\r\n\tSolar radiation is the radiant energy that originated from the sun in the form of electromagnetic radiation at various wavelengths. Solar radiation is the source of renewable energy and can be captured and converted into various forms of energy (e.g. electricity and heat) using different technologies.
\r\n\tA very vast amount of solar energy reaches the atmosphere and surface of the earth and solar energy has been used for heating purposes for a very long-time and after solar cells’ invention in 1954, solar cells have also been used widely for electricity generation. Solar cells convert the sunlight into electricity by the creation of voltage and electric current through the so-called photovoltaic effect.
\r\n\tPhotovoltaic (PV) solar energy has attracted significant attention in the recent decade as a reliable source for power generation due to various merits such as the free source of energy, abundant materials resources, environmentally friendly and noise-free, longtime service life, requiring low maintenance, technological advancements, market potential, and very importantly, low cost. The growth of using photovoltaic (PV) solar energy as a promising renewable energy technology, is being increased more and more worldwide. Therefore, much further research is needed for possible future developments in the field of solar photovoltaic energy.
\r\n\tThe aim of this book is to provide detailed information about solar radiation as the source of photovoltaic (PV) solar energy for a broad range of readership including undergraduate and postgraduate students, young or experienced researchers and engineers.
\r\n\tThis should be accomplished by addressing the various technical and practical aspects of solar radiation fundamentals, modeling and the measurement for photovoltaic (PV) solar energy applications.
\r\n\tThe majority of this book should describe the basic, modern, and contemporary knowledge and technology of extraterrestrial and terrestrial solar irradiance for photovoltaic (PV) solar energy.
\r\n\tThe book covers the most recent developments, innovation and applications concerning the following topics:
\r\n\t• Fundamental of solar radiation and photovoltaic solar energy
\r\n\t• Solar radiation and photovoltaic solar energy potential
\r\n\t• Solar irradiance measurement: techniques, instrumentation and uncertainty analysis
\r\n\t• Solar radiation modeling for photovoltaic solar energy applications
\r\n\t• Solar monitoring and data quality assessment
\r\n\t• Solar resource assessment and photovoltaic system performance
\r\n\t• Solar energy and photovoltaic power forecasting
\r\n\tThese are accompanied with other useful research topics and material.
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The idea behind this name is to predict the elastic-wave velocities in porous rock from its porosity or implement an inverse operation and interpret the velocity measured in a well or using seismic tomography or reflection techniques for the porosity of rock. It is important to mention that the elastic-wave velocities are related to the elastic moduli of rock as follows:
where
where
Important elastic constants used in rock physics are the bulk (
Most of natural rocks contain more than one mineral. In this situation,
where
The same rule applies to the density of the pore fluid:
where
and
Because of the link between the elastic-wave velocities and elastic moduli as given by Eq. (1), it is often instructive to relate these elastic moduli to porosity. Such approach opens an avenue to using the so-called effective medium theories where the elastic moduli are theoretically related to porosity and the geometry of rock, referring to the spatial arrangement of pores and grains, as well as shapes of these pores and grains.
It has been discovered early that the velocity and elastic moduli not only depend on porosity, but also on the properties of the mineral frame. A rule of thumb is that at the same porosity, the softer the mineral frame, the smaller the elastic moduli of rock. For example, at the same porosity, rocks containing soft clays have velocities smaller than rocks dominated by stiffer quartz. Hence, rock physics is not only a “velocity-porosity” science but also a “velocity-porosity-mineralogy” science.
The situation becomes more complex if we consider the effects of the pore fluid on the elastic moduli (and velocities) of a porous composite. It is intuitively clear that the less compressible the pore fluid (water versus gas), the stiffer the entire rock, meaning that its bulk modulus is higher. Now we are talking about “velocity-porosity-mineralogy-fluid.”
The science of rock physics also includes understanding and quantification of other rock properties, such as hydraulic permeability and electrical resistivity, and their relation to other attributes, namely, porosity, rock texture, and mineralogy.
Generally, contemporary rock physics treats natural rock as a holistic object whose various properties (attributes) are extracted from experiments simulating processes, such as elastic-wave propagation, fluid and electrical transport, nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), and breakage. We seek a theoretical understanding of interrelations between such attributes and their mathematical quantification. Such relations are also called rock physics models (RPM) or transforms. Needless to say that such quantification has to be “as simple as possible but not simpler.”
Finally, the newest branch of rock physics is digital rock physics (DRP) whose mandate is to “image and compute,” image rock at the pore scale and digitally simulate various processes within the digital image. For example, simulations of viscous fluid flow yield permeability, simulations of electrical charge transport yield resistivity, and simulations of deformation under stress yield the elastic moduli.
Let us now review some of historic developments in rock physics.
Arguably, the first rock physics velocity-porosity transform was introduced by Wyllie et al. [2]. It simply states that the total P-wave traveltime through rock with porosity
where
Vp versus porosity according to the Wyllie et al. [2] and Raymer et al. [3] transforms for quartz, dolomite, and mixed mineralogy. Legend in the middle refers to all plots.
Equation (8) is purely empirical in spite of its physically meaningful form. Indeed, in real rock, the mineral and fluid parts are not arranged in layers to enable a simple summation of the respective traveltimes. Still, this equation gives a reasonably accurate approximation for
Equation (8) has dominated petrophysical interpretation of velocity for porosity for a long time. It gave rise to the so-called sonic porosity computed from wireline velocity data as
The next historic equation was introduced by Raymer et al. [3]:
As Eq. (8), it is purely empirical, derived from wireline data. Still, it is very meaningful as it can be applied to rock with any fluid inside, even where
We conclude this section by presenting equations relating the electrical resistivity to porosity and absolute hydraulic permeability to porosity.
The former transform relates the resistivity
where
Left: F versus porosity according to Eq. (11) for m = 1.5, 2.0, and 2.5 with Fontainebleau experimental data shown as symbols. Right: RtS/Rw ratio versus water saturation for ϕ = 0.2 and m = n = 2.0 (Eq. (12)).
At partial brine saturation,
where
Both Eqs. (11) and (12) were discovered by Archie in 1942 [6] and remain the cornerstone of resistivity interpretation for hydrocarbon saturation in the wellbore. Various modifications of these equations dealing with resistivity interpretation in sediments containing clays and shales are discussed in Mavko et al. [1].
The historic absolute permeability prediction equation is called the Kozeny-Carman [7] formula. It is based on an extremely idealized representation of pores as a set of parallel pipes inclined to the direction of pore pressure gradient at an angle
The permeability
A variable alternative to
The Kozeny-Carman equation reads [1]
A modified version of this equation is based on the assumption that
It follows from Eq. (15) that the unit of absolute permeability is length squared. However, traditionally, the permeability unit is Darcy (D) or milli-Darcy (mD). One D is 10−13 m2, while one mD = 10−15 m2.
Figure 3 shows experimental permeability data for Fountainebleau sandstone and two North Sea sand sets with an Eq. (16) curve superimposed for
Permeability versus porosity plots as explained in the text.
Laboratory experiments measuring the elastic-wave velocities in rock often show that the presence of the fluid in the pores strongly affects the elastic properties (Figure 4). Such dramatic results, especially for
Vp (left) and Vs (right) of high-porosity unconsolidated sand versus hydrostatic confining pressure. The pore pressure is constant 0.1 MPa. Squares are data obtained in ultrasonic pulse transmission experiments on the water-saturated sample. Circles are for the room-dry sample (after Zimmer [8]).
Arguably, the most important contribution to rock physics is Gassmann’s fluid substitution theory [9]. This theory allows us to compute the bulk modulus of porous rock filled with Fluid A if this modulus is known (measured) in the same rock but filled with Fluid B. These derivations were conducted under the assumption that the wave-induced pore pressure oscillations equilibrate within the sample over the wave period, meaning that Gassmann’s is a low-frequency theory. Hence, it is applicable at the wireline and seismic frequency ranges. It helps predict the seismic response of rock filled with any hypothetical fluid if it is measured in situ where the pore fluid is known. For example, if the elastic properties of rock are measured in situ in rock 100% filled with water, we can predict these properties in the same rock but filled with oil or gas.
Gassmann’s theory provides the bulk modulus in fluid-saturated rock (
The latter equation can be rearranged as follows:
Equations (17) and (18) provide us with a fluid substitution recipe as follows. Assume that we know the bulk modulus
The bulk modulus
where
Of course, the shear modulus of the rock remains the same, no matter what fluid it is saturated with.
It is important to remember that the bulk density
where
Finally, we can compute the elastic-wave velocities, as well as other seismic attributes, once we know the elastic moduli:
and
where
Let us refer to a later important development in theoretical fluid substitution. It stemmed from the fact that Gassmann’s theory [9] requires the knowledge of the bulk modulus that can only be computed using Eq. (1) if both
Figure 5 shows an example of the results of fluid substitution (pure water) on the elastic properties of high-porosity sand measured in the laboratory [11] at room-dry conditions. Clearly, the pore fluid has a dramatic effect on Poisson’s ratio. Such plots are basis for in situ fluid identification from seismic data.
Sand experimental data and fluid substitution. Left. The bulk and shear moduli versus confining pressure as measured (dry) and water-substituted using Gassmann’s theory [9]. Middle. Vp and Vs versus confining pressure as measured (dry) and water-substituted. Right. The P-wave impedance versus Poisson’s ratio as measured (dry) and water-substituted, color-coded by the confining pressure.
Let us finally describe the details required in practical fluid substitution, specifically the computation of
The elastic moduli of the multi-mineral rock matrix
where
where
The bulk modulus of the pore fluid is
where
In addition to the pore fluid, there are two more important variables influencing the elastic properties of rocks, their mineralogy and the differential pressure
Of course there are other influencing factors, such as rock texture (clastics versus carbonates versus unconventional shale), temperature, and diagenetic history. Here we only concentrate on the abovementioned two.
Mineralogy. As an example, let us examine the Han [13] laboratory dataset obtained on a large suite of sandstones with porosity ranging from zero to 30% and clay content between zero and 50%. Figure 6 shows
Dry rock Vp (top) and Vs (bottom) versus porosity, color-coded by the clay content, at confining pressure 50 MPa (left) and 5 MPa (right) (after Han [13]).
Obviously, the clay content plays a dramatic role acting to reduce both
Another striking example of velocity discrimination due to mineralogy comes from unconventional shale with data obtained by wireline logging in a vertical well (Figure 7). The data shown in this figure is for 100% wet rock, obtained by fluid substitution from in situ conditions. The velocity-porosity dataset forms an amorphous cloud (Figure 7, top) with both
100% wet rock Vp (left) and Vs (right) without accounting for mineralogy (top) and color-coded by the sum of clay and kerogen contents (bottom) (adopted from Dvorkin et al. [14]).
The Raymer et al. [3] model also predicts a strong dependence of the velocity on mineralogy (Figure 8), as well as the pore fluid, the latter well pronounced at higher porosity.
Vp versus porosity according to the Raymer et al. [3] model for dry rock (left) and 100% water-saturated rock (right). The mineralogy is quartz and clay. The upper curves is for zero clay content, while the bottom curve is for 100% clay. The in-between curves are for gradually increasing clay content with increment 10% (top to bottom).
Stress. The effect of the confining pressure on the velocity in sand can be clearly seen in Figure 5 with
Vp (left) and Vs (right) versus pressure for two dry sandstone samples from the North Sea (top) and Gulf of Mexico (bottom).
The velocity in carbonate rocks is often not as affected by stress as it is in clastic samples. The magnitude of this effect is often influenced by the presence of compliant cracks in the rock. Such cracks act to strongly affect the velocity at low pressure while they are open. As the pressure increases, these cracks close acting to increase the velocity (Figure 10, Sample A). In samples where the cracks are absent, the velocity hardly varies as a function of pressure (Figure 10, Sample B).
Same as Figure 9 but for two chalk samples from Ekofisk field in the North Sea. Velocities in sample A (porosity 0.38) is pressure dependent, while the velocities in sample B (porosity 0.31) hardly vary with pressure.
Notice that both historic velocity-porosity model by Wyllie et al. [2] and Raymer et al. [3] do not account for the dependence of the elastic-wave velocities on the confining stress. Both models are suitable for predicting the elastic properties at high, but not at low stress.
The velocity-stress dependence is important in understanding and predicting the seismic responses during hydrocarbon recovery, a process where the differential pressure may increase during production if the reservoir is depleted and the pore pressure is reduced, while the overburden remains constant. This differential pressure may decrease during enhanced oil recovery where water or gas are injected into the reservoir at high pressure, acting to reduce the difference between the overburden and pore pressure. Plots similar to that shown in Figure 5 (right-hand frame) are useful in simultaneously assessing the effects of the pore fluid and differential pressure on the elastic attributes.
There are two kinds of elastic moduli versus porosity effective medium models: (a) inclusion models and (b) grain-based models. The first kind models build a rock from the zero-porosity endpoint by placing inclusions into the solid matrix [1]. These models are perhaps relevant to some carbonate rocks where the pores appear as inclusions in calcite or dolomite matrix. The second kind assumes that the rock is formed by solid grains which comprise an uncemented grain pack at the high-porosity endpoint (also called the critical porosity) and, as the porosity is reduced, the original pack is altered either by grain contact cement or by smaller grains deposited in the pore space between the original larger grains, or a combination of these two processes.
As an example of the inclusion models, consider the differential effective medium model (DEM), where spheroidal pores are placed inside the solid matrix. A spheroid is an ellipsoid with two large diameters equal to each other and the third diameter smaller or equal to these two. The ratio of the small to large diameter is called the aspect ratio
Figure 11 (top) shows how the bulk and shear moduli depend on the total porosity for pure calcite rock with the bulk and shear moduli of the mineral 76.8 and 32.0 GPa, respectively, and its density 2.71 g/cc. The pores are empty, meaning the bulk and shear moduli of the inclusions are zero. In the same figure (bottom), we plot the respective
Elastic moduli (top) and velocities (bottom) versus porosity computed using DEM model for a pure calcite rock. The aspect ratio corresponding to the top curves is 1.00 and for the bottom curve 0.01. The aspect ratio gradually decreases to 0.50, 0.20, and 0.10 for the curves in between (top to bottom).
Figure 12 is the same as Figure 11 except that we use a single aspect ratio 0.10 and compare the results for empty inclusions with those for water-filled inclusions where the bulk modulus is 2.25 GPa and density is 1.00 g/cc.
Same as Figure 11 but for a single aspect ratio 0.10 and for empty pores (black) and pores filled with water (blue).
We observe that both the bulk and shear moduli increase for pores filled with water as compared to empty pores. So do
Notice that DEM curves connect two endpoints, one at zero porosity where the elastic moduli of rock are those of the mineral matrix and the other at 100% porosity where the elastic moduli are those of the inclusions (fluid in the pores). About three decades ago, Nur observed that most natural rocks simply do not exist in the entire zero to 100% porosity range. The maximum geologically plausible porosity for clastic rocks (sands and sandstones) is about 0.40. It may be higher in carbonates, such as chalks, that can have porosity up to 0.50. This porosity can be even higher for foam-like formations, such as volcanic rock (pumice) or artificially manufactured glass foam. This maximum porosity is called the critical porosity. This concept was formalized in Nur et al. [15].
One implication of the critical porosity concept is that the high-porosity endpoint should be at the critical porosity rather than at 100% porosity. It gave rise to the so-called modified elastic bounds. The simplest example is based on the upper elastic bound (also called the Voigt bound) for a composite made of two elastic components (“1” and “2”) with the compressional and shear moduli
Assume that
These two curves are plotted in Figure 13. In the same figure, we plot Han’s [13] data for low-clay-content samples at 50 MPa confining pressure. These data fall way below the upper bound curves for pure quartz with
Upper and modified upper elastic bounds for the compressional (left) and shear (right) moduli versus porosity. The critical porosity is 0.36. Data are from Han’s [13] sandstone dataset for the clay content below 7% and with the elastic-wave velocities measured on dry samples at 50 MPa confining pressure.
The modified bounds use the same equations, but with porosity scaled by the critical porosity
giving modified curves that are much closer to the data (Figure 13).
All grain-based theories exploit the critical porosity concept. We start with the contact-cement theory where it is assumed that the grains are not subjected to any confining stress at
Schematic modes of porosity reduction. From top to bottom: Contact-cement and stiff-sand model; soft-sand model; and constant-cement model (adopted from Dvorkin et al. [4]).
The soft-sand model assumes that at the critical porosity and the elastic properties of the grain pack are given by the Hertz-Mindlin [16] contact theory. This theory assumes that the grain pack is made of identical spherical grains whose elastic properties are those of the mineral (solid) matrix as given by Eq. (25). Combined with the mean field approximation that assumes that all grains are subject to identical local stresses and have the same average number of contacts per grain
where
The coordination number
It is assumed in Eq. (31) that the grains have infinite friction (no slip) at their contacts. If we allow only the fraction
This parameter
Finally, to obtain the dry rock bulk (
It is important to emphasize that the critical porosity endpoints here do not necessarily have to be given by the Hertz-Mindlin contact theory. Alternatively, these values can be selected from experimental data. What is most important in this model is the usage of the “soft” connection between the two porosity endpoints.
An alternative “stiff” connection between the aforementioned endpoints is given by the modified upper Hashin-Shtrikman bound as
where, once again,
This stiff connection, also called the stiff-sand model, can serve to connect the contact-cement curve with the zero-porosity endpoint.
Yet another model belonging to this family is the constant-cement model. It assumes that the grains have initial contact cementation with further porosity reduction due to the placement of small particles away from grain contacts (Figure 14). The functional form of this model is the same as in the soft-sand model (Eq. (33)) but with artificially high coordination number.
Examples of velocity-porosity curves according to the aforementioned grain-based theories are shown in Figure 15, where we assumed that both the grain and cement materials are pure quartz;
Velocity-porosity curves according to the soft-sand, stiff-sand, contact-cement, and constant-cement models as explained in the text.
Figure 16 shows an example of using the constant-cement model to describe the elastic behavior of unconventional gas shale, while Figure 17 is an example of applying the stiff-sand model to carbonate reservoirs. The parameters of the models are provided in the captions. These two examples show that the grain-based theories given here are appropriate not only for clastic sediments but also in very different lithological settings.
Vp (left) and Vs (right) versus porosity for gas shale from wireline data adjusted for 100% water saturation. The color code is the sum of the clay and kerogen volume fractions (red for high and blue for low). The model curves are computed to bound the data. These curves are from the constant-cement model with the coordination number 12, differential pressure 26 MPa, critical porosity 0.40, and shear stiffness correction factor 1 (adopted from Dvorkin et al. [14]).
Velocity- (left) and impedance-porosity (middle) plots showing chalk (gray) and lower-porosity carbonate (black) data points from wireline data adjusted for 100% water saturation. Graph on the left is the impedance versus Poison’s ratio plot, also for 100% water saturation conditions. The curves are from the stiff-sand model with the coordination number 6, differential pressure 30 MPa, critical porosity 0.40, and shear stiffness correction factor 1. The two model curves are for the two slightly different properties of the pure calcite end member (adopted from Dvorkin and Alabbad [17]).
Figure 18 shows laboratory data obtained at 30 MPa confining pressure on dry high-porosity, almost pure-quartz sand samples from the North Sea. In this classic example, the higher-velocity dataset is contact-cemented turbidite sand, while the lower-velocity dataset is friable and virtually uncemented sand. The former data can be matched by the contact-cement curves transitioning into the stiff-sand trajectories. The latter data are matched by the soft-sand curves.
Vp (left) and Vs (right) versus porosity for two high-porosity sand datasets as explained in the text. The model curves marked in the plots are computed for 30 MPa differential pressure, critical porosity 0.40, coordination number 7, shear stiffness correction factor 1, and dry rock.
Digital rock physics is based on the concept “image and compute,” image rock at the pore scale (Figure 19) and then simulate in the computer various processes in such an image to arrive at a desired rock property. These simulations include viscous fluid flow to arrive at hydraulic permeability, electrical charge flow to arrive at electrical resistivity, as well as elastic deformation to arrive at the elastic moduli and velocities.
Segmented digital images of loose sand (porosity about 30%), sandstone (porosity about 20%), and carbonate (porosity about 15%) showing the mineral matrix and pores. The images are a few mm across.
The advantage of such digital approach is that the same sample can be reused multiple times, unlike in physical experiments where a sample is altered after every test; the sample can be digitally altered by, e.g., introducing digenetic cementation, which is hardly possible in physical experiments, as well as subsampling of a digital volume to investigate how various rock properties vary within the volume and how relations between rock properties depend on the spatial scale of investigation.
Although the aforementioned concept is simple, its implementation is not. First, the imaging has to be conducted at the appropriate scale and resolution to reveal the salient features of natural rock relevant to the process under examination. Second, the image has to be segmented to separate minerals from pores and segregate various minerals within the solid matrix, as well as fluid phases inside the pores. Third, powerful computational engines have to be utilized and verified to simulate processes relevant to the physical experiment.
In spite of these complexities, during the last decade, DRP has emerged as a powerful technique complementing (if not replacing) physical testing, mostly due to the recent advances in imaging hardware and image processing and computational software, the latter combined with steadily improving computational power. Not only DRP has become a novel research tool in academia and national labs, but is has also been adopted by leading oil and service companies.
There is one more inherent feature of DRP that needs to be accounted for. Pore-scale rock images are only a few mm in size, and the higher the resolution needed to revel the salient features, the smaller the field of view. At the same time, these computational results have to be relevant at much larger spatial scales of feet for wireline measurement interpretations in the well or tens and hundreds of feet in seismic prospecting. Even such basic property as porosity may be different if measured on an inch-sized sample an on mm-sized fragment of the same sample.
One way out of this conundrum is instead of directly comparing data points generated by different methods of measurement, compare trends formed by such data points, such as permeability versus porosity trends. Dvorkin et al. [18] show that such trends are often hidden inside a very small digital sample and can be derived by subsampling it. Moreover, these computational trends often match relevant physical trends and/or theoretical rock physics transforms, hence validating computational results and making them relevant at much coarser spatial scales.
The approach is to subsample a digital volume into 23, 33, or 43 subvolumes (Figure 20) and then compute the desired property pairs (e.g., porosity and permeability) on each of these subvolumes. Very often, the property pairs thus computed form a meaningful trend supported by physical measurements and/or theories (see examples in Figures 21–23). We can call this subsampling approach “to see the rock in a grain of sand.”
Illustration of the subsampling approach.
Permeability versus porosity in Fontainebleau sandstone. Left: Laboratory data matched with a Kozeny-Carman theoretical curve. Right: Multiple permeability versus porosity data points computed from a few digital Fontainebleau samples and subsamples thereof (adopted from Dvorkin et al. [18]).
Formation factor versus porosity computed on carbonate cuttings. The curves are from Archie’s equation with the cementation exponent m 2.0, 2.5, and 3.0 (bottom to top) (adopted from Dvorkin et al. [18]).
Vp versus porosity for Fontainebleau sandstone as computed from a few digital samples and subsamples thereof (squares). Gray circles are from laboratory measurements of dry samples. The curve is from the stiff-sand model (adopted from Dvorkin et al. [18]).
These results open ways to a meaningful utilization of DRP in research and industry. Publications related to DRP are many and the number is growing. We refer the reader to Kameda and Dvorkin [19], Dvorkin et al. [20], Dvorkin and Derzhi [21], and Andra et al. [22, 23].
This chapter presents an overview of rock physics, starting with its history and ending with the most recent development, the digital rock physics. This chapter can be used as a basic reference pointing towards published sources where the topic is developed in-depth and detailed equations, tables, and experimental results are given. One of such comprehensive sources is the third edition of the Rock Physics Handbook [24].
Rock physics remains a key component in interpreting seismic and other remote sensing data for the underlying properties and conditions of the subsurface. A plethora of such practical results has appeared and continues to appear in geophysical journals, such as Geophysics (Society of Exploration Geophysicists), Journal of Geophysical Research (American Geophysical Union), and First Break (European Association of Geoscientists and Engineers), as well as presented at conferences worldwide.
An important topic not addressed in this chapter is a simultaneous interpretation of different remote sensing sources, such as seismic prospecting, electric and electromagnetic sensing, and gravity methods. Once again, such materials can be found in the proceedings and books from the aforementioned professional societies.
We feel that the material presented can serve as a detailed introduction into the extensive field of physics of rocks and be of use to graduate students, as well as advanced professional in earth and environmental sciences.
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