sensitive to slightly different membrane properties. For instance, DPH and TMA-DPH are rotational probes [87] and dipyrenylpropane is a lateral diffusion sensitive probe [88]. In addition, DPH partitions into the interior of the bilayer and its average location has been shown to be about 8 Å from the center of the bilayer. TMA-DPH is oriented in the membrane bilayer with its positive charge localized at the lipid-water interface. Its DPH moiety is localized at about 11 Å from the center of the bilayer and reports the interfacial region of the membrane [89]. Whereas dipyrenylpropane is a highly hydrophobic probe which partitions into the membrane lipid bilayer [88].
As shown in figure 1, we found a significant decrease of membrane fluidity in hippocampal neurons from AD patients compared with membranes from elderly non demented controls (Figure 6). Lower membrane fluidity in AD patients was correlated with abnormal APP processing and cognitive decline [90].
Excimer to monomer fluorescent ratio of dipirenylpropane on plasma membrane of hippocampus fom AD patients and aged-matched controls. The fluorescent probe was excited at 329 nm and emission of monomer (Ie) and excimer (Im) was read at 379 and 480 nm, respectively. Intramolecular excimer formation of this probe is related with the membrane fluidity. Therefore the ratio (Ie/Im) is directly proportional to membrane fluidity, which is reciprocal to membrane viscosity. The data shown are mean ± S.E.M. ∗p <0.01.
Some strategies for the preservation of membrane fluidity include the use of polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFAs). The brain is particularly rich in PUFAs such as eicosapentaenoic (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acids (DHA). PUFAs play an essential role in the normal development and functioning of brain [91]. Diets enriched in n-3 PUFA increased membrane fluidity, affect signal transduction and modulate gene expression for brain function [92]. Furthermore, DHA have the following effects: maintains membrane fluidity, improved synaptic and neurotransmitter functioning, enhanced learning and memory performances and displayed neuroprotective properties [93], decreased the amount of vascular Aβ deposition [94] and reduced Aβ burden [22]. In AD mouse model, DHA modulated APP processing by decreasing both α- and β-APP C-terminal fragment products and full-length APP [22]. However, caution should be taken when PUFAs are used for dietary supplementation, since DHA could be increasing oxidative stress, resulting in lipid peroxidation [95,96].
Addition of cholesterol restored the membrane width to that of the age-matched control samples. Alterations in other membrane components of AD brains have also been reported. The cholesterol content in lipid rafts has been shown to contribute to the integrity of the raft structure and the functions of the rafts in signaling and membrane trafficking [97]. At this regard, it has been shown that cholesterol depletion leads to increased membrane fluidity [98] mainly in intracellular membranes [99] and reduced endocytosis, shifting sAPP shedding from β-cleavage towards α-cleavage [63]. In fact, the cleavage of APP by β-secretase [100], occurs mainly in highly ordered membrane microdomains dispersed at the cell surface. These microdomains known as lipid rafts are enriched in cholesterol, sphingolipids and saturated phospholipids. Lipid rafts appear to be a mechanism to compartmentalize various processes on the cell surface by bringing together various receptor-mediated and signal transduction processes. The cleavage of APP by α-secretase is done mostly in nonraft domains [101]. Furthermore, it has been shown
Increased membrane fluidity due to cholesterol depletion inhibits endocytosis which might explain the observed increase of sAPPα and shift towards α-secretase cleavage that happens on the cell surface. Cholesterol increase is associated with enhanced membrane stiffness possibly explaining the disrupted proximity of APP and BACE. Surprisingly this is associated with enhanced sAPPβ production, possibly explained by altered transport and endocytosis mechanisms [103]. Another explanation therefore is the direct impact of cholesterol environment upon BACE activity. In living cells, BACE seems to require intact rafts for activity, and BACE outside rafts seems to be inactive [104].
Recent theories suggests that there would be an interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental factors that lead to cell death by amyloid toxicity or disruption of tau protein. Dietary lipids could be a determining factor in the difference in risk between developed and underdeveloped countries. Dietary lipids could be the primary risk factor in late-onset sporadic AD (LO-SAT). The critical factors seem to be the ratios of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) to monounsaturated (MUFA), saturated fatty acids (SFA) to essential fatty acids (EFAs). These contents are modified by the APOE4 genotype [105].
Oxidation of neuronal lipid membranes could be the initiating event in the cascade of synergistic processes with subsequent expression of Aβ and helical filaments of hyperphosphorylated tau protein. PUFAs are important in modulating the inflammatory balance/systemic anti-inflammatory eicosanoids and fluidity and membrane function. Proinflammatory eicosanoids are derived from arachidonic acid (AA). The anti-inflammatory eicosanoids are derived from the via the n-3 EFA through DHA) and EPA. EFAs cannot be synthesized by animals and must be obtained from food. A diet rich in linoleic acid promotes proinflammatory state, while a diet rich in linolenic acid promotes inflammatory components. When lipids are exposed to free radicals begin an autoperoxidative process. This process is perpetual and changes the composition and rate of membrane lipids with loss of PUFA compared with MUFA and SFA. This causes the membrane to become less fluid and affecting the function of components, as well as of intracellular organelles and the vascular endothelium [106]. This seems to be the initial process of the cascade that culminates in neuronal death and neuropathological sequelae associated with LO-SAT. Antioxidant vitamins and vegetables may reduce the risk of AD. High levels of blood lipids are associated with atherosclerosis and diabetes, both risk factors for EA indirect. Recently it was found that the increase in LDL cholesterol, along with APOE epsilon4 genotype is associated with increased risk of AD [107].
The oxidative state of lipid membranes can have effects on neurons, at three levels:a) vascular;b) endothelial cell membrane; and c) membrane organelles.At the level of cellular membranes lipid oxidation accelerates the aggregation of amyloid which consequently decreases membrane fluidity. This also is observed with decreases of the content of MUFA and PUFA esterified to phospholipid. Interestingly, these changes are seen in brain regions affected in AD, especially at the hippocampus. The decrease of the membrane fluidity affects the synaptic connections [108]. The EA may be preventable and treatable and possibly reversible to some extent, if the proposed hypothesis is correct. The changes in the fat composition of the diet are reflected in plasma lipids and phospholipids in the membrane of red blood cells, likewise in the neural cell membranes, especially in areas of rapid lipid turnover. A diet low of n-6 PUFA and MUFA, and an adequate amount of n-3 PUFA, but not too caloric, with antioxidants should protect neuronal damage, lipid oxidation and the inflammatory cascade and amyloid deposition.
Lipid lowering agents appear to have a protective effect, although studies are not conclusive. Statins decrease the oxidizability of LDL, with decreased levels of oxygen reactive species, anti-inflammatory effects and improve endothelial dysfunction, also increased alpha-secretase activity. Increase the synthesis of LDL receptors, with decreased circulating level and reduced production of PPA.
The histological changes seen in the initial stages of AD confirmed that membrane lipids and inflammation are involved in the disease (Figure 7). AGE n-3/n-6 rate has a major impact on the balance of eicosanoid metabolism inflammatory and anti-inflammatory, and the degree of saturation of membrane lipids and fluidity affects its function. The apoE4 genotype may influence the risk of AD, as it is unable to protect that transports lipids from oxidation [109].
Cellular changes induced by lipid oxidation linked to dietary lipids. The change in dietary intake of lipids causing a low PUFA/MUFA (Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid/Monounsaturated Fatty Acids) ratio, which finally altered synaptic connections and neuron collapse [
The principal constituents of mammalian cell membranes are phospholipids, the most abundant of which is phosphatidylcholine (PC). PC biosynthesis is initiated by the phosphorylation of choline to form phosphocholine, which then combines with cytidine triphosphate (CTP) to form 5\'-cytidine diphosphocholine (CDP-choline); this compound then reacts with diacylglycerol (DAG) to produce PC [110]. The rate at which cells form PC is affected by the availability of its precursors. Thus, uridine or cytidine increase CTP levels [111]; availability of CTP levels in turn can be rate-limiting in the syntheses of CDP-choline [112] and PC [113]; and DAG levels can control the conversion of CDP-choline to PC [114]. AD is also associated with abnormal metabolism of membrane phospholipids. Alterations in the metabolism of the phospholipids phosphatidylcholine (PC) have been detected in the cerebrospinal fluid of AD patients [115]. Neural membrane glycerophospholipids, particularly ethanolamine plasmalogens, are markedly decreased in autopsy samples from AD brain compared to age-matched control brain [116]. This decrease in glycerophospholipids is accompanied by a marked elevation in phospholipid degradation metabolites such as glycerophosphocholine, phosphocholine, and phosphoethanolamine [117]. Furthermore, marked increases have been reported in levels of prostaglandins and lipid peroxides in AD brain [118,119]. The marked changes observed in phospholipids and their catabolic products may be coupled to the elevated activities of lipolytic enzymes in AD brain [120]. Moreover, cortices of AD patients have decreased levels of PC and phosphatidylethanolamine, compared with age-matched controls [116]. PC synthesis is regulated by levels of its precursors [113,114]; therefore, stimulation of PC synthesis by increasing precursor levels prevents the disruption in normal phospholipid metabolism caused by AD. Furthermore, increasing cell membrane synthesis may have morphological consequences for the cell. For instance, dendritic atrophy and loss occur in mouse models of AD [121,122] and dystrophic neurites are observed in human cases of AD [123]
Data from a series of biochemical, genetic, epidemiological studies and others exhibited that cholesterol is a key factor in APP processing and Aβ production. For instance, high cholesterol levels are linked to increased Aβ generation and deposition. It appears that there are many different ways in which abnormalities in cholesterol metabolism can affect the development of AD. Some polymorphisms in genes involved in cholesterol catabolism and transport have been associated with an increased level of Aβ and are therefore potential risk factors for the disease. The best known of these genes is apoE4, which is the major genetic risk factor known for late-onset AD. Other genes implicated include cholesterol 24-hydroxylase (Cyp46), the LDL receptor related protein, the cholesterol transporter ABCA1, acyl-CoA:cholesterol acetyl transferase, and the LDL receptor. Then, we may conclude that what is bad for the heart is bad for the brain. We must pay attention to risk factors associated with heart disease to prevent Alzheimer\'s disease also. Considerable interest has also arisen regarding the effects of lifestyle interventions such as exercise and dietary/nutriceutical manipulations.
Urban areas are composed of natural and constructed systems where the human population is more concentrated, and there are complex interactions between socioeconomic factors and biophysical processes [1, 2]. In a city, an ecological process often occurs in habitat patches, which are connected by corridors in a matrix of streets and buildings. The major ecological processes between/among habitat patches include immigration and dispersal agents, also, ecological corridors that can act as links or barriers for dispersal ability [2].
Due to transport networks cities are often the entry points of many alien species [3]. Moreover, in contrast with non-urban areas, urban ecosystems have different physical and chemical properties, which highly influence species distribution and ecosystems functioning [4, 5]. As a whole, urban areas have been usually considered novel in relation to their non-urban counterparts, which are comprised of a variety of fragmented habitats [4]. Overall, in this novel ecosystems the restoration ecology, conservation, biodiversity, ecosystem services, and climate change have been the most discussed topics in literature [6].
A bibliographic analysis of urban sustainability indicates that the topic of green infrastructure started to be in the attention of scientists in 2010, when, the awareness of issues associated with climate change was raised and the assessment of urban ecosystem services was more considered. During a period of five years (2010-2015), topics related to health and well-being were more interesting, and the motor theme of conversation became the priority of the scientists studying the importance of green infrastructures. This demonstrates the significant importance of green infrastructure and its association with sustainability [7, 8].
The term “Urban Green Infrastructure (UGI)” refers to engineered and non-engineered habitat structures in connection with natural and semi-natural areas and other environmental features, which are designed to deliver a wide range of services from nature to humans. Green infrastructure comprises different kinds of components (for example, parks, green roofs, urban forests, road verges) which according to several number of parameters (e.g., spatial scale, dimension, location) are categorized [9, 10].
The “Green Infrastructure” can perform several functions in the same spatial area. In contrast to gray (or conventional) infrastructure which usually has one single objective, GI is multifunctional which means it can promote win-win solutions or “small loss-big gain”, delivering benefits to a wide range of stakeholders and the public at large [10].
In line with Europe’s 2020 strategy, it can act as a catalyst for economic growth by inward investment and generating employment, reducing environmental costs, and providing health benefits among others. This can contribute to the recovery of Europe’s economy by creating green businesses and innovative approaches, representing around 5% of the job market. For instance, the Hoge Kempen National Park (6,000 ha) which is located in the eastern part of Belgium, the investment to carry out improvement projects is raised up to €90 million and generating €24.5 million per year in revenues from sustainable tourism alone. In Sweden, 10,000 m2 of green roofs were installed and an open storm-water system was built to improve the environment both for people and nature, the entire project cost around €22 million but the benefits that have been derived from this investment are already tracking up; for example, decreasing in rainwater runoff rates by half, significant saving energy by residents, increasing the biodiversity by half, unemployment has fallen from 30–6%, and turnover in tenancies is decreased substantially [10]. More example is Canada where the economic value of 13 ES in Canada’s Capital Region (Ottawa-Gatineau region) amounts to an average of 332 million dollars, and to a total economic value of over 5 billion dollars, annualized over 20 years [11].
Improving the knowledge about the importance of urban ecosystem services (ESs), and their value especially in the current trend of world urbanization is necessary. Thus, the role of city planners and other disciplines and their collaboration to integrate new findings associated with ESs is necessary [12]. ESs, directly and indirectly, influence human life and thus the economic activities. For examples, the maintenance of soil fertility can secure food production, and/or providing clean air and water through the absorption of pollutants by plants, and our mental and physical health may depend on the accessibility to green spaces [13].
We only consider the ecosystem services classified by the Mapping and Assessment of Ecosystems and their Services (or MAES), Urban ecosystem, 4th report (May 2016). This classification takes into account merely the ecosystem services which are more important and happen in urban areas. These ecosystem services (ESs) are including (i) provisioning services in which the food and water are the most valuable ones, (ii) regulating services including the regulation of air quality, flood and water flow regulation, also, noise and temperature reduction plus pollination, (iii) the cultural ecosystem services such as recreation, education and cultural heritage [14].
There is criticism this classification in which the supporting services is not taken into account. Those supporting services are so-called intermediate ecosystem services and comprise the habitats for species and maintenance of genetic diversity [15].
Apart from the above-mentioned classification system, the three other classifications are also available but they consider the assessment of ecosystem services on much big scale than cities. These three classifications are as follows; (1) CICES (the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services), (2) The MA (the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment), and (3) TEEB (the Economics of Ecosystems and Biodiversity) [16, 17, 18].
The urban area often contain threatened species. The spatial structure of the urban landscape, especially patches features (e.g., patch size and their connectivity) are correlated with species richness and biodiversity [19].
More than three-quarters of Earth species are characterized to be extinct at short time intervals which is unprecedented. Mammalia, birds, and amphibians are the groups of animals that have become more popular for the assessment by scientists [20], while insects species have been poorly studied, despite their vital role in ecosystems and in turn well-being. Biodiversity loss of insects is reported as a worldwide phenomenon, (typically in Great Britain and other European countries), where four main drivers of this condition have been presented [21, 22]. Habit lost and fragmentation which is made by the human is considered as the main factor of global biodiversity loss, and then pollution, biological factors, and climate change. In the case of mammals and birds, habit change plays the same role in the reduction of their species [23, 24, 25].
Human settlement and infrastructure development is a threat to protected species and negatively impact on the many of the at-risk species [26]. Among those species, beneficial insects like honeybee colonies, birds, and mammals are more endangered. For example, beehives are at risk of collapse by mite parasites and viral infection. Thus the necessity of conservation strategies is a need in urban wildlife, where the species encounter anthropized environments that differ from the natural landscape. With this in mind that many species characteristics such as dispersal ability, sex, even body mass influence the species movement to urban areas. Passerine birds are a good example; where the urban colonization rate of these birds is associated with the color dichromatism [27, 28].
If we consider two groups of specialized and generalist species, the first group (specialized) tend to be more susceptible and poor in adaptation to the habitat changes in novel conditions as they have a special host, and their ability to recover quickly is less; thus, these species are more at risk of extinction. The second group (generalized species) are more adaptable to climate change and can successfully colonize the new environment/urban setting in a short time, showing plasticity, adaptability, and having access to a wide range of food and shelter requirements. Other factors such as invasive species has been reported to show cascading effects on the ecosystem and influence the species communities, and the diversity of many organisms, especially insects. For example, cattle grazing and recreational activities negatively impacted the distribution of a dragonfly (
Human activities like industrialization, and agricultural intensification, have changed the habitat structure of natural landscape, causing the reduction in food resources and shelter sites for many specialist species. Moreover, urbanization, causing the disappearance of many habitat specialists and their replacement with a few generalists adapted to the artificial human environment. Providing habitat quality and management contribute to biodiversity maintenance. A good example of habitat management is presented by Britain government where the area of flower grasslands was increased for the target populations of bumble species [25, 29].
There are several factors causing environmental pollution, declining biodiversity loss. Fertilization and pesticide application mostly occur in agricultural settings. In the case of urban settings, industrial sites, transportation, and sewage increase soil contamination by the heavy metals in green infrastructures, which can reduce not only belowground biodiversity but also influences the vegetation structure of lawns and grasslands patches [25].
Several studies reported the existence of neonicotinoid residues that contaminated the honey samples from
In Germany, over the 27 years of study, about 80% of the flying insect biomass losses were caused by increases in pesticide application [36]. In a study in Paris, urbanization made a significant reduction in the population of the bird species called “House Sparrows” [37].
Urban areas are under the pressures of population growth, urbanization and suburbanization processes, which interact with the climate, leading to the establishment of the urban climate. Urban climate is generally characterized by some particular features such as heat islands effects, dryness, urban flooding, cold, humidity and pollution, which can significantly affect human health [38]. Abiotic stress such as heat waves, drought, and flooding are the three most important factors, having not only socio-economic impacts but also constrains on global food security [39].
The urban heat and its extreme impacts on social and environmental aspects on urban residents together with climatic change arising from global warming, alleviating agricultural crops, influencing the resiliency of the urban greenery and therefore a risk for human health. The heat-related phenomena are related to heatwaves and drought which produce negative effects as heat-related illness and heat-related mortality [40, 41, 42]. Triggering certain types of diseases have been reported due to hydro climatic treat and long-term exposure to heat-related stresses, for example; respiratory, gastrointestinal, caused by low humidity, high temperatures and lack of water for personal hygiene, and household cleaning [43].
Water flooding is a serious problem in many cities of China. The concept of sponge city was developed for the first time in China in 2014 in order to deal with urban flooding and to attenuate urban runoff, and improve the purification in the concept of urban sustainability. The concept is being developed to make use of ‘blue’ and ‘green’ spaces in the urban environment to encourage stormwater management and control [44].
“
Global warming stimulates the decline of many beneficial insects, for example, wild bees and butterflies. However, global warming shows contrasting trends on the population density of butterflies in Finland. Despite this, the general trend of the world’s insect population exhibiting around 50 percent reduction. Likewise, the insect populations which are adapted to the cold climate have declined (e.g. dragonflies, stoneflies, and bumblebees), showing a general reduction in population density of pollinators such as wasps, ants, and beetles in Mediterranean regions [25, 46].
Connectivity is demonstrated to be a proxy for biodiversity, where species and other ecological flows are able to move through a landscape and gain diversity in their genetic structure, stabilizing the ecosystem. As a result of urbanization, habitat fragmentation leading to the extinction of the threatened species, making the network between urban green infrastructure more important. Therefore, modeling the connectivity between different urban patches in an urban area through designing green corridors is stated to be a realistic direction. Connectivity has two elements; structural and functional connectivity in which the structural connectivity is a useful indicator of functional connectivity, providing information on how to create a better connectedness of urban green spaces [47]. Different methods have been used to analyze the connectivity in an urban landscape. The graph theory method is the most useful tool by which the two concepts of inter and intra-patch connectivity is taken into account. This method is a robust metric, enabling to prioritization of the importance of each patch in the entire system [48].
Connectivity has three indices; (i) Number of links (L) between/among habitat patches (node) which provide information about the geographical distance between/among patches, showing the physical structure between patches, (ii) number of components (NC), where a component is a set of patches/nodes which are connected by links; a patch itself is also considered as a component, and (iii) the integral index of connectivity (IIC), which was proposed by Pascual-Hortal and Saura [48, 49]. The connectivity raises when the NL is higher and the NC is lower. Considering IIC, the degree of connectivity within a landscape can be estimated, and also the contribution of each patch into entire landscape connectivity which is the most useful tool, providing significant conceptual improvements in the decision process for planning [50, 51, 52]. The IIC shows the importance of every single patch in the overall connectivity which is based on graph structure and binary connection model, which means two patches are connected or not. Assessing this index is based on delta/d (dIIC) or the differences in the IIC value and ranges from 0 to 1 for each patch, indicating the importance of each patch with a higher value in the overall connectivity of the analyzed landscape. The dIIC value has three fractions and each fraction additively leads to the overall value. The three fractions are including dIICintra or intra-patch connectivity, dIICflux or inter-patch connectivity when a patch is directly connected to the other one; dIICconnector or stepping stone, which means if a patch/node contribute to the connection of other patches [53].
Microorganisms are a vital component of nature and can be found everywhere or so-called ubiquitous, from the human gut to natural ecosystems like oceans. They belong to bacteria, fungi, viruses, and micro-eukaryotes [54, 55]. In terms of environment, soil microbial communities are a key factor in the biochemical processes that support plant growth and other ecosystem services of GI features [56, 57]. At the urban level, the first assessment of subsurface microbial communities in a truly urban site was investigated in 1992 [58].
Edaphic variables are the factors related to the soil properties (e.g., soil pH) that affect the diversity and geographical distribution of microorganisms like soil bacterial communities; soil with lower pH (>4.5) has lower bacterial diversity [59]. As, in urban areas, the soil physical (moisture and texture) and chemical properties (pH, solid minerals, and organic matter) can influence microorganism communities [60, 61]. Notably, bacterial diversity is significantly correlated with human population density (as a proxy of anthropogenic activity) [62], indicating co-occurrence of human settlements and species-rich regions [63]; the reason for this relationship is unknown.
The results of human activities including heavy metals and other pollutants such as pesticides, fertilizers, salt, exposure to petroleum products impact the soil ecosystem, as these activities and products can alter the structure of soil bacteria communities and have a strong effect on their abundance and diversity [64, 65, 66].
Different urban soil types and their locations show that the Phyla Acidobacteria and Actinobacteria, are the most dominant soil bacteria [67]. On the other side, the most abundant fungi are related to the genera Glomus and Rhizophagus. The identified taxa are able to survive in distributed habitats and are associated with key ecosystem services (for example, decomposition and N cycling) [68].
Knowing microbial communities in GI features is important because it can help to guide urban planning for the purposes of improving urban biodiversity or bioremediation as a guide for future GI management. Identifying and understanding the dynamics of microbial communities in urban environments is thus essential for managing microbes beneficially in the context of urban sustainability [69]. Recently and in 2016 the project of Metagenomics and Meta-design of the Subways and Urban Biomes (MetaSUB) have started to characterize the composition of the microbial inhabitants of urban environments across the world. The aim of this international project is to support city planners, public health officials, and architectural designers and to quantify cities more responsive, safer places for people [70].
Growing the world’s population accelerates the increase of pollutants and consequently can jeopardize the people’s life by being exposure to pollutants. This can also proliferate the spread of pandemic and pathogenic microbiome. Therefore, it is imperative to adopt sustainable practices and enhance the health of the urban environment, considering the implementation of surveillance programs, discovering the genetic characterization and functional diversity of microbes in the cities [71, 72].
This chapter attempts to address the important concepts related to urban ecosystem. Urban areas are composed of natural and constructed systems. In a city, an ecological process including immigration and dispersal agents often occur in habitat patches, which are connected by corridors. Urban ecosystems have different physical and chemical properties, which highly influence species distribution, ecosystems functioning, and provide ample ecosystem services, representing sustainable tourism, saving energy, increasing the biodiversity, reducing environmental costs and providing health benefits for residents. Nowadays, however, urban development threatens human health and some elements of biodiversity, which is mainly caused by climate change especially urban heat island, environmental pollution, and habitat fragmentation. Green corridor is proposed to be pragmatic approach in connectedness of different groups of habitat structures and in turn genetic diversity. Subsurface microbial communities are also associated with major biochemical process which support plant growth and ensure key ecosystem services involving nitrogen cycling, biodegradation, and decomposition.
In an increasing urbanized world, adopting sustainable practices for communities are crucial for improving and maintaining urban environmental health. This could be helpful to guide urban planning for the purposes of improving urban biodiversity or bioremediation as a guide for future GI management. To do this, researchers from different disciplines, both in national and international collaborations can address many environmental issues and consequently human well-being in cities. To explore next, multidisciplinary, interdisciplinary, transdisciplinary projects are required to untangle the current challenges associated with biodiversity, ecosystem services, and climate change in urban areas.
This chapter financed by the project “UPWR 2.0: international and interdisciplinary programme of development of Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences”, co-financed by the European Social Fund under the Operational Program Knowledge Education Development, under contract No. POWR.03.05.00-00-Z062/18.
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All published Book Chapters are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported License. Monographs are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others. Our Copyright Policy aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. IntechOpen upholds a flexible Copyright Policy meaning that there is no copyright transfer to the publisher and Authors hold exclusive copyright to their work.
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\n\n\n\nIntechOpen is committed to disseminating high-quality scientific research in a manner that exemplifies the best practice in scholarly publishing. IntechOpen is an official member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE), which advocates the maintenance of the highest ethical standards for all parties involved in the act of publishing, including Authors, Academic Editors of the book, Peer Reviewers, the publisher and Societies, where applicable.
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\n\nAll scientific works are subject to Peer Review prior to publishing. IntechOpen is a member of the Committee on Publication Ethics (COPE) and all participating referees and Academic Editors are expected to review submitted scientific works in line with the COPE Ethical Guidelines for Peer Reviewers where applicable.
\n\n\n\nThe Internet has changed the dynamics of scholarly communication and publishing which is why we find it necessary to clearly indicate our stance on what we consider to be a published scientific work. A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar works in progress are shared openly online between members of the scientific community. It has become common practice for researchers to announce their work on a personal website or a blog in order to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are ‘published’ in the sense that they are made publicly available, but this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. His current research interests are in the fields of intelligent control and robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Technical University of Sofia",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"585",title:"Prof.",name:"Munir",middleName:null,surname:"Merdan",slug:"munir-merdan",fullName:"Munir Merdan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/585/images/system/585.jpg",biography:"Munir Merdan received the M.Sc. degree in mechanical engineering from the Technical University of Sarajevo, Bosnia and Herzegovina, in 2001, and the Ph.D. degree in electrical engineering from the Vienna University of Technology, Vienna, Austria, in 2009.Since 2005, he has been at the Automation and Control Institute, Vienna University of Technology, where he is currently a Senior Researcher. His research interests include the application of agent technology for achieving agile control in the manufacturing environment.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"605",title:"Prof",name:"Dil",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"dil-hussain",fullName:"Dil Hussain",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/605/images/system/605.jpg",biography:"Dr. Dil Muhammad Akbar Hussain is a professor of Electronics Engineering & Computer Science at the Department of Energy Technology, Aalborg University Denmark. Professor Akbar has a Master degree in Digital Electronics from Govt. College University, Lahore Pakistan and a P-hD degree in Control Engineering from the School of Engineering and Applied Sciences, University of Sussex United Kingdom. Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. He has contributed in stochastic estimation of control area especially, in the Multiple Target Tracking and Interactive Multiple Model (IMM) research, Ball & Beam Control Problem, Robotics, Levitation Control. He has contributed in developing Algorithms for Fingerprint Matching, Computer Vision and Face Recognition. He has been supervising Pattern Recognition, Formal Languages and Distributed Processing projects for several years. He has reviewed many books on Management, Computer Science. Currently, he is an active and permanent reviewer for many international conferences and symposia and the program committee member for many international conferences.\nIn teaching he has taught the core computer science subjects like, Digital Design, Real Time Embedded System Programming, Operating Systems, Software Engineering, Data Structures, Databases, Compiler Construction. 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There are various sources of these antioxidants like endogenous antioxidant present in the body and exogenous food source. In recent decades, alternate of synthetic food antioxidants by natural ones has fostered interest on vegetable sources and the screening of inexpensive raw materials particularly from the agriculture for identifying new antioxidants. Polyphenols are the significant plant compounds with antioxidant activity, though not the only ones. Some but not only restricted to biological properties such as anticarcinogenicity, antimutagenicity, antiallergenicity, and antiaging activity have been reported for natural and synthetic antioxidants. 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Almost all the parts of this plant, that are, fruit, leaves, flower bud, trunk, and pseudo-stem, can be utilized. This chapter deals with the fiber extracted from the pseudo-stem of the banana plant. It discusses the production of banana pseudo-stem fiber, which includes plantation and harvesting; extraction of banana pseudo-stem fiber; retting; and degumming of the fiber. It also deals with the characteristics of the banana pseudo-stem fiber, such as morphological, physical and mechanical, durability, degradability, thermal, chemical, and antibacterial properties. Several potential applications of this fiber are also mentioned, such as the use of this fiber to fabricate rope, place mats, paper cardboard, string thread, tea bags, high-quality textile materials, absorbent, polymer/fiber composites, etc.",book:{id:"7544",slug:"banana-nutrition-function-and-processing-kinetics",title:"Banana Nutrition",fullTitle:"Banana Nutrition - Function and Processing Kinetics"},signatures:"Asmanto Subagyo and Achmad Chafidz",authors:[{id:"257742",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Achmad",middleName:null,surname:"Chafidz",slug:"achmad-chafidz",fullName:"Achmad Chafidz"},{id:"268400",title:"Mr.",name:"Asmanto",middleName:null,surname:"Subagyo",slug:"asmanto-subagyo",fullName:"Asmanto Subagyo"}]},{id:"61245",title:"Nutritional Composition of Meat",slug:"nutritional-composition-of-meat",totalDownloads:4540,totalCrossrefCites:33,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:"Meat ranks among one of the most significant, nutritious and favored food item available to masses, which aids in fulfilling most of their body requirements. 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This chapter will mainly focus on the variant aspects of nutritional constituents of meat including proteins and essential amino acids, fats and fatty acid profile, carbohydrates, vitamins and minerals along with their health benefits to human health.",book:{id:"6669",slug:"meat-science-and-nutrition",title:"Meat Science and Nutrition",fullTitle:"Meat Science and Nutrition"},signatures:"Rabia Shabir Ahmad, Ali Imran and Muhammad Bilal Hussain",authors:[{id:"235082",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Imran",slug:"ali-imran",fullName:"Ali Imran"},{id:"239057",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia Shabir",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rabia-shabir-ahmad",fullName:"Rabia Shabir Ahmad"},{id:"243634",title:"Mr.",name:"Muhammad Bilal",middleName:null,surname:"Hussain",slug:"muhammad-bilal-hussain",fullName:"Muhammad Bilal Hussain"}]},{id:"67214",title:"Microbial Contamination in Milk Quality and Health Risk of the Consumers of Raw Milk and Dairy Products",slug:"microbial-contamination-in-milk-quality-and-health-risk-of-the-consumers-of-raw-milk-and-dairy-produ",totalDownloads:3614,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:24,abstract:"The dairy products industry is going toward safe milk and its products in the food market. Milk quality and food safety concern in the consumers’ health and nutrition in public health surveillance prevent food-borne diseases, food poisoning, and zoonosis risk by raw milk and fresh dairy products. The aim of this work is focused on milk microbial contamination and its impacts on milk production and dairy industry with their implications in milk product quality, food-borne diseases from raw milk, and unpasteurized milk by food-borne pathogen microbial contamination and milk and dairy product spoilage. The microbial milk contamination source comes from herd hygiene and health status, mastitis prevalence, production environment, and milking parlor and milk conserving practices in dairy farm. Moreover, these facts are implicated in milk quality and milk spoilage and unsafe dairy products. The milk production system and the dairy plant operations keep track in pasteurized milk and fresh dairy products reviewing the traceability in field situational diagnosis report.",book:{id:"7943",slug:"nutrition-in-health-and-disease-our-challenges-now-and-forthcoming-time",title:"Nutrition in Health and Disease",fullTitle:"Nutrition in Health and Disease - Our Challenges Now and Forthcoming Time"},signatures:"Valente Velázquez-Ordoñez, Benjamín Valladares-Carranza, Esvieta Tenorio-Borroto, Martín Talavera-Rojas, Jorge Antonio Varela-Guerrero, Jorge Acosta-Dibarrat, Florencia Puigvert, Lucia Grille, Álvaro González Revello and Lucia Pareja",authors:[{id:"15423",title:"Qco.",name:"Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Pareja",slug:"lucia-pareja",fullName:"Lucia Pareja"},{id:"199849",title:"Dr.",name:"Velazquez",middleName:"Ordoñez",surname:"Valente",slug:"velazquez-valente",fullName:"Velazquez Valente"},{id:"280178",title:"Dr.",name:"Esvieta",middleName:null,surname:"Tenorio-Borroto",slug:"esvieta-tenorio-borroto",fullName:"Esvieta Tenorio-Borroto"},{id:"280179",title:"Dr.",name:"Benjamín",middleName:null,surname:"Valladares-Carranza",slug:"benjamin-valladares-carranza",fullName:"Benjamín Valladares-Carranza"},{id:"280184",title:"Dr.",name:"Jorge",middleName:null,surname:"Acosta-Dibarrat",slug:"jorge-acosta-dibarrat",fullName:"Jorge Acosta-Dibarrat"},{id:"285302",title:"Dr.",name:"Martín",middleName:null,surname:"Talavera Rojas",slug:"martin-talavera-rojas",fullName:"Martín Talavera Rojas"},{id:"285303",title:"Dr.",name:"Lucia",middleName:null,surname:"Grille",slug:"lucia-grille",fullName:"Lucia Grille"},{id:"291633",title:"Dr.",name:"Alvaro",middleName:null,surname:"González Revello",slug:"alvaro-gonzalez-revello",fullName:"Alvaro González Revello"},{id:"301478",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Jorge Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Varela-Guerrero",slug:"jorge-antonio-varela-guerrero",fullName:"Jorge Antonio Varela-Guerrero"},{id:"301479",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Florencia",middleName:null,surname:"Puigvert",slug:"florencia-puigvert",fullName:"Florencia Puigvert"}]},{id:"60461",title:"Biological Activities of the Doum Palm (Hyphaene thebaica L.) Extract and Its Bioactive Components",slug:"biological-activities-of-the-doum-palm-hyphaene-thebaica-l-extract-and-its-bioactive-components",totalDownloads:4291,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:14,abstract:"The doum palm (Hyphaene thebaica) is a type palm tree which has a wood texture and has edible oval fruits and the origin native to upper Egypt. The trunk of this small palm is dichotomous. It is one of the most important useful plants in the world. All parts of doum palm have a useful role such as fiber and leaflets which used to weave baskets and doum nuts which have antioxidants and secondary metabolites such as tannins, phenols, saponin, steroids, glycosides, flavonoid, terpenes and terpinoids. Also, roots, stems and leaves are used in medicine, ropes and baskets. Studies on anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, antimicrobial, anticancer and pharmacological potential of Hyphaene thebaica extracts and its major phytoconstituents like the phenolic, essential oil and flavonoid compounds are extensively discussed in this review.",book:{id:"6678",slug:"antioxidants-in-foods-and-its-applications",title:"Antioxidants in Foods and Its Applications",fullTitle:"Antioxidants in Foods and Its Applications"},signatures:"Hossam S. El-Beltagi, Heba I. Mohamed, Hany N. Yousef and Eman\nM. Fawzi",authors:[{id:"138817",title:"Dr.",name:"Heba",middleName:null,surname:"Mohamed",slug:"heba-mohamed",fullName:"Heba Mohamed"},{id:"240003",title:"Prof.",name:"Hossam",middleName:"Saad",surname:"El-Beltagi",slug:"hossam-el-beltagi",fullName:"Hossam El-Beltagi"},{id:"251695",title:"Prof.",name:"Eman",middleName:null,surname:"Fawzi",slug:"eman-fawzi",fullName:"Eman Fawzi"},{id:"251950",title:"Dr.",name:"Hany",middleName:null,surname:"Yousef",slug:"hany-yousef",fullName:"Hany Yousef"}]},{id:"71665",title:"Global Prevalence of Malnutrition: Evidence from Literature",slug:"global-prevalence-of-malnutrition-evidence-from-literature",totalDownloads:2141,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Malnutrition is a widespread problem, affecting the global population at some life stage. This public health epidemic targets everyone, but the most vulnerable groups are poverty-stricken people, young children, adolescents, older people, those who are with illness and have a compromised immune system, as well as lactating and pregnant women. Malnutrition includes both undernutrition (wasting, stunting, underweight, and mineral- and vitamin-related malnutrition) and overnutrition (overweight, obesity, and diet-related noncommunicable diseases). In combating malnutrition, healthcare costs increase, productivity is reduced, and economic growth is staggered, thus perpetuating the cycle of ill health and poverty. The best-targeted age for addressing malnutrition is the first 1000 days of life as this window period is ideal for intervention implementation and tracking for the improvement of child growth and development. There is an unprecedented opportunity to address the various forms of malnutrition, especially the 2016–2025 Decade of Action on Nutrition set by the United Nation. This aims to achieve the relevant targets of the Sustainable Development Goals that aim to end hunger and improve nutrition, as well as promote well-being and ensure healthy lives.",book:{id:"8030",slug:"malnutrition",title:"Malnutrition",fullTitle:"Malnutrition"},signatures:"Natisha Dukhi",authors:[{id:"311182",title:"Dr.",name:"Natisha",middleName:null,surname:"Dukhi",slug:"natisha-dukhi",fullName:"Natisha Dukhi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"323",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. 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Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. 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He previously worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Ben-Gurion University of Negev, Israel; University of the Free State, South Africa; and Central University of Technology Bloemfontein, South Africa. He obtained his Ph.D. in Organic Chemistry from Nagaoka University of Technology, Japan. He has published more than seventy-four journal articles and attended several national and international conferences as speaker and chair. Dr. Kendrekar has received many international awards. He has several funded projects, namely, anti-malaria drug development, MRSA, and SARS-CoV-2 activity of curcumin and its formulations. He has filed four patents in collaboration with the University of Central Lancashire and Mayo Clinic Infectious Diseases. His present research includes organic synthesis, drug discovery and development, biochemistry, nanoscience, and nanotechnology.",institutionString:"Visiting Scientist at Lipid Nanostructures Laboratory, Centre for Smart Materials, School of Natural Sciences, University of Central Lancashire",institution:null},{id:"428125",title:"Dr.",name:"Vinayak",middleName:null,surname:"Adimule",slug:"vinayak-adimule",fullName:"Vinayak Adimule",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/428125/images/system/428125.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vinayak Adimule, MSc, Ph.D., is a professor and dean of R&D, Angadi Institute of Technology and Management, India. He has 15 years of research experience as a senior research scientist and associate research scientist in R&D organizations. He has published more than fifty research articles as well as several book chapters. He has two Indian patents and two international patents to his credit. Dr. Adimule has attended, chaired, and presented papers at national and international conferences. He is a guest editor for Topics in Catalysis and other journals. He is also an editorial board member, life member, and associate member for many international societies and research institutions. His research interests include nanoelectronics, material chemistry, artificial intelligence, sensors and actuators, bio-nanomaterials, and medicinal chemistry.",institutionString:"Angadi Institute of Technology and Management",institution:null},{id:"284317",title:"Prof.",name:"Kantharaju",middleName:null,surname:"Kamanna",slug:"kantharaju-kamanna",fullName:"Kantharaju Kamanna",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284317/images/21050_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. K. Kantharaju has received Bachelor of science (PCM), master of science (Organic Chemistry) and Doctor of Philosophy in Chemistry from Bangalore University. He worked as a Executive Research & Development @ Cadila Pharmaceuticals Ltd, Ahmedabad. He received DBT-postdoc fellow @ Molecular Biophysics Unit, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore under the supervision of Prof. P. Balaram, later he moved to NIH-postdoc researcher at Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, USA, after his return from postdoc joined NITK-Surthakal as a Adhoc faculty at department of chemistry. Since from August 2013 working as a Associate Professor, and in 2016 promoted to Profeesor in the School of Basic Sciences: Department of Chemistry and having 20 years of teaching and research experiences.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rani Channamma University, Belagavi",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"158492",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Tutar",slug:"yusuf-tutar",fullName:"Yusuf Tutar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/158492/images/system/158492.jpeg",biography:"Prof. Dr. Yusuf Tutar conducts his research at the Hamidiye Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Basic Pharmaceutical Sciences, Division of Biochemistry, University of Health Sciences, Turkey. He is also a faculty member in the Molecular Oncology Program. He obtained his MSc and Ph.D. at Oregon State University and Texas Tech University, respectively. He pursued his postdoctoral studies at Rutgers University Medical School and the National Institutes of Health (NIH/NIDDK), USA. His research focuses on biochemistry, biophysics, genetics, molecular biology, and molecular medicine with specialization in the fields of drug design, protein structure-function, protein folding, prions, microRNA, pseudogenes, molecular cancer, epigenetics, metabolites, proteomics, genomics, protein expression, and characterization by spectroscopic and calorimetric methods.",institutionString:"University of Health Sciences",institution:null},{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180528/images/system/180528.jpg",biography:"Hiroyuki Kagechika received his bachelor’s degree and Ph.D. in Pharmaceutical Sciences from the University of Tokyo, Japan, where he served as an associate professor until 2004. He is currently a professor at the Institute of Biomaterials and Bioengineering (IBB), Tokyo Medical and Dental University (TMDU). From 2010 to 2012, he was the dean of the Graduate School of Biomedical Science. Since 2012, he has served as the vice dean of the Graduate School of Medical and Dental Sciences. He has been the director of the IBB since 2020. Dr. Kagechika’s major research interests are the medicinal chemistry of retinoids, vitamins D/K, and nuclear receptors. He has developed various compounds including a drug for acute promyelocytic leukemia.",institutionString:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",institution:{name:"Tokyo Medical and Dental University",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"94311",title:"Prof.",name:"Martins",middleName:"Ochubiojo",surname:"Ochubiojo Emeje",slug:"martins-ochubiojo-emeje",fullName:"Martins Ochubiojo Emeje",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94311/images/system/94311.jpeg",biography:"Martins Emeje obtained a BPharm with distinction from Ahmadu Bello University, Nigeria, and an MPharm and Ph.D. from the University of Nigeria (UNN), where he received the best Ph.D. award and was enlisted as UNN’s “Face of Research.” He established the first nanomedicine center in Nigeria and was the pioneer head of the intellectual property and technology transfer as well as the technology innovation and support center. Prof. Emeje’s several international fellowships include the prestigious Raman fellowship. He has published more than 150 articles and patents. He is also the head of R&D at NIPRD and holds a visiting professor position at Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Nigeria. He has a postgraduate certificate in Project Management from Walden University, Minnesota, as well as a professional teaching certificate and a World Bank certification in Public Procurement. Prof. Emeje was a national chairman of academic pharmacists in Nigeria and the 2021 winner of the May & Baker Nigeria Plc–sponsored prize for professional service in research and innovation.",institutionString:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",institution:{name:"National Institute for Pharmaceutical Research and Development",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"436430",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mesut",middleName:null,surname:"Işık",slug:"mesut-isik",fullName:"Mesut Işık",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/436430/images/19686_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Bilecik University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"268659",title:"Ms.",name:"Xianquan",middleName:null,surname:"Zhan",slug:"xianquan-zhan",fullName:"Xianquan Zhan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/268659/images/8143_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Zhan received his undergraduate and graduate training in the fields of preventive medicine and epidemiology and statistics at the West China University of Medical Sciences in China during 1989 to 1999. He received his post-doctoral training in oncology and cancer proteomics for two years at the Cancer Research Institute of Human Medical University in China. In 2001, he went to the University of Tennessee Health Science Center (UTHSC) in USA, where he was a post-doctoral researcher and focused on mass spectrometry and cancer proteomics. Then, he was appointed as an Assistant Professor of Neurology, UTHSC in 2005. He moved to the Cleveland Clinic in USA as a Project Scientist/Staff in 2006 where he focused on the studies of eye disease proteomics and biomarkers. He returned to UTHSC as an Assistant Professor of Neurology in the end of 2007, engaging in proteomics and biomarker studies of lung diseases and brain tumors, and initiating the studies of predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine (PPPM) in cancer. In 2010, he was promoted to Associate Professor of Neurology, UTHSC. Currently, he is a Professor at Xiangya Hospital of Central South University in China, Fellow of Royal Society of Medicine (FRSM), the European EPMA National Representative in China, Regular Member of American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), European Cooperation of Science and Technology (e-COST) grant evaluator, Associate Editors of BMC Genomics, BMC Medical Genomics, EPMA Journal, and Frontiers in Endocrinology, Executive Editor-in-Chief of Med One. He has\npublished 116 peer-reviewed research articles, 16 book chapters, 2 books, and 2 US patents. His current main research interest focuses on the studies of cancer proteomics and biomarkers, and the use of modern omics techniques and systems biology for PPPM in cancer, and on the development and use of 2DE-LC/MS for the large-scale study of human proteoforms.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Xiangya Hospital Central South University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"40482",title:null,name:"Rizwan",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"rizwan-ahmad",fullName:"Rizwan Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/40482/images/system/40482.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rizwan Ahmad is a University Professor and Coordinator, Quality and Development, College of Medicine, Imam Abdulrahman bin Faisal University, Saudi Arabia. Previously, he was Associate Professor of Human Function, Oman Medical College, Oman, and SBS University, Dehradun. Dr. Ahmad completed his education at Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh. He has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, chapters, and edited books. His area of specialization is free radical biochemistry and autoimmune diseases.",institutionString:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",institution:{name:"Imam Abdulrahman Bin Faisal University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"41865",title:"Prof.",name:"Farid A.",middleName:null,surname:"Badria",slug:"farid-a.-badria",fullName:"Farid A. Badria",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41865/images/system/41865.jpg",biography:"Farid A. Badria, Ph.D., is the recipient of several awards, including The World Academy of Sciences (TWAS) Prize for Public Understanding of Science; the World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) Gold Medal for best invention; Outstanding Arab Scholar, Kuwait; and the Khwarizmi International Award, Iran. He has 250 publications, 12 books, 20 patents, and several marketed pharmaceutical products to his credit. He continues to lead research projects on developing new therapies for liver, skin disorders, and cancer. Dr. Badria was listed among the world’s top 2% of scientists in medicinal and biomolecular chemistry in 2019 and 2020. He is a member of the Arab Development Fund, Kuwait; International Cell Research Organization–United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (ICRO–UNESCO), Chile; and UNESCO Biotechnology France",institutionString:"Mansoura University",institution:{name:"Mansoura University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"329385",title:"Dr.",name:"Rajesh K.",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Singh",slug:"rajesh-k.-singh",fullName:"Rajesh K. Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/329385/images/system/329385.png",biography:"Dr. Singh received a BPharm (2003) and MPharm (2005) from Panjab University, Chandigarh, India, and a Ph.D. (2013) from Punjab Technical University (PTU), Jalandhar, India. He has more than sixteen years of teaching experience and has supervised numerous postgraduate and Ph.D. students. He has to his credit more than seventy papers in SCI- and SCOPUS-indexed journals, fifty-five conference proceedings, four books, six Best Paper Awards, and five projects from different government agencies. He is currently an editorial board member of eight international journals and a reviewer for more than fifty scientific journals. He received Top Reviewer and Excellent Peer Reviewer Awards from Publons in 2016 and 2017, respectively. He is also on the panel of The International Reviewer for reviewing research proposals for grants from the Royal Society. He also serves as a Publons Academy mentor and Bentham brand ambassador.",institutionString:"Punjab Technical University",institution:{name:"Punjab Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"142388",title:"Dr.",name:"Thiago",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Gomes Heck",slug:"thiago-gomes-heck",fullName:"Thiago Gomes Heck",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/142388/images/7259_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Regional do Noroeste do Estado do Rio Grande do Sul",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"336273",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Janja",middleName:null,surname:"Zupan",slug:"janja-zupan",fullName:"Janja Zupan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/336273/images/14853_n.jpeg",biography:"Janja Zupan graduated in 2005 at the Department of Clinical Biochemistry (superviser prof. dr. Janja Marc) in the field of genetics of osteoporosis. Since November 2009 she is working as a Teaching Assistant at the Faculty of Pharmacy, Department of Clinical Biochemistry. In 2011 she completed part of her research and PhD work at Institute of Genetics and Molecular Medicine, University of Edinburgh. She finished her PhD entitled The influence of the proinflammatory cytokines on the RANK/RANKL/OPG in bone tissue of osteoporotic and osteoarthritic patients in 2012. From 2014-2016 she worked at the Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of Aberdeen as a postdoctoral research fellow on UK Arthritis research project where she gained knowledge in mesenchymal stem cells and regenerative medicine. She returned back to University of Ljubljana, Faculty of Pharmacy in 2016. She is currently leading project entitled Mesenchymal stem cells-the keepers of tissue endogenous regenerative capacity facing up to aging of the musculoskeletal system funded by Slovenian Research Agency.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"357453",title:"Dr.",name:"Radheshyam",middleName:null,surname:"Maurya",slug:"radheshyam-maurya",fullName:"Radheshyam Maurya",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/357453/images/16535_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hyderabad",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"418340",title:"Dr.",name:"Jyotirmoi",middleName:null,surname:"Aich",slug:"jyotirmoi-aich",fullName:"Jyotirmoi Aich",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038Ugi5QAC/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:48:28.png",biography:"Biotechnologist with 15 years of research including 6 years of teaching experience. Demonstrated record of scientific achievements through consistent publication record (H index = 13, with 874 citations) in high impact journals such as Nature Communications, Oncotarget, Annals of Oncology, PNAS, and AJRCCM, etc. Strong research professional with a post-doctorate from ACTREC where I gained experimental oncology experience in clinical settings and a doctorate from IGIB where I gained expertise in asthma pathophysiology. A well-trained biotechnologist with diverse experience on the bench across different research themes ranging from asthma to cancer and other infectious diseases. An individual with a strong commitment and innovative mindset. Have the ability to work on diverse projects such as regenerative and molecular medicine with an overall mindset of improving healthcare.",institutionString:"DY Patil Deemed to Be University",institution:null},{id:"349288",title:"Prof.",name:"Soumya",middleName:null,surname:"Basu",slug:"soumya-basu",fullName:"Soumya Basu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035QxIDQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-04-15T07:47:01.jpg",biography:"Soumya Basu, Ph.D., is currently working as an Associate Professor at Dr. D. Y. Patil Biotechnology and Bioinformatics Institute, Dr. D. Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra, India. With 16+ years of trans-disciplinary research experience in Drug Design, development, and pre-clinical validation; 20+ research article publications in journals of repute, 9+ years of teaching experience, trained with cross-disciplinary education, Dr. Basu is a life-long learner and always thrives for new challenges.\r\nHer research area is the design and synthesis of small molecule partial agonists of PPAR-γ in lung cancer. She is also using artificial intelligence and deep learning methods to understand the exosomal miRNA’s role in cancer metastasis. Dr. Basu is the recipient of many awards including the Early Career Research Award from the Department of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. She is a reviewer of many journals like Molecular Biology Reports, Frontiers in Oncology, RSC Advances, PLOS ONE, Journal of Biomolecular Structure & Dynamics, Journal of Molecular Graphics and Modelling, etc. She has edited and authored/co-authored 21 journal papers, 3 book chapters, and 15 abstracts. She is a Board of Studies member at her university. She is a life member of 'The Cytometry Society”-in India and 'All India Cell Biology Society”- in India.",institutionString:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",institution:{name:"Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"354817",title:"Dr.",name:"Anubhab",middleName:null,surname:"Mukherjee",slug:"anubhab-mukherjee",fullName:"Anubhab Mukherjee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0033Y0000365PbRQAU/ProfilePicture%202022-04-15%2005%3A11%3A18.480",biography:"A former member of Laboratory of Nanomedicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital, Harvard University, Boston, USA, Dr. Anubhab Mukherjee is an ardent votary of science who strives to make an impact in the lives of those afflicted with cancer and other chronic/acute ailments. He completed his Ph.D. from CSIR-Indian Institute of Chemical Technology, Hyderabad, India, having been skilled with RNAi, liposomal drug delivery, preclinical cell and animal studies. He pursued post-doctoral research at College of Pharmacy, Health Science Center, Texas A & M University and was involved in another postdoctoral research at Department of Translational Neurosciences and Neurotherapeutics, John Wayne Cancer Institute, Santa Monica, California. In 2015, he worked in Harvard-MIT Health Sciences & Technology as a visiting scientist. He has substantial experience in nanotechnology-based formulation development and successfully served various Indian organizations to develop pharmaceuticals and nutraceutical products. He is an inventor in many US patents and an author in many peer-reviewed articles, book chapters and books published in various media of international repute. Dr. Mukherjee is currently serving as Principal Scientist, R&D at Esperer Onco Nutrition (EON) Pvt. Ltd. and heads the Hyderabad R&D center of the organization.",institutionString:"Esperer Onco Nutrition Pvt Ltd.",institution:null},{id:"319365",title:"Assistant Prof.",name:"Manash K.",middleName:null,surname:"Paul",slug:"manash-k.-paul",fullName:"Manash K. Paul",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/319365/images/system/319365.png",biography:"Manash K. Paul is a scientist and Principal Investigator at the University of California Los Angeles. He has contributed significantly to the fields of stem cell biology, regenerative medicine, and lung cancer. His research focuses on various signaling processes involved in maintaining stem cell homeostasis during the injury-repair process, deciphering the lung stem cell niche, pulmonary disease modeling, immuno-oncology, and drug discovery. He is currently investigating the role of extracellular vesicles in premalignant lung cell migration and detecting the metastatic phenotype of lung cancer via artificial intelligence-based analyses of exosomal Raman signatures. Dr. Paul also works on spatial multiplex immunofluorescence-based tissue mapping to understand the immune repertoire in lung cancer. Dr. Paul has published in more than sixty-five peer-reviewed international journals and is highly cited. He is the recipient of many awards, including the UCLA Vice Chancellor’s award and the 2022 AAISCR-R Vijayalaxmi Award for Innovative Cancer Research. He is a senior member of the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE) and an editorial board member for several international journals.",institutionString:"University of California Los Angeles",institution:{name:"University of California Los Angeles",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"311457",title:"Dr.",name:"Júlia",middleName:null,surname:"Scherer Santos",slug:"julia-scherer-santos",fullName:"Júlia Scherer Santos",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311457/images/system/311457.jpg",biography:"Dr. Júlia Scherer Santos works in the areas of cosmetology, nanotechnology, pharmaceutical technology, beauty, and aesthetics. Dr. Santos also has experience as a professor of graduate courses. Graduated in Pharmacy, specialization in Cosmetology and Cosmeceuticals applied to aesthetics, specialization in Aesthetic and Cosmetic Health, and a doctorate in Pharmaceutical Nanotechnology. Teaching experience in Pharmacy and Aesthetics and Cosmetics courses. She works mainly on the following subjects: nanotechnology, cosmetology, pharmaceutical technology, aesthetics.",institutionString:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"219081",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdulsamed",middleName:null,surname:"Kükürt",slug:"abdulsamed-kukurt",fullName:"Abdulsamed Kükürt",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/219081/images/system/219081.png",biography:"Dr. Kükürt graduated from Uludağ University in Turkey. He started his academic career as a Research Assistant in the Department of Biochemistry at Kafkas University. In 2019, he completed his Ph.D. program in the Department of Biochemistry at the Institute of Health Sciences. He is currently working at the Department of Biochemistry, Kafkas University. He has 27 published research articles in academic journals, 11 book chapters, and 37 papers. He took part in 10 academic projects. He served as a reviewer for many articles. He still serves as a member of the review board in many academic journals. He is currently working on the protective activity of phenolic compounds in disorders associated with oxidative stress and inflammation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Kafkas University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178366",title:"Dr.",name:"Volkan",middleName:null,surname:"Gelen",slug:"volkan-gelen",fullName:"Volkan Gelen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178366/images/system/178366.jpg",biography:"Volkan Gelen is a Physiology specialist who received his veterinary degree from Kafkas University in 2011. Between 2011-2015, he worked as an assistant at Atatürk University, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Physiology. 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