\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"},{slug:"introducing-intechopen-book-series-a-new-publishing-format-for-oa-books-20210915",title:"Introducing IntechOpen Book Series - A New Publishing Format for OA Books"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9060",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting",title:"The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book, The Current Perspectives on Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting, is an excellent update for health care professionals taking care of patients suffering from severe coronary artery disease. The nine chapters in this book were written by experts in their fields. The first section describes the hemodynamic mechanism and medical management of coronary artery disease. The second section describes the most recent evidence and controversial topics in the field of coronary artery bypass grafting. I believe this book will serve the interests of readers.",isbn:"978-1-78985-966-9",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-965-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-857-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83055",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"the-current-perspectives-on-coronary-artery-bypass-grafting",numberOfPages:176,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"cedc3547eae8f66f9440cc35216d7963",bookSignature:"Takashi Murashita",publishedDate:"July 29th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9060.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6783,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 18th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 4th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 3rd 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"January 22nd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"March 22nd 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"192448",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",middleName:null,surname:"Murashita",slug:"takashi-murashita",fullName:"Takashi Murashita",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192448/images/system/192448.jpg",biography:"Takashi Murashita, MD, is an assistant professor in the Department of Surgery, University of Missouri, USA. Dr. Murashita received his MD from Kyoto University Medical School, Japan. His main interest is cardiac surgery, and he is a member of the Society of Thoracic Surgery, Eastern Cardiothoracic Surgical Society, and Asian Society for Cardiovascular and Thoracic Surgery. He has published fifty-three papers in peer-reviewed journals and ten book chapters. He has been an editorial board member and ad hoc manuscript reviewer for several medical journals.",institutionString:"University of Missouri",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"11",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Missouri",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"984",title:"Cardiac Surgery",slug:"cardiac-surgery"}],chapters:[{id:"69357",title:"Current Status, Perspectives, and Future Directions of Multivessel Disease and Left Main Coronary Disease: Its Treatment by PCI or Surgery",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89419",slug:"current-status-perspectives-and-future-directions-of-multivessel-disease-and-left-main-coronary-dise",totalDownloads:610,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"MVD has evolved from an era where it was mandatory to treat all lesions, even very thin vessels. With the advent of more realistic anatomical scores such as the ERACI score and the gradient measurements with the fractional flow of reserve (FFR) and instantaneous wave-free ratio (iwFR), a more conservative era has begun, which benefits the patient in the long-term follow-up. The treatment of the LMCA remains a challenging lesion because of the amount of irrigation. It can be divided the treatment of the LMCA with a low or high ERACI score, in the first group is where the PCI has gained in confidence and dedication in addition to knowledge and bifurcation techniques. The second group with high score can only be performed in centers with high PCI experience, since their alternative will always be surgical as the first choice. The revascularization in MVD with STEMI, the priority is the culprit vessel and then evaluate the underlying lesions, an invasive or with a functional test in the short term. The patient with DM is a singular patient, and its treatment should always be evaluated by a multidisciplinary team. We believe that patients with low ERACI score have the possibility of being treated with PCI, but patients with high score are surgical.",signatures:"Juan Mieres and Alfredo E. Rodríguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69357",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69357",authors:[{id:"164686",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",surname:"Mieres",slug:"juan-mieres",fullName:"Juan Mieres"}],corrections:null},{id:"69546",title:"Evaluation of the Effect of Increased Arterial Stiffness on Ejection Performance and Pulmonary Arterial Pressure in Primary Mitral Regurgitation and Prediction of Ejection Fraction after Surgery: Analysis Using Wave Intensity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89458",slug:"evaluation-of-the-effect-of-increased-arterial-stiffness-on-ejection-performance-and-pulmonary-arter",totalDownloads:562,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mitral regurgitation (MR) is a common valvular disorder that has important health consequences. Surgical therapy is associated with reduced long-term mortality in elder patients. Several guidelines exist regarding when and in whom to perform mitral valve surgery, but they are controversial. It is essential to obtain preoperative indices that are promising for predicting postoperative left ventricular function and right ventricular pressure correctly. In aged MR patients, various hemodynamic conditions are presumed to be the causes of higher rate of mortality. In addition, aging causes increase in arterial stiffness. Therefore, it is also important to consider the effects of increased arterial stiffness on hemodynamics in MR. This review was written on the basis of our studies of wave intensity and will focus on the effects of increased arterial stiffness with a specific emphasis on wave intensity, which provides quantitative information about hemodynamic interaction between the ventricle and the arterial system.",signatures:"Kiyomi Niki and Motoaki Sugawara",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69546",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69546",authors:[{id:"289111",title:"Prof.",name:"Motoaki",surname:"Sugawara",slug:"motoaki-sugawara",fullName:"Motoaki Sugawara"},{id:"300005",title:"Prof.",name:"Kiyomi",surname:"Niki",slug:"kiyomi-niki",fullName:"Kiyomi Niki"}],corrections:null},{id:"70422",title:"Antiplatelet Therapy after Coronary Artery Bypass Graft Surgery, Inconsistency of Clinical Practice and Clinical Significance of Proven Resistance to Antiplatelet Agents",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.90446",slug:"antiplatelet-therapy-after-coronary-artery-bypass-graft-surgery-inconsistency-of-clinical-practice-a",totalDownloads:680,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Antiplatelet therapy is a very important part of medical therapy for patients after acute coronary syndrome (ACS) as well as in a stable coronary artery disease (CAD). The use of antiplatelet therapy after coronary artery bypass graft surgery (CABG) still is a controversial theme in daily clinical practice. While guidelines referring to dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) after ACS with proceeding percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) are uniform, there are doubts regarding DAPT after CABG, especially in setting of chronic coronary syndrome (CCS). Recommendations are mostly based on expert opinion and not on multiple randomized controlled trials (RCT) or meta-analyses. Resistance to aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid, ASA) or other antiplatelet drugs is known after CABG, and further RCTs are needed to assess the effect on clinical outcome as well as the role of DAPT after CABG.",signatures:"Ivana Sopek Merkas, Nenad Lakusic, Krunoslav Fuckar, Dusko Cerovec and Kristina Maric Besic",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70422",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70422",authors:[{id:"310936",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivana",surname:"Sopek Merkaš",slug:"ivana-sopek-merkas",fullName:"Ivana Sopek Merkaš"},{id:"311065",title:"Prof.",name:"Nenad",surname:"Lakušić",slug:"nenad-lakusic",fullName:"Nenad Lakušić"},{id:"314597",title:"Dr.",name:"Krunoslav",surname:"Fučkar",slug:"krunoslav-fuckar",fullName:"Krunoslav Fučkar"},{id:"314598",title:"Dr.",name:"Duško",surname:"Cerovec",slug:"dusko-cerovec",fullName:"Duško Cerovec"},{id:"314599",title:"Dr.",name:"Kristina",surname:"Marić Bešić",slug:"kristina-maric-besic",fullName:"Kristina Marić Bešić"}],corrections:null},{id:"68877",title:"Role of Medical Therapy in Chronic Mitral Regurgitation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89027",slug:"role-of-medical-therapy-in-chronic-mitral-regurgitation",totalDownloads:719,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Mitral regurgitation is one of the most commonly encountered valvular heart diseases in both the developing and the developed world. From various studies, it is known that chronic mitral regurgitation is associated with progressive left ventricular dysfunction, and eventually death if left untreated. This disease has a long silent period before symptoms manifest. During this latent period, left ventricular function progressively deteriorates and results in poor outcomes for patients even if surgery is performed. A few studies have evaluated the role of medical therapy in patients with chronic mitral regurgitation. This chapter will provide an overview of the use of medical therapy in chronic mitral regurgitation.",signatures:"Ruchika Meel",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68877",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68877",authors:[{id:"273730",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruchika",surname:"Meel",slug:"ruchika-meel",fullName:"Ruchika Meel"}],corrections:null},{id:"70032",title:"Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting: Surgical Anastomosis: Tips and Tricks",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.88932",slug:"coronary-artery-bypass-grafting-surgical-anastomosis-tips-and-tricks",totalDownloads:1359,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The definite feature of coronary artery disease is the focal narrowing in the vascular endothelium, and this leads to the decrease in the flow of blood to the myocardium. Atherosclerotic plaque is the main lesion. These patients can present with chest pain (angina or myocardial infarction) and need further workup noninvasively and invasively for the management. The main reasons for myocardial revascularization can be: (1) relief from symptoms of myocardial ischemia; (2) reduce the risks of future mortality; (3) to treat or prevent morbidities such as myocardial infarction, arrhythmias, or heart failure. Coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG) is the surgical technique of cardiac revascularization. In 1910, Dr. Alexis Carrel described a series of canine experiments in which he devised means to treat CAD by creating a “complementary circulation” for the diseased native coronary arteries. No clinical translation occurred at the time, but he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Medicine. Experimental refinements of coronary arterial revascularization, including the use of internal thoracic artery (ITA) grafts, were later reported by Murray and colleagues, Demikhov, and Goetz and colleagues in the 1950s and early 1960s. Dr. Rene Favaloro performed his first coronary bypass operation in May 1967 with an interposed saphenous vein graft (SVG) and shortly thereafter used aortocoronary bypasses sutured proximally to the ascending aorta. The stenosed segment is bypassed using an arterial or venous graft. Left internal thoracic artery is the most commonly used artery, and long saphenous vein is the most commonly used vein for the coronary artery grafting to reestablish the blood flow to the compromised myocardium. This can be performed with or without the help of cardiopulmonary bypass machine and also with or without arresting the heart. These techniques are called as on-pump beating or on-pump arrested and off-pump beating coronary artery bypass grafting surgery. Distal and proximal anastomoses are usually performed in an end-to-side manner, but in the case of doing sequential grafting, side-to-side anastomosis is also performed proximal to the end-to-side anastomosis. In this chapter we are going to discuss the coronary artery bypass grafting tips and tricks in details.",signatures:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/70032",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/70032",authors:[{id:"278633",title:"Dr.",name:"Mohd. Shahbaaz",surname:"Khan",slug:"mohd.-shahbaaz-khan",fullName:"Mohd. Shahbaaz Khan"}],corrections:null},{id:"69049",title:"Early and Late Survival and Associated Factors in Patients Undergoing Coronary Artery Bypass Grafting",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89141",slug:"early-and-late-survival-and-associated-factors-in-patients-undergoing-coronary-artery-bypass-graftin",totalDownloads:586,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Several studies have aimed to compare the early and late survival rates and the related factors in patients who undergo coronary artery bypass grafting (CABG). Among such factors are age, gender, arrhythmia, stroke, serum procalcitonin level, number and type of grafts, diabetes mellitus, chronic kidney disease, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), addiction, ejection fraction, transfusion of blood products, and the kind of technique (off-pump versus on-pump). Controversies surround early and late survival and some of the associated factors in patients undergoing CABG. Therefore, it appears vital to compare the early and late survival chances and the related factors after CABG.",signatures:"Ahmad Amouzeshi and Zahra Amouzeshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69049",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69049",authors:[{id:"300192",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Ahmad",surname:"Amouzeshi",slug:"ahmad-amouzeshi",fullName:"Ahmad Amouzeshi"},{id:"300193",title:"MSc.",name:"Zahra",surname:"Amouzeshi",slug:"zahra-amouzeshi",fullName:"Zahra Amouzeshi"}],corrections:null},{id:"69992",title:"Should We Do Bilateral Internal Mammary Artery Grafting in Diabetic Patients?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89652",slug:"should-we-do-bilateral-internal-mammary-artery-grafting-in-diabetic-patients-",totalDownloads:401,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Nowadays, potential advantages of BIMA grafting are recognized overall in terms of long-term survival1 and by not increasing operative morbidity. One of the major restrictions for extending the use of BIMA grafting is the current impossibility of generalizing the procedure to higher risk patients. These results tend to confirm recent results that promote the use of BIMA grafting in every kind of patients and consequently to confirm the generalization of the procedure, without being afraid of sternal complications. The absence of deep sternal wound infection in our study shows that there is no contraindication of BITA grafting among diabetic patients.",signatures:"Hassane Abdallah, Ahmed Ibrahim and Khalid Al Khamees",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69992",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69992",authors:[{id:"43710",title:"Dr.",name:"Hassane",surname:"Abdallah",slug:"hassane-abdallah",fullName:"Hassane Abdallah"}],corrections:null},{id:"69694",title:"Right Internal Thoracic Artery with an Anteroaortic Course",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89807",slug:"right-internal-thoracic-artery-with-an-anteroaortic-course",totalDownloads:833,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Coronary artery bypass graft surgery remains the procedure of choice to revascularize patients with complex multivessel coronary artery disease. The left internal thoracic artery and saphenous vein are the most commonly utilized conduits in coronary artery bypass graft surgery. The left internal thoracic artery is widely accepted as the conduit of choice for coronary artery bypass grafting. Accumulated evidence in recent years has demonstrated the superiority of bilateral internal thoracic artery grafting over single internal thoracic artery grafting in terms of event-free survival, freedom from reintervention and survival. The survival benefit seen with bilateral internal thoracic artery grafting has been associated particularly with grafting the myocardium supplied by the left coronary artery system. Many surgical strategies have been tested in order to achieve left-sided myocardial revascularization with bilateral internal thoracic artery grafting. These include directing the right internal thoracic artery through the transverse sinus in a retroaortic course, free graft connected proximally either to the left internal thoracic artery (composite grafting) or to the ascending aorta. Another technical option is in situ right internal thoracic artery to the left anterior descending and left internal thoracic artery to circumflex marginal branches; in this chapter we will comment on this technique.",signatures:"Maurilio O. Deininger, Orlando G. Oliveira, Daniel M.S. Magalhães and Eugenia Di G. Deininger",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69694",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69694",authors:[{id:"301247",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Maurilio",surname:"Deininger",slug:"maurilio-deininger",fullName:"Maurilio Deininger"},{id:"301251",title:"Dr.",name:"Orlando",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"orlando-oliveira",fullName:"Orlando Oliveira"},{id:"301252",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Magalhaes",slug:"daniel-magalhaes",fullName:"Daniel Magalhaes"},{id:"309995",title:"Dr.",name:"Eugenia",surname:"Deininger",slug:"eugenia-deininger",fullName:"Eugenia Deininger"}],corrections:null},{id:"72679",title:"Tips and Tricks in Microvascular Anastomoses",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92903",slug:"tips-and-tricks-in-microvascular-anastomoses",totalDownloads:1034,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Microvascular anastomosis is a highly skilled surgical technique that requires the assistance of optical magnification via an operating microscope or loupes to be fully visualised and thus accomplished reasonably well. It demands the full attention of the surgeon throughout the procedure. Even the smallest of inadvertencies may result in disastrous results. Practice has no shortcut and the more experienced a skilled surgeon is, the better his results. The chapter begins with a detailed account of preparedness in the operating room, for preparation is the path to success. There are however tips to reduce the incline of the learning curve and points to remember when things are not quite going right. This chapter attempts to deal with those moments.",signatures:"Sharifah Ahmad Roohi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72679",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72679",authors:[{id:"214913",title:"Prof.",name:"S.A.",surname:"Roohi",slug:"s.a.-roohi",fullName:"S.A. Roohi"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10305",title:"Interventional Treatment for Structural Heart Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e8c71690cc70efeb0efbfee95b81f9ec",slug:"interventional-treatment-for-structural-heart-disease",bookSignature:"Takashi Murashita",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10305.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"192448",title:"Dr.",name:"Takashi",surname:"Murashita",slug:"takashi-murashita",fullName:"Takashi Murashita"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3542",title:"Artery Bypass",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6b48ec67e1291ca98f3aded6a9af92ca",slug:"artery-bypass",bookSignature:"Wilbert S. 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The problem of non-biodegradable plastic waste remains a challenge due to its negative environmental impact. In this sense, poly(L-lactic acid), PLLA, and poly(ε-caprolactone), PCL, have been receiving much attention lately due to their biodegradability in human body as well as in the soil, biocompatibility, environmentally friendly characteristics and non-toxicity [1-5]. PLLA is a poly(α-hydroxy acid) and PCL is a poly(ω-hydroxy acid) [1]. PLLA is a hard, transparent and crystalline polymer. On the other hand, PCL can be used as a polymeric plasticizer because of its ability to lower elastic modulus and to soften other polymers [6]. The original reasons for preparing polymer blends are to reduce costs by combining high-quality polymers with cheaper materials (although this approach is usually accompanied by a drastic worsening of the properties of the polymer) and to create a polymer that has a desired combination of the different properties of its components. However, according to Michler [7] usually different polymers are incompatible. Improved properties can be only realized if the blend exhibits optimum morphology. According to Sawyer et al. [8], in polymer science, the term morphology generally refers to form and organization on a size scale above the atomic arrangement, but smaller than the size and shape of the whole sample. Thus, improving compatibility between the different polymers and optimizing the morphology are the main issues to address when producing polymer blends [3]. Moreover, both polymers PLLA and PCL can be used in biomedical applications, which require a proper sterilization process. Nowadays, the most suitable sterilization method is high energy irradiation. However, it is important to remind that polymeric structural changes are induced by radiation processing of polymers, such as scission and crosslinking [9-12]. According to the principles of radiation chemistry, very reactive intermediate, free radicals, ions and excited states are formed when macromolecules of polymers are submitted to ionizing radiation, where they are then free to react with one another or initiate further reactions among the polymeric chains, thus giving rise to changes in material properties. These intermediates can follow several reactions paths that result in disproportion, hydrogen abstraction, arrangements and/or formation of new bonds. The combination of two radicals leads to cross-linking or recombination in the amorphous and crystalline regions, respectively, whereas chain transfer and the subsequent splitting results in chain scission. Usually both these processes take place simultaneously for many polymers [10,11].
The morphology of the blends affects the thermo mechanical properties as well as the biodegradation of the polymers. In particular, surface structure and morphology of the biodegradable polymer blends have a great impact on the enzymatic degradation behavior. The development of polymeric materials susceptible to microbiological degradation and that have similar performance to conventional polymers has been intensely studied. The intention would be that those materials reduce waste volume while suffer degradation in sanitary waste deposit, or they could be treated in composting plants [13]. Enzymatic and non-enzymatic degradations occur easier in the amorphous region [14,15]. Kikkawa et al. [16] cited that one of the approaches used to generate biodegradable materials with a wide range of physical properties is blending, and miscibility of blends is one of the most important factors affecting the final polymer properties.
Nishino et al. [17] cited that cellulose is the most abundant form of biomass and the form most likely to be used as reinforcement fibers, not only because of ecological and economic reasons, but also because of their high mechanical and thermal performance. Thus, incorporating fibers of low cost to the polymeric blend, it is possible to obtain an improvement of the mechanical properties without loss of the original characteristics of polymeric components. Regarding the irradiation effects, vegetable fiber, like as coconut fiber, is composed by cellulose and lignin, which suffer chemical alteration by irradiation such as scission or cross-linking. In the case of natural polymers, such as cellulose, main chain scission occurs predominantly due to irradiation and as a result molecular weight’ decrease [10].
Liu et al. and Lenglet et al. [18,19] cited that biodegradability of PCL and PLLA has also been investigated under environmental conditions. The controlled degradation of polymers is sometimes desired for biomedical applications, besides the environmental purposes [7]. It has been seen that PLLA is bio absorbable, that is, the hydrolytic degradation by-products formed can be fully assimilated by microorganisms such as fungi or bacteria. On the other hand, PCL is promptly biodegraded by environmental microorganisms. So, both PCL and PLLA can be considered as environmentally friendly polymers.
Kolybaba et al. [20] mentioned that biodegradable plastics are those that undergo significant enough modification on their chemical structure under specific environmental condition. Those changes result on mechanical and physical properties losses that are measurable by standard methods of testing. Biodegradable plastics suffer degradation under action of microorganisms that has natural occurrence, for instance, bacteria, fungi and algae. The plastic engineered to be entirely biodegradable is classified within the main classes of polymeric materials. In this category, polymeric matrix can be from natural resources and reinforcement fibers would be obtained from vegetal fibers. So, microorganisms are able to consume completely those materials, eventually releasing carbon dioxide and water as by-products [20]. PCL, PLLA and coconut fiber composites studied in this chapter may be categorized in that class.
According to Müller [13], there are different approaches concerning the type of test to be applied to evaluate degradation of polymeric materials in the environment and, also, what conclusion can be obtained from that. As principle, tests can be divided in three categories, field test, simulation and laboratorial tests. Nevertheless field test, for instance, in which samples are buried on the ground, or putting them in a lake or river, or performing general process of composting of polymeric biodegradable material, represent the ideal practical conditions. There are several disadvantages associated to this kind of test. One of the problems would be to control environment conditions like temperature, pH, or humidity. Another point to be considered is to analytically monitor the degradation process, in most cases it would be possible to visually evaluate alterations of the sample, or maybe evaluate the disintegration by measuring weight loss. Most reproducible tests are laboratorial ones, well-defined medium and, inoculated with specific microorganisms to a particular polymer are utilized. In those cases, enzymatic activity is optimized to a particular microorganism and, frequently present more elevated degradation rate than the ones observed in natural conditions. This is considered as an advantage to the study of basic mechanism of polymer biodegradation. Although results lead to limited conclusion related to real degradation rate on the natural environment, those tests have widely been used.
Samples of PCL and PLLA homopolymers; PCL:PLLA 20:80 (w:w) blend; and composites of the blend containing 5% and 10% of coconut fiber (chemically untreated and acetylated) were prepared in triplicate.
Coir coconut fibers for composite preparation were kindly provided by Embrapa – Paraipaba region, Ceará.
Size reduction of the coconut fibers was carried out using helix mill Marconi – modelo MA 680, from Laboratório de Matéria-prima Particulados e Sólidos Não Metálicos – LMPSol, Departamento de Engenharia de Materiais of Escola Politécnica/USP.
The fiber size distribution was measured using sieves of the Tyler series 16, 20, 35 and 48, fiber sizes of 1.0mm, 0.84mm, 0.417mm, and 0.297mm, respectively. The 0.297-0.417mm fibers size was used for the assays. The triturated material was separated using a sieve shaker Produtest, for 1 min.
In order to remove lignin from coconut fiber surface, fibers were soaked with Na2SO3 2% aqueous solution for 2h using ultrasound. Coconut fibers were washed several times with tap water and finally, tree times with deionized water, as described in the literature [21].
Coconut fiber acetylation was performed as described by d’Almeida et al. [22]. As received fibers from Embrapa were soaked in a solution of acetic anhydrate and acetic acid (1.5:1.0, w:w). It was used as a catalyst, 20 drops of sulfuric acid in 500mL solution. Those groups of sets were submitted to ultrasound for 3h, then for more 24h rest at the same solution. Fibers were washed using tap water and for more 24h rested in deionized water. Fibers were separated from water and washed with acetone, after that, were evaporated at room temperature.
PCL (pellets,
Sheets (150mm x 150mm x 0.5mm) of PCL, PLLA, PCL:PLLA 20:80 (w:w) blend and composites containing 5 and 10% untreated and chemically treated coconut fiber were prepared using Ikeda hot press equipment of Japan Atomic Energy Agency, JAEA. Mixed pellets of samples were preheated at 195°C for 3 min and then pressed by under heating at the same temperature for another 3 min under pressure of 150 kgf∙ cm-2. Samples sheets were then cooled in the cold press using water as a coolant for 3 min.
For degradability tests, samples were taken from hot compressed polymeric sheets, cut into 15mm
Irradiation was performed at JAEA using electron beam accelerator (2 MeV; 2 mA), absorbed doses of 50 and 100 kGy, dose rate of 0.6 kGy s-1. The energy and current parameters condition of irradiation were enough to the electron beam goes through the 0.5mm thickness sheets.
Absorbed dose is the amount of energy absorbed per unit mass of irradiated material. The SI unit for absorbed dose is joules per kilogram (J kg-1), which is given the special name gray (symbol, Gy). The absorbed dose rate is the absorbed dose per unit time and has the units gray per unit time, for instance kGy s-1. The absorbed dose is a direct measure of the energy transferred to the irradiated material that is capable of producing chemical or physical change [23].
A buffer solution with phosphate, pH 7, and lipase enzyme obtained from
Samples of approximately 10mm
Enzymatic degradation was performed using lipase enzyme obtained from
Calil et al. and Sivalingam et al. [24,25] cited that the presence of one polymer affects degradability of the other polymer. Lenglet et al. observed that PLLA addition to PCL reduced drastically degradation of PCL of the blends in lipase presence [19]. In the study presented in this chapter, it was possible to observe that the presence of PLLA reduced enzymatic degradation of PCL of PCL:PLLA 20:80 (w:w) blend, and after 120 hours, mass retention variation moved toward of pure PLLA behavior. Tsuji and Ishizaka [15] studied enzymatic degradation of PCL:PLLA blends using
Mass retention variation versus degradation time, enzymatic method, of samples: (■) PCL; (●) PLLA; (▴) PCL:PLLA 20:80 (w:w); (□) composite with 5% of untreated fiber; (◇) composite with 10% of untreated fiber; (◁) composite with 5% of acetylated fiber; and (○) composite with 10% of acetylated fiber, of non-irradiated samples.
In the study of this chapter, composites degraded in a way similar of the blend through time. Mass retention values observed were higher than the blends during the same period of time of test, suggesting that coconut fibers did not significantly enzymatic degraded in this test condition. Furthermore, acetylation did not affect enzymatic degradation of composites significantly.
Tsuji and Ishizaka [15] observed that crystallinity of PCL on blends films did not change with composition variation during degradation, suggesting that this property did not affect enzymatic hydrolysis rate of PCL of the blend as it did not altered during process. Rate of enzymatic hydrolysis of blends was lower than pure PCL, suggesting that PLLA interfered on PCL hydrolysis catalyzed by lipase. One reason postulated by the authors to the deceleration of PCL degradation on the blends would be the disturbance caused by superficial adsorption of enzyme molecules on the polymeric films or by slow hydrolytic scission of main chains of PCL by molecules enzymes on the presence of PLLA molecules on the blends.
Fig. 2 shows points of lipase enzyme attack on polyesters proposed by [25].
Points of enzyme attack on polyesters by lipase: a) PLA; b) PCL; c) PCL:PLA 14:86 (extracted from Sivalingam et al. [
On Fig. 3 it is possible to observe effect of radiation dose on enzymatic degradation of PCL samples irradiated with electron beam.
According to Cottam et al. [26], degradability rate of PCL irradiated with 25 kGy decreased, attributed to irradiation process. Authors cited that lipase catalyzes hydrolysis of carbonyl group linkage and one oxygen atom in the case of fat. It is the same linkage that is broken during PCL hydrolysis. They attributed that degradability rate of PCL was affected by crosslinking occurred due to irradiation. In this study, PCL irradiated with 50 kGy suffered a slight decrease on degradation rate, in agreement with authors’ observation. However, PCL samples irradiated with 100 kGy presented a certain increase on degradation rate. This fact probably is related to crystallinity decrease of around 6% observed by Differential Scanning Calorimetry, DSC, of irradiated samples. On Fig. 4 it is possible to observe the effect of radiation dose on enzymatic degradation of PLLA samples irradiated with electron beam.
According to Maharana et al. [27], enzymatic degradation occurs only on the surface of a solid substrate by erosion on the surface and by weight loss, because enzymes cannot penetrate a solid polymeric substrate. Enzymes degrade selectively amorphous regions or less ordered that allows them to diffuse through substrate and, subsequently, crystalline regions are eventually degraded. In this process, molar weight and molar weight distribution of non-degraded solid substrate do not change during enzymatic degradation because only the polymer on the surface of substrate is degraded and products of low molar weight from degradation are removed of substrate by solubilization on the surrounding aqueous medium.
Mass retention variation versus degradation, enzymatic method, PCL of non-irradiated and irradiated samples with EB, radiation doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy
Mass retention variation versus degradation period, enzymatic method, PLLA samples non irradiated and irradiated with EB, radiation doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy
There are two kinds of degradation based on the point of cleavage. Cleavage can occur in random points along polymeric chain (degradation endo-type) or at the end terminal of main chain (degradation exo type). Degradation process of lipases is based on endo type scission, so it does not depend on molar weight and on molar weight distribution. Fig. 5 shows PLA hydrolysis reaction cited by [27].
Hydrolysis of PLA [
On Fig. 6 it can be observed mass retention variation through period of enzymatic degradation of PCL:PLLA 20:80 (w:w) non-irradiated and irradiated with electron beam with absorbed radiation doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy. Degradation values observed in this study were lower compared to the ones found in the literature, probably due to the fact that studied samples were physical mixtures of polymers. Lenglet et al. [19] studied enzymatic degradation of PCL:PLLA copolymers with
In Fig. 6 irradiated blend with absorbed dose of 50 kGy presented slight reduction of degradation rate compared to non-irradiated blend, similar to the observed for homopolymers. Irradiated sample with 100 kGy showed slight increase of degradation rate after 120 hours, and then, little degradation is observed.
In Fig. 7 it is shown mass retention variation versus degradation period, by enzymatic method, of composites with 5% of chemically untreated coconut fiber, non-irradiated and EB irradiated with absorbed doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy.
Chemically untreated fiber incorporation caused slight reduction of degradation comparing blend to composite. Probably, it is due to the fact that fibers take more time to degrade. Even though the method used by Salazar and Leão [28] was different from the one used in this study, they observed that fresh coconut fiber degraded 10% in 912 hours (38 days) by immediate degradability test, by measuring carbon dioxide release in open system, in which organic substance is subjected to metabolizing of microorganism mixture culture from environment. This carbon source of the substance can be fully consumed by microorganism metabolism into CO2 and H2O. It is possible to predict theoretically total CO2 production for full biodegradation, knowing initial carbon content.
Mass retention variation with period of degradation, enzymatic method, of PCL:PLLA 20:80 (w:w) non-irradiated and EB irradiated samples with 50 kGy and 100 kGy absorbed doses.
Mass retention variation versus degradation period, enzymatic method, composites with 5% of chemically untreated coconut fiber, non-irradiated and EB irradiated with absorbed doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy.
In Fig. 7 it is observed that degradation rate of composites behaves in a way similar to irradiated blends, this suggests that fiber presence does not affect this parameter. Mass retention values of samples studied in 168 hour probably were affected by water absorption by PLLA and/or coconut fibers.
In Fig. 8 it is observed that when fiber content of chemically untreated coconut fiber increases in the composite, degradation rate suffers slight reduction and degradation decreases with increasing radiation dose.
Mass retention variation versus degradation period, enzymatic method, composites samples with 10% of chemically untreated coconut fiber non-irradiated and EB irradiated with absorbed doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy.
Fig. 9 shows mass retention variation with degradation period increase, enzymatic method, of composites samples with 5% acetylated fibers non-irradiated and EB irradiated with 50 kGy and 100 kGy.
Acetylation process of coconut fiber did not affect significantly degradation rate of irradiated samples. Irradiated samples suffered slight decrease of degradation rate compared to composites containing 5% of acetylated fibers, non-irradiated.
Increase of acetylated fiber content up to 10% did not affect significantly degradation neither degradation rate of EB irradiated composites with 50 kGy and 100 kGy. It was observed slight increase on mass after 168h, probably due to water absorption by PLLA or coconut fibers, Fig. 10.
Mass retention variation versus degradation period, enzymatic method, and composites samples containing 5% acetylated fiber, non-irradiated and EB irradiated with absorbed doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy.
Mass retention variation versus degradation period, enzymatic method, of composites samples containing 10% of acetylated fiber, non-irradiated and EB irradiated with absorbed doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy
Mass retention variation versus degradation period in simulated compost soil, of non-irradiated samples PCL, PLLA, PCL:PLLA 20:80 (w:w) blend, composites wth 5% and 10% of chemically untreated fiber and composites containing 5% and 10% of acetylated fiber are shown in Fig. 11. It can be observed that all samples suffer degradation in the period of time studied. Values vary in between of 36% and 10% in 120 days for PLLA and composite with 5% of chemically untreated coconut fiber, respectively.
According to Alauzet et al. [29], PLA ester hydrolysis in abiotic aqueous media depends on autocatalysis via chain end carboxylic groups and diffusion reaction phenomena involving water and oligomer molecules formed by degradation by means of its solubility in aqueous media. When submitted to heat and water, high molecular weight PLLA degrade to oligomer (PLA of low molecular weight), dimer and monomer of lactic acid. That would explain the reason why PLA degrade in humid medium and room temperature, like organic compost or humus.
In the study of this chapter, PLLA biodegradation in simulated compost soil presented degradation rate higher than PCL, different from the behavior observed in enzymatic method, probably due to used enzyme specificity in the assay.
Mass retention variation versus biodegradation period in simulated compost soil, of samples: (■) PCL; (●) PLLA; (▴) PCL:PLLA 20:80 (w:w); (□) composite with 5% chemically untreated coconut fiber; (◇) composite with 10% chemically untreated coconut fiber; (◁) composite with 5% acetylated fiber; and (○) composite with 10% of acetylated fiber
Effect of radiation dose on the mass retention of EB irradiated samples with doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy of PCL, is presented in Fig.12; of PLLA, in Fig.13; of blend PCL:PLLA 20:80 (w:w), in Fig.14; of composite containing 5% of chemically untreated fiber, in Fig.15; of composite with 10% of chemically untreated fiber, in Fig.16; of composite with 5% of acetylated fiber, in Fig.17; and of composite with 10% of acetylated fiber, in Fig.18.
Lotto et al. [30] observed that PCL did not suffer degradation in compost soil at room temperature even after 300 days. However, after temperature increase up to 46oC, it was observed by the authors 36% weight loss of PCL samples in 120 days. This fact was attributed to non-enzymatic hydrolysis of esters bonds due to temperature increase, that condition favored microorganism action that exists in natural soil and uses polymers as nutrient.
In this study, it was observed that at room temperature PCL suffered approximately 20% of degradation in simulated compost soil in 120 days. Ionizing radiation induced degradation rate increase with increasing radiation dose in the dose range studied, Fig.12, achieving 55% of degradation in the same degradation period. Probably it was because of aerobic condition of simulated compost soil test is performed.
PLLA suffered approximately 35% of degradation in the same period as PCL, Fig.13, and irradiation process promoted degradation rate increase with increasing radiation dose, achieving 70% of degradation in 120 days.
Mass retention variation versus biodegradation period in simulated compost soil of PCL samples non-irradiated and EB irradiated with radiation doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy
Mass retention variation versus biodegradation period in simulated compost soil, non-irradiated and EB irradiated PLLA samples with radiation doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy.
Maharana et al. [27] cited that ionizing radiation does not affect glass transition temperature Tg, melting temperature Tf neither hydrolytic degradation of aliphatic polyesters. However, in our study it was possible to observe slight increase of biodegradation rate in simulated compost soil after 60 days. Probably this behavior is related to microorganism presence in soli that would favor the degradation process by produced oligomer consumption. According to the authors, as radiation induced reactions occur mainly in amorphous regions of polymers, it is important to know their crystallinity degree. Biodegradation is also affected by solid state morphology, primary chemical structure, for instance, functional groups existence and hydrophicity and hydrophobicity equilibrium of PLA. Crystallinity degree is one of the main factors that controls degradation rate of solid polymers. In general, main chain scission occurs at esters bonds sites, leading to oligomer formation, which number after chain scission depends on the quantity of ester bonds present on PLA.
Normally, biodegradation occurs in three steps. In the first step, depolymerization occurs, then, in the second step depolymerized PLA produces lactic acid. Finally, lactic acid is consumed in citric acid cycle where it is transformed into CO2 and H2O in the presence of an enzyme produced by microorganism. PCL:PLLA 20:80 (w:w) blend suffers degradation of approximately 30% in 120 days, PCL slightly affected PLLA degradation in the blend, Fig.14.
Radiation absorbed dose of 50kGy did not affect significant effect of degradation rate, irradiated samples with 100kGy suffered few significant increase of degradation rate after 60 days.
Mass retention variation versus biodegradation period in simulated compost soil of PCL:PLLA 20:80 (w:w) non-irradiated and EB irradiated with radiation doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy
Absorbed radiation dose of 50 kGy did not significantly affect degradation of composite containing 5% of non-chemically treated coconut fiber, neither degradation rate in simulated compost soil, FIG.15. Samples irradiated with 100kGy suffered discrete increase of degradation rate after 60 days of test and over 120 days biodegradation tend to stabilize.
Absorbed radiation dose did not affect significantly biodegradation neither degradation rate of studied samples of composites containing 10% of non-chemically treated fibers, Fig.16.
Mass retention variation versus biodegradation period in simulated compost soil of composites samples containing 5% of non-chemically treated coconut fibers, non-irradiated and EB irradiated with absorbed doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy
Mass retention variation versus biodegradation period in simulated compost soil of composites samples containing 10% of non-chemically treated coconut fibers, non-irradiated and EB irradiated with absorbed doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy
It was observed during preparation of composites with acetylated coconut fibers that some kind of chemical reaction occurred during extrusion in some few events. Probably some vestiges of chemicals used for acetylation had remained on the coconut fibers. This fact could have affected degradation test of some samples of composites containing acetylated coconut fibers that started to present fissures favoring degradation on these points. Lucas et al. [31] cited that bio deterioration of thermoplastics occurs via two different mechanisms, erosion at surface and in the bulk. In the case of bulk erosion, fragments of total mass of polymer are lost and its molecular weight is altered because of bond rupture. This rupture is provoked by chemicals (H2O, acids, bases, transition metal and radicals) or by radiation, however not by enzymes. They are very big to penetrate through bulk structure. Whereas in the case of surface erosion, matter is lost, though molecular weight of polymeric matrix does not alter. If chemical substances diffusion through the material is faster than bond scission of polymer, polymer suffers erosion. If the opposite occurs, process occurs mainly on the surface of polymeric matrix.
Radiation dose did not affect significantly biodegradation of composites containing 5% of acetylated fibers up to 60 days of test. Irradiated samples with 100kGy presented slight increase on the degradation rate after 90 days, Fig. 17.
On Fig. 18 it is possible to observe that composites samples containing 10% of acetylated fiber did not suffer significant alteration of degradation rate with radiation dose increase.
Mass retention variation versus period of biodegradation in simulated compost soil of composites samples containing 5% of acetylated fibers, non-irradiated and EB irradiated with absorbed doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy
Higher degradation values found of those samples compared to non-chemically treated fibers could be related to the effect of fissures observed on the polymeric matrix during test that probably favored microbiological attack.
Mass retention results deviations were in average 7%, probably due to weight variation of sample to sample.
Mass retention variation versus period of biodegradation in simulated compost soil of composites samples containing 10% of acetylated fibers, non-irradiated and EB irradiated with radiation doses of 50 kGy and 100 kGy
This section will present some aspects of hydrolytic degradation because PCL and PLLA homopolymers studied here are biomaterials.
Biodegradability of polymeric materials occurs in several steps. Initially, digestible macromolecules, that form polymeric chain, suffer enzymatic scission. This is followed by metabolism of scission parts, leading to progressive enzymatic degradation of macromolecules from chain ends. Instead, macromolecular oxidative cleavage occurs, inducing fragments metabolism. Anyway, chain fragments become small enough to be converted by microorganisms [13,20]. Enzymes are catalytic proteins that decrease activation energy of molecules favoring chemical reactions. Those proteins have large diversity and marked specificity, but are easily denatured by heating, radiation, surfactants, among others [31]. In Fig. 19 general mechanism of biodegradation of polymeric materials is presented.
According to Liu et al. [18], hydrolytic degradation of PCL and PLLA has been studied extensively. PLLA artifacts degradation is faster in the inner part than in the surface due to autocatalytic effect of carboxyl end groups. In the case of PCL, hydrolytic degradation is very low because of hydrophobicity and crystallinity. Authors reported that, in presence of proteinase K, PLLA degraded preferably at L-lactil units. Furthermore, enzymatic degradation occurred preferably on amorphous region of semi-crystalline PLLA polymers [11,18,19].
According to Lenglet et al. [19], hydrolytic degradation is a mass phenomenon and polyesters degradation with high size is auto catalyzed by carboxyl end groups initially present, or generated by ester bond cleavage. The three most important discoveries about polyester degradation performed in the last decade were about faster degradation in the inner portion of the sample and that degradation induces morphology and composition alteration. On the other hand, enzymes are macromolecules and cannot penetrate in a solid material. Then, enzymatic degradation occurs in two steps: adhesion of enzyme on the surface of sample followed by scission of polymeric chain catalyzed by enzyme that generally results in small alterations of properties of polymeric matrix. According those authors, highly crystalline PCL can be fully degraded in a couple of days in presence of
General mechanism of biodegradation of polymeric materials [
Loo et al. [11] cited that the rate of hydrolytic degradation for biopolymers like PGLA and PLLA is controlled by altering their physical properties; such as their molecular weights, degree of crystallinity and glass transition temperature (Tg). As mentioned previously, radiation has been known to alter the physical properties of polymers through main-chain scission and cross-linking. Semi-crystalline polymers, such as PLLA, are nonhomogeneous with a two-phase system consisting of amorphous and crystalline regions. During irradiation, energy is deposited uniformly and radicals are formed throughout the polymer in both the amorphous and crystalline regions. However, crystalline regions consist of chains that were more oriented and closely packed compared to the more open amorphous regions. As a result, oxygen, stabilizers and specific active radical species are excluded from the crystalline phase, and the irradiation chemical reaction paths in the amorphous and crystalline phases will therefore be different. According to Loo et al. [11], due to the close packing of the crystalline structure, the poor diffusion of oxygen into the crystalline region limits the formation of peroxyl free radicals and thus, the extent of chain scission. The ‘‘cage effect’’ also encourages the recombination of free radicals in the crystalline region. These factors play an important role in reducing the extent of e-beam degradation in PLLA.
Results of degradability test, enzymatic and in simulated compost soil, indicate that studied materials suffered accentuated degradation in enzymes presence and are not affected by negatively by radiation processing. Even though coconut fibers addition had slightly reduced degradation process, composites keep degrading through time. Artifacts produced utilizing the studied materials can be processed by ionizing radiation up to 100 kGy radiation doses without detriment of their biodegradability.
We are grateful to the financial support from JICA and IAEA. Additionally, to Dr. Akihiro Oishi and Dr. Kazuo Nakayama, from National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology – AIST, Japan, for samples preparation and valuable discussion; to Dr. Naotsugu Nagasawa and Dr. Masao Tamada, from Japan Atomic Energy Agency – JAEA, Japan, for samples preparation and irradiation. We also would like to thank Dr. Morsyleide Freitas Rosa from Embrapa for providing coconut fiber; to Prof. Dr. Hélio Wiebeck, and Mr. Wilson Maia from Laboratório de Matérias-Primas Particuladas e Sólidos Não Metálicos – LMPSol, Departamento de Engenharia de Materiais, Escola Politécnica da USP (EPUSP) for coconut fiber size reduction and segregation; also to Eng. Elisabeth S.R. Somessari, Eng. Carlos G. da Silveira, and Mr. Paulo de Souza Santos, from IPEN, for blends and composites irradiation. Furthermore, we would like to acknowledge Prof. Dr. Derval dos Santos Rosa, UFABC, Centro de Engenharia, Modelagem e Ciências Sociais Aplicadas (CECS), for degradability tests and valuable discussion. We would like also to thank Dr. Luci Diva Brocardo Machado and Eng. Marcelo Augusto Gonçalves Bardi for helpful discussion.
As Web technologies progress the task of developing tools for the data organization and storage in a web environment assumes ever greater importance [1]. In the pre-network single-user environment, the prevailing way to organize data was a hierarchically organized file structure. Still this method was convenient for not all tasks (in particular, it did not directly provide the possibility of simultaneous classification of various information objects according to various foundations). However, in the whole, it covered a rather wide class of applications.
The situation changed thanks to network technologies, when information objects turned out to be associated with different users, who applied in general different principles for placing, searching, and processing. Thus, the rigidly defined hierarchies were replaced by network structures that determine the connections of information resources set by various ways. The connections may arise due to the different reasons, and this assumes the need, firstly, to process them in different ways and, secondly, to take into account the meaning of the data and their connections when processing. Thus, the data become essentially semantic in nature. The semantic measurement of data structures leads to the necessity to change respectively the methods of their description, searching in the environment of such structures and manipulating them [2].
The need to use semantically rich network structures requires to develop semantically oriented methods for describing data structures and their processing, in particular, the definition of semantically oriented search methods [3]. Different users must work with different fragments of data, which are determined by the goals of their work, the source data that is necessary to achieve the goals, a set of appropriate access rights, etc. All this raises the problem of providing access to data, which should take into account both the class of the user, getting the access, and its characteristics, as well as the semantics of the data, to which the access is allowed, in particular, providing a user-friendly representation of the data.
The means of describing users and the means of their access to data, considering the specifics of the tasks to be solved, must combine power enough to distinguish the relevant elements of the description and simplicity. It makes it possible to practically use the descriptions without cumbersome instrumental kits. The means of description should fix the user’s view on the subject area, which should be sufficiently detailed to describe the classes of problems to be solved, but without redundant detailing that might lead to an increase in the volume and complexity of the description. The use of cognitive maps (CMs) seems promising in this aspect.
Cognitive maps are diagrams used to visually organize information. Various works define the cognitive maps in various ways. For example, CM’s can be used to represent spatial relations and determine the mutual position of information elements in a physical environment. CMs also can be used to represent abstract information and to map it to the spatial (usually planar) view. In this case CMs are connected with the presentation of information described as mind maps, which, thus, can be considered as a specific instance of CMs. As a rule, CMs represent information in the form of a hierarchical structure. It is also possible to represent connections between nonadjacent elements of the structure, which brings CMs closer to the network representation of information. The elements of the structure are connected by arcs, which, as a rule, are not specifically marked. The connections represented by arcs can use the order of homogeneous nodes that are on the same level of hierarchy. This allows to provide not only structural information but also, for example, information on the sequence of actions for solving any task.
Using CM to describe the characteristics of the user, including his typical tasks, allows to perform this description in the early stages of designing an information system. The study in the field of cognitive psychology allows us to characterize CM as a means of knowledge structuring, consistent with the human way of thinking in solving practical tasks. For this reason the CM can be used to fix ideas about the user and his tasks up to creating a formal domain model, moreover, as one of the tools for developing such a model.
Semantically oriented structures for data presentation are proposed for solving user’s problems. It is worthwhile to choose the representing structure in the form of a semantic network [4]. The semantic network is understood as an oriented graph consisting of nodes and marked arcs. The nodes correspond to concepts, i.e., notions of various degrees of generality, presented in the network. The arcs correspond to the connections of the concepts among themselves, and the marks of arcs determine the way of interpreting the connections. As a rule, arcs are lined not randomly but in accordance with certain patterns representing stereotypical sets of connections (frames).
The semantic network may be of a tree-structured nature or include tree-structured fragments in its composition, but it does not mean the network necessarily has this form. Therefore, the semantic network (SN) is actually a more general structure for the representation of knowledge about the domain than CM. Following this, the description of the user and his view on the subject area using a cognitive map can be considered as a specific instance of the semantic network. The transition from CM to the description in the form of a semantic network can be performed using two basic operations: (1) recovering unclear marks on arcs in CM and (2) deriving semantic network configuration patterns corresponding to the CM fragment.
The interpretation of CM as a special type of semantic network at a conceptual level provides the inclusion of the user in the conceptual model of the domain as part of it. The works on semantically oriented data representation [1, 4] show that the model should include constructions that describe the relationship between the semantics of user characteristics and the semantics of the data being processed. Such model provides the user with data for processing in accordance with the set of his powers and the nature of the problem to be solved. When the model is represented as a whole in the form of a semantic network, its considered part can be represented as a control subnet, which provides the computation of query results in accordance with the specified parameters.
One of the critical tasks in organizing access and processing semantically oriented data is the preservation of semantics while working with resources [5]. The resources, on the one hand, exist for a long time, and this makes their repeated use possible, and, on the other hand, they usually have a dynamic nature, i.e., they can be modified, updated, etc., at any point in time. In this case the change is possible of both the data about separate facts, processes, etc. in the area described by the resource set and the general semantic characteristics of the data. The change is also possible of both the data itself and the links, i.e., the dynamic arising of new links, changing the semantics of existing links and other information objects.
The changes in semantics can both save the logical continuity of a network and violate it. This chapter understands the logical continuity as the preservation of a set of general constraints (including informal ones) placed on the contents of the network. Maintaining logical continuity during network modification requires dynamic checking of constraints when performing operations that change the semantics of the network in order to prevent actions that destroy the semantics.
For supporting the changes, the most important factor is that the semantics can be changed both unintentionally (by chance) during the work and maliciously. In the latter case, the goal may be to get unauthorized access to information—receiving or changing of the information. For this reason the support of the semantic integrity of the network suggests, in particular, restricting the user’s access to information in the network. Such a restriction may include both usual restrictions on writing or reading and more complicated semantically motivated constructions. For example, the possibility to change data in the network only in a strictly determined way or every change must be associated with the information that identifies the user who made the changes.
The development of tools for supporting the network access operations involves describing the semantics of a system of interconnected resources by a formalized way, which makes it necessary to introduce the concept of a semantic network as a formal analogue of a resource system [6]. The capabilities of network access tools and their restrictions are shown in the form of a model of access tools to the SN. The necessity to implement tools for supporting access operations leads to the fact that the model must be of a computational nature. The development of such a model is expected to provide the ability to construct a semantically correct system of support for access to the SN, including the ability to specify semantically consistent access restrictions, which makes the task of developing a computational model for supporting access operations relevant. The need for data processing, including the designation of queries, suggests the development of a theoretical basis for constructing a computer information system that provides both the logical correctness of data interpretation and the construction of appropriate computational procedures. For this purpose this chapter uses the formalism developed on the basis of intensional logic [6]. The computational aspect is ensured, in particular, by the possibility to include the means of a typical lambda calculus into the logical system under consideration.
The necessity to take into account the subjective view on the semantic network requires modeling the dependence of the interpretation of the system’s structures on the subject. This requirement is considered in the intensional logic by defining an interpretation structure using a parameter, the assignment point. The value of each construction corresponds to specified parameter value. In this case the constructions of the language of intensional logic are divided into extensional and intensional ones. The value of the composite extensional construction at the specified assignment point is a function of the values of its constituent structures at the same assignment point. The determination of the value of the intensional composite constructions requires determining the values of its constituent constructions on the entire set of assignment points or on some of its subsets.
To take into account the interpretation of various entries of an information object requires the construction of models of interpretation dependence on the context. The context determination can also be performed using intensional constructions. In this case, it is possible to use intensional operators or constants—intensions of higher orders.
The applied method of parameterization allows to take into account the semantic characteristics of users of various classes.
This chapter is structured as follows. Section 2 describes some approaches to the definition and construction of cognitive maps; special attention is paid to the degree of use of semantic information. Section 3 contains a statement of the problem of supporting the language of description of cognitive maps and means of its interpretation and offers a solution as a variant of the language of intensional logic. Section 4 describes the use of cognitive maps in the description of the problem area on the example of dependent types. In Section 5 we propose an approach to build a support system of cognitive maps on the basis of adjoint functors. In conclusion, the results are summarized briefly.
The use of CMs for setting management methods of access to the distributed semantic network assumes the study of their expressive potential in the whole. In this connection approaches to formal definition of CM’s semantics cause special interest. The diversity of approaches is reasoned not least by the fact that different researchers use the term “cognitive map” in various meanings.
The CM’s applications cover different areas: sociology, economics, medicine, international relations, etc. Among the problems solved by CMs, the following ones can be singled out: (i) problems of conceptual modeling, especially in the context of initial understanding of problems in weakly structured subject areas; (ii) problems of further modeling of subject areas, especially if it is necessary to describe the dynamics; and (iii) management problems in the subject area. Some lines of research and application of CMs are shown in Figure 1.
Lines of research and application of CMs.
Nevertheless, along with all the diversity of tools for creating CMs, including those widely disseminated ones, FreeMind [7], MindMeister [8], MindManager [9], Cacoo [10], MindMup [11], XMind [12] etc., only a small part of them can be considered as tool kits for cognitive modeling based on CMs or a ready-to-use tool for supporting cognitive architectures.
Regarding this some lines of research in the field of cognitive modeling should be mentioned. The work [13] proposes the most common approach. According to the approach, the cognitive modeling is “a line based on a knowledge-intensive interdisciplinary methodology for solving applied problems through cognitive maps with more or less support to special information technologies.” In this case the cognitive map is understood as a formalized model of the situation that reflects the knowledge and/or beliefs of the subject, individual or collective, about the cause–effect impacts between the important factors of the situation.
Within the considered line, the formal models of CMs relate to the questions of reducing the risk, introduced by the human factor, when solving problems in various subject areas using CMs. The work [13] proposes an option of describing the approaches to the formal definition of the methods of interpreting CMs. This work distinguishes two approaches to the interpretation of CMs: descriptive (pinning methods of understanding the notions of the subject area) and normative (fixing the methods of solving problems in the subject area), which trace back to the approach accepted in the work [14]. The first approach aims to use CMs for developing an internal model of a man’s knowledge about a certain situation. The second approach suggests CMs of different types as normative models (schemes or rules) for the external presentation of knowledge about situations.
In general, depending on the objective of the study, the details of the CM’s definition differ from each other; in particular, CMs may have a different structure. In the whole within the formal approach, the CM definition is often extended to a cognitive graph. For example, the work [15] considers the structure of spatial knowledge that arises from the study of a new spatial environment and gives grounds for generalizing CMs up to cognitive graphs. The studies of the optimization of CM’s representation adjoin the works of this type. Thus, the work [16] proposes a three-dimensional representation of CMs. The representation is based on the selection of the node kernels and daughter nodes, the nodes being located in three-dimensional space and being represented by balls of different radius. The proposed representation, as stated, enhances the cognitive clarity of the representation, which is interpreted as the ease of its intuitive understanding.
A cognitive map or, with a graph-based approach, a cognitive graph can represent parts of systems with a cognitive architecture and in this way be put in one or another cognitive architecture. The work [17] describes some cognitive architectures, the method of description giving an opportunity to think about the compatibility of the presented architectures with the formalism of cognitive maps. The abovementioned work understands the cognitive architectures as software systems that might think about problems in different areas, develop ideas, adapt to new situations, and reflect upon themselves. To this end, the cognitive architectures are trying to provide evidence of which specific mechanisms successfully reproduce intellectual behavior and thereby contribute to cognitive science.
The considered paper emphasizes three large classes of cognitive architecture’s character-coded, emergent, and hybrid ones. The character-coded systems represent concepts using characters that can be manipulated using a given set of operations. The emergent architecture assumes the use of multi-node parallel models, in which the flow of information is represented as the propagation of signals between the nodes. The hybrid architecture combines both approaches, but this combination can be made in different proportions. It is obvious that the system based on cognitive maps in this classification must be referred to the character-coded architecture.
The flexible way to represent data with different degrees of abstraction using CMs grounds the possibility of data using to represent ontological information. The work [18] considers how CMs can be used for the work in the situation when the information is missing or is unreliable in e-commerce. The paper presents a knowledge management system based on CMs and ontology and also proposes a framework solution for joint use of information along with the use of a common repository based on CMs. Using CMs provides modeling of a virtual environment by generating and checking the sequence of events that take place in the environment when modeling.
An interesting use of the CM’s capabilities to represent dynamic information is the modeling of cause–effect (causal) relationships. Thus, the work [19] identifies the cognitive nature of a business model designated for a cognitive representation that describes business development activities. Attention is also drawn to the cause–effect structure of the business model, that is, the model of cause–effect relationships which, according to top managers or entrepreneurs’ view, connects the creation of value and activities for its creation. The conceptualization and analysis of business models as cognitive maps can shed light on four important properties of the causal structure of a business model: levels of complexity, focusing and clustering, which characterize the causal structure, as well as the mechanisms underlying causal relationships shown in this structure.
There were some attempts to model CMs with the help of more general modal-logical contexts. The work [20] proposes an interpretation of cognitive maps, correlated with elements of large-scale spatial environment, for constructing geometrically impossible environments. Then the constructed CMs are proposed for joint interpretation with geometrically possible maps. Such an interpretation logically corresponds to the possibility of considering the interpreted cognitive map from different points of view, and the case of geometrically impossible interpretation is not excluded in advance.
The CM’s use in the network environments (in particular, in WWW) is based on the CM’s capabilities to represent information in a form that allows storing some nodes of map on separate nodes of the computational network, as well as parallel processing of stored information. Thus, for example, the work [21] is a description of the CM’s use for working in a multi-agent environment. The strength of this work is the exact semantics of CMs, based on relational algebra according to [22]. Unfortunately, the constructed semantics has a very special form due to the chosen ad hoc three-valued logic system. Nevertheless, within the framework of the chosen semantics, it is possible to construct the forms for representation (when describing the subject area) of the agents’ point of view on cognitive maps, as well as to determine decision-making procedures for such agents.
A somewhat different approach is adopted in the work [23], where cause–effect relationships are modeled based on interactive cognitive maps. A cognitive map is considered as a family of cognitive models. The models can be computed in parallel by exchanging data between themselves. In such conditions, the network implementation becomes natural, which also allows to hide data that a particular component “does not want” to make it visible to other components. The paper takes up the position that the adoption of the CM’s network model leads to the construction of the CM’s ecosystem, the development of which is managed by cognitive agents—system components.
Apart are fuzzy cognitive maps. This rapidly advancing branch, develops the formalisms of cognitive maps. In the general case, a fuzzy cognitive map is defined as a set of nodes and links, the nodes being associated with the concepts of the domain, and links to causal relationships between concepts. Each node is associated with the degree of the presence of a concept in a situation—a number or an element of a qualitative scale with which a number is associated. The nodes of the graph also associate with numbers that determine the degree of influence of one concept to another. A positive number corresponds to an increase in the presence of the corresponding concept and a negative one to its decrease.
The specified fuzzy cognitive map can serve to model the dynamics of a situation. To do this the initial degree of the concept’s presence in the situation is set. Then the changes of the degrees of presence are determined in accordance with the links of the graph as the sum of the corresponding degrees of influence. The given process is repeated iteratively until it reaches the specified time limit. The experiments demonstrate that three main types of behavior are possible: (1) stabilization, i.e., convergence at a given point; (2) way out to the cyclic mode; and (3) chaotic behavior, characterized by the absence of limit modes.
An approach based on fuzzy cognitive maps is exampled in the work [24]. This paper shows the use of cognitive maps for making the decision, which is understood as the choice of a single decision or a group from the given set of alternatives. The cognitive maps are used thanks to their ability to explain the applied process of thinking. The work studies the process of convergence of cognitive maps and their application for decision-making.
The fuzzy cognitive maps can be used in different domains, including optimizing the learning process. One of the optimization techniques is to analyze data from learning management system logs and to identify patterns of users’ behavior related to the content. The work [25] proposes the use of fuzzy cognitive maps to model the behavior of users of learning management systems. The proposed model describes the user’s interaction with the content of the system and can be used to forecast the reaction of users to its training, test, and practical elements.
The relational approach to the construction of CM’s semantics is gradually getting more of dissemination. So, besides the already cited work [21], the relational approach is also accepted in the work [26], in which dynamic models of fuzzy relational cognitive maps are analyzed. A frame-based approach, accepted, for example, in [27], can be considered as a generalization of the relational approach. In this case the frames are considered as stereotypical structures that provide orientation in the physical or conceptual space. In addition to the orientation, the choice of path can be provided, which corresponds to the solution of the planning problem. The frame approach is a synthesis of graph representations and cognitive maps and solves problems connected with explaining orientation-based behavior on graphs or maps or when they are used in parallel.
The frame approach can be successfully applied both in systems with common objectives and in systems oriented to specific applications. Thus, the work [28] solves the problem of presenting historical knowledge on the basis of CMs, practically, on the basis of the frame approach. Actually, the CM’s models are characterized as a specific type of dialectic interaction of logical and graphic forms of knowledge representation.
The considered work contains a detailed classification of cognitive maps. Thus, depending on the construction technology, they distinguish (1) associative maps or mind maps based on associations and (2) conceptual maps that serve to represent the connections of concepts between them. Among the mind maps are the maps identified as follows:
Dyadic, containing two alternative branches
Complex (poly-categorial), the number of branches in which is not limited (in practice it is convenient to have from three to seven branches)
Mnemonic, used to create an easily remembered image
Creative
Collective (e.g., developed during the implementation of joint creative projects)
Artistic
It is easy to see that the classification is based on various reasons, which makes it possible to set the task of clarifying the classification of CMs both for cognitive modeling and developing the formalizations oriented to their analysis, processing, and software generation.
All described applications may be characterized by one common feature—they are either not based on the use of formal semantics and use CMs as a convenient representation of knowledge about the subject area for informal analysis or, at best, use CMs as a tool for determining a finite state machine of a special type. However, such an approach seems to unreasonably narrow the scope of CM’s application. It seems more reasonable to consider cognitive maps as the formalism, providing, on the one hand, pinning informal considerations about the described subject area and, on the other hand, obtaining more or less formalized descriptions that are compatible with descriptions in modeling languages or even programming languages.
An important sphere of application of solutions based on cognitive maps is information support for legal applications. For example, the work [29] analyzes the findings and contributions of existing research in the field of decision-making about the confidentiality, and it proposes to fill up the gaps in the modern understanding by applying a cognitive architecture to model confidential decision-making. In order to solve the issues related to confidentiality, it is necessary to consider aspects of human cognition, using, for example, the methods used in human-computer interaction and computer science research.
An essential characteristic of the semantic network of the species considered in this chapter is the possibility of linking the structures corresponding to CMs with logical formulas of a certain kind. Because the meaning of the CMs depend essentially on time, subject, etc., the logic appropriate for the basis for the interpretation of CMs must be explicitly focused on the consideration of semantic factors. Intensional logic can be chosen as such logic.
The intensional logic allows to operate with the formulas containing functional abstraction and application of function to arguments. Thus, it is possible to obtain the value of CM’s structures using the evaluation. The result of the computation can also be represented as a CM’s construction. In this case, the value depends on the parameter—the assignment point—which gives the CMs an intensional character.
The need for an intensional description of CMs leads to the problem of determining the language means of parameterized computation of semantic network structures as the task of developing methods to support a specialized language for describing the semantic network and means of its interpretation, which should provide:
The definition of means of interpretation of CM’s structures on the basis of their assigned semantic characteristics
The definition of interpretation methods as specialized CMs, which can be embedded in objects that parameterize the interpretation
The definition of general limitations on interpretation methods, as well as procedures for the harmonization of interpretations that ensure the implementation of the imposed restrictions
The solution of the problem is supposed to be obtained on the basis of a combination of methods of intensional logic to describe the language and applicative methods of interpretation to compute the values of CMs. At the same time, it is possible to describe some constructions of the domain model in the form of CMs. The chapter presents a description technique on the example of dependent types.
Support to the implementation of intensional descriptions CMs requires the use of methods which agree with the methods of the description of the CMs. In this chapter, a functor technique is used for this purpose. The specialized functors are determined to represent CMs in supporting the programming environment. The definition is based on the adjoint functors.
The research method centers on the systematic use of the formalization of CM with the further determination of the semantics of the constructed formal objects. The object formalization is carried out using methods of intensional logic by constructing an intensional language to describe the objects that compose the CM. The intensional nature of the language makes it possible to take into account the contexts of objects used. The means of intensional logic provide for both the definition of objects, the interpretation of which is independent of the context (extensional objects) and objects of a different kind, and the interpretation of which requires consideration of one or more contexts (intensional objects). The intensional operators serve as the tools for setting contexts.
The semantics of objects is determined by the means of category theory. The use of category theory ensures a sufficient general definition of semantics, on the basis of which types of changes in the domain can be taken into account. Changes, in particular, can affect the domains of change of the variables of the CM description language, forming the so-called variable domains. Taking into account the changes allows describing the dynamic subject areas of the same CM, which in practical terms saves the efforts spent on developing and debugging the descriptions of CM use.
The analysis of methods of CM use to describe the subject areas consists of systematic consideration of the applied formalized methods and the identification of stereotypical structures used to describe objects and situations specific to a particular domain. Considerable interest is caused by the study of general categorical constructions, such as functors and natural transformations, in their application to CM. In particular, the adjoint functor construction can be used to describe abstract types of the data associated with CM nodes.
The intensional language contains tools for describing the nodes and links of CM. The description in the intensional language is a formalized object, matched to CM. Such an object can be used both for constructing the semantics of CM and (in practical terms) for representing CM for the purpose of storage and processing. The use of formalized objects also provides for syntactic and semantic control of objects, which makes easier their debugging and maintenance.
Types are assigned to the expressions of the intensional language; thus, the type
The set of types of
If
There are no other types.
Types represent the sets of elements to interpret CMs or their fragments.
We will use the enumerable set of variables and (infinite) set of constants of each type
The language includes a set of meaningful expressions
If
If
If
If
If
If
There are no other meaningful expressions.
The language is the main technical tool to write formulas that are in the correspondence with CMs or their fragments. The set of formulas, however, is wider than the set of CMs.
Now let us introduce interpretation of intensional language. Let
As a rule, sets
We treat the interpretation as an ordered tuple:
where
If
We treat
We define the intension
The interpretation of the constructions, composing the CM, is made up in the framework of type theory with dependent types of functions and pairs. The interpretation of CM is considered as an object, the type of which can be constructed. In the framework of the type system, a judgment can be expressed that an object has a particular type, or that two objects are equivalent. The equivalence of objects implies the equivalence of the corresponding CMs. The types of system objects are constructed in the form of an inductive class, and this allows deriving the properties of objects from the properties of their parts.
We consider two basic types of judgments:
The judgment of the first form is interpreted as “
We use for the expression “
In the type theory, we can construct new types from given ones. New types are equipped with functions for their construction and computation. The first construction is a function type. From the types
We can omit the type for the variable and write
The computation rule for this type is
where
The pattern of functional type: (a) multiargument function and (b) curried function.
The next construction is a dependent function type. The elements of such type are functions whose codomain may depend on the element of the domain to which the function is applied. From the type
We can apply a dependent function
The pattern of CM for (a) dependent functional type and (b) Cartesian product.
The next construction is Cartesian product type. From the types
For the computation with product types, we have to define functions which have the elements of
We can consider the universal case and define the function
with the equation
With this function, for example, we can define projections:
Similarly for the unit type 1, we have
with the equation
The pattern of CM for Cartesian product is shown in Figure 3b.
The Cartesian product represents pairs which components have independent types. So the next construction is dependent pair type. From the type
Similarly to the Cartesian product, we can define
with the equation
The pattern of CM for dependent pair type is shown in Figure 4a.
The pattern of CM for (a) dependent functional type and (b) Cartesian product.
The last construction that we consider here is the sum type. From the types
To construct a function
So we can consider the universal case
with the equations
The pattern of CM for sum type is shown in Figure 4b.
Analysis of the proposed CM formalization suggests identifying the structure of CM models defined in the framework of type theory. The practice shows that an adequate approach in constructing such models is the category theory. At the same time, the model is built in the selected category using its objects and arrows. The objects are matched to the types used when constructing the CM, and arrows are matched to the nodes and links of the CM. Depending on the definition of a category, its objects can carry an additional structure within themselves. They can be put into line with the characteristics of the modeled domain.
Common constructions of the category theory can be used to introduce and process the CM constructions that are of interest from both a fundamental and a practical point of view. One of such constructions is the adjoint functor. It turns out that the conjugation scheme allows the transition from an “atomic” description of model objects, in which we distract from their internal structure to the description that takes into account such a structure. A back transition is also possible.
From a fundamental point of view, the mentioned feature provides the CM scaling, that is, folding the nested CM into a separate node and back deployment. From a practical point of view, this possibility corresponds to the definition of an abstract type of data within the framework of a programming system. In this case, the functors that implement conjugation provide a transition from the description of an abstract object or from the name of the object (which in the programming system corresponds to the address of the object in memory) to the representation of the object. This justifies their title as “naming” functors.
The traceability of the interpretation of various entries of an information object (CM or its fragment) requires constructing models of interpretation depending on the context. When the CM is placed in a programming environment (e.g., Java), the context is formed by the constructions chosen to represent the CM fragments, as well as the associated data. The context dependency can be traced basing on the use of the technique of variable domains, which are functors.
Practical implementation of the system supporting the work with CMs requires selecting a method of their representation by the programming structures, such as arrays or strings. A link to the filled-in fragment of the representing structure can be given as an index in the structure, which may be considered as a special naming structure. The work with CM necessitates a transition from the name of the CM fragment to its value and backward, i.e., naming and dereferencing the CM fragments. To ensure the completeness of the computational model, it must provide a transition from the naming constructs to the content of the representing constructions and back.
Because of this, it looks attractive to develop technology, (1) coordinating with the general structure of the computational model, i.e., presented in the form of a functor; (2) making possible to name structures and methods of working with named structures; and (3) providing the ability to display on the structures of the programming system. Further on, it will be shown that in some cases the naming may be associated with the presenting CM’s constructions in a categorically invariant manner. The corresponding categories contain structures of a certain type as objects, and the mappings between objects that preserve their structure serve as arrows. The construction of the required type model uses the concept of adjunction.
function
which is natural in
The given definition needs to be explained. Mind that the natural transformation from the functor
commutates, i.e.,
Also mind that with the help of
In accordance with the following diagram
where
To give a formalized representation of this functor, it is convenient to pass over to the dual category
Now let us consider the constructions
Totally these functors are set by the following way:
with the diagram (containing the arrows from
and
with the diagram (in
where
It is indicated in the definition of adjunction that the mappings
The arrow in the category
The values of the considered functors are ordinary sets; this is why the above written correlation binds ordinary functions on sets. Thanks to this it is possible to compare the values of functions on an arbitrary element of their definition, which is the function
Schematically the action
The drawn ratio is equivalent to the combination of two of its private cases:
and to work with which is somehow easier than with the initial ration as each of them contains only one additional arrow.
Absolutely similar the condition of naturality for
or
Selecting the arrow
schematically
In case of adjunction, the functor
In the given definition the category,
Let us consider some examples of naming constructions based on adjoint functor.
One of the standard representing constructions in practical programming languages for complex structures of data, including CMs or their fragments, is an array or vector. The bunch of possible vectors forms a linear space.
Let us consider a common structure of linear space. Let
Let us consider the functor
To make it clearer, let us consider the vector space
The considered functor has the left adjoint
It is easy to check that the given definition really specifies the functor.
To establish the adjunction it is necessary to specify
Such elements can be identified with elements of the set
where
Let us check the naturalness of
and
Since the values coincide for an arbitrary
Now let us define
The function
We need the behavior
The situation is cleared somehow by the diagram
where
Now let
and this may be illustrated by the diagram
Now we are ready to define the arrow
Let us check the naturalness of the
and
The values coincide for arbitrary
This example is important because of three reasons:
The construction of the vector space is one of the oldest constructions for data representation and at the same time one of the simplest well-known algebraic constructions, and it is an example of a typical algebraic system (underlying set and a signature given by a set of axioms); therefore the construction of an adjoint functor demonstrates some typical common features of such functors.
The category of vector spaces, as distinguished, for example, from the category of monoids, hardly uses mechanisms specific to abstract data types (such as a queue or a stack), except for the proper neglecting functor inducing nesting of named objects of the corresponding categories; thanks to this the construction of the attachment is clearly seen in this example.
The vector spaces are well studied; this allows without a long introduction to use constructions of considerable generality, which must be specially constructed for other categories.
The above shown example, in particular, demonstrates that the adjunction does not formalize in any sense the idea of mutually inverse functors. We see that for a finite-dimensional space
Taking into account the foregoing, the above given example demonstrates that conjunctions can be used to describe abstract data types (in our example, to describe an abstract vector). In the example, the mapping
In general case the functor specifies the correspondence of objects of one category with objects of another and does not suggest the presence of any arrows between these objects. However, in the given example, the fact that the vector space is defined as a set with an additional structure makes it possible to consider the function
Let us consider another structure used to represent CMs—strings. The strings can be used to name CM’s elements or bind additional textual information to CM. It appears that it is possible to formalize naming procedures for strings based on the category of monoids. Let us show this.
Let
Let us consider the neglecting functor
for the arrow
This functor has left adjoint
and the identity element of the monoid
For the function
It is easy to note that
For testing the adjunction, it needs to specify
Let us check the naturality of the transformation defined by this way. We consider the arrows
and
Now we’ll specify
Likewise the previous example, it is possible to establish the properties
and
where
Let us check the naturality of
and
The naturality of
Comparing this example with the previous one, it is seen that the first example is indeed formally simpler, since it does not require the construction of sequences of elements. The sequences in this case can be considered as representing constructions that ensure the mapping of
The chapter considered a variant of solving the problem to store the data in a web environment and provide an access to the data based on their semantics. The semantics of data may be referred both to ensuring that the information complies with the put restrictions and to the traceability of nature of the problems that are solved by the users of different classes. The data is assumed to describe a certain subject area.
To represent the semantic nature of the data in the work, a representation in the form of a semantic network was used. The semantic network was considered as a set of marked nodes and marked links connecting them. The chapter considered the ways to access the nodes of the network, providing both the omission of irrelevant nodes and the decomposition of nodes.
The tools of describing users and their means of access to data that takes into account the specifics of the tasks to be solved must combine enough power to distinguish the relevant elements of the description and simplicity. It makes it possible to practically use the descriptions without excessive detailing, traditionally leading to an increase in the volume and complexity of the description. The work used cognitive maps to describe subjective views on the domain.
The chapter determines the CMs as hierarchically organized sets of nodes connected by unlabeled links. CMs can also contain links between nodes that are not in a hierarchical relationship. Due to:
The CM’s syntax which differs from the semantic network syntax
The possibility of late fixation of typed restrictions
The possibility that links are fixed in the later stages of map development and are not placed or fixed by error
The cognitive maps cannot be considered as semantic networks. However, it is possible to propose matching procedures that will make it possible to consider CMs as a special type of semantic networks.
To determine the language of the description of the subjects and subjective points of view on the data, the work used a variant of intensional logic language. The essential feature of the language is the possibility to construct expressions that are indexable during interpretation, which makes it possible to study and use the dependence of expressions on a parameter. A number of methods for constructing CMs are distinguished, each of which is associated with a formula of intensional logic.
The semantics of intensional logic is constructed basing on recursively defined intensions. The inclusion of lambda expressions in the language and the definition of the corresponding semantic construction provide the computational nature of semantics. The interpretation of quantifiers and operators as special types of applications (applications of functions to the argument) makes it possible to determine all constructions of the model as applicative ones and attributes a computational nature to the models.
The constructed semantics makes it possible to express constructions in the form of CMs; these constructions describe the subject area from the point of view of experts. The chapter shows the possibility of such an expression with the example of the homotopy theory of types. Ever basic construction of the theory of types is accompanied by its presentation in the form of a cognitive map. The use of dependent type theory provides a subjective description of the subject area.
Computational methods for representing CM’s semantics can be promoted to the level of support for processing CMs by means of a programming system. The work develops a functor technique for this. The model constructions, naming semantic elements (CM’s or their fragments), are mapped onto the constructions of the representing environment with the help of the technique of conjoint functors. In this way, the computational model can be extended to CM’s support techniques. This approach ensures the correctness of the tool kits and reduces the time for their development.
In the whole the constructed computational model makes the basis for the description of subjective views on the subject area, their representation in the model, and placing in a supporting programming environment. Thus, the model can serve as the basis for the development technique and maintenance of tool kits to support the description of the domain based on CMs. The elements of the model were tested when developing the practical information systems in the field of legal regulation of the best available technology implementation.
The chapter is supported by the grants 19-07-00326-a, 19-07-00420-a, 18-07-01082-a, and 17-07-00893-a of the Russian Foundation for Basic Research.
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\\n\\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
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\\n\\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
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\\n\\nJournal Article/Scientific Article – Publication based on empirical evidence. It can support a hypothesis with original research, describe existing research or comment on current trends in a specific field.
\\n\\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\\n\\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\\n\\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nTERMS
\\n\\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\\n\\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\\n\\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\\n\\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\\n\\n\\n\\n
LICENSE | \\n\\t\\t\\tUSED FROM - | \\n\\t\\t\\tUP TO - | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \\n\\t\\t\\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported (CC BY 3.0) \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t5 October 2011 (2011-10-05) | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
\\n\\t\\t\\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \\n\\t\\t\\t | \\n\\t\\t\\t15 March 2022 | \\n\\t\\t\\tCurrently | \\n\\t\\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\\n\\nContent reuse:
\\n\\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
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\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
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\\n\\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\\n\\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\\n\\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\\n\\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\\n\\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\\n\\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\\n\\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\\n\\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
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\\n\\nReposting & sharing:
\\n\\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\\n\\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\\n\\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\\n\\nUnder the following terms:
\\n\\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\\n\\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\\n\\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\\n\\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\\n\\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\\n\\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Copyright is the term used to describe the rights related to the publication and distribution of original Works. Most importantly from a publisher's perspective, copyright governs how Authors, publishers and the general public can use, publish, and distribute publications.
\n\nIntechOpen only publishes manuscripts for which it has publishing rights. This is governed by a publication agreement between the Author and IntechOpen. This agreement is accepted by the Author when the manuscript is submitted and deals with both the rights of the publisher and Author, as well as any obligations concerning a particular manuscript. However, in accepting this agreement, Authors continue to retain significant rights to use and share their publications.
\n\nHOW COPYRIGHT WORKS WITH OPEN ACCESS LICENSES?
\n\nAgreement samples are listed here for the convenience of prospective Authors:
\n\nDEFINITIONS
\n\nThe following definitions apply in this Copyright Policy:
\n\nAuthor - in order to be identified as an Author, three criteria must be met: (i) Substantial contribution to the conception or design of the Work, or the acquisition, analysis, or interpretation of data for the Work; (ii) Participation in drafting or revising the Work; (iii) Approval of the final version of the Work to be published.
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\n\nCompilation - a collection of Works distributed in a Book that IntechOpen has selected, and for which the coordination of the preparation, arrangement and publication has been the responsibility of IntechOpen. Any Work included is accepted in its entirety in unmodified form and is published with one or more other contributions, each constituting a separate and independent Work, but which together are assembled into a collective whole.
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\n\nIntechOpen - Registered publisher with office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, SW7 2QJ - UNITED KINGDOM
\n\nIntechOpen platform - IntechOpen website www.intechopen.com whose main purpose is to host Monographs in the format of Book Chapters, Long Form Monographs, Compacts, Conference Proceedings, Scientific Journals and Videos.
\n\nVideo Lecture – an audiovisual recording of a lecture or a speech given by a Lecturer, recorded, edited, owned and published by IntechOpen.
\n\nTERMS
\n\nAll Works published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Unported and Creative Commons 4.0 International License, a license which allows for the broadest possible reuse of published material.
\n\nCopyright on the individual Works belongs to the specific Author, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen. The Creative Common license is granted to all others to:
\n\nAnd for any purpose, provided the following conditions are met:
\n\nAll Works are published under the CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license. However, please note that book Chapters may fall under a different CC license, depending on their publication date as indicated in the table below:
\n\n\n\n
LICENSE | \n\t\t\tUSED FROM - | \n\t\t\tUP TO - | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-NC-SA 3.0) \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t1 July 2005 (2005-07-01) | \n\t\t\t3 October 2011 (2011-10-03) | \n\t\t
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\n\t\t\t Creative Commons 4.0 International (CC BY 4.0) – for Journal Articles \n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t15 March 2022 | \n\t\t\tCurrently | \n\t\t
The CC BY 3.0 and CC BY 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as the reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as the source Work is cited and its Authors are acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
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\n\nReposting & sharing:
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\n\nRepublishing – More about Attribution Policy can be found here.
\n\nThe same principles apply to Works published under the CC BY-NC-SA 3.0 license, with the caveats that (1) the content may not be used for commercial purposes, and (2) derivative works building on this content must be distributed under the same license. The restrictions contained in these license terms may, however, be waived by the copyright holder(s). Users wishing to circumvent any of the license terms are required to obtain explicit permission to do so from the copyright holder(s).
\n\nDISCLAIMER: Neither the CC BY 3.0 license, CC BY 4.0, nor any other license IntechOpen currently uses or has used before, applies to figures and tables reproduced from other works, as they may be subject to different terms of reuse. In such cases, if the copyright holder is not noted in the source of a figure or table, it is the responsibility of the User to investigate and determine the exact copyright status of any information utilised. Users requiring assistance in that regard are welcome to send an inquiry to permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll rights to Books and Journals and all other compilations published on the IntechOpen platform and in print are reserved by IntechOpen.
\n\nThe copyright to Books, Journals and other compilations is subject to separate copyright from those that exist in the included Works.
\n\nAll Long Form Monographs/Compacts are licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial 4.0 International (CC BY-NC 4.0) license granted to all others.
\n\nCopyright to the individual Works (Chapters) belongs to their specific Authors, subject to an agreement with IntechOpen and the Creative Common license granted to all others to:
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nThere must be an Attribution, giving appropriate credit, provision of a link to the license, and indication if any changes were made.
\n\nNonCommercial - The use of the material for commercial purposes is prohibited. Commercial rights are reserved to IntechOpen or its licensees.
\n\nNo additional restrictions that apply legal terms or technological measures that restrict others from doing anything the license permits are allowed.
\n\nThe CC BY-NC 4.0 license permits Works to be freely shared in any medium or format, as well as reuse and adaptation of the original contents of Works (e.g. figures and tables created by the Authors), as long as it is not used for commercial purposes. The source Work must be cited and its Authors acknowledged in the following manner:
\n\nContent reuse:
\n\n© {year} {authors' full names}. Originally published in {short citation} under {license version} license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nContent adaptation & reuse:
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\n\nReposting & sharing:
\n\nOriginally published in {full citation}. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nAll Book cover design elements, as well as Video image graphics are subject to copyright by IntechOpen.
\n\nEvery reproduction of a front cover image must be accompanied by an appropriate Copyright Notice displayed adjacent to the image. The exact Copyright Notice depends on who the Author of a particular cover image is. Users wishing to reproduce cover images should contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nAll Video Lectures under IntechOpen's production are subject to copyright and are property of IntechOpen, unless defined otherwise, and are licensed under the Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivatives 4.0 International (CC BY-NC-ND 4.0) license. This grants all others the right to:
\n\nShare — copy and redistribute the material in any medium or format
\n\nUnder the following terms:
\n\nUsers wishing to repost and share the Video Lectures are welcome to do so as long as they acknowledge the source in the following manner:
\n\n© {year} IntechOpen. Published under CC BY-NC-ND 4.0 license. Available from: {DOI}
\n\nUsers wishing to reuse, modify, or adapt the Video Lectures in a way not permitted by the license are welcome to contact us at permissions@intechopen.com to discuss waiving particular license terms.
\n\nAll software used on the IntechOpen platform, any used during the publishing process, and the copyright in the code constituting such software, is the property of IntechOpen or its software suppliers. As such, it may not be downloaded or copied without permission.
\n\nUnless otherwise indicated, all IntechOpen websites are the property of IntechOpen.
\n\nAll content included on IntechOpen Websites not forming part of contributed materials (such as text, images, logos, graphics, design elements, videos, sounds, pictures, trademarks, etc.), are subject to copyright and are property of, or licensed to, IntechOpen. Any other use, including the reproduction, modification, distribution, transmission, republication, display, or performance of the content on this site is strictly prohibited.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2016-06-08
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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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The existing variety of proposed approaches is classified in accordance with the “big five rules” for these assays, including proper sample, receptor, interaction, response, and output. The solutions for rapid extraction of target analytes and preventing negative influence of extractants are considered. Role to antibodies affinity and specificity is characterized. Potential of alternate bioreceptor molecules is discussed. Immunoreactants’ compositions, concentrations, and locations on the test strip are characterized as factors determining assay parameters. The existing variety of labels is compared in terms of their optical and alternate registration. Tools to modulate a sequence of analytical reactions and to form aggregates of the detected labels are considered. The discussed approaches are illustrated through developments of test strips for detection of mycotoxins, veterinary drugs, and other analytes.",book:{id:"6470",slug:"rapid-test-advances-in-design-format-and-diagnostic-applications",title:"Rapid Test",fullTitle:"Rapid Test - Advances in Design, Format and Diagnostic Applications"},signatures:"Anatoly V. Zherdev and Boris B. Dzantiev",authors:[{id:"175229",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatoly",middleName:null,surname:"Zherdev",slug:"anatoly-zherdev",fullName:"Anatoly Zherdev"},{id:"224281",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",middleName:"B",surname:"Dzantiev",slug:"boris-dzantiev",fullName:"Boris Dzantiev"}]},{id:"33156",doi:"10.5772/38038",title:"Serology Applied to Plant Virology",slug:"serology-applied-to-plant-virology",totalDownloads:4290,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:null,book:{id:"1697",slug:"serological-diagnosis-of-certain-human-animal-and-plant-diseases",title:"Serological Diagnosis of Certain Human, Animal and Plant Diseases",fullTitle:"Serological Diagnosis of Certain Human, Animal and Plant Diseases"},signatures:"J. Albersio A. Lima, Aline Kelly Q. Nascimento, Paula Radaelli and Dan E. Purcifull",authors:[{id:"115306",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Albersio A.",middleName:"Araujo",surname:"Lima",slug:"jose-albersio-a.-lima",fullName:"Jose Albersio A. 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The existing variety of proposed approaches is classified in accordance with the “big five rules” for these assays, including proper sample, receptor, interaction, response, and output. The solutions for rapid extraction of target analytes and preventing negative influence of extractants are considered. Role to antibodies affinity and specificity is characterized. Potential of alternate bioreceptor molecules is discussed. Immunoreactants’ compositions, concentrations, and locations on the test strip are characterized as factors determining assay parameters. The existing variety of labels is compared in terms of their optical and alternate registration. Tools to modulate a sequence of analytical reactions and to form aggregates of the detected labels are considered. The discussed approaches are illustrated through developments of test strips for detection of mycotoxins, veterinary drugs, and other analytes.",book:{id:"6470",slug:"rapid-test-advances-in-design-format-and-diagnostic-applications",title:"Rapid Test",fullTitle:"Rapid Test - Advances in Design, Format and Diagnostic Applications"},signatures:"Anatoly V. Zherdev and Boris B. Dzantiev",authors:[{id:"175229",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatoly",middleName:null,surname:"Zherdev",slug:"anatoly-zherdev",fullName:"Anatoly Zherdev"},{id:"224281",title:"Prof.",name:"Boris",middleName:"B",surname:"Dzantiev",slug:"boris-dzantiev",fullName:"Boris Dzantiev"}]},{id:"60908",title:"Microarrays as Platform for Multiplex Assays in Biomarker and Drug Discovery",slug:"microarrays-as-platform-for-multiplex-assays-in-biomarker-and-drug-discovery",totalDownloads:1141,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:5,abstract:"Despite the tremendous advances in the understanding of the molecular mechanisms and the complexity of the diseases is one of the present challenges for the scientific community; then, novel strategies are required to be designed and developed for effective strategies for early diagnosis and treatment. As many cellular alterations are observed at protein level, high-throughput assays are dramatically needed for biomarker discovery. Herein, we describe advantages and limitations of protein microarrays, as proteomics strategy useful for multiplex and high-throughput protein characterization in clinical samples. Finally, a few examples are discussed; mostly of them related to currently disease biomarkers already identified in proximal fluids by protein arrays are discussed.",book:{id:"6470",slug:"rapid-test-advances-in-design-format-and-diagnostic-applications",title:"Rapid Test",fullTitle:"Rapid Test - Advances in Design, Format and Diagnostic Applications"},signatures:"Pablo Juanes-Velasco, Javier Carabias-Sanchez, Rodrigo Garcia-\nValiente, Jonatan Fernandez-García, Rafael Gongora, Maria\nGonzalez-Gonzalez and Manuel Fuentes",authors:[{id:"173804",title:"Dr.",name:"Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Fuentes",slug:"manuel-fuentes",fullName:"Manuel Fuentes"}]},{id:"33740",title:"Interferences in Immunoassays",slug:"interference-in-immunoassays",totalDownloads:17506,totalCrossrefCites:14,totalDimensionsCites:53,abstract:null,book:{id:"1499",slug:"advances-in-immunoassay-technology",title:"Advances in Immunoassay Technology",fullTitle:"Advances in Immunoassay Technology"},signatures:"Johan Schiettecatte, Ellen Anckaert and Johan Smitz",authors:[{id:"105883",title:"Mr.",name:"Johan",middleName:null,surname:"Schiettecatte",slug:"johan-schiettecatte",fullName:"Johan Schiettecatte"},{id:"113099",title:"Dr.",name:"Ellen",middleName:null,surname:"Anckaert",slug:"ellen-anckaert",fullName:"Ellen Anckaert"},{id:"113100",title:"Prof.",name:"Johan",middleName:null,surname:"Smitz",slug:"johan-smitz",fullName:"Johan Smitz"}]},{id:"61519",title:"SLE, An Overlooked Disease: Possibilities for Early Rescue by Early Diagnosis",slug:"sle-an-overlooked-disease-possibilities-for-early-rescue-by-early-diagnosis",totalDownloads:1212,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a progressive autoimmune disease associated with widespread organ damage that can eventually cause death. Worldwide prevalence of SLE is difficult to report mainly due to difficulty in diagnosis as a result of its heterogeneous nature and nonspecific protean manifestations. Currently, circulating anti-DNA antibodies are the most specific diagnostic biomarkers for SLE where many detection assays are being employed in clinical practice. However, the diagnostic value of these techniques is challenged by the detection of only subpopulations of these antibodies with varying sensitivity and specificity. This is mainly attributed to differences in the antigen source and presentation and in the employed reaction conditions. This chapter will thoroughly discuss the technology, advantages, and limitations of each assay in addition to a special focus on the recently developed diagnostic technologies and novel biomarkers. Moreover, SLE will be presented as a disease model highlighting the importance of personalized medicine.",book:{id:"6470",slug:"rapid-test-advances-in-design-format-and-diagnostic-applications",title:"Rapid Test",fullTitle:"Rapid Test - Advances in Design, Format and Diagnostic Applications"},signatures:"Reem K. Arafa and Mariam M. 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The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",issn:"2754-6713",scope:"\r\n\tScientists have long researched to understand the environment and man’s place in it. 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\r\n\tThe four topics of this book series - Pollution; Environmental Resilience and Management; Ecosystems and Biodiversity; and Water Science - will address important areas of advancement in the environmental sciences. They will represent an excellent initial grouping of published works on these critical topics.