Advantages and drawbacks of the EC process.
\r\n\t
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He is primarily interested in the neuroscience-based rehabilitation, and investigates the development of effective rehabilitation assessment and treatment based on neuroscience.",institutionString:"Kyoto Tachibana University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"4",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kyoto Tachibana University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"16",title:"Medicine",slug:"medicine"}],chapters:[{id:"74154",title:"EEG Measurement as a Tool for Rehabilitation Assessment and Treatment",slug:"eeg-measurement-as-a-tool-for-rehabilitation-assessment-and-treatment",totalDownloads:83,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"196461",title:"Prof.",name:"Hideki",surname:"Nakano",slug:"hideki-nakano",fullName:"Hideki Nakano"}]},{id:"74011",title:"EEG Analysis during Music Perception",slug:"eeg-analysis-during-music-perception",totalDownloads:51,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74364",title:"EEG-Emulated Control Circuits for Brain-Machine Interface",slug:"eeg-emulated-control-circuits-for-brain-machine-interface",totalDownloads:26,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73902",title:"Fronto-Temporal Analysis of EEG Signals of Patients with Depression: Characterisation, Nonlinear Dynamics and Surrogate Analysis",slug:"fronto-temporal-analysis-of-eeg-signals-of-patients-with-depression-characterisation-nonlinear-dynam",totalDownloads:61,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"74189",title:"Necessity of Quantitative EEG for Daily Clinical Practice",slug:"necessity-of-quantitative-eeg-for-daily-clinical-practice",totalDownloads:35,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"73674",title:"Basic Electroencephalogram and It Is Common Clinical Applications in Children",slug:"basic-electroencephalogram-and-it-is-common-clinical-applications-in-children",totalDownloads:50,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"252211",firstName:"Sara",lastName:"Debeuc",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252211/images/7239_n.png",email:"sara.d@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4816",title:"Face Recognition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"146063b5359146b7718ea86bad47c8eb",slug:"face_recognition",bookSignature:"Kresimir Delac and Mislav Grgic",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"46863",title:"Preventing of Cathode Passivation/Deposition in Electrochemical Treatment Methods – A Case Study on Winery Wastewater with Electrocoagulation",doi:"10.5772/58580",slug:"preventing-of-cathode-passivation-deposition-in-electrochemical-treatment-methods-a-case-study-on-wi",body:'Electrochemical methods and processes have been applied for many years in environmental applications such as water/wastewater treatment, recovery of metals, electroplating and qualitative/quantitative analysis in various aqueous media. Among these processes, electrocoagulation (EC) has gained many interest due to providing simple, reliable and cost effective operation for the treatment of wastewaters without and need for additional chemicals, and thus the secondary pollution. EC is declared an environment-friendly technique since the ‘electron’ is the main reagent and does not require addition of the reagents/chemicals. This will minimize the sludge generation to a great extent and eventually eliminate some of the harmful chemicals used as coagulants in the conventional effluent treatment methods. EC process can effectively destabilize small colloidal particles and generates lower quantity of sludge compared to other processes [1]. This technique uses a direct current (DC) source between metal electrodes immersed in polluted water [2]. In this method, soluble metal electrodes (such as iron and aluminium mostly) form metal hydroxides when subjected to a suitable current. The metal hydroxides act as coagulants and lead to the removal of various contaminants [3]. The pros and cons of the EC are tabulated in Table 1
EC is an efficient technique since adsorption of hydroxide on mineral surfaces are a 100 times greater on ‘in situ’ rather than on preprecipitated hydroxides when metal hydroxides are used as coagulant [3]. Besides, the ‘electron’ is the main reagent and does not require addition of the reagents/chemicals, which will minimize the sludge generation to a great extent and eventually eliminate some of the harmful chemicals used as coagulants in the conventional effluent treatment methods. EC process can effectively destabilize small colloidal particles and generates lower quantity of sludge compared to other processes [1]. EC has been successfully applied to the treatment of a lot of wastewaters including either organic or inorganic pollutants as well as drinking waters due to its benefits: environmental compatibility, versatility, energy efficiency, safety, selectivity, amenability to automation, and cost effectiveness. Additionally, electrochemical based systems allow controlled and rapid reactions, smaller systems become viable and, instead of using chemicals and micro-organisms, the systems employ only electrons to facilitate water treatment [3, 5]. However, the main drawback of conventional EC (DC-EC) is inevitable formation of an impermeable oxide film on the cathode, which results in lower removal performance of pollutants and higher operating costs (due to higher energy consumption) [3, 6].
In the EC process, an electric field is applied to the medium for a short time, and the treated dispersion transferred to an integrated clarifier system where the water–contaminant mixture separates into a floating layer, a mineral-rich sediment, and clear water. The aggregated mass settles down due to gravitational force. The clear water can be extracted by conventional methods [4]. Generally, DC power supply is traditionally employed to generate an electric field and ion transportation between the immersed sacrificial electrodes in the EC reactor. However, the major threat of the EC process using DC is that an impermeable oxide film may be formed on the cathode during the electrolysis. This leads a “cathode passivation”, which decreases the ionic transfer between the anode and cathode directly, hindering the metal dissolution and indirectly preventing metal hydroxide formation. Electrolytic dissolution of anode and electrolytic deposition of cathode in the EC cell employing DC power supply are schematically shown in Fig. 1. The DC-EC technology is inherent with the formation of an impermeable oxide layer on the cathode as well as deterioration of the anode due to oxidation. These limitations of the DC-EC process have been minimized to some extent by the addition of parallel plate sacrificial electrodes in the cell configuration. However, many have preferred the use of alternating current (AC) power supply in EC process [4, 7]. According to the reference [4], the AC cyclic energization is believed to retard the normal mechanisms of electrode attack that are experienced in DC-EC system, and thus, ensure reasonable electrode life. In addition to that, since the AC electric fields in an AC-EC separator do not cause electrophoretic transport of the charged particles due to the frequent change of polarity, it can induce dipole–dipole interactions in a system containing nonspherical charged species. As a result, the AC electric fields may also disrupt the stability of balanced dipolar structures existing in such a system. This is, however, not possible in a DC-EC separator using DC electric fields.
To prevent the main disadvantage of the EC, cathode passivation, AC can be preferred as power supply or anode and cathode can be replaced periodically with each other in DC mode. However, the latter option is not feasible for continuous operations in practical. The alternating pulse current (APC) method was proposed with experimental results in detail for the first time by Mao et al. [8] by using AC power. However, the rectangular wave produced by “a time relay from already existing DC power supply” was declared by Eyvaz et al. [9] for the first time in EC applications.
Schematic representation of electrode surface change during the EC treatment using DC supply (t0–t3 are treatment times of continuous process in order).
Mao et al. [8] proposed a novel current feed style in electrocoagulation aiming at preventing the cathode passivation by using AC in synthetic oily wastewater. They investigated the effects of APC on the aluminium electrodes’ surfaces by scanning electron microscope (SEM) and X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), not observing passivation of Al, also achieving uniform dissolution of anode and cathode. Similar to APC, periodic reversal current feed was obtained by a simple time relay device integrated with a DC power supply by Eyvaz et al. [9]. They used this system to prevent electrode passivation of aluminium electrodes in EC of textile dye solutions. Their results indicated that APC was found superior to DC and higher removal efficiencies in shorter operation times and longer fill-and-draw periods could be gained by APC. Removal efficiencies increased in APC system after optimum operation time belongs to DC system as well. In another research containing the comparison of AC and DC, Vasudevan et al. [10] reported that under the identical experimental conditions, similar cadmium removal efficiencies (97.5% and 96.2%) were achieved. However, the benefits of reducing energy consumption were two fold with AC (0.665 and 1.236 kWh/m3 for AC and DC, respectively).
According to the research of Keshmirizadeh et al. [11], equal removal efficiencies were obtained in direct current and alternating pulse current. In the APC mode, the water recovery was very significant, measuring as high as 0.92 m3/m3 wastewater. For DC mode, the water recovery was less than 0.5 m3/m3 of wastewater.The APC mode was found to be more efficient than the DC mode with a lower anode over-voltage, slower anode polarization and passivity, and lower tank voltage. The operating time was 3–25% less when APC mode was used, based on initial Cr(VI) concentration of 50–1000 mg/L, respectively. Because of the reduction in operating time, less energy was consumed, which made the APC mode more cost effective. Application of APC eliminated uneven wear (dissolution) of electrodes; typically, the anode material dissolved and electroreduction products stuck to the cathodes when DC mode was used. When the APC mode was employed, electrocoagulation produced a highly dense or compact sludge at the reactor bottom, resembling dense clay soil layers. It also produced more clear supernatant. The APC mode minimized waste and increased sludge stability.
More recently, periodic electrode reversal methode (PREC) in EC was optimized by response surface methodology (RSM) for color removal of synthetic Methyl Orange wastewater by Pi et al. [12]. Color removals of 97 % with PREC and 82 % with conventional EC were gained in the optimal RSM conditions. It is concluded that EC with PREC can effectively retard cathodic passivation by resulted in lower energy and electrode material consumptions.
Although many researches on treatment of synthetic or real industrial wastewaters with EC are available, very few researches have been carried out on the economical applicability of AC electrocoagulation. Therefore, in this chapter, the effects of power supply type (DC or AC) on EC performance were investigated both technically and economically. An adjustable time relay plugged into the DC power supply was employed to obtain APC to avoid additional AC power supply cost. Winery wastewater was selected as the model electrolyte solution due to its high strength pollutant capacity and APC, an (almost) new method, was applied to the winery wastewaters for the first time with this study.
EC is a complicated process involving many chemicals and physical phenomena that use consumable electrodes to supply ions into the wastewater stream. In an EC process the coagulating ions are produced ‘in situ’ and it involves three successive stages: (i) formation of coagulants by electrolytic oxidation of the ‘sacrificial electrode’,(ii) destabilization of the contaminants, particulate suspension, and breaking of emulsions and (iii) aggregation of the destabilized phases to form flocs. The destabilization mechanism of the contaminants, particulate suspension, and breaking of emulsions have been described in broad steps and may be summarized as: (1) Compression of the diffuse double layer around the charged species by the interactions of ions generated by oxidation of the sacrificial anode, (2) Charge neutralization of the ionic species present in wastewater by counter ions produced by the electrochemi-cal dissolution of the sacrificial anode. These counter ions reduce the electrostatic interparticle repulsion to the extent that the van der Waals attraction predominates, thus causing coagulation. A zero net charge results in the process. (3) Floc formation; the floc formed as a result of coagulation creates a sludge blanket that entraps and bridges colloidal particles still remaining in the aqueous medium. The solid oxides, hydroxides and oxyhydroxides provide active surfaces for the adsorption of the polluting species. EC has been successfully employed in removing metals, suspended particles, clay minerals, organic dyes, and oil & grease from a variety of industrial effluents [3]. A brief literature review of EC efficiency on the treatment of different waters/wastewaters is presented in Table 2.
In this process, a potential is applied to the metal anodes, typically fabricated from either iron or aluminium, which causes two separate reactions: (1) Fe/Al is dissolved from the anode generating corresponding metal ions, which almost immediately hydrolyze to polymeric iron or aluminium hydroxide. These polymeric hydroxides are excellent coagulating agents. The consumable (sacrificial) metal anodes are used to continuously produce polymeric hydroxides in the vicinity of the anode. Coagulation occurs when these metal cations combine with the negative particles carried toward the anode by electrophoretic motion. Contaminants present in the wastewater stream are treated either by chemical reactions and precipitation or physical and chemical attachment to colloidal materials being generated by the electrode erosion. They are then removed by electro-flotation, or sedimentation and filtration. Thus, rather than adding coagulating chemicals as in conventional coagulation process, these coagulating agents are generated in situ. (2) Water is also electrolyzed in a parallel reaction, producing small bubbles of oxygen at the anode and hydrogen at the cathode. These bubbles attract the flocculated particles and, through natural buoyancy, float the flocculated pollutants to the surface [3]. The most important reactions are summarised in Fig. 2.
Schematic representation of typical reactions during the EC treatment using DC supply [13].
The (EC) process involves generation of coagulants in situ by dissolving sacrificial anodes such as aluminium or iron upon application of a DC. When iron electrode is used as anodes upon oxidation in an electrolytic system, it produces iron hydroxide, Fe(OH)n where n=2 or 3 [14, 15]. The major disadvantage of EC compared to chemical coagulation (usually ferric or aluminium chloride/sulfate) is that high conductivity water is required. This fact is especially relevant for drinking water treatment, as conductivity can not be enhanced by salts due to total dissolved solids (TDSs) limitations in drinking water [16]. Two mechanisms for the production of metal hydroxide have been proposed when iron electrodes are used [17, 18]:
Mechanism I:
Mechanism II:
When aluminium electrodes in the EC process are used as an anode and a cathode, the main reactions are at the anode as follows [19-22]:
The performance of the EC process depends on many operational parameters such as pH of the solution, applied current to the reactor, conductivity of the (water/wastewater) solution, electrolysis time as well as electrode spesifications such as arrangement of electrode, electrode shape, distance between the electrodes, etc. Main operational parameters influencing the EC efficiency is schematically given in Fig. 3. The effects of each parameters in details can be found elsewhere in the literature. However, in this study, effects of six of the parameters such as pH of the winery wastewater (by adjusting the pH with acid or base), arrangement of the sacrificial electrodes (parallel or serial connection to power supply), electrolysis time (duration of applying voltage to the wastewater), current density (applied current to the unit area of active electrode surface) and especially power supply type (by changing the polarity of the anodes and cathodes) were investigated.
Schematic display of the various operating parameters influencing the EC process performance.
Usually, DC is used in EC systems. In this case, an impermeable oxide layer may form on the cathode material as well as corrosion formation on the anode material due to oxidation. This prevents the effective current transfer between the anode and cathode, so the performance of EC reactor declines. These disadvantages of DC have been diminished by the addition of parallel plate sacrificial electrodes in the EC unit configuration. However, many have preferred the use of AC in EC unit [7]. It is believed that the cyclic energization between the anode–cathode in AC system delays the cathode passivation and anode deterioration that are experienced in DC system, and thus, ensure reasonable electrode life [4]. A hypothesis for the lower electrode consumption with AC is that since DC only flows in one direction, there may be irregular wear on the plates due to the onslaught of the current and subsequent oxidation occurring in the same preferential points of the electrode. In the case of AC, the cyclical energization retards the normal mechanisms of attack on an electrode and makes this attack more uniform, thus ensures longer electrode life [23].
There are a few studies in which (AC) has been tested although typically DC has been used in EC systems. Vasudevan et al. [24] studied the removal of fluoride from water with DC and AC EC systems. They observed similar removal efficiencies with both technologies. However, energy consumption was slightly lower with AC technology. Eyvaz et al. [9] used APC in their study. APC enhanced removal efficiency compared to DC current. Pollutant removal decreases over the course of time with DC systems, possibly due to passivation of electrodes, whereas in an APC system this was not observed. Polarity reversal has also been suggested by other authors to reduce passivation of electrodes [25].
Schematic display of current waves of AC and APC systems are given in Fig. 4. An adjustable time relay plugged into the DC power supply was employed to obtain APC (It also represents AC in our study). According to EC unit with time relay system, turn on and turn off modes switch to positive pole to negative pole or reversion to it. For example, when the time relay is turned on in an EC reactor including two electrodes namely 1 (anode) and 2 (cathode), electrode 1 is then converted to cathode while electrode 2 is becoming anode. When the time relay is turned off, only DC system is in circuit, electrode 1 becomes anode this time. Current wave in real AC is shown as sine wave in Fig. 4.
Schematic display of current waves of AC and APC systems.
Wine production processes generate organic and inorganic pollutions mostly associated with solid wastes and liquid effluents. The liquid effluents usually referred as “winery wastewater” are mainly originated inwashing operations during grape harvesting, pressing and first fermentation phases of wine processing [26-29]. Winery wastewater is produced in significant volumes around the world [30-32]. Each winery is also unique in wastewater generation, highly variable, 0.8 to 14 L per litre of wine [33-35] and is characterized by high contents of organic material and nutrients, high acidity and large variations in the seasonal flow production [36, 37] and is generated mainly as the result of cleaning practices in winery, such as washing operations during crushing and pressing grapes, rinsing of fermentations tanks, barrels washing, bottling and purges from the cooling process. As a consequence of the working period and the winemaking technologies, volumes and pollution loads greatly vary over the year [35]. The organic matter might reach during vintage periods up to >30,000 mg/L chemical oxygen demand (COD), and the high sodium adsorption ratio (SAR>15) make such water inadequate to be disposed to common sewage systems [37,38].
Although different varieties of grapes and strains of yeasts result in different types of wine and consequently winery wastewaters with different characteristics, in general, the typical raw winery wastewater presents a pH between 3 and 4, COD ranges from 320 to 296,119 mg O2/L and BOD5 values around 125–130,000 mg O2/L [32, 39]. The main organic compounds present in this kind of wastewaters are soluble sugars (fructose and glucose), organic acids (tartaric, lactic and acetic), alcohols (glycerol and ethanol) and high-molecular-weight compounds, such as polyphenols, tannins and lignin [39, 40].
Wine distillery wastewater, the product of the distillation of ethanol, wine and waste biological material, produces large volumes of liquid that involves unacceptable environmental risks [41-47]. The disposal of the untreated waste from the wine sector causing salination and eutrophication of water resources; waterlogging and anaerobiosis and loss of soil structure with increased vulnerability to erosion [33, 35].
Several winery wastewater treatments are available, and among them biological treatment methods have been recognized as a reasonable alternative way for a significant degradation of wastewater with high organic content, however, the presence of recalcitrant compounds for the microorganisms frequently makes impossible the complete treatment of a winery wastewater [27, 29]. The winery wastewater treatment technologies can be sorted as natural evaporation in ponds, evaporation–condensation with or without combustion, direct dispersion on soil as a fertilizer and intensification of the natural evaporation capacity of the ponds by means of sprinklers and panels as physicochemical methods; aerobic or anaerobic treatment, trickling filters, lagoons as biological methods [30, 47-49]. These methods classified as schematically in Fig. 5.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Advantages and drawbacks of the EC process.
COD and BOD of the winery wastewater can be removed significantly by biological treatment. However, the color of the wastewater remains dark brown as that before the treatment because of the non-biodegradable colored compounds such as melanoidins that can be degraded only 6–7% by biological treatment [47, 49-51]. EC process produces coagulants such as iron or aluminium (Al) hydroxides having a considerable sorption capacity by anodic dissolution and also pollutants are removed simultaneously by deposition on cathode electrode or by flotation due to the hydrogen gas produced at the cathode [47, 52-55]. Because the wastewater is not enriched with anions, the sludge produced in EC process is more compact than the sludge generated by chemical coagulation [47, 55]. Besides this, EC process has many advantages like simple equipment, easy operation, a shortened reactive retention time and less sludge amount when compared chemical coagulation [2, 47].
In recent years EC technique has been applied to the wastewaters generated from food industry such as distillery and fermentation [1, 49, 51, 56-58], dairy [59-61], potato chips manufacturing [21], pasta and cookie process [62], poultry slaughterhouse [63-65], and yeast [20, 66]. Although in literature, there are a lot of studies including various treatment methods shown in Fig. 5, there have been very few research [46, 47, 67] conducted about technical and economic analysis of EC process on winery industry wastewaters. Therefore, the purpose of this work is to examine the treatment performance of EC process employing Fe and Al electrodes on winery wastewater when investigating the APC on the overall EC efficiency.
Schematic representation of various methods used in the treatment of winery wastewaters, *: ASB: Anaerobic sludge beds, FB: Fluidized beds, CR: Contact reactor, SBR: Sequencing batch reactor, UASBR: Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket reactor, HD: Hybrid digesters.
\n\t\t\t\t\tPollutants\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrode material\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tOperational parameters investigated\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tSummary of the work\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tRef.\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
Winery | \n\t\t\tAluminium, iron, stainless steel | \n\t\t\tInitial pH, current density and electrolysis time | \n\t\t\t• When Fe electrodes were used under optimal conditions, the removal efficiencies of COD, color, and turbidity were calculated as 46.6, 80.3, and 92.3%, respectively. They were found as 48.5% for COD, 97.2% for color and 98.6% for turbidity, when Al electrodes were used. • A new approach combining electrochemical methods with ultrasound in the strong electromagnetic field resulted in significantly better removal efficiencies for majority of the measured parameters compared to the biological methods, advanced oxidation processes or electrocoagulation. | \n\t\t\t[47], [67] | \n\t\t
Paper-pulp mill | \n\t\t\tAluminium, iron | \n\t\t\tInitial pH, temperature, current density, treatment time. | \n\t\t\t• Temperature has negative effect on the removal efficiency. • Al–Al has a high efficiency in the color removal and Fe–Fe is effective in the COD and Phenol removal. • Pimaric-type acids were removed with higher efficiency than abietic-type resin acids. • EC had no significant effect on bacterial toxicity despite a high removal efficiency of resin acids and copper. • The sludge aptitude to settling is better with Fe electrodes than with Al electrodes. | \n\t\t\t[68-70] | \n\t\t
Textile effluents, dyes | \n\t\t\tAluminium, iron, stainless steel | \n\t\t\tInitial pH, current density, anode-cathode polarization period, power supply type, electrode material, electrode connection mode. | \n\t\t\t• Anode–cathode polarization reduces the reaction for removing TOC and dye from aqueous solutions. • EC employing SS electrodes was more economical; consumed less material and produced less sludge, and pH of the medium was more stabilized than EC with Fe electrodes. | \n\t\t\t[9], [71], [72] | \n\t\t
Boron removal | \n\t\t\tAluminium, iron | \n\t\t\tInitial pH, current density, initial boron concentration, treatment time, temperature | \n\t\t\t• 98 % removal of boron from produced water was achieved. • Adsorption is chemisorption and endothermic. • The effect of water purification for higher boron concentrationsin the solution is better than for low ones. • For the iron and aluminium electrodes, pH = 6 is the most suitable value, and the aluminium anode is the best one for the boron removal. • The highest current density gave the quickest treatment for boron removal from synthetically prepared waters containing boron equivalent industrial wastewaters. | \n\t\t\t[73-75] | \n\t\t
Landfill leachate | \n\t\t\tAluminium, iron | \n\t\t\tElectrode material, current density, initial pH, operating time, Cl- concentration | \n\t\t\t• Aluminum supplies more COD removal (56%) than iron electrode (35%) at the end of the 30 min operating time. • Coagulation and EC treatment mainly affected hydrophobic molecules and after treatment 30% of the initial BDOC quantity was removed. • Electrolysis (and as a consequence EC) increased the amount of hydrophilic organic compounds of lower apparent molecular weight. • Under conditions of iron electrode, 4.96 mA/cm2 current density, 2319 mg/L Cl- concentration, 90 min electrolysis time and unchanged the raw pH (6.4-7.3), the removal efficiencies of COD, NH3-N, TP, BOD5 and turbidity are 49.8, 38.6, 82.2, 84.4 and 69.7%, respectively. | \n\t\t\t[76-78] | \n\t\t
Drinking water | \n\t\t\tAluminium, iron, stainless steel | \n\t\t\tAnode metal type, NOM source, initial NOM concentration, co-occurring solutes, initial fluoride concentration, electrode connection type. | \n\t\t\t• Between the three metals tested, iron was the least costly and most available material, it presented greater DOC removal, it showed no passivation layer and linear voltage ramp, and residual metal met guideline values. • Removal of fluoride was better for bipolar connection than for monopolar connection. • The operating costs for monopolar and bipolar connections were 0.38 and 0.62 US$/m3, respectively, for the initial fluoride concentration of 10 mg/L. • The residual arsenic concentration was maintained below the limiting value recommended during a period of 16 h of continuous mode operation for EC-MF system. | \n\t\t\t[16], [79], [80] | \n\t\t
Olive mill | \n\t\t\tAluminium, iron | \n\t\t\tElectrolysis time, current density, chloride concentration, initial pH, settling time, electrode material and polarization, amount of hydrogen peroxide, addition of coagulant-aid | \n\t\t\t• EC can remove more than 70% of COD, polyphe-nols and dark color. • EC treatment makes good solid matter and turbidity removal efficiency, 71% and 75%, respectively. • EC in the absence of coagulant aid and oxidant is not too efficient for the treatment of this type of wastewater. | \n\t\t\t[81-83] | \n\t\t
Oily wastewaters | \n\t\t\tAluminium, iron, steel | \n\t\t\telectrode connection mode, current density, initial oil concentration, pH, NaCl dosage | \n\t\t\t• The best performance was obtained using mild steel MP electrode system. • EC process operated under the optimal conditions involves a total cost of 0.46 US$ per cubic meter of treated oily bilge water. • The oil removal efficiency showed its best values at high current density values, high initial oil concentration with an emulsion of pH around 7. • Sacrifice anode like Fe found to be more effective than Al for the removal of sulfide species and organic matters. | \n\t\t\t[55], [84], [85] | \n\t\t
Poultry slaughterhouse, manure | \n\t\t\tAluminium, iron | \n\t\t\tStirring speed, current density, | \n\t\t\t• It has been possible to decrease COD of poultry slaughterhouse wastewater about 2170 mg/L to a less than 300 mg/L in a matter of 30 min. under stirring speed of 150 rpm, initial pH 3 and a current density of 1.0 mA/cm2 conditions. • Aluminum electrode performed better in reducing the COD, with a removal efficiency as 93% in 25 at low initial pH, such as 3, and current density of 150 A/m2 .On the other hand, iron electrode was more successful in removing oil-grease with 98% efficiency, irrespective of the initial pH. From economic point of view, iron electrode is clearly preferable; the total operating cost is between 0.3 and 0.4 $/m3 , which is nearly half that of aluminum electrode. • Under the optimal conditions, about 90% of COD and 92% of residual color could be effectively removed from the UASB effluent with the further contribution of the EC technology used as a post-treatment unit. | \n\t\t\t[63], [64], [76] | \n\t\t
Electroplating/metal | \n\t\t\tAluminium, iron | \n\t\t\tElectrode material, current density, wastewater pH, conductivity, initial metal concentration | \n\t\t\t• The Fe–Fe and Fe–Al electrode combinations were more effective for the removal of Cu, Cr and Ni from metal plating wastewater. • At the current density of 25 mA/cm2 with a total energy consumption of 49 kWh/m3 , more than 96% removal value was achieved for all studied metals except Mn which was 72.6%. | \n\t\t\t[86-88] | \n\t\t
cont. A brief literature review of EC efficiency on the treatment of different waters/wastewaters containing various organic/inorganic pollutants.
The wastewater used in this work was taken from an equalization tank of a wine factory located in the city of Tekirdağ (in TURKEY), producing approximately 350 m3 of wastewater daily. The characteristics of the wastewater are presented in Table 3.
\n\t\t\t\t\tParameter \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tValue \n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
pH | \n\t\t\t5.2 | \n\t\t
COD, mg/L | \n\t\t\t20,400 ± 1,100 | \n\t\t
BOD5, mg/L | \n\t\t\t11,120 ± 1,055 | \n\t\t
TOC, mg/L | \n\t\t\t4,230 ± 940 | \n\t\t
TSS, mg/L | \n\t\t\t1,045 ± 85 | \n\t\t
Turbidity, NTU | \n\t\t\t1,600 ± 510 | \n\t\t
Color, Pt-Co | \n\t\t\t5,300 ± 100 | \n\t\t
Conductivity, µS/cm | \n\t\t\t2,800 ± 93 | \n\t\t
Characteristics of the winery wastewater used in this study
EC reactor was made from plexiglas reactor with dimensions of 130 × 130 × 120 mm and operated in batch mode. Al and Fe electrodes with effective area of 143 cm2 were used and the distance between the electrodes was 20 mm. Electrodes were connected to a digital DC power supply (Maksimel, Ankara, Turkey) in various electrode connection modes of which details are given below. A time relay (Siemens Sirius, Germany) was used with DC power supply to change polarity of the electrodes when performing APC experiments.
To improve the performances of an EC it may be necessary to interchange the polarity of the electrode intermittently. However, a two-electrode EC cell is not suitable for wastewater treatment, because for a workable rate of metal dissolution the use of electrodes with large surface area is required. Performance improvement has been achieved by using EC cells with monopolar electrodes either in parallel or series connections [3]. In the MP-P system, anodes and cathodes are in parallel connection, the current is divided between all the electrodes in relation to the resistance of the individual cells. Hence, a lower potential difference is required in parallel connection, when compared with serial connections. MP-P connection mode is given in Fig. 6.
In the MP-S system, each pair of sacrificial electrodes is internally connected with each other, because the cell voltages sum up, a higher potential difference is required for a given current. MP-S connection mode is given in Fig. 7.
In the BP-S system, there is no electrical connection between inner electrodes, only the outer electrodes are connected to the power supply. Outer electrodes are monopolar and inner ones are bipolar. This connection mode has simple setup with and has less maintenance cost during operation. BP-S connection mode is given in Fig. 8.
An adjustable time relay (3RP1525-1BW30 Siemens Sirius Time Relay 20>240VAc/Dc) plugged into the DC power supply was employed to obtain APC. It represents AC in our study. According to EC unit with time relay system, turn on and turn off modes switch to positive pole to negative pole or reversion to it. For example, when the time relay is turned on in an EC reactor including two electrodes namely 1 (anode) and 2 (cathode), electrode 1 is then converted to cathode while electrode 2 is becoming anode. When the time relay is turned off, only DC system is in circuit, electrode 1 becomes anode this time.
EC reactor with MP-P electrodes [89].
EC reactor with MP-S electrodes [89].
EC reactor with BP-S electrodes [89].
All experiments were performed at constant temperature of 25˚C. In each run, 1,500 mL of winery wastewater was placed into the reactor. Magnetic stirring (250 rpm, Velp Are) was applied to provide a homogenous solution in the reactor. Conductivity was 2.800 µS/cm that was the conductivity of the wastewater itself where no supported electrolyte was added. The current and pH were adjusted to the desired value before the process. After each run, electrode surfaces were removed by dipping for 1 min in a solution prepared by mixing 100 cm3 of HCl solution (36.5%) and 200 cm3 of hexamethylenetetramine aqueous solution (2.80%) [71] and washed thoroughly with demineralized water to remove any solid residues on the surfaces, dried and re-weighted. The solution was filtered through a filter paper (Whatman 40 ashless-NJ, USA) after each run and then analyzed. The solid residue was dried until constant weight was obtained for the calculation of sludge amounts. The experiments were performed in three replications used to compute the mean value and standard deviations. Therefore large amounts of data were collected; analyzed and figured for pH, current density and time experiments; only on effects of COD removal efficiencies; so, all of the graphics could not be presented here due to the limited space in the chapter. Electrode and energy consumptions, sludge formations and operating costs are given in Tables. Economic data used for the evaluation of the total operating costs dye given for the first quarter of 2013, Turkey market, in Table 4.
\n\t\t\t\t\tItem with warranty period\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tCost\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
Power supply and installing, $, 5 years | \n\t\t\t10,000 | \n\t\t
EC tank and installing, $, 10 years | \n\t\t\t500 | \n\t\t
Maintenance and depreciation, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.005 | \n\t\t
Electricity, $ /kWh | \n\t\t\t0.17 | \n\t\t
Labor costs, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.1 | \n\t\t
Aluminium electrode, $/kg | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t
Iron electrode, $/kg | \n\t\t\t0.5 | \n\t\t
Chemicals (acid, salt, etc.), $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.04 | \n\t\t
Slıudge disposal cost, $/kg | \n\t\t\t0.012 | \n\t\t
Economic factors used in the total operating cost calculations.
Measurements of COD and total suspended solids (TSS) were performed according to the procedure of Standard Methods (2005). The pH and conductivity of solutions were measured using a multi meter (Hach Lange HQ40d-Düsseldorf, Germany). An UV spectrophotometer (HACH Co., model DR5000-Düsseldorf, Germany) was employed to measure color and turbidity of the wastewater. The initial pH was adjusted to a desired value using NaOH (Merck-Darmstadt, Germany) or H2SO4 (Merck-Darmstadt, Germany).
Pollutant removal efficiencies are calculated as follows:
where C is COD, color or turbidity value of treated aqueous solution (mg/L, Pt-Co or NTU) and C0 is the initial relating concentrations (mg/L, Pt-Co or NTU).
The EC process is highly dependent on the initial pH of the solution [3]. In aluminium case, precipitation mechanism of monomeric and polymeric Al(OH)3 species at pH 4.0–6.5 and adsorption mechanism of Al(OH)3 and polymeric Al(OH)3 species at pH > 6.5 are effective on the removal of pollutants. However, in the iron case, good removal efficiency can be achieved on floc formation at pH 6–8 [89-91]. Five pH values (4, 5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) were selected to investigate the optimal pH at which maximum removal efficiencies, minimum electrode and energy consumptions were observed for three electrode connection systems as well as both of the electrode material, Fe and Al. The effects of pH have been investigated at constant current density of 40 mA/cm2 and 60 min of operating time. Because there were a lot of parameters (such as pH, current density, operating time, electrode material, electrode arrangement, and current type) of which effects were investigated on the great number of process outputs (such as COD, turbidity and color removals; energy and electrode consumptions; sludge amount, and total operating cost), large amounts of data were collected, therefore, only some of them are given as figures; as for the others, they are presented in tables. However, effects of APC are analyzed and discussed in much more details in the following sections. The effects of initial pH on COD removal are featured in Fig. 9. In both cases of different electrode materials, no great differences are observed between connection modes. As seen from the figure, the highest COD removal efficiencies were observed at pH 5 for Al electrode and at pH 7 for Fe electrode, where also maximum turbidity and color removals as well as minimum energy and electrode consumptions with minimum sludge formations (Table 5) were achieved. According to the Fig. 9, COD removal efficiency increased when pH increased from 4 to 5 and then it decreased at higher pH values, until pH 9. In similar trend, Fe electrode shows maximum performance for COD removal at pH 7, (maxium turbidity and color removals were also obtained at these pHs: 5 and 7, as seen in Table 5). It was concluded that colloid particles were destabilized by the metal ions produced by anodic dissolution and these ions reacted with organic pollutions by adsorption or co-precipitation while they were precipitating in the form of hydroxides at these pH values [54, 71]. According to Table 5 where the optimum pHs are presented for both electrodes, Fe and Al electrodes show similar performances with all connection modes on the removal of color and turbidity. Additionally, almost equal amounts of sludge revealed. However, MP-S and BP-S systems exhibit high consumptions as the consequence of the serial connection requiring higher potential. When electrode consumptions are compared, more electrode material is consumed in iron case than that of aluminium. The lowest total operating cost was gained with MP-P mode as expected.
Current density is the most important parameter for controlling the reaction rate within the reactor in all electrochemical processes. It is well known that the magnitude of current density determines the amount of Al or Fe ions released from the electrodes and the formation rate of Me(OH)n (coagulant production rate) [92, 93] and adjusts the rate and size of the bubble production, and hence affects the growth of flocs [3, 94, 95]. In this research, all the experiments were applied under pHs 5 and 7 for Al and Fe electrodes, respectively with 60 min of electrolysis time to examine current density effects. Fig. 10 depicts the current density effects on COD removal. The removal percentages reach maximum at 40-50 mA/cm2 and stay constant or decrease at higher current densities. Increment in current density raised the formation of hydroxide flocs and promote the removal efficiency by coagulation but meanwhile it causes an increase in energy consumption. However, after a certain value of current density, cathode passivation occurred and dissolution of anode material stopped or reduced and also floc formation and removal efficiencies decreased. The turbidity and color removal efficiencies were also came in sight the same trend with current density as COD removal efficiency. Because the lower current density with higher removal efficiencies is preferable, depending on the results, 40 mA/cm2 was chosen as the approppriate current density value for the following time experiments. The other results belong to this value are shown in Table 6.
Effects of initial pH on removal efficiencies for Fe and Al electrodes with different electrode arrangements (current density of 40 mA/cm2; operating time of 60 min).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\tAl\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\tFe\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t\tParameter\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMP-P | \n\t\t\tMP-S | \n\t\t\tBP-S | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | MP-P | \n\t\t\tMP-S | \n\t\t\tBP-S | \n\t\t
Initial pH | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 7 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t
Current density, mA/cm2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t
Operating time, min | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 60 | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t
Initial voltage, V | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t84 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 28 | \n\t\t\t84 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t
Final voltage, V | \n\t\t\t29 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\t87 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 29 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\t87 | \n\t\t
Initial COD, mg/L | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t
Initial color, Pt-Co | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t
Initial turbidity, NTU | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t
COD removal, % | \n\t\t\t39 | \n\t\t\t39.1 | \n\t\t\t40.3 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 41 | \n\t\t\t37.6 | \n\t\t\t43.1 | \n\t\t
Color removal, % | \n\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t\t69.1 | \n\t\t\t71 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 73.2 | \n\t\t\t69.1 | \n\t\t\t73.2 | \n\t\t
Turbidity removal, % | \n\t\t\t86.3 | \n\t\t\t85.2 | \n\t\t\t82.1 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 81 | \n\t\t\t80.6 | \n\t\t\t81 | \n\t\t
Energy consumption, kWh/kg COD | \n\t\t\t6.83 | \n\t\t\t20.19 | \n\t\t\t19.93 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6.49 | \n\t\t\t20.99 | \n\t\t\t18.64 | \n\t\t
Energy consumption, KWh/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t36.20 | \n\t\t\t107.34 | \n\t\t\t109.25 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 36.20 | \n\t\t\t107.34 | \n\t\t\t109.25 | \n\t\t
Energy cost, $/kg COD | \n\t\t\t1.16 | \n\t\t\t2.35 | \n\t\t\t3.39 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1.16 | \n\t\t\t3.57 | \n\t\t\t3.17 | \n\t\t
Energy cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t6.15 | \n\t\t\t18.25 | \n\t\t\t18.57 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6.15 | \n\t\t\t18.25 | \n\t\t\t18.57 | \n\t\t
Faraday (charge loading), coulomb/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t47.40 | \n\t\t\t47.40 | \n\t\t\t47.40 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 47.40 | \n\t\t\t47.40 | \n\t\t\t47.40 | \n\t\t
Electrode consumption, kg Al or Fe/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.40 | \n\t\t\t0.45 | \n\t\t\t0.45 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.88 | \n\t\t\t0.89 | \n\t\t\t0.87 | \n\t\t
Electrode cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.20 | \n\t\t\t0.23 | \n\t\t\t0.23 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.44 | \n\t\t\t0.45 | \n\t\t\t0.43 | \n\t\t
Sludge formation, kg/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t9.86 | \n\t\t\t9.93 | \n\t\t\t10.17 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 10.73 | \n\t\t\t10.06 | \n\t\t\t11.16 | \n\t\t
Sludge formation, kg/kg COD removed | \n\t\t\t1.86 | \n\t\t\t1.87 | \n\t\t\t1.87 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1.92 | \n\t\t\t1.97 | \n\t\t\t1.90 | \n\t\t
Sludge disposal cost, $/kg | \n\t\t\t0.12 | \n\t\t\t0.12 | \n\t\t\t0.13 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.13 | \n\t\t\t0.12 | \n\t\t\t0.13 | \n\t\t
Operating cost, $/kg COD removed | \n\t\t\t0.83 | \n\t\t\t2.35 | \n\t\t\t2.32 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.82 | \n\t\t\t2.47 | \n\t\t\t2.19 | \n\t\t
Total operating cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t6.62 | \n\t\t\t18.74 | \n\t\t\t19.07 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6.86 | \n\t\t\t18.96 | \n\t\t\t19.28 | \n\t\t
Optimum results obtained from pH experiments.
Operating time is another important factor in EC process, which is necessary to provide sufficient current applied to the electrodes where the metal ions generated by the dissolution to form metal hydroxide species. Therefore reasonable electrolysis times should be applied in the EC reactor. To investigate the effects of operating time on the EC, optimum parameters obtained from the former pH and current density experiments were used: pHs 5 and 7 for Al and Fe, respectively; 40 mA/cm2 of current density. Influence of the operating time on COD removal and the other results at the appropriate electrolysis time are presented in Fig. 11 and Table 7 respectively.
Effects of current density on removal efficiencies for Fe and Al electrodes with different electrode arrangements (initial pH of 5 for Al and 7 for Fe; operating time of 60 min).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\tAl\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\tFe\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t\tParameter\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMP-P | \n\t\t\tMP-S | \n\t\t\tBP-S | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | MP-P | \n\t\t\tMP-S | \n\t\t\tBP-S | \n\t\t
Initial pH | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 7 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t
Current density, mA/cm2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t
Operating time, min | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 60 | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t\t60 | \n\t\t
Initial voltage, V | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t84 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 28 | \n\t\t\t84 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t
Final voltage, V | \n\t\t\t29 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\t87 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 29 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\t87 | \n\t\t
Initial COD, mg/L | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t
Initial color, Pt-Co | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t
Initial turbidity, NTU | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t
COD removal, % | \n\t\t\t39 | \n\t\t\t39.1 | \n\t\t\t40.3 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 41 | \n\t\t\t37.6 | \n\t\t\t43.1 | \n\t\t
Color removal, % | \n\t\t\t70 | \n\t\t\t69.1 | \n\t\t\t71 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 73.2 | \n\t\t\t69.1 | \n\t\t\t73.2 | \n\t\t
Turbidity removal, % | \n\t\t\t86.3 | \n\t\t\t85.2 | \n\t\t\t82.1 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 81 | \n\t\t\t80.6 | \n\t\t\t81 | \n\t\t
Energy consumption, kWh/kg COD | \n\t\t\t6.83 | \n\t\t\t20.19 | \n\t\t\t19.93 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6.49 | \n\t\t\t20.99 | \n\t\t\t18.64 | \n\t\t
Energy consumption, KWh/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t36.20 | \n\t\t\t107.34 | \n\t\t\t109.25 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 36.20 | \n\t\t\t107.34 | \n\t\t\t109.25 | \n\t\t
Energy cost, $/kg COD | \n\t\t\t1.16 | \n\t\t\t2.35 | \n\t\t\t3.39 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1.16 | \n\t\t\t3.57 | \n\t\t\t3.17 | \n\t\t
Energy cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t6.15 | \n\t\t\t18.25 | \n\t\t\t18.57 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6.15 | \n\t\t\t18.25 | \n\t\t\t18.57 | \n\t\t
Faraday (charge loading), coulomb/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t47.40 | \n\t\t\t47.40 | \n\t\t\t47.40 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 47.40 | \n\t\t\t47.40 | \n\t\t\t47.40 | \n\t\t
Electrode consumption, kg Al or Fe/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.40 | \n\t\t\t0.45 | \n\t\t\t0.45 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.88 | \n\t\t\t0.89 | \n\t\t\t0.87 | \n\t\t
Electrode cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.20 | \n\t\t\t0.23 | \n\t\t\t0.23 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.44 | \n\t\t\t0.45 | \n\t\t\t0.43 | \n\t\t
Sludge formation, kg/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t9.86 | \n\t\t\t9.93 | \n\t\t\t10.17 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 10.73 | \n\t\t\t10.06 | \n\t\t\t11.16 | \n\t\t
Sludge formation, kg/kg COD removed | \n\t\t\t1.86 | \n\t\t\t1.87 | \n\t\t\t1.87 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1.92 | \n\t\t\t1.97 | \n\t\t\t1.90 | \n\t\t
Sludge disposal cost, $/kg | \n\t\t\t0.12 | \n\t\t\t0.12 | \n\t\t\t0.13 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.13 | \n\t\t\t0.12 | \n\t\t\t0.13 | \n\t\t
Operating cost, $/kg COD removed | \n\t\t\t0.83 | \n\t\t\t2.35 | \n\t\t\t2.32 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.82 | \n\t\t\t2.47 | \n\t\t\t2.19 | \n\t\t
Total operating cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t6.62 | \n\t\t\t18.74 | \n\t\t\t19.07 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 6.86 | \n\t\t\t18.96 | \n\t\t\t19.28 | \n\t\t
Optimum results obtained from current density experiments.
As seen from Fig.11, COD removal efficiencies of both electrodes in three connection modes increases until a certain operating time value, then, remain steady or decrease. Here, two explanation may be done: Firstly, for an electrolysis time beyond the optimum electrolysis time, the pollutant removal efficiency does not increase as sufficient numbers of flocs are available for the removal of the pollutant [1], secondly, removal efficiency does not increase, on the contrary, it decreases due to the anodic passivation and cathodic polarization which can impede the performance of EC [9, 96]. This situation is also valid in the case of the current density experiments. The optimum operating times (chosen as 90 and 105 min for Fe and Al, respectively), at which the maximum pollutant removals and minimum energy/electrode consumptions were gained, is presented with experimental results in Table 7. Because the removal efficiencies in the Table are close to each other, MP-P connection mode with minimum total operating cost is preferred for the follow-up experiments of the comparison of DC and APC.
Effects of operating time on removal efficiencies for Fe and Al electrodes with different electrode arrangements (initial pH of 5 for Al and 7 for Fe; current density of 40 mA/cm2).
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\tAl\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\tFe\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t\tParameter\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tMP-P | \n\t\t\tMP-S | \n\t\t\tBP-S | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | MP-P | \n\t\t\tMP-S | \n\t\t\tBP-S | \n\t\t
Initial pH | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 7 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t
Current density, mA/cm2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t
Operating time, min | \n\t\t\t105 | \n\t\t\t105 | \n\t\t\t105 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 90 | \n\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t
Initial voltage, V | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t84 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 28 | \n\t\t\t84 | \n\t\t\t86 | \n\t\t
Final voltage, V | \n\t\t\t29 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\t88 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 29 | \n\t\t\t85 | \n\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t
Initial COD, mg/L | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t
Initial color, Pt-Co | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t
Initial turbidity, NTU | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t
COD removal, % | \n\t\t\t55.1 | \n\t\t\t57 | \n\t\t\t59 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 52.4 | \n\t\t\t46.7 | \n\t\t\t49.9 | \n\t\t
Color removal, % | \n\t\t\t96.3 | \n\t\t\t92.1 | \n\t\t\t94.7 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 81.4 | \n\t\t\t76.7 | \n\t\t\t81.1 | \n\t\t
Turbidity removal, % | \n\t\t\t97.7 | \n\t\t\t97 | \n\t\t\t95.4 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 90.8 | \n\t\t\t88.2 | \n\t\t\t91.5 | \n\t\t
Energy consumption, kWh/kg COD | \n\t\t\t8.45 | \n\t\t\t24.23 | \n\t\t\t23.97 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 7.62 | \n\t\t\t25.35 | \n\t\t\t24.71 | \n\t\t
Energy consumption, KWh/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t63.36 | \n\t\t\t187.85 | \n\t\t\t192.29 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 54.30 | \n\t\t\t161.01 | \n\t\t\t167.68 | \n\t\t
Energy cost, $/kg COD | \n\t\t\t1.44 | \n\t\t\t4.12 | \n\t\t\t4.07 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1.30 | \n\t\t\t4.31 | \n\t\t\t4.20 | \n\t\t
Energy cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10.77 | \n\t\t\t31.93 | \n\t\t\t32.69 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 9.23 | \n\t\t\t27.37 | \n\t\t\t28.51 | \n\t\t
Faraday (charge loading), coulomb/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t82.94 | \n\t\t\t82.94 | \n\t\t\t82.94 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 71.10 | \n\t\t\t71.10 | \n\t\t\t71.10 | \n\t\t
Electrode consumption, kg Al or Fe/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.75 | \n\t\t\t0.75 | \n\t\t\t0.77 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1.33 | \n\t\t\t1.30 | \n\t\t\t1.30 | \n\t\t
Electrode cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t0.39 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.66 | \n\t\t\t0.65 | \n\t\t\t0.65 | \n\t\t
Sludge formation, kg/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t13.49 | \n\t\t\t13.87 | \n\t\t\t14.31 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 13.52 | \n\t\t\t12.33 | \n\t\t\t12.98 | \n\t\t
Sludge formation, kg/kg COD removed | \n\t\t\t1.80 | \n\t\t\t1.79 | \n\t\t\t1.78 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 1.90 | \n\t\t\t1.94 | \n\t\t\t1.91 | \n\t\t
Sludge disposal cost, $/kg | \n\t\t\t0.16 | \n\t\t\t0.17 | \n\t\t\t0.17 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.16 | \n\t\t\t0.15 | \n\t\t\t0.16 | \n\t\t
Operating cost, $/kg COD removed | \n\t\t\t1.02 | \n\t\t\t2.81 | \n\t\t\t2.77 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 0.95 | \n\t\t\t2.97 | \n\t\t\t2.89 | \n\t\t
Total operating cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t11.45 | \n\t\t\t32.62 | \n\t\t\t33.39 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | 10.20 | \n\t\t\t28.31 | \n\t\t\t29.46 | \n\t\t
Optimum results obtained from operating time experiments.
As encountered as a problem, cathode passivation, in the current density and operating time experiments, it may be described schematically as given in Fig. 12 similar to the results given in Table 8. To compare DC and APC system, MP-P connection mode selected for both electrode material. Current density and operating time experiments were repeated with time relay integrated with DC power supply to generate polarization between anodes and cathodes at certain intervals. Time relay was set to 300 Hz-1 [9] meaning anode–cathode polarization period of 10 min. The results are depicted in Figs. 13 and 14 for current density and operating time, respectively. As seen in the figures, removal efficiencies are not stopped or decreased at or after a certain current density or time value, moreover, at the same values APC sounds superior to DC. To make a local comparison between APC and DC, the results of APC are presented at optimum experimental conditions that formerly determined for DC system employed Fe or Al electrodes in MP-P connection mode in Table 8. Moreover, few reports in literature about power supply effects on EC process are presented with overall results in Table 9.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\tAl\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tFe\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t||||
\n\t\t\t\tParameter\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\tDC | \n\t\t\tAPC | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | DC | \n\t\t\tAPC | \n\t\t
Initial pH | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t5 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 7 | \n\t\t\t7 | \n\t\t
Current density, mA/cm2\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 40 | \n\t\t\t40 | \n\t\t
Operating time, min | \n\t\t\t105 | \n\t\t\t105 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 90 | \n\t\t\t90 | \n\t\t
Initial voltage, V | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 28 | \n\t\t\t28 | \n\t\t
Final voltage, V | \n\t\t\t29 | \n\t\t\t29 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 29 | \n\t\t\t29 | \n\t\t
Initial COD, mg/L | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 20,400 | \n\t\t\t20,400 | \n\t\t
Initial color, Pt-Co | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 5,300 | \n\t\t\t5,300 | \n\t\t
Initial turbidity, NTU | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 1,600 | \n\t\t\t1,600 | \n\t\t
COD removal, % | \n\t\t\t55.1 | \n\t\t\t77 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 52.4 | \n\t\t\t75 | \n\t\t
Color removal, % | \n\t\t\t96.3 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 81.4 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t
Turbidity removal, % | \n\t\t\t97.7 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 90.8 | \n\t\t\t99 | \n\t\t
Energy consumption, kWh/kg COD | \n\t\t\t8.45 | \n\t\t\t6.05 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 7.62 | \n\t\t\t5.32 | \n\t\t
Energy consumption, KWh/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t63.36 | \n\t\t\t63.36 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 54.30 | \n\t\t\t54.30 | \n\t\t
Energy cost, $/kg COD | \n\t\t\t1.44 | \n\t\t\t1.03 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 1.30 | \n\t\t\t0.91 | \n\t\t
Energy cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t10.77 | \n\t\t\t10.77 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 9.23 | \n\t\t\t9.23 | \n\t\t
Faraday (charge loading), coulomb/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t82.94 | \n\t\t\t82.94 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 71.10 | \n\t\t\t71.10 | \n\t\t
Electrode consumption, kg Al or Fe/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.75 | \n\t\t\t0.85 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 1.33 | \n\t\t\t1.36 | \n\t\t
Electrode cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t0.37 | \n\t\t\t0.43 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 0.66 | \n\t\t\t0.68 | \n\t\t
Sludge formation, kg/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t13.49 | \n\t\t\t18.10 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 13.52 | \n\t\t\t18.16 | \n\t\t
Sludge formation, kg/kg COD removed | \n\t\t\t1.80 | \n\t\t\t1.72 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 1.90 | \n\t\t\t1.78 | \n\t\t
Sludge disposal cost, $/kg | \n\t\t\t0.16 | \n\t\t\t0.22 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 0.16 | \n\t\t\t0.22 | \n\t\t
Operating cost, $/kg COD removed | \n\t\t\t1.02 | \n\t\t\t0.74 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 0.95 | \n\t\t\t0.67 | \n\t\t
Total operating cost, $/m3\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t11.45 | \n\t\t\t11.55 | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t | 10.20 | \n\t\t\t10.27 | \n\t\t
Comparison of DC and APC at the same experimental conditions.
(a) General trend of pollutant removal efficiency changing with respect to current density and operating time in EC using DC power supply (one-way current), (b) Improved removal efficiency behaviour with respect to current density and operating time in EC using AC power supply or APC (two-way current).
Comparison of DC and APC for two electrode materials in view of COD removal performances at different current densities.
Comparison of DC and APC for two electrode materials in view of COD removal performances at different operating times.
\n\t\t\t\t\tPollutants\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tElectrode material\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tOperational parameters investigated\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tSummary of the work\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t\tRef.\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t
Cr (VI) | \n\t\t\tAluminium, iron | \n\t\t\tInitial pH, current density, reaction time, initial Cr (IV) concentrations, solution conductivity, electrical energy consumption, type of circuit | \n\t\t\tThe APC mode was found to be more efficient than the DC mode with a lower anode over-voltage, slower anode polarization and passivity, and lower tank voltage. The operating time is 3–25% less when APC mode is used. The APC mode minimizes waste and increases sludge stability. In the APC mode, the “water recovery” was very significant, measuring as high as 0.92 m3/m3 wastewater. For DC mode, the water recovery was less than 0.5 m3/m3 of wastewater. | \n\t\t\t[11] | \n\t\t
Cadmium | \n\t\t\tAluminium | \n\t\t\tInitial pH, current density, initial Cd concentrations, effect of coexisting ions | \n\t\t\tThe optimized removal efficiency of 97.5% and 96.2% was achieved for AC and DC source at a current density of 0.2 A/dm2 and pH of 7.0 using aluminum alloy as anode and cathode. For both AC and DC electrolysis the adsorption of cadmium preferably fitting Langmuir adsorption isotherm better than Freundlich isotherm. | \n\t\t\t[10] | \n\t\t
Cadmium | \n\t\t\tZinc | \n\t\t\tInitial cadmium ion concentration, initial pH, current density and temperature. | \n\t\t\tThe optimum removal efficiency of cadmium is 97.8% and 96.9% with the energy consumption of 0.665 and 1.236 kWh/m3 was achieved for AC and DC source at a current density of 0.2 A/dm2 and pH of 7.0 For both AC and DC electrolysis the adsorption of cadmium preferably fitting Langmuir adsorption isotherm. | \n\t\t\t[97] | \n\t\t
Synthetic Methyl Orange wastewater | \n\t\t\tAluminium | \n\t\t\tInitial pH, initial MO concentration, solution conductivity | \n\t\t\tElectrocoagulation with periodic electrode reversal (PREC) can effectively retard cathodic polarization and anodic passivation. Decolorization of MO wastewater is described well by a first-order reaction equation. The rate constant was fitted to be 0.183 min−1 for PREC, an increase of 20% compared to the EC. | \n\t\t\t[12] | \n\t\t
Dianix Yellow CC, Procion Yellow dyes | \n\t\t\tAluminium | \n\t\t\tInitial pH, current density, operating time, frequency of anode-cathode polarization. | \n\t\t\tHigher removal efficiencies of TOC and dye can be acquired in shorter operation times by using APC system. Removal efficiencies increase in APC system after optimum operation time belongs to DC system as well. | \n\t\t\t[9] | \n\t\t
A brief literature review of some studies on power supply effects on EC performance
The EC technique has gained a remarkable attention in the wastewater treatment applications due to its benefits including environmental compatibility, versatility, energy efficiency, safety, selectivity, amenability to automation, and cost effectiveness. The EC process contains an in-situ generation of metal hydroxide ions by electrolytic oxidation of the sacrificial anode. These metal hydroxide ions act as coagulant and remove the pollutants from the solution by sedimentation. Majority of the studies reported in the literature have traditionally used DC in the EC process. However, the traditional process also has the serious disadvantages of cathodic passivation which can impede the electrolytic process in a continuous operation. The use of DC leads to the corrosion formation on the anode due to oxidation. An oxidation layer also form on the cathode reducing the flow of current between the cathode and the anode and thereby lowering the pollutant removal efficiency and highering the operational cost. Therefore, in this research an almost new method, APC electrocoagulation was used to overcome the cathode passivation. A real high strength industrial wastewater, winery wastewater, was selected as the model electrolytic solution. In the EC reactor, aluminium and iron were used as sacrificial electrodes separately in three different connection modes namely, monopolar –parallel,,monopolar-serial, and bipolar serial connections. DC was obtained from a DC power supply operated at galvanostatic mode while APC was obtained by a time relay device integrated with the DC power supply. COD, color, and turbidity removal efficiencies were considered when DC and APC were compared technically. Furthermore, various cost items were used to calculate the total operation cost of both DC and APC systems by means of pollutant removals. A comprehensive literature survey from numerous references is also stated on EC and power supply effects. According to the experimental results, the following conclusions may be exposed:
Higher removal efficiencies can be acquired in both same and shorter operation times by using APC system. In the same operating time, conditions, APC provide 40% more COD removal than DC. Similarly, APC reach 30 % more faster to DC’ s COD removal performance. Thus, it can be said that anode–cathode polarization reduces the reaction time which is necessary for metal hydroxides removing the pollutants.
COD, turbidity and color removal efficiencies increase until a certain current density and operation time and then they decrease so long as DC system goes on working. It may be due to the cathode passivization arisen from accumulation of contaminants on the cathode material. Therefore, electrode surfaces are needed to be cleaned and then put into use again. However, removal efficiencies increase in APC system after optimum operation time belongs to DC system as well. Thus, APC system can prolong the electrode life in each batch round of EC process.
ACP can be easily obtained by a simple time relay device from the existing DC power supply and can be used in EC applications.
ACP provides regular polarization to each electrode in the EC reactor, so, the sacrificial electrodes could be consumed in reasonable similar times.
Fill-and-draw periods of reactor could be easily increased for batch EC processes by using time relay to eliminate cathode passivization. An increasing in fill-and-draw periods is important to decrease operating costs for batch processes.
According to the results of the study, color and turbidity can be removed successfully from winery wastewaters but remained COD concentration is still too high for discharge. So, EC process should be applied with other treatment technologies such as anaerobic treatment that can remove the high COD concentrations.
Based on the promising results achieved in this research, different electrode materials can be used together by changing the anode-cathode polarization; ACP system can be also evaluated for different wastewater types or electrolytic solutions in further researches.
Pectin is the major constituent of all plants and makes up approximately two-third of the dry mass of plant primary cell walls. It provides structural integrity, strength, and flexibility to the cell wall and acts as barrier to the external environment [1]. Pectin is also a natural component of all omnivorous diet and is an important source of dietary fiber. Due to the resistant in digestive system and lack of pectin digestive enzymes, human beings are not able to digest pectin directly but microorganism present in large intestine can easily assimilate the pectin and convert it into soluble fibers. These oligosaccharides promote beneficial microbiota in gut and also help in lipid and fat metabolism, glycemic regulation, etc. [2]. Being complex and highly diverse in structure, role of pectin is not only limited to the biological and physiological functions, but it has tremendous potential and contributes substantially in other applications ranging from food processing to pharmaceuticals. Pectin is a water-soluble fiber and used in various food as emulsifier, stabilizer, gelling, and thickening agent.
\nCommercial pectins are extracted from citrus and apple fruit. On the basis of dry mass, apple pomace contains 10–15% pectin, whereas citrus peel possesses 20–30% pectin. However, pectin has also been extracted in higher amount from several other fruits and their by-products, such as sunflower head, mango peal, soybean hull [3], passion fruit peel [4], sugar beet pulp [5], Akebia trifoliata peel [6], peach pomace [7], banana peel [8], chickpea husk [9], and many more [10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 23]. Table 1 summarizes the different types of pectin extracted from various horticultural crops. But detection and extraction of pectin in higher concentration is not sufficient to qualify that fruit as a source of commercial pectin because of the structural variation and modification in side-chain sugars, and also that pectin from different sources has different gelling properties.
\nS. No | \nSource | \nParts used | \nExtraction method used | \nPectin yield (%) | \nType of pectin (HMP/LMP) | \nRef | \n
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
1 | \nPassion fruit | \nPeel | \nAPP | \n14.8% | \nHMP | \n[4] | \n
2 | \nBanana | \nPeel | \nAPP | \n5–21% | \nHMP (DE, 50–80%) | \n[8] | \n
3 | \nChick pea | \nHusk | \nAcid extraction, APP, and freeze dried | \n8% | \nLMP (DE, 10%) | \n[9] | \n
4 | \nKrueo Ma Noy | \nLeaves | \nAPP, DPP | \n21–28% | \nLMP (DE, 34–42%) | \n[11] | \n
5 | \nYellow Passion | \nFruit rind | \nAPP, DPP, MPP | \n3–16% | \nHMP (DE, 54–59%) | \n[12] | \n
6 | \nDurian | \nRind | \nAPP | \n2–10.25% | \nHMP (DE, 50–64%) | \n[13] | \n
7 | \nMulberry | \nMulberry bark with epidermis (MBE) and without epidermis (MB) | \nExtracted using 60–100% isopropanol | \n11.88% | \nHMP (MB–DE, 71.13%); LMP (MBE–DE, 24.27%) | \n[14] | \n
8 | \nYuzu, citrus family | \nPomace | \nExtracted with APP and enzyme (Viscozyme® L with 1.2 × 10−4 fungal β-glucanase | \nDPP, APP (7.3–8%) | \nLMP (APP–DE, 41%; DPP–DE, 46.3%) | \n[16] | \n
9 | \nCacao pods | \nHusk | \nExtracted with 1 N HNO3 at different pH and precipitated by ethanol and acetone | \n3.7–8.6% | \nLMP (DE 36.7% @ pH 1, DE 44.3% @ pH 3); HMP (DE 52.4% @ pH 2) | \n[17] | \n
10 | \nCashew apple | \nPomace | \nAOP at different pH (1.0, 1.5, and 2.0) | \n10.7–25.3% | \nLMP (DE, 28–46%) | \n[18] | \n
11 | \nCyclea barbata Miers (CBM) | \nLeaves | \nExtracted with acid and alkali, precipitated the pectin by ethanol | \n4–8% | \nHMP (acid treated: 65–75% DE) LMP (Alkali treated: 36% DE) | \n[19] | \n
12 | \nDragon fruit | \nPeel | \nExtracted using HCl, precipitated and purified with 70 and 99.6% isopropanol. | \n18.59% | \nLMP (DE, 46.95%) | \n[20] | \n
13 | \nJackfruit | \nPeel | \nUltrasonic-microwave-assisted extracted (UMAE) pectin | \n21.5% | \nHMP (DE, 62.5%) | \n[22] | \n
14 | \nPotato | \nPulp | \nExtracted with different acids and precipitated by ethanol | \n4.08–14.34% | \nLMP (DE, 21.51–37.45%) | \n[23] | \n
High methoxyl pectins (HMP) and low methoxyl pectins (LMP) from various horticultural crops.
APP, alcohol-precipitated pectin; MPP, metal ion-precipitated pectin; DPP, dialyzed precipitated pectin.
Pectin is a highly complex plant cell wall polysaccharide that plays a significant role in plant growth and development. It is predominantly present in fruits and vegetables and constitutes approximately 35–40% of the primary cell wall in all the dicot plants [24]. The composition and structure of pectin is influenced by the developmental stages of plants [25, 26]. Structural analysis of pectin revealed that it is a polymer comprised of chain-like configuration of approximately 100–1000 saccharide units; therefore, it does not possess a defined structure. In general, pectin is illustrated as a heteropolysaccharide of three components namely, homogalacturonan (HG), rhamnogalacturonan-I (RGI), and rhamnogalacturonan-II (RGII) [28, 29]. The Backbone structure may branch with other neutral sugar chains such as arabinan, xylogalacturonan (XGA), arabinogalactan I (AG-I), and arabinogalactan II (AG-II).
\nHomogalacturonan (HG) is a polymer of galacturonic acid (GalA), in which Gal A residues are linked together by α-1-4 glycosidic bond and the number of GalA residues in HG may vary from 72 to 100% depending on the source of pectin [30]. For instance, the HG backbone of cashew apple pectin, C. maxima pectin, sunflower pectin, citrus pectin, comprises of 69.9–85%, 71–75%, 77–85%, 80–95%, GalA residues, respectively. Amaranth pectin contains more than 80% GalA residues in HG backbone structure. Furthermore, it was also observed that HG may be methoxy-esterified at C-6 and/or O-acetylated at the O-2 and/or O-3. Some exception has also been reported in the detailed structural analysis of HG region of pectin such as C-3 substitution of the galacturonic acids of HG with xylose in pea, apple, carrot, duck weed, etc. [31], and C-2 or C-3 with apiose in duck weeds (Lemna minor) [32]. HG is susceptible to both mechanical and enzymatic deesterification and degradation.
\nRhamnogalacturonan I represents approximately 20–35% of the pectin polysaccharides. It is the highly branched and heterogeneous polysaccharide which is characterized as repeating units of α-(1 → 2)-linked rhamnose and α-(1 → 4)-linked GalA residues. It can be O-acetylated at O-2 and/or O-3 positions of GalA residues [33, 34]. Pectin from citrus peels, mung bean, kidney bean, apple fruit, and flax hypocotyls has been reported 100% methyl esterified in the RGI region [35, 36]. The composition of RGI varies in pectin extracted from different sources. In sugar beet pectin, 80 repeating units of [→2] –α-L-Rha-(1–4)- α-D-GalA-(1→) comprised the backbone of rhamnogalacturonan I (RG-I), whereas citrus pectin contains only 15–40 repeating units [37]. The polymeric side chains of galactans and arabinans are substituted at the O-4 position of RG-I backbone. Arabinogalactan I (AG-I) and arabinogalactan II (AG-II) are also reported to be present as polymeric side chains [38, 39, 40]. The side chains are often referred to as “hairs” and believed to play an important role in pectin functionality. The loss of side chains may increase the solubility of the pectin [41]. PGI is prone to enzymatic depolymerization. However, protease and acid-catalyzed cleavage of RGI has also been reported [28, 42, 43].
\nThe highly conserved polysaccharide of pectin is rhamnogalacturonan II which constitutes about 10% of the pectin polymer [44]. This polysaccharide is made up of (1 → 4)-linked-α-D-GalA units containing 12 monosaccharide such as apiose, acetic acid, 3-deoxy-manno-2-octulosonic acid (KDO), and 3-deoxy-lyxo-2-heptulosaric acid (DHA) as side chains [30, 39]. GalA present in backbone of rhamnogalacturonan II (RG-II) may be methyl esterified at the C-6 position. The percentage of esterified GalA and acetylated groups in HG chain is termed as the DE and DAc, respectively. It is proposed that in the early developmental stages of plants, highly esterified pectin is formed that undergoes some deesterification in the cell wall or middle lamella. In general, tissue pectin ranges from 60 to 90% DE [45]. Both the DE and the DAc of pectin may vary depending on the method of extraction and plant origin [30, 46]. The functional properties of the pectin are determined by the amount and the distribution of esterified GalA residues in the linear backbone. Presence and distribution of esterified and nonmethylated GalA in pectin define the charge on pectin molecules. Based on their degree of esterification (DE), pectins are classified as high methoxy pectins (HMP) or low methoxy pectins (LMP). DE values of HM pectin range from 60 to 75%, whereas pectin with 20–40% of DE is referred as LM pectin. It was also observed that solubility, viscosity, and gelation properties of pectin are correlated and highly dependent on structural features [47, 48]. Pectin and monovalent salts of pectins are generally soluble in water but di- and trivalent ions are insoluble. The solubility of pectin in water increases with decrease in polymer size and increase in methoxy contents. Pectin powder gets hydrated very fast in water and forms clumps. The solubility of these clumps is very slow. As the pectin molecules come in contact with water, deesterification and depolymerization of pectins start spontaneously. The rate of decomposition of pectin depends on pH and temperature of the solution. As the pH of the solution decreased, with elevated temperature, ionization of carboxylate groups also reduced, which suppresses the hydration and repulsion between the polysaccharide molecules and results in the association of molecules in the form of gels. During thermal processing, solubilization of pectin is affected by β-elimination which depolymerized the pectin molecule and reduced its chain length. Small polymers have poor affinity with cell wall framework and solubilize easily. However, preheating, as well as reduced moisture contents in thermal processing, adversely affects the solubility of pectin in water [49, 50].
\nFood additives that are used in food processing to blend two immiscible liquids to produce a desirable product are known as food emulsifier or emulgent. These additives act as surface-active agents on the border of immiscible layers and reduce oil crystallization and prevent water separation. Emulsifiers are used in large number of food products such as ice creams, low-fat spreads, yoghurts, margarine, salad dressings, salty spreads, bakery products, and many other creamy sauces, to keep them in stable emulsion [27]. Emulsifiers increase the whip-ability of batters, enhance mouthfeel of the products, and improve texture and shape of the dough. Moreover, emulsions also help to encapsulate the bioactives [51]. Based on the disperse phase, there are two types of emulsion: oil in water (O/W) and water in oil (W/O). Milk, mayonnaise, dressings, and various beverages are some examples of O/W emulsion, whereas butter and margarine are the typical examples of W/O emulsion. Progress in hydrocolloid chemistry has resulted in the development of multitype emulsion such as O/W/O and O/W/O type emulsion (Figure 1). These emulsions are very important for fat reduction or encapsulation of bioactives and are used in preparation and stabilization of various low-fat creams, seasoning, and flavoring of sauces [52].
\nTypes of emulsions.
Commonly used emulsifiers in food processing are (i) small-molecular surfactant such as lectithins, derivatives of mono- and diglycerides prepared by mixing edible oils with glycerin or ethylene oxide, fatty acid derivatives such as glycol esters, sorbitan esters, polysorbates and (ii) macromolecular emulsifiers that include proteins and plant-based polymers such as soy polysaccharide, guar gum, modified starch, pectin, etc. [53]. As far as the properties of food emulsifier are concern, a good emulsifier should be low in molecular weight, capable to reduce the surface tension rapidly at interface, and should be soluble in continuous phase [54]. Research on food additives revealed the adverse effect of synthetic food additives on human being. Chassaing et al. found that polysorbate 80(P80) or carboxy methyl cellulose (CMC) had adverse effects on gut microbiota and their continuous use triggered the weight gain and metabolic syndrome after 12 weeks of administration in mouse [55]. A recent research carried out on mice shows that regular use of P80 and CMC triggers low-grade intestinal inflammation which may ultimately lead to the development of colon cancer [56]. Therefore, safety issues with the synthetic food additives and consumer’s demand for all natural food ingredients have necessitated the use of plant-based emulsifiers and stabilizers in food.
\nPectin is a natural hydrocolloid which exhibits wide spectrum of functional properties. Because of the gelling ability of pectin, it is used as viscosity enhancer. During emulsification process, pectin molecules adsorb at the fine oil droplets from at O/W interface and protect the droplet from coalescing with adjacent drops (short-term stability). The quality of emulsifier is defined by its ability to provide long-term stability against flocculation and coalescence [27]. Figure 2 depicts the stages in long-term emulsion formation using pectin as emulgent. When the viscosity of the continuous phase is increased, the movements of oil droplets become restricted which improves the shelf life of emulsion [57]. In the past decade, some pectin has also been reported to exhibit surface active behavior in oil-water interface and thereby stabilizing the fine oil droplets in emulsion [42, 58]. These functions of pectin are determined by its source, structural modification during processing, distribution of functional groups in pectin backbone, and also by various extrinsic factors such as pH, temperature, ionic strength, cosolute concentration, etc. The emulsification or surface active properties of pectin, i.e., formation of fine oil droplets, are mainly contributed due to the high hydrophobicity of protein residue present in pectin [46, 59] and also by hydrophobic nature of acetyl, methyl, and feruloyl esters [42, 60], whereas emulsion-stabilizing ability is attributed to the carbohydrate moieties and their conformational features [61].
\nEmulsion formation and stabilization using polymer as emulgent.
The mechanism of emulsion formation is shown in Figure 3. Different models explain the emulsion formation as covalently bound protein moieties in pectin are adsorbed onto the oil-water interface [46], form anchor points at the interface, and reduce the interfacial tension while the charged carbohydrate units extend into the aqueous phase [62] and stabilize by steric and viscosity effects in the aqueous phase(Figure 3a). Now, it is a well-established fact that pectin from different source shows variability in structure and protein contents. Leroux et al. identified many anchor points in sugar beet pectin (SBP) molecules [46], and proposed a loop-and-tail model (Figure 3b). According to the authors, only a limited amount of protein is adsorbed at the oil surface and acts as main moiety in the stabilization of the emulsion. This model was further confirmed by Siew and others [62]. The study was carried out to measure the thickness of the adsorbed SBP on oil-water interface layer, proposed a multilayer adsorption model (Figure 3c). Electrostatic interactions between the positively charged protein moiety and the negatively charged carbohydrate moiety were also reported.
\nDifferent models showing pectin adsorption at oil/water interface during emulsion formation.
Pectin O/W emulsion is generally stabilized through steric and electrostatic interaction. The carbohydrate moieties and neutral sugar side chains of RG I region of pectin confer the stability to the pectin emulsions through steric properties of the adsorbed polymers, when pectin is used as monoemulsifiers. In addition, pectin reversible association with galactan/arabinogalactan prior to emulsification also improves the emulsion stability [42, 63]. Electrostatic stabilization of emulsion is ascribed to sugar moieties and structural features of the HG units of pectin. If the pH of dispersion medium is above 3.5, nonmethylated carboxylic group of HG region gets ionized and confers charge on the pectin surface. Interaction of an ionic surfactant with oil droplets results in electrostatic stabilization [64]. Pectin viscosity also plays an important role in controlling the emulsion stability. HG region-rich pectin shows higher intrinsic viscosity ([η]); therefore, HG and RG ratio of pectin and molecular interactions that improve the intrinsic viscosity ([η]) of pectin solution also contributes in shelf life of emulsion [65, 66]. It has also observed that structural features of pectin such as pectin protein content, molecular mass, and presence of ferulic acid, and acetyl group in carbohydrate moieties of pectin also affect pectin’s emulsifying and emulsion stabilization properties [15]. Williams et al. showed that ferulic acid-rich pectin did not show significant difference in emulsifying ability of pectin when compared with pectin poor in ferulic acid [67]. Digestion of sugar beet pectin(SBP) with acidic proteases resulted in formation of larger size of oil droplet, lower creaming stability, and loss of emulsifying activity of SBP which confirms that protein contents of SBP play an important role in emulsifying ability of the polymer [42]. Nevertheless, in other research, it was also found that protein-rich fractions of SBP did not necessarily displayed better emulsifying ability; therefore, it was concluded that both protein with carbohydrate moiety together help in controlling emulsifying ability of SBP. Castellani et al. further suggest that both the carbohydrate and protein moieties function together as unit and affect the hydrophilic-hydrophobic equilibrium of the SBP molecule [68]. Therefore, when SBP is digested with proteases or other enzyme, a single moiety may function differently. Furthermore, it was also proposed that protein folding may also mask the hydrophobic effect of protein and thus affect the overall properties of the polymers [69].
\nMolecular weight of pectin has also been reported to affect the emulsifying capacity of pectin. Pectin with low molecular weight was more efficient in stabilizing small emulsion droplets than high-molecular weight pectin. However, very small size of citrus pectin had negative effect on emulsion-stabilizing ability of pectin. It could be due to the poor steric stabilization of depolymerized polymer [59].
\nEmulsion-based food products can be defined as a network of pectin-protein molecules entrapping the oil droplet in between. Nowadays, a large number of pectin- and polysaccharide-based emulsified low-fat dairy products, meat products, spreads or desserts, bakery products, sauces, etc., are available in market. Low-fat and low-cholesterol mayonnaise, low-fat cottage cheese, low-fat drinking yogurt, and flavored oil-containing acidified milk drinks are the few examples of pectin-based emulsified products. These products are prepared by replacing full-fat milk from skimmed milk, emulsified oil, and whey proteins [70, 71]. A low-fat cheese was prepared using skimmed milk and water-in-oil-in-water (W1/O/W2) emulsified canola oil. Different emulsifiers such as amidated low-methoxyl pectins (LMP), gum arabic (GA), carboxymethylcellulose (CMC), and combinations of GA-CMC or GA-LMP were used to stabilize the emulsion. Textural characteristics and sensory evaluation of low-fat cheese show that polymers used to stabilize the emulsion affected both microcrystalline structure and organoleptic properties. The cheese prepared using GA and LMP was almost similar in textural characteristics to the full-fat milk cheese [72]. In another study, Liu et al. compared the textural and structural features and sensory quality of full-fat and low-fat cheese analogs prepared with or without the incorporation of pectin [71]. Microstructure analysis using scanning electron microscopy revealed that full-fat cheese was denser and contained higher concentration of fat globules than low-fat cheese made with or without pectin. Comparison within the low-fat cheese analogs showed clear difference in their hardness, gumminess, chewiness, and adhesiveness. Addition of pectin had positive effect on textural and sensory attribute and scored better in mouthfeel also.
\nLow-fat (Lf) mayonnaise was prepared by partial replacement of egg yolk and incorporation of pectin as emulsifier [73, 74]. Pectin weak gel, pectin microencapsulation, and whey protein isolate were used in preparation of low-fat (Lf) mayonnaise. Physicochemical and sensory properties of Lf mayonnaise were compared with full-fat (Ff) mayonnaise; Lf mayonnaise had low energy and more water contents than Ff. Textural features and rheological properties of the Lf and Ff mayonnaise were similar and both displayed thixotropic shear thinning behavior and categorized as weak gels. Moreover, Lf mayonnaise prepared using pectin had better acceptability than whey protein incorporation [75]. Emulsified oil is used as an effective delivery system of active compound in functional foods, and also serves as milk fat replacer in fat-free dairy products. To improve the nutritional value of food, low-fat dairy products are produced, whereas saturated milk fat is generally replaced with emulsified-unsaturated vegetable oils [76].
\nIn recent year, pectin in combination with inulin has been reported to prepare low-fat meat batter. Méndez-Zamora et al. studied the effect of substitution of animal fat with different formulations of pectin and inulin on chemical composition, textural, and sensory properties of frankfurter sausages [77]. Finding of the research showed that fracturability, gumminess, and chewiness of the low-fat sauces were slightly lower than those of the control. However, addition of 15% inulin improves the sensory properties. In a similar work, replacement of pork back fat with 15% pectin and 15% inulin was found effective in maintaining the physicochemical properties and emulsion stability of the low-fat meat batter [78].
\nThe use of pectin in food products as a gelling agent is a long tradition. Later on, it was discovered that pectin forms different types of viscoelastic solution under suitable conditions. This property of pectin is commercially exploited in preparation of jams, jellies, and marmalades. Rheological behaviors of pectin depend on pectin source, its degree of methylation, distribution of nonmethylated GalA unit on pectin backbone, and degree of acetylation, and also on various extrinsic factors such as temperature, pH, concentration, and presence of divalent ions. At a constant pH, the setting time of pectin increases with decreasing DM and degree of blockiness (DB) in the absence of bivalent ions [79]. Therefore, on the basis of gelling process, pectin is classified as rapid, medium, and slow set pectin [80].
\nGelling process of pectin and its stabilization follows different mechanisms for different types of pectin. HMP form gels in a narrow pH range (2.0–3.5) in the presence of sucrose at a concentration higher than 55% w/v in medium. During the gelatin process of HMP, junction zones are formed due to the cross-linking of two or more pectin molecules. These junctions are stabilized by weak molecular interaction such as hydrogen and hydrophobic bonds between polar and nonpolar methyl-esterified groups and require high sugar concentration and low pH [81]. These gels are thermally reversible. LMP can form gel over a wide pH range (2.0–6.0) independent of sucrose, but requires divalent ion, such as calcium [82, 83]. LMP follow the eggbox model for its gelation, where positively charged calcium ions (Ca2+) are entrapped in between the negatively charged carboxylic group of pectin. The zigzag network of Ca2+ ion and GalA molecules looks like eggbox, and therefore, model is named as eggbox model [80]. These gels are stabilized by electrostatic bonds. In the presence of Ca2+, calcium bridges are formed with pectin molecules that make the solution more viscous. At the higher pH, the ionic strength of the solution is increased and thus more Ca2+ is needed for gelation. In case of highly acetylated pectin such as sugar beet, acetyl groups cause steric hindrances and interfere with the Ca2+ ion and GalA bond formation, thus preventing gel formation. Kuuva et al. [84] reported that enzymatic modification in pectin structure, i.e., removal of acetyl groups using α-arabinofuranosidase (α-Afases) and acetyl esterase enzymes, can improve the gelling property of acetylated pectin.
\nHMP are generally used in preparation of standard jams where sugar contents are above 55%, high-quality, tender confectionary jellies, fruit pastes, etc. LMP do not require sugar for its gelatin and therefore preferred choice for the production of low-calorie food products such as milk desserts, jams, jellies, and preserves, [28, 85]. LM pectins are more stable in low pH and high temperature conditions as compare to HM pectins and can be stored for more than a year.
\nFood packaging is one of the fastest growing segments of food industry. Traditionally, packaging system was limited to the containers and packaging material to transport the food items from manufacturer to the retail market and then to the consumers. Such type of packaging was unable to contribute in the extension of the shelf life and maintenance of the quality of the products. Due to the globalization of food market and increasing demand of shelf-stable processed food that retains the natural properties of food, the need of functional/active packaging material is increasing. To meet the industrial demand, a number of polymers are being synthesized and used in food packaging because of their flexibility, versatility, and cost effectiveness. Although, synthetic materials are able to fulfill all the industrial needs and keep food fresh and safe by protecting them from abiotic factors such as moisture, heat, oxygen, unpleasant odor, and biotic components such as micro- and macroorganisms. But, disposal of nonbiodegradable packaging material is a serious problem which poses a threat to the environment. Therefore, more research has been focused on the development of biodegradable packaging for food packaging applications using poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(hydroxyalkanoates) (PHAs), starch, etc. [86]. Among all the natural polymers, polysaccharides are gaining more attention as they are versatile in nature and easily available in relatively low cost.
\nA variety of natural polysaccharides, such as pectin, chitosan derivatives, alginate, cellulose, seaweed extract, and starch are usually used in the preparation of edible films and coatings [87]. Pectin is one of the most significant renewable natural polymers which are the main component of all the biomass and ubiquitous in nature. Being flexible in nature, pectin and its derivatives are used in many biodegradable packaging materials that serve as moisture, oil, and aroma barrier, reduce respiration rate and oxidation of food [88]. Pectin along with food grade emulsifiers is also used in the preparation of edible films. These films are used in fresh and minimally processed, fruits and vegetables, foods and food products as pectin is the main component of the omnivorous diet and can be metabolized. Edible coating protects the nutritional properties of the food and also saves highly perishable food from the enzymatic browning, off-flavor development, aroma loss, retards lipid migration, and reduces pathogen attack during storage.
\nAt low pH, LM pectins are cross-linked with calcium cations and form hard gels. These gels have highly stable structure and act as water barriers. Because of these properties, LM pectin films are used as edible coatings [88, 89]. Extension of shelf life of avocado fruits was also reported to over a month at 10°C by using edible pectin films. It was found that when avocados were coated with edible pectin films and stored at 10°C, rate of oxygen absorption and rate of respiration decreased which results in delaying of texture and color change of fruits [90]. Oms-Oliu et al. used calcium chloride and sunflower oil cross-linked with LM pectin films onto fresh-cut melon to see the effect on extension of shelf life of cut fruits [91]. It was observed that edible pectin films maintained the initial firmness, decrease the wounding stress of fresh-cut fruits, and prevent the dehydration during storage up to 15 days at 4°C but could not reduce the microbial growth onto the fresh melon. It has been observed that to reduce the respiration rate and to prevent the off-flavor development, different pectin and emulsifier formations are required for different fruits. Edible coating film formulation consisted on pectin, sorbitol, and bee wax was successfully used by Moalemiyan et al. to keep the fresh-cut mangoes in original state for over 2 weeks [92]. Whereas in a similar study, pectin coating containing sucrose and calcium lactate was able to prevent the fruits’ respiration rate and maintain sensory properties in fresh melon fruits for up to 14 days storage at 5°C. In a similar study [93], pectin edible coating solution containing pectin (3%), glycerol (2.5%), polyvinyl alcohol (1.25%), and citric acid (1%) was prepared and applied on sapota fruits by dipping method and uncoated sapota fruits were used as control. Both the treated and control fruits were stored at 30 ± 3°C. Physicochemical parameters namely, weight, color, firmness, acidity, TSS, pH, and ascorbic acid contents of both the coated and control fruits were measured at regular interval up to 11th day of the storage at 30 ± 3°C. Reduced rate of change in weight loss and other parameters were reported in pectin-coated sapota as compared to control fruits and it was observed that pectin film formulation was able to maintain good quality attributes and extend the shelf life of pectin-coated sapota fruits up to 11 days of storage at room temperature, whereas control fruits were edible up to 6 days. Furthermore, it was also observed that sapota fruits dipped in sodium alginate containing 2% pectin solution for 2 min were more effective in maintaining the organoleptic properties up to 30 days of refrigerated storage as compared to sapota fruits dipped for 4 min and untreated sapota fruits [94]. Bayarri et al. developed antimicrobial films using lysozyme and LM pectin complex. The main purpose of the study was to control the release of lysozyme in packaged food and to target lysozyme-sensitive bacteria such as Bacillus and Clostridium. It was observed that in the presence of fungal pectinase, due to the dissociation of pectin linkage, lysozyme activity of films increased remarkably. Many food-contaminating bacteria are pectinase producing and such type of films may be used to control food contaminants. These results have opened new avenues for custom-made biodegradable film [95].
\nIn last few years, some researchers have focused on pectin-based coating containing edible essential to improve the antimicrobial properties and to enhance the efficiency of the pectin films. Edible coating formulation containing sodium alginate and pectin (PE) enriched with eugenol (Eug) and citral (Cit) essential oil at different concentrations was used to increase the shelf life of strawberries. Physical and organoleptic parameters of coated fruits stored at 10°C for 14 days show that formulation containing PE 2% + Eug 0.1%; PE 2% + Cit 0.15% was more suitable than sodium alginate-based formulations [96]. Pectin coating containing lemon and orange peel essential oils was reported to increase the shelf life and quality attributes of the strawberry fruits up to 12 days when stored at 5°C. It was also observed that fruits coated with pectin + 1% orange essence showed less weight loss and soluble solids as compare to their control during the storage [97]. Sanchís et al. studied the combined effect of edible pectin coating with active modified atmospheric packaging on fresh-cut “Rojo Brillante” persimmon. Persimmon fruit slices were coated by dipping in the pectin-based emulsion or in water as control. Both the treated and control slices were packed under 5 kPa O2 (MAP) or under ambient atmosphere for up to 9 days at 5°C. Various parameters, such as package gas composition, color and firmness of slice, polyphenol oxidase activity, were measured during storage. It was observed that edible coating along with MAP significantly reduced the CO2 emission and O2 consumption in the packaged fruits. Furthermore, coating was also effective in controlling microbial growth and reducing enzymatic browning and maintains good sensory parameters up to 10 days on storage [98].
\nDrying is the traditional and oldest method of fruit and vegetable preservation. It decreases the enzymatic activity, reduces the moisture contents, and protects the food from microbial attack. However, drying results in loss of nutrients, vitamins, heat-labile enzymes, modifies the texture, color, and organoleptic quality of dried fruits and vegetables and therefore diminishes the market value also. Pretreatment of food products with pectin coatings containing other bioactive compound such as ascorbic acid, CaCl2, edible gum, etc., before drying or blanching has been proposed as an effective method to preserve the nutritional as well as organoleptic quality of dried food [99]. Recent researches have shown that application of pectin coating could protect the moisture and vitamin C loss in pretreated papaya slice and osmotic dehydrated pineapple. In one of the research [100], pineapple slice was pretreated with pectin coating formulation containing (50%)/calcium lactate (4%)/ascorbic acid (2%) solutions and then dried by hot-air-drying method. Physicochemical analysis of dried product showed less reduction in vitamin C contents as compared to untreated pineapple slice. In a similar work, pectin coating supplement with vitamin C (1%) was used for precoating of papaya slice. It was found that incorporation of vitamin C did not affect the drying process. However, significant increase in vitamin C content was observed in final product [101].
\nFrying is a method of cooking that causes changes in chemical and physical parameters of food and enhances the taste. However, high temperature vaporizes the water of food and affects the nutritional properties due to protein denaturation and starch gelatinization. The oil uptake during frying is affected by various parameters such as type of oil used, frying temperature and duration, product moisture content, shape, porosity, prefrying treatment, etc. [102]. Surface area and pretreatment of products are the major factors that determine the oil absorbed. Edible coating has also been used successfully, to reduce the oil uptake during frying in various deep-fried products. Reduction in oil uptake and improvement of texture and quality of potato slices was reported by Daraei Garmakhany et al. in 2008. Authors found that coating of potato slices with pectin, guar, and CMC solutions can reduce the oil uptake when compared with nontreated potato chips [103]. Similar results were also obtained by Khalil, where a combination of pectin or sodium alginate with calcium chlorides significantly reduces the oil uptake of French fries. Coating formulation of 0.5% calcium chloride and 5% pectin was most effective in reducing the oil uptake [104]. Kizito et al. used different edible coatings (pectin, carboxy methyl cellulose, agar, and chitosan) at a concentration of 1–2% for pretreatment of potato chips, followed by deep frying of chips. Fried chips were analyzed biochemically and organoleptically to investigate the quality attributes of the products. It was revealed that all the coating polymers were successful in reducing the oil uptake but pectin was most effective and reduced oil uptake up to 12.93%, followed by CMC (11.71%), chitosan (8.28%), and agar (5.25%) and significantly improved moisture retention of strips (p < 0.05) [105].
\nThe application of natural polymers in food industry is increasing day by day. Researchers are focusing more and more toward the pectin because of the ease-of-availability, structural flexibility, and versatile composition. Pectin can be sourced from a number of easily available horticulture crops (Table 1). Pectin is a hydrocolloid which is used as a food emulsifier, gelling agent, thickener, and stabilizer. It is the preferred choice of most of the food processors as fat or sugar replacer in low-calorie foods. In the recent years, increasing demand of ready-to-serve foods, fresh-cut fruits, and vegetable has opened a new market for edible films. Being biodegradable and recyclable, a lot of research is being done on pectin-based edible film formulations. These films reduce the exchange of moisture, gases, lipids, and volatiles between food and environment, and also serve as protective barrier for microorganisms.
\nEven though a lot of information is available regarding pectin structure and many pectin-based products are available in market, role of many carbohydrate moieties and their effect on various function of pectin are not yet well defined. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the structural-function relationship of pectin and its interactions for developing functional food products.
\nThe authors thank Director, CSIR-CFTRI for the encouragement.
\nThe authors declare no conflict of interest.
\nIntechOpen aims to ensure that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our Authors. To that end we maintain a flexible Copyright Policy guaranteeing that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and Authors retain exclusive copyright to their Work.
',metaTitle:"Publication Agreement - Chapters",metaDescription:"IN TECH aims to guarantee that original material is published while at the same time giving significant freedom to our authors. For that matter, we uphold a flexible copyright policy meaning that there is no transfer of copyright to the publisher and authors retain exclusive copyright to their work.\n\nWhen submitting a manuscript the Corresponding Author is required to accept the terms and conditions set forth in our Publication Agreement as follows:",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:"/page/publication-agreement-chapters",contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\\n\\n1. DEFINITIONS
\\n\\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\\n\\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\\n\\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\\n\\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\\n\\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\\n\\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\\n\\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\\n\\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\\n\\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
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\\n\\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\\n\\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\\n\\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\\n\\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\\n\\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\\n\\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
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\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
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\\n\\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
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\\n\\nThe Corresponding Author agrees to indemnify and hold IntechOpen harmless against all liabilities, costs, expenses, damages and losses and all reasonable legal costs and expenses suffered or incurred by IntechOpen arising out of or in connection with any breach of the aforementioned representations and warranties. This indemnity shall not cover IntechOpen to the extent that a claim under it results from IntechOpen's negligence or willful misconduct.
\\n\\n4.2 Nothing in this Publication Agreement shall have the effect of excluding or limiting any liability for death or personal injury caused by negligence or any other liability that cannot be excluded or limited by applicable law.
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\\n\\n5.1 IntechOpen has a right to terminate this Publication Agreement for quality, program, technical or other reasons with immediate effect, including without limitation (i) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author commits a material breach of this Publication Agreement; (ii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being an individual) is the subject of a bankruptcy petition, application or order; or (iii) if the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author (being a company) commences negotiations with all or any class of its creditors with a view to rescheduling any of its debts, or makes a proposal for or enters into any compromise or arrangement with any of its creditors.
\\n\\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\\n\\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\\n\\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\\n\\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\\n\\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\\n\\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\\n\\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
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\\n\\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\\n\\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\\n\\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\\n\\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\\n\\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\\n\\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\\n\\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
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The Corresponding Author (acting on behalf of all Authors) and INTECHOPEN LIMITED, incorporated and registered in England and Wales with company number 11086078 and a registered office at 5 Princes Gate Court, London, United Kingdom, SW7 2QJ conclude the following Agreement regarding the publication of a Book Chapter:
\n\n1. DEFINITIONS
\n\nCorresponding Author: The Author of the Chapter who serves as a Signatory to this Agreement. The Corresponding Author acts on behalf of any other Co-Author.
\n\nCo-Author: All other Authors of the Chapter besides the Corresponding Author.
\n\nIntechOpen: IntechOpen Ltd., the Publisher of the Book.
\n\nBook: The publication as a collection of chapters compiled by IntechOpen including the Chapter. Chapter: The original literary work created by Corresponding Author and any Co-Author that is the subject of this Agreement.
\n\n2. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S GRANT OF RIGHTS
\n\n2.1 Subject to the following Article, the Corresponding Author grants and shall ensure that each Co-Author grants, to IntechOpen, during the full term of copyright and any extensions or renewals of that term the following:
\n\nThe aforementioned licenses shall survive the expiry or termination of this Agreement for any reason.
\n\n2.2 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of any Co-Author) reserves the following rights to the Chapter but agrees not to exercise them in such a way as to adversely affect IntechOpen's ability to utilize the full benefit of this Publication Agreement: (i) reprographic rights worldwide, other than those which subsist in the typographical arrangement of the Chapter as published by IntechOpen; and (ii) public lending rights arising under the Public Lending Right Act 1979, as amended from time to time, and any similar rights arising in any part of the world.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author confirms that they (and any Co-Author) are and will remain a member of any applicable licensing and collecting society and any successor to that body responsible for administering royalties for the reprographic reproduction of copyright works.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, copyright in the Chapter and all versions of it created during IntechOpen's editing process (including the published version) is retained by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\nSubject to the license granted above, the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author retains patent, trademark and other intellectual property rights to the Chapter.
\n\n2.3 All rights granted to IntechOpen in this Article are assignable, sublicensable or otherwise transferrable to third parties without the Corresponding Author's or any Co-Author’s specific approval.
\n\n2.4 The Corresponding Author (on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author) will not assert any rights under the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 to object to derogatory treatment of the Chapter as a consequence of IntechOpen's changes to the Chapter arising from translation of it, corrections and edits for house style, removal of problematic material and other reasonable edits.
\n\n3. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S DUTIES
\n\n3.1 When distributing or re-publishing the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen. The Corresponding Author warrants that each Co-Author will also credit the Book in which the Chapter has been published as the source of first publication, as well as IntechOpen, when they are distributing or re-publishing the Chapter.
\n\n3.2 When submitting the Chapter, the Corresponding Author agrees to:
\n\nThe Corresponding Author will be held responsible for the payment of the Open Access Publishing Fees.
\n\nAll payments shall be due 30 days from the date of the issued invoice. The Corresponding Author or the payer on the Corresponding Author's and Co-Authors' behalf will bear all banking and similar charges incurred.
\n\n3.3 The Corresponding Author shall obtain in writing all consents necessary for the reproduction of any material in which a third-party right exists, including quotations, photographs and illustrations, in all editions of the Chapter worldwide for the full term of the above licenses, and shall provide to IntechOpen upon request the original copies of such consents for inspection (at IntechOpen's option) or photocopies of such consents.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author shall obtain written informed consent for publication from people who might recognize themselves or be identified by others (e.g. from case reports or photographs).
\n\n3.4 The Corresponding Author and any Co-Author shall respect confidentiality rights during and after the termination of this Agreement. The information contained in all correspondence and documents as part of the publishing activity between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author are confidential and are intended only for the recipient. The contents may not be disclosed publicly and are not intended for unauthorized use or distribution. Any use, disclosure, copying, or distribution is prohibited and may be unlawful.
\n\n4. CORRESPONDING AUTHOR'S WARRANTY
\n\n4.1 The Corresponding Author represents and warrants that the Chapter does not and will not breach any applicable law or the rights of any third party and, specifically, that the Chapter contains no matter that is defamatory or that infringes any literary or proprietary rights, intellectual property rights, or any rights of privacy. The Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) the Chapter is the original work of themselves and any Co-Author and is not copied wholly or substantially from any other work or material or any other source; (ii) the Chapter has not been formally published in any other peer-reviewed journal or in a book or edited collection, and is not under consideration for any such publication; (iii) they themselves and any Co-Author are qualifying persons under section 154 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988; (iv) they themselves and any Co-Author have not assigned and will not during the term of this Publication Agreement purport to assign any of the rights granted to IntechOpen under this Publication Agreement; and (v) the rights granted by this Publication Agreement are free from any security interest, option, mortgage, charge or lien.
\n\nThe Corresponding Author also warrants and represents that: (i) they have the full power to enter into this Publication Agreement on their own behalf and on behalf of each Co-Author; and (ii) they have the necessary rights and/or title in and to the Chapter to grant IntechOpen, on behalf of themselves and any Co-Author, the rights and licenses expressed to be granted in this Publication Agreement. If the Chapter was prepared jointly by the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, the Corresponding Author warrants and represents that: (i) each Co-Author agrees to the submission, license and publication of the Chapter on the terms of this Publication Agreement; and (ii) they have the authority to enter into this Publication Agreement on behalf of and bind each Co-Author. The Corresponding Author shall: (i) ensure each Co-Author complies with all relevant provisions of this Publication Agreement, including those relating to confidentiality, performance and standards, as if a party to this Publication Agreement; and (ii) remain primarily liable for all acts and/or omissions of each such Co-Author.
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\n\nIn case of termination, IntechOpen will notify the Corresponding Author, in writing, of the decision.
\n\n6. INTECHOPEN’S DUTIES AND RIGHTS
\n\n6.1 Unless prevented from doing so by events outside its reasonable control, IntechOpen, in its discretion, agrees to publish the Chapter attributing it to the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author.
\n\n6.2 IntechOpen has the right to use the Corresponding Author’s and any Co-Author’s names and likeness in connection with scientific dissemination, retrieval, archiving, web hosting and promotion and marketing of the Chapter and has the right to contact the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author until the Chapter is publicly available on any platform owned and/or operated by IntechOpen.
\n\n6.3 IntechOpen is granted the authority to enforce the rights from this Publication Agreement, on behalf of the Corresponding Author and any Co-Author, against third parties (for example in cases of plagiarism or copyright infringements). In respect of any such infringement or suspected infringement of the copyright in the Chapter, IntechOpen shall have absolute discretion in addressing any such infringement which is likely to affect IntechOpen's rights under this Publication Agreement, including issuing and conducting proceedings against the suspected infringer.
\n\n7. MISCELLANEOUS
\n\n7.1 Further Assurance: The Corresponding Author shall and will ensure that any relevant third party (including any Co-Author) shall, execute and deliver whatever further documents or deeds and perform such acts as IntechOpen reasonably requires from time to time for the purpose of giving IntechOpen the full benefit of the provisions of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.2 Third Party Rights: A person who is not a party to this Publication Agreement may not enforce any of its provisions under the Contracts (Rights of Third Parties) Act 1999.
\n\n7.3 Entire Agreement: This Publication Agreement constitutes the entire agreement between the parties in relation to its subject matter. It replaces and extinguishes all prior agreements, draft agreements, arrangements, collateral warranties, collateral contracts, statements, assurances, representations and undertakings of any nature made by or on behalf of the parties, whether oral or written, in relation to that subject matter. Each party acknowledges that in entering into this Publication Agreement it has not relied upon any oral or written statements, collateral or other warranties, assurances, representations or undertakings which were made by or on behalf of the other party in relation to the subject matter of this Publication Agreement at any time before its signature (together "Pre-Contractual Statements"), other than those which are set out in this Publication Agreement. Each party hereby waives all rights and remedies which might otherwise be available to it in relation to such Pre-Contractual Statements. Nothing in this clause shall exclude or restrict the liability of either party arising out of its pre-contract fraudulent misrepresentation or fraudulent concealment.
\n\n7.4 Waiver: No failure or delay by a party to exercise any right or remedy provided under this Publication Agreement or by law shall constitute a waiver of that or any other right or remedy, nor shall it preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy. No single or partial exercise of such right or remedy shall preclude or restrict the further exercise of that or any other right or remedy.
\n\n7.5 Variation: No variation of this Publication Agreement shall be effective unless it is in writing and signed by the parties (or their duly authorized representatives).
\n\n7.6 Severance: If any provision or part-provision of this Publication Agreement is or becomes invalid, illegal or unenforceable, it shall be deemed modified to the minimum extent necessary to make it valid, legal and enforceable. If such modification is not possible, the relevant provision or part-provision shall be deemed deleted.
\n\nAny modification to or deletion of a provision or part-provision under this clause shall not affect the validity and enforceability of the rest of this Publication Agreement.
\n\n7.7 No partnership: Nothing in this Publication Agreement is intended to, or shall be deemed to, establish or create any partnership or joint venture or the relationship of principal and agent or employer and employee between IntechOpen and the Corresponding Author or any Co-Author, nor authorize any party to make or enter into any commitments for or on behalf of any other party.
\n\n7.8 Governing law: This Publication Agreement and any dispute or claim (including non-contractual disputes or claims) arising out of or in connection with it or its subject matter or formation shall be governed by and construed in accordance with the law of England and Wales. The parties submit to the exclusive jurisdiction of the English courts to settle any dispute or claim arising out of or in connection with this Publication Agreement (including any non-contractual disputes or claims).
\n\nLast updated: 2020-11-27
\n\n\n\n
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