\\n\\n
These books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\\n\\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\\n\\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\\n\\n\\n\\n\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched formed a partnership to support researchers working in engineering sciences by enabling an easier approach to publishing Open Access content. Using the Knowledge Unlatched crowdfunding model to raise the publishing costs through libraries around the world, Open Access Publishing Fee (OAPF) was not required from the authors.
\n\nInitially, the partnership supported engineering research, but it soon grew to include physical and life sciences, attracting more researchers to the advantages of Open Access publishing.
\n\n\n\nThese books synthesize perspectives of renowned scientists from the world’s most prestigious institutions - from Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute in Japan to Stanford University in the United States, including Columbia University (US), University of Sidney (AU), University of Miami (USA), Cardiff University (UK), and many others.
\n\nThis collaboration embodied the true essence of Open Access by simplifying the approach to OA publishing for Academic editors and authors who contributed their research and allowed the new research to be made available free and open to anyone anywhere in the world.
\n\nTo celebrate the 50 books published, we have gathered them at one location - just one click away, so that you can easily browse the subjects of your interest, download the content directly, share it or read online.
\n\n\n\n\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"9018",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Some RNA Viruses",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book provides an overview of the globally concerning and emerging public health RNA viruses like SARS-CoV2, Ebola virus, FMD disease, and others. The main drive to publish this book was to present information on the molecular epidemiology pattern, transmission dynamics, host response factor, RNA viral infection, RNA virus evolution, molecular biology of RNA viruses, pathogenesis mechanism and phylogenetic analysis causing viral diseases among humans. This book will help to provide updated research information to the policymaker or planner for further diagnosis with genotyping tools, control, and prevention for further outbreaks of diseases from RNA viruses in tropical and subtropical countries.",isbn:"978-1-83962-926-6",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-925-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-927-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82983",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"some-rna-viruses",numberOfPages:120,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",publishedDate:"January 14th 2021",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",numberOfDownloads:4420,numberOfWosCitations:2,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:9,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 29th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 16th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 15th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 3rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 2nd 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/278914/images/system/278914.jpg",biography:"Dr. Yogendra Shah is a consultant microbiologist/virologist, senior research microbiologist, and lecturer at Seti Provincial Hospital, COVID-19 PCR laboratory, National Zoonoses and Food Hygiene Research Center, and Kathmandu College of Science and Technology, Nepal. He obtained a Ph.D. in Veterinary Medicine (Bacteriology) from the Graduate School of Veterinary Medicine, Hokkaido University, Japan, in 2017. His research focuses on better understanding the molecular epidemiological features/transmission dynamics of infectious diseases and zoonotic infectious diseases in Nepal by employing molecular techniques like ELISA, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP), and DNA sequencing. He was awarded the Young Science and Technology Award from the Nepal Academy of Science and Technology (NAST) in 2019. His research interests include infectious diseases, zoonotic infectious diseases, and vector-borne diseases. He has published more than thirty-five research articles in peer-reviewed journals and twelve books.",institutionString:"National Zoonoses and Food Hygiene Research Centre",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"National Zoonoses and Food Hygiene Research Centre",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Nepal"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"120202",title:"Dr.",name:"Eltayb",middleName:null,surname:"Abuelzein",slug:"eltayb-abuelzein",fullName:"Eltayb Abuelzein",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/120202/images/system/120202.png",biography:"Professor Eltayb Abuelzein graduated from the University of Khartoum, Sudan, with a B.V.Sc. in Veterinary Medicine. He obtained his Master’s and Ph.D. degrees in virology from the University of Reading, Britain. He also received his Post-Doctoral Fellowship (FIAEA), in Immunolabelled Techniques & Arbovirology from the World Reference Laboratory, Pirbright Britain. Since 1975 he has been engaged in active research, technological developments, and teaching in several universities in Sudan and Saudi Arabia. He has acted as a Consultant to the International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) in Immunolabelled Techniques. He is an editor and reviewer for a number of scientific journals including the international journal “Tropical Animal Health & Production”, Britain. He has published 123 peer-reviewed papers in reputable scientific journals and 60 peer-reviewed articles in conferences. He was the first to develop the ELISA technique in Foot and Mouth Disease (FMD) Virus Research. He has been quoted in the highly reputed international scientific journal “Nature”. He contributed to the book: “Immunoassay in the 80’s”, 1981, ATP Publishing Co., London. He made the first records of several viral diseases of great international significance. Presently, he is the Chair Professor of Viral Haemorrhagic Fevers, King Abdulaziz University, Saudi Arabia.",institutionString:"Central Veterinary Research Laboratories",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1046",title:"Infectious Diseases",slug:"infectious-diseases"}],chapters:[{id:"73368",title:"Mode of Transmission and Viral Shedding of SARS-CoV-2: Emerging New Paradigms",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93187",slug:"mode-of-transmission-and-viral-shedding-of-sars-cov-2-emerging-new-paradigms",totalDownloads:497,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"SAR CoV-2 is an important group of animal and human pathogens that infect respiratory tract, hepatic, gastroenterological, and nervous systems of mouse, bat, bat, humans and other vertebrates. Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) and severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) Outbreaks in 2002–2003 have demonstrated the possibility of human to human transmission, animals to humans transmission of the emerging SARS-CoV-2. The World Health Organization (WHO) On 12 January 2020 renamed novel coronavirus infectious disease (COVID-19) to SARS-CoV-2 In late 2019, the first case of the COVID-19 was reported. A total of 87,137 confirmed cases globally, 79,968 confirmed in China and 7169 outside of China, with 2977 deaths (3.4%) had been reported by WHO in March 1, 2020. Meanwhile, several independent research groups have identified that SARS-CoV-2 belongs to β-coronavirus, with highly identical genome to bat coronavirus, pointing to bat as the natural host and by proxy has a zoonotic propensity. Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) is the same receptor been used by the novel coronavirus as that of SARS-CoV and largely spreads through the respiratory tract. Currently, there are few specific antiviral strategies, but several potent candidates of antivirals and repurposed drugs are under urgent investigation. In this review, we summarized the latest research progress on the transmission mode dynamics and viral shedding in provide direction for isolation protocol. R0 estimates for SARS have been reported to range between 2 and 5, which is within the range of the mean R0 for COVID-19 found in this review. Due to similarities of both pathogen and region of exposure, this is expected. On the other hand, despite the heightened public awareness and impressively strong interventional response, the COVID-19 is already more widespread than SARS, indicating it may be more transmissible.",signatures:"Adamu Ishaku Akyala",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73368",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73368",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"74475",title:"Assembling an Anti-COVID-19 Artillery in the Battle against the New Coronavirus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.95100",slug:"assembling-an-anti-covid-19-artillery-in-the-battle-against-the-new-coronavirus",totalDownloads:545,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The panic and confusion surrounding the pandemic caused by the novel coronavirus requires a systematic study of the disease (COVID-19) and the arsenal of weapons available to the biochemist in the fight against infection. When developing a particularly bad flu in January 2020 while in India after the visit of a friend, who had just travelled back from Wuhan (China), it gave me an early opportunity to study the tricky diagnosis of this dreaded disease first-hand. The somewhat unusual symptoms and a lingering weakness and malaise for months suggested that it was no ordinary influenza virus. Since that time, a baffling number of disparate symptoms have been ascribed to COVID-19 infection including respiratory, gastrointestinal, circulatory, urinary tract and nerve dysfunction that have even resulted in multi-organ failure in some cases. Naturally, an array of risk factors have also been identified ranging from age, sex, obesity, diabetes, and hypertension to cigarette smoking that can increase mortality rate dramatically. In the intervening period, much research has appeared on biochemical compounds that may help to prevent this infection and, possibly, aid in patient recovery. Among these bioactive molecules are certain anti-inflammatory substances such as vitamin D, zinc, chloroquine, soy isoflavones like genistein, and glycyrrhizic acid, some of which may be successful in attacking different biochemical processes of the new coronavirus and disarming its deadly artillery against the human host. In a few instances, the viral processes that are inhibited by these chemicals are essential for the replication and reproduction of this RNA virus thereby striking a lethal blow to its machinery. Thus, taken together, these compounds may form a worthy arsenal against a formidable foe in the absence of an effective vaccine, and, especially, if relapse or re-infection proves to be a common occurrence in recovered COVID-19 patients.",signatures:"Chanda Siddoo-Atwal",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74475",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74475",authors:[{id:"232234",title:"Dr.",name:"Chanda",surname:"Siddoo-Atwal",slug:"chanda-siddoo-atwal",fullName:"Chanda Siddoo-Atwal"}],corrections:null},{id:"73291",title:"How Can We Be Ahead of COVID-19 Curve? A Hybrid Knowledge-Based and Modified Regression Analysis Approach for COVID-19 Tracking in USA",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93867",slug:"how-can-we-be-ahead-of-covid-19-curve-a-hybrid-knowledge-based-and-modified-regression-analysis-appr",totalDownloads:398,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Since its appearance in 2019, the COVID-19 virus deluged the world with unprecedented data in short time. Despite the countless worldwide pertinent studies and advanced technologies, the spread has been neither contained nor defeated. In fact, there is a recent record surge in the number of confirmed new cases. The rational question is thus: why has it taken so long to date to forecast the trajectory of the spread? To this end, this chapter presents a new predictive Knowledge-based (KB) toolkit named CORVITT (Corona Virus Tracking Toolkit) and a modified linear regression model. This logical step assists the officials, organizations, and users to forecast the spread trajectory and accordingly make proactive rather than retroactive intervention decisions. This hybrid approach uses the confirmed new cases and demographic data, implemented. CORVITT is not an epidemiological model, in the sense that it does not model disease transmission, nor does it use underlying epidemiological parameters or data including the reproductive rate, disease methods, real time polymerase chain reaction cycle threshold, the virus structure and pathogenesis, etc. The chapter is a seed in an in-progress study that will broaden its scope by including additional parameters.",signatures:"Rafaat Hussein",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73291",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73291",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"74075",title:"Renin Angiotensin System, Gut-Lung Cross Talk and Microbiota. Lessons from SARS-CoV Infections",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.94325",slug:"renin-angiotensin-system-gut-lung-cross-talk-and-microbiota-lessons-from-sars-cov-infections",totalDownloads:436,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"The two antagonistic systems of angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE)-1 and ACE-2 are in the “eye of the hurricane” of severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2). The receptor of the SARS-CoV-2 is the same as ACE-2, which causes its under-expression after binding it, followed by the internalization of the complex virus-ACE-2. ACE-2 have multiple functions with specially relevance in cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, the non-enzymatic role of ACE-2 gives rise to a Hartnup disease, a phenocopy involving microbiota. With this chapter, we intent to explore the key pathways involved in SARS-CoV-2 infection, from the host perspective, considering our hypothesis related to transporter of neutral amino acids, which includes tryptophan precursor of serotonin and kynurenine.",signatures:"Andreia Matos, Alda Pereira da Silva, Joana Ferreira, Ana Carolina Santos, Maria Clara Bicho and Manuel Bicho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/74075",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/74075",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"71885",title:"Ebola, the Negative Stranded RNA Virus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91776",slug:"ebola-the-negative-stranded-rna-virus",totalDownloads:653,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Ebola virus (EBV) is a deadly virus that has resulted in a number of deaths during its outbreaks in Africa in 2014–2016 and 2018–2019. This virus causes a hemorrhagic fever like other pathogenic viruses of the Filoviridae family with high mortality rate. The exact reservoir of the ebola virus is not known, but different mammal groups are the source from which it is transferred to the human population. The transmission among the human population is through body fluids of patients and also through aersol droplets in the air. The role of different glycoproteins in the budding formation has helped a lot in understanding the physiology of the ebola virus. Most of these viral glycoproteins synthesis and the replication enzymes offer a good inhibitory target for drug design against the ebola virus. Recently, different groups have claimed the development of a successful vaccine for the ebola virus. However, the availability of the vaccines to the poor population of Africa and other parts of the world is still not practical.",signatures:"Aqsa Farman, Syed Lal Badshah, Khalid Khan, Nasir Ahmad and Abdul Naeem",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71885",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71885",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"73071",title:"Genetic Polymorphisms of Foot-and-Mouth Disease Virus",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93351",slug:"genetic-polymorphisms-of-foot-and-mouth-disease-virus",totalDownloads:381,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The aim of the work is to search for loci of the genome of various types of foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), characterized by the lowest variability, for use as genetic markers in the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) of virus identification. The nucleotide sequences of the genomes of FMDV of types A, Asia-1, C, O, and SAT (1, 2, and 3) were analyzed. When aligning the genomes of isolates of each type of virus, potentially conservative sites were identified. Comparing these loci, different types of the virus have one, the most conserved locus. Subsequent basic local alignment search tool (BLAST) analysis established the correspondence of the conservative locus to the FMDV genome, and primers and a probe were developed to amplify this locus.",signatures:"Khammadov Nail Ildarovich",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73071",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73071",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"73037",title:"The Causative Agent of FMD Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93349",slug:"the-causative-agent-of-fmd-disease",totalDownloads:498,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) is an acute infection of cloven-hoofed animals caused by foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV). It is one of the most serious infectious diseases affecting animal husbandry and a major impediment to international trade in livestock and their products. Foot-and-mouth disease virus (FMDV), a member of the Picornaviridae family of Aphthovirus, is an icosahedral virus without envelope, 25–30 nm in diameter, containing about 8.4 kb of positive-sense single-stranded RNA. The virus exists in seven different serotypes: A, O, C, Asia1, SAT1, SAT2, and SAT3, but a large number of subtypes have evolved in each serotype. This chapter reviews the genome, structure, serotype, and epidemiology of FMDV, which will help people to further explore the mechanism of the interaction between foot-and-mouth disease virus and host and provide reference for scientific prevention and control of FMDV.",signatures:"Yaxin Wang and Meijun Liu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73037",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73037",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"73107",title:"Foot-and-Mouth Disease in India: Past, Present and Future Outlook - A Review",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93348",slug:"foot-and-mouth-disease-in-india-past-present-and-future-outlook-a-review",totalDownloads:1012,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) affects domestic livestock population of India causing heavy economic losses to the animal owners. Clinical form of the disease is readily noticed in susceptible livestock population mainly cattle, buffalo and pigs but saliently maintained in carrier animals. Foot-and-mouth disease control programme (FMDCP) is run in India by adopting series of measures from clinical diagnosis of the disease in the field, to sending clinical samples for laboratory diagnosis and till selection of vaccine candidates. Vaccines are used to cover all the susceptible livestock population. This is expected to minimise economic losses to the livestock owners due to the disease. The Government of India has been carrying out intensive FMDCP in a phase wise manner since 2003–2004 and subsequently by 2017–2018; it has covered all the districts of the country. The FMDCP is intending to vaccinate all the susceptible livestock population of the country such as cattle, buffalo, sheep, goats and pigs. That exercise was adopted to make the country free of the disease till 2025–2030. Directorate on FMD is functioning untiringly in this regard and International center on FMD has been set up to serve the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation (SAARC) region. In the present chapter merits and shortfalls in the Foot-and-mouth disease prevention and control strategy will be discussed.",signatures:"S.D. Audarya",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/73107",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/73107",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:[{id:"54",label:"covid-19 book program"}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10542",title:"Molecular Epidemiology Study of Mycobacterium Tuberculosis Complex",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"29279e34f971687dc28de62534335ac4",slug:"molecular-epidemiology-study-of-mycobacterium-tuberculosis-complex",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10542.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"825",title:"Current Topics in Tropical Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef65e8eb7a2ada65f2bc939aa73009e3",slug:"current-topics-in-tropical-medicine",bookSignature:"Alfonso J. 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",isbn:"978-1-80356-765-5",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-764-8",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-766-2",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"dc693757b86ab8742367a38cda6cb622",bookSignature:"Prof. Amjad Almusaed and Associate Prof. Asaad Almssad",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11507.jpg",keywords:"The First Generation of Smart Cities, ARCHIGRAM Movement and Smart Cities, FUTURISM and New Cities Conception, Energy Crises and Smart Cities, the Green Context in Smart Cites, Biophilic Smart City, Smart Cities Between the Form and the Functions, Sustainability and Smart Cities, Digital City, Grid City, Electronic Cities, Inflammable Cities",numberOfDownloads:13,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 25th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"June 2nd 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 1st 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"October 20th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 19th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr.Almusaed completed postdoctoral research in 2004 on sustainable and bioclimatic houses from the School of Architecture in Aarhus, Denmark. 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In the past two decades, many countries in Africa have established national quality assurance bodies in order to ensure that higher education institutions do not compromise on quality. Due to the pressure of globalisation and internationalisation, African higher education systems and institutions have had to adopt quality assurance frameworks from the higher education systems in the developed world in order to gain acceptance and credibility [3]. Numerous factors influencing the establishment of quality assurance in higher education appear to be global in nature; however, some of the factors are peculiar to Africa.
\nHigher education systems in Africa have been characterised by limited funding, inadequate infrastructure, inadequate staffing, relatively low research, mass student enrolment, and limited graduate employable skills [2, 4]. It requires a pragmatist approach to conduct quality assurance in Africa’s higher education systems. Higher education institutions in Africa must conceptualise their quality assurance frameworks strategically in order to make such frameworks fit for purpose [2]. For instance, in developed countries, higher education systems are characterised by adequate facilities, and therefore, facilities might attract less attention in the framing of their quality assurance systems. Higher education systems in Africa are characterised by inadequate facilities which require that quality assurance frameworks in African higher education systems give more attention to facilities than those of developed countries.
\nImproving low employable skills and improving research quality are constantly reported as key concerns of the higher education systems of Africa [2]. This gives an indication that quality assurance frameworks in contemporary African higher education do not appear to be adequately addressing the quality challenges of the higher education systems. Quality assurance frameworks of many African higher education systems depict robustness but in actuality, do not adequately address the peculiar nature of quality concerns currently experienced by African higher education. Of course, there are global standards for quality assurance in higher education to enable comparability of outcomes, but quality assurance also needs to include localised differences [3, 5] so that quality assurance frameworks are compatible with context. Quality assurance frameworks in Europe and Africa may have the same features but at a particular point may focus on different areas in order to balance quality assurance activities for improved outcomes. A pragmatist conceptualisation of quality assurance frameworks needs to mirror the prevailing quality concerns it seeks to address. This calls for continual balancing of the foci of quality assurance frameworks to reflect the changing concerns of quality in higher education [6].
\nCurrently, the foci of quality assurance frameworks of higher education institutions in Ghana, particularly universities, are understudied, resulting in a gap in information to inform effective balancing of the foci in order to improve higher education outcomes. This study sought to investigate the coverage of quality assurance policies and practices of universities in Ghana and the proportional attention given to each operational activity covered by the quality assurance frameworks. The study was intended to contribute to the debate on what should be captured by the quality assurance frameworks of universities and how to ensure effective balancing of the foci of quality assurance frameworks in order to address the changing concerns in the Ghanaian higher education system. Therefore, the research question for the study was “What do quality assurance frameworks of higher education institutions in Ghana give the least attention to, and why?”
\nGhana, the site of this study, is a republican state located on the west coast of Africa, bordered to the west by the Republic of Côte d’Ivoire, to the east by the Republic of Togo, to the north by the Republic of Burkina Faso, and to the south by the Gulf of Guinea. Ghana gained independence from Britain on 6th March, 1957 and subsequently became a republic on 1st July 1960. Ghana’s population is 25,905,000 with females comprising 51.3 and males 48.7% [7]. The country’s population growth rate is 2.1% and life expectancy is estimated at 61 years [7]. The country’s adult literacy rate is 74.1% [8]. Oil, gold and cocoa are Ghana’s main exports. Ghana is also endowed with agricultural potential, including forests and significant tracts of savannah land with high agricultural value; however, these are not being fully developed [9]. Ghana’s economy is the fastest growing and the second‐largest economy in West Africa after Nigeria [10]. Its gross domestic product (GDP) is US$ 48.18 billion and the gross national income (GNI) per capita stands at US$ 1770 [7]. Ghana is an emerging economy and is currently classified by the World Bank as a lower middle level income country [10]. The country’s vision is to attain fully‐fledged middle‐income status by the year 2020 [11]. Ghana wants to achieve this via human resource development and industrialisation [11]. Despite these aspirations, Ghana’s current economy appears gloomy. Ghana faces key challenges in its development, including higher education. In addition, Ghana has a large balance of payment deficits, particularly large for a country classified as lower middle income [12]. Ghana’s quest to sustain its economic growth and seek competitive advantage in the globalised knowledge economy will be supported by the higher education institutions graduating a highly skilled and knowledgeable workforce.
\nGhana’s higher education system was bequeathed to her by Britain but the system has since been reformed following independence from Britain in 1957. Currently, higher education in Ghana covers universities and non‐university institutions such as polytechnics, colleges of education, colleges of nursing, and other institutions [13]. Higher education institutions in Ghana are public, private, national or internationally owned. The universities offer bachelor, master and doctoral degree programmes while the non‐university institutions deliver diplomas and certificates [13, 14]. The mode of higher education teaching in Ghana includes traditional on‐campus, distance and online formats [13]. Ghana’s higher education system is not immune to global trends. It is characterised by mass participation, a decline in state funding, globalisation, internationalisation and privatisation [4, 15]. Enrolment in higher education has increased sharply in recent times and continues to rise. For example, higher education enrolment rose from below 9997 in 1992 to more than 132,000 in 2010 (Bailey 2011) and 396, 264 in 2015 [13]. This notwithstanding, only about 10% of the age cohort from junior secondary schools gain admission to higher education institutions [16]. In Ghana, enrolments in the higher education sector tilt towards humanities but the country requires a ratio of 60:40 sciences to humanities human power base to propel its development agenda [17]. For instance, science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM) and arts/humanities ratio between the years 2002–2003 and 2007–2008 in Ghanaian public universities stood at 35:65 and 38:62, respectively [17]. Ghana’s higher education sector is also characterised by gender disparity. The number of female students enrolled in the sector is far less than males except in the nurses training colleges where females outnumber males in a ratio of 7:3 [13]. The government primarily finances higher education in Ghana. Education covers 23.3% of Ghana’s fiscal budget [18]. Out of this, 21.6% is allocated to the higher education sector [18] but unfortunately, this falls short of the funds required by Ghanaian higher education institutions due to growth in student enrolment. This situation has triggered several financial initiatives. The government has established Ghana Education Trust (GET) to assist higher education institutions with additional funds for infrastructural development [19] but this excludes private higher education institutions. Ghanaian private higher education institutions only obtain financial assistance from the government in the form of tax exemptions. Though these appear to have enhanced the financial viability of most private Ghanaian higher education institutions, compared to peers in the global north, higher education is still underfunded, impacting negatively on the quality of higher education system.
\nGhanaian higher education institutions have been placed mainly under two external quality regulators, the National Council for Tertiary Education (NCTE) and the National Accreditation Board (NAB) to monitor and control academic activities. NCTE oversees the proper administration of schools tagged as higher education institutions. It is responsible for ensuring that the academic activities of higher education institutions are financially sustainable and support national development [15, 20]. NAB on the other hand is Ghana’s key quality assurance agency. It was established through the enactment of the NAB law 1993 (PNDC Law 317) but has subsequently been replaced by National Accreditation Board Act, 2007, Act 774 [21]. Its primary responsibility is to safeguard quality higher education provision in the country. NAB’s main quality assurance strategy is accreditation. This covers institutions and academic programmes [15, 21]. In addition, NAB uses a strategy known as “affiliation” to ensure quality education delivery by outsourcing its quality improvement mandate to Ghanaian public universities. Affiliation in this context refers to a relationship in which, by mutual agreement, the affiliating partner agrees to accredit the academic programmes and issues academic awards to an affiliated partner institution [22]. In this regard, NAB requires Ghanaian higher education institutions, especially private university colleges, polytechnics, and specialised public colleges to be affiliated to long established Ghanaian public universities in order to offer academic programmes. This affiliation relationship is expected to last for a minimum of 10 years [23], and it is intended that the universities assist these institutions in building their internal capacity for quality assurance.
\nProfessional associations are also major players in the enactment of quality assurance in the Ghanaian higher education system. Examples of such associations in Ghana are Ghana Medical and Dental Council, Nurses and Midwifery Council of Ghana, General Legal Council, and the Ghana Pharmacy Council [24–27]. Their involvement includes accreditation of professional study programmes, participation in accreditation panels set up by NAB and participation in curriculum review exercises [28]. Though these roles played by external quality assurance regulators have enhanced the image, deepened public trust and increased the attractiveness of Ghanaian higher education institutions, external quality assurance is still going through reforms and can best be described as “work‐in‐progress”.
\nThis study sought to answer the question “What do quality assurance frameworks of higher education institutions in Ghana give the least attention to, and why?” This question requires a focus on key operational areas that higher education institutions are responsible for. A “PPP” conceptual framework, which argues that higher education institutions are responsible for people, programmes, and facilities, was adopted for the study. The “PPP” is an acronym for people, programme, and place. The PPP was used by Filardo [29], the Executive Director of Twenty‐First Century School Fund of the District of Columbia in the United States. She described PPP as a concept for planning physical facilities in education. PPP is a logical framework that could be used for classifying and analysing the operational activities of higher education institutions for the purpose of quality assurance and hence its adoption and adaptation. From a logical standpoint, a quality assurance framework for any higher education institution in Ghana ought to give attention to people, programme, and place in a balanced manner if it is to sufficiently address stakeholders’ expectations of higher education quality. From the perspective of the PPP concept, a balanced quality assurance framework looks like Figure 1.
\nBalancing the focus of a QA framework in HEIs.
“People” in the context of the PPP framework for higher education is taken to refer to the coverage of internal and external stakeholders in quality assurance activities of higher education institutions. In a typical university context in Ghana, internal stakeholders include the governing council members, management team members, senior academic and administrative members, senior staff, junior staff, and junior members (students). External stakeholders on the other hand include graduates, employers of graduates, professional representatives, regulatory authorities representatives, and funders [30]. Given that quality has multiple perspectives which demand alignment of different perspectives [28], quality assurance activities within higher education institutions ought to cover and involve all these key stakeholders. Enhancing quality in higher education demands qualified and highly motivated staff members who are committed to quality outcomes [31]. This involves staff participation in quality assurance activities through effective and efficient top‐down and bottom‐up communication channels and rigorous staff recruitment processes, development, and incentive systems [31]. It also requires qualified, highly motivated, and empowered students who provide feedback on their learning experiences to inform improvement activities [32]. Equally, achieving quality also involves information from all key internal and external stakeholders through feedback loops [31].
\n“Programme” in the context of the PPP framework for higher education represents all the processes, procedures, and activities within an institution. This includes curricular design, teaching and learning, governance systems, leadership and management functions, professional development of staff, research and outreach activities, student assessment, staff recruitment, student admissions, institutional ceremonies, student support services, and partnership and cooperation. A quality assurance framework of a higher education institution ought to cover all these in addition to other operational areas and activities of the institution in order to sufficiently guarantee and enact stakeholders’ expectations of quality.
\n“Place” on the other hand stands for space and facilities of an educational institution. It has been argued that maintaining and improving quality in higher education is directly proportional to the quality of facilities and space [33, 34, 35]. Appropriate space and facilities are required to support every activity of any higher education institution [35]. The quality of learning, teaching, research, and community service of a higher education institution is dependent on space and facilities of the institution [35]. Therefore, place ought to attract equal attention in a quality assurance framework of any higher education institution just like people and programmes. The common physical facilities which are usually under the microscope of QA activities are teaching and learning, residential, recreational, and transportation facilities, in addition to space for physical facilities development. The interplay of people, programme, and place supports positive outcomes in higher education. Quality is maintained and enhanced at the intersection of the circles containing the PPP as depicted in Figure 1. Quality cannot be maintained and enhanced by giving negligible attention to any part of the PPP framework discussed so far because high‐quality educational outcomes depend on quality people and their involvement, quality programmes, and quality facilities.
\nWe argue that a resilient quality assurance framework in higher education must meet the basic condition of stability if it is to achieve quality enhancement or improvement. A stable QA framework (internal or external) is a balanced framework where all the key components receive equal attention at some point, as represented in Figure 1. This framework offers quality assurance and enhancement opportunities for the institution.
\nHowever, a quality assurance framework in higher education institutions could become unstable as a result of less attention to one of the key components. In such a situation, the framework may look like Figures 2, 3, or 4, depending on which component is receiving the least attention. In Figure 2, it is evident that place receives the least attention in the quality assurance practices of the institution. In this instance, the assumption is that optimum attention has been given to all the three key operational areas but there are quality concerns with people and programmes, which have necessitated a shift of attention from place. In Figure 3, programme receives the least attention in quality assurance practices, and in Figure 4, people receive the least attention, suggesting that in these instances, prevailing quality concerns have warranted the shift of attention.
\nAn unstable QA framework—least attention to place.
An unstable QA framework—least attention to Programme.
An unstable QA framework—least attention to People.
When such situations happen, there is the need to stabilise the quality assurance framework by increasing attention to the component that is receiving the least attention. We argue in this conceptualisation that this balance is a necessary condition for any resilient quality assurance framework in higher education because our operational definition of quality assurance is “mechanisms put in place by institutions to guarantee and enact stakeholders’ expectations of quality” [28]. It stands to reason that at any particular point, there is likely to be disproportionate attention given to the three (people, programme, and place) areas of the quality assurance framework depending on the quality concerns of a particular higher education institution. However, stability of the framework is a pointer to an assurance of quality. In practical terms, policies and activities of an internal quality assurance framework of a higher education institution must focus on balancing the focus of the framework in order to facilitate quality enhancement.
\nInvestigating the quality assurance frameworks implemented by Ghanaian universities followed a qualitative approach because of the subjective views about quality in Ghana [36]. Adopting a case‐study design [37], a purposive sampling technique was used to select three quality assurance officers from three flagship Ghanaian public universities whose quality assurance policies and practices are believed to have had a greater influence on other higher education institutions in Ghana. This made it more likely that information gathered from the quality assurance officers would be information rich [38]. As part of pre‐interview arrangements, the officers were given information sheets. These noted the nature and purpose of the study and the benefits they stood to gain from participating. They were also informed that participation in the research was voluntary and that they were free to opt out at any time. The key informants were interviewed in‐depth for approximately 1 hour. The interview interaction was fluid rather than rigid [39] but was shaped by the key question linked to the objectives of the study. The question was “What do quality assurance frameworks of higher education institutions in Ghana give the least attention to, and why?” During the data collection, the question was divided into two—the first part focused on collecting data on what receives attention in the quality assurance frameworks and the second part concentrated on what receives the least attention and why? Through in‐depth interviews, the participants shared their quality assurance ideas and how these ideas were put into practice. The interviews were audiotaped to enhance accuracy. Data from the in‐depth interviews were transcribed. Additional data were also obtained from institutional documents such as quality assurance activity reports and policies. These were coded and thematically analysed with the assistance of Nvivo 10 software. Preliminary themes were clustered into groups of themes [40]. Data from the interviews were corroborated and augmented with evidence from documents to enhance the credibility of the findings [41, 42]. Due to ethical considerations, confidentiality and anonymity of the respondents and the universities they work in were assured by assigning aliases to their names and their institutions [43, 44]. The major themes which the data were coded into were people, programme, and place.
\nThe sub‐themes present under people were internal stakeholders and external stakeholders who were involved in quality assurance practices of the universities. Programmes sub‐themes were leadership and management practices, teaching and learning activities, student assessment, curriculum, professional development activities, research, staff recruitment, student admissions, and student support services. Place sub‐themes were space, teaching/learning infrastructure, research infrastructure, and social amenities. These themes and sub‐themes are presented and discussed below.
\nWe present and discuss the results under the major themes of people, programme, and Place, and in line with the two key parts of the research questions: what receives attention in the quality assurance frameworks and what receives the least attention and why?
\nCollectively, stakeholders mentioned by respondents as involved in the case universities quality assurance policies and practices include senior members (academic), senior members (administration), students, senior staff, graduates, employers of graduates, professional bodies, regulatory bodies, and funding bodies but variations exist among universities. In university A, a respondent said, “
These responses were cross‐examined through the quality assurance policy documents of the universities. In the quality assurance policy document of University A, it was stated that
It is clear from the interview responses and policy documents that relevant stakeholders are involved in the quality assurance policy and practice of the universities. The list of stakeholders from the policy documents which aligns with practice according to the interview data seemed comprehensive. This is consistent with best practice as reported in the literature [30, 31, 45] that all key stakeholders (both internal and external) must be responsible for achieving quality in higher education. However, we did not explore the nature of involvement of stakeholders mentioned by respondents and the policy documents due to the focus of the study, even though we acknowledge that it is important. For example, if staff and students’ involvement in quality assurance is only about validating their qualifications and results, respectively, then it is not enough because they should also be involved in providing feedback for continuous improvement [31].
\nProgramme areas of coverage by the quality assurance frameworks of the case universities include leadership and management practices, teaching and learning activities, student assessment, curriculum, professional development activities, research, staff recruitment, student admissions, and student support services. However, these were not uniform across all the case universities. These programme areas represent collective responses that were coded. In University A, a respondent reported, “
These responses were explored further through the quality assurance policy documents of the universities. University A’s policy document indicates that it shall
It is clear that the policy documents tend to provide the general framework to guide the practice of quality assurance and in most cases, do not define exact details of what the practitioners should do. For example, in University A, the policy document states that “it shall develop strong quality assurance and planning mechanisms that apply to all programmes, processes, procedures, support services and structures across the University.” This, according to the interview data, was implemented to focus on “Teaching and learning activities, Student assessment, Professional development activities, Research, Staff recruitment, and Student admissions.” Nonetheless, the alignment between policy and practice is discernible, just that some key programme areas such as student support services and institutional safety were conspicuously missing in quality assurance practice.
\nRespondents from all the case universities indicated that their quality assurance practices cover physical facilities and locations even though there were differences in the type of facilities that were given attention to in their quality assurance practice. At University A, a respondent said, “
We explored the quality assurance policy documents to find out if facilities and locations are captured. In University A’s quality assurance policy document, a focus on facilities and locations is captured as “
We have so far analysed and discussed data on what receives attention in the quality assurance frameworks of the universities selected for this study. This is supposed to feed into the analysis and discussion on the second part of the research question that guided the study. This second part of the research question is “what receives the least attention and why,” which is the focus of the next section.
\nOne of the assumptions of this study was based on the fact that quality assurance frameworks of universities may not provide attention to key operational areas equally, usually for strategic reasons. In this section, we present, analyse, and discuss findings on which key operational areas of the universities involved in this study receive the least attention in quality assurance frameworks. This part of the research question is addressed with findings mainly from the interviews because the focus is to examine what pertains in quality assurance practice rather than written policy. As usual and in line with the conceptual framework of this study, the findings were coded into key operational areas of people, programme, and place.
\nRespondents compared attention given to people, programme, and place in the practice of quality assurance in their universities. In two of the universities of this study, programme receives the greatest attention in quality assurance practice followed by people before place, implying that place receives the least attention. At University A, this is what a respondent had to say
At University B, a similar response was provided. However, at University C, the greatest attention is given to people, followed by programme while place receives the least attention as a key operational area for quality assurance concentration. This is what was said at University C: “
The two Universities that give the greatest attention to programme as an operation area in their quality assurance practices provided the following reasons:
The university that gives greatest attention to people also has these reasons to provide
Place appears to receive the least attention even though all the respondents recognise it as a key operational area which must be given attention in quality assurance practice. These were some of the comments made by respondents:
From the responses, the importance of giving attention to place by quality assurance frameworks is not debatable. It is, however, intriguing that place receives the least attention in quality assurance practice. The reason provided for giving the least attention to place in their quality assurance frameworks is not consistent with the principle of equity in quality assurance practice to indicate that place has obtained optimum attention to the extent that attention could be shifted. It should be noted that quality higher education outcomes depend on quality people, programme, and Place [33–35].
\nThere is the need for higher education institutions to be strategic in the framing of their quality assurance policies and the practice of same and ensuring that equity is applied to key operational areas of their mandates. This will enable them to balance the foci of their quality assurance frameworks to achieve enhanced quality and also to make their quality assurance frameworks resilient to the changing dynamics of contemporary higher education. In doing so, the conceptual framework of this study offers higher education institutions a more comprehensive frame to classify their operational activities and weigh them on the scale of quality assurance to ensure a strategic balance needed for enhanced quality.
\nEven though the study has measured quality assurance policy and practice of the universities involved, on a scale of three dimensions (people, programme and place) as key operational areas, it did not itemise activities under these three dimensions exhaustively. Therefore, not all indicators for quality assurance in higher education have been covered under the conceptual framework of the study. Similarly, the nature of stakeholders’ involvement in quality assurance practice was not examined to warrant comments on the adequacy or appropriateness of their involvement.
\nIt is now obvious that the scale of quality assurance frameworks of the universities involved in this study weighs in favour of programme, and place receives the least attention among the three key operational areas of the universities as defined by the conceptual framework of this study. There is a clear indication of over‐concentration of quality assurance activities on programme areas such as teaching and learning, curriculum design, research, student admission, staff recruitment, staff development, and student support services. Even under programme areas, teaching and learning appear to take the centre stage of quality assurance activities. This gives an indication of imbalance with regard to the focus of quality assurance activities in the universities. The over‐concentration of quality assurance activities on programme areas suggests that these areas have the greatest quality concern that must be addressed as a matter of urgency. If this is the reality, then a strategic quality assurance framework is being implemented but even then regular balancing is required to maintain the stability of the framework. However, the context information provided in the earlier section suggests that the current major challenges facing universities, and the higher education sector of Ghana in general, are limited physical infrastructure and graduate employability due to skills mismatch [2, 4, 15]. These challenges are, to a large extent, attributable to insufficient facilities and stakeholder involvement in defining and implementing mechanisms for achieving quality rather than core activities of teaching and learning [16].
\nThe situation requires more strategic attention to stakeholder involvement and facilities in quality assurance policy and practice. More attention to facilities is needed to enable qualified applicants to be admitted and to support quality programme delivery. More involvement of professional bodies, employers, and alumni is also needed in situations of skill mismatch. Meanwhile, the findings of the study suggest that stakeholder involvement is even over‐concentrated on senior academic and administrative members making it “business as usual.” A strategic quality assurance framework must be pragmatist oriented in order to solve practical issues. Over‐concentration on teaching and learning activities suggests unstable quality assurance frameworks for the universities which are not capable of achieving enhanced quality. Therefore, there is the need to apply the principle of equity in quality assurance policy and practice such that quality key operational areas that have been underrepresented in quality assurance policy and practice are given more attention in order to stabilise the quality assurance frameworks for enhanced quality.
\nJapan’s social systems very much focus on a rapidly aging society. The population started and kept declining after the peak of 2008, and the population pyramid is base-shaped [1], suggesting that fewer young generations need to support the retired. Building or rebuilding the community to accommodate the daily lives of the older adult whose kins do not live together or close to them is critical. We have a well-developed public system to provide older adults with welfare services for long-term care insurance. The problem is its sustainability because of the shrinking population, especially those who pay taxes. The national government pushes community inclusiveness providing community members with comprehensive care. Comprehensive care is mutually exchanged among community members. All members can be a provider and benefiter of the care [2].
It is said that the Japanese values ties within close relationships such as family. We tend to have clear boundaries of “Uchi” (meaning insiders) and “Soto” (meaning outsiders). We appreciate family ties, of which the negative side is independence from the outsider [3]. This aspect makes the Japanese think being not independent is a shame and can cause social isolation when individuals in need do not live with or close to other family members. The family is nowadays nuclear, and generations within a family tend to live in separate locations. With this background, the need for public long-term care services is increasing [4], while the market for private eldercare services is also expanding.
On the other hand, Japanese culture is based on farming, in which mutual support was necessary to sustain the business, such as the management of water and land in the community [3]. Many neighborhood communities are used to or still have good supporting systems on such a base in the culture. Community members take care of each other on a daily base. However, such communities are aging and losing their support systems.
Regaining or gaining capacities for managing mutual support systems in the community is needed, considering the financial backgrounds and societal changes.
The macro perspective comes down to social work practices. In Japan, social work is majorly driven by the public sector. “Social worker” in Japan is usually a nationally qualified social worker (“Shakaifukushishi” in Japanese) or mental health and welfare worker (“Seishinhokenfukushishi”) [5]. However, qualifications are not always required. Social workers are also called different names depending on the workplace, such as “life counselor” (“Seikatsusoudainin”) in the eldercare facilities and “medical social worker” (“Iryo” social worker) in hospitals.
Major employees of social workers in Japan are hospitals or clinics and private medical or welfare companies who contract with local governments to support the management of their long-term care welfare services as subsidiaries.
Social workers, with or without the public qualification, play roles in the delivery processes of long-term care welfare services provided in the community. Although the data is limited to those with the public qualification, about 40% of social workers work for the eldercare facilities, and 14% work for medical care facilities [6]. The data suggests that many social workers play important roles as life counselors in the more general term in Japan.
Life counselors provide consultation and support services to the older adults with disabilities, and their families. Those clients are users of eldercare homes, daycare services, and other long-term care welfare facilities. Specifically, they serve as the point of contact for the facility, receiving consultation from the users and their families, performing procedures for admission and discharge from the facility, and communicating and coordinating with the relevant authorities. They are sometimes called “support counselors,” and their job description is the same as that of life counselors.
I used to work with social workers in the community. Many are staff members of the companies contracted with the local government. Social workers are responsible for a particular serving area that is geographically determined. The zoning is based on middle schools, which are areas for individuals to live their daily lives.
In 2016, their job description was changed with the need to rebuild the community’s capacities. Although the previous responsibilities included coordination of the services, and they were required to collaborate with other organizations to orchestrate resources to benefit insured clients efficiently and effectively, they now are responsible for facilitating community capacity building. It is a huge additional component that requires them to communicate more and better with professional and community organizations. The community usually has its organizational systems with small committees for child welfare, eldercare, security, natural disaster mitigation, etc. Older communities face the challenges of sustaining the system because fewer younger participate in activities, while newly developed communities face the challenges of building such systems. Those organizational systems are enhancers most times, but they can hinder (re)building community capacities. Hospitals and clinics, and private care providers for the medical and long-term care services in the community are important resources, and their participation in the community capacity building is critical. However, the hierarchy between medicine and welfare can be a hurdle toward the goal.
While I attended social workers’ challenges in facilitating community capacity building, I realized that the internal capacity was also being developed. The whole process was new to the organization, and it was very important for social workers to share their experiences and lessons learned. The center’s director for community comprehensive care services was keen on such needs among staff members. He invited me to such meetings of the sharing, and I occasionally supported meetings. Though it is anecdotal, those internal communication processes secured by the director’s leadership enhanced the organizational development and social workers’ performances in the community.
In the 2020 spring, the COVID-19 pandemic started challenging our resilience. For many organizations in social work in Japan and other countries, there must be very challenging moments.
When we are flexible and creative, we become resilient and even better under such supposedly bad situations. Organizational performances heavily depend on how well members communicate with each other, affecting flexibility. Being creative requires diversity. From the future perspective, the leader in social work should be even more concerned about the importance of internal communication processes with their quality of diversity.
This chapter focuses on internal and organizational communication processes and their relationship with the leadership in social work. The concept and tool I introduce will apply to the context across organizations. However, the effects of the enhanced organizational capacity with the base of internal communication processes will cascade to the serving community.
Complexity science is originally derived from the natural sciences of biology and physics and has no single original theory to explain it. It has been applied in the social sciences to address problems and issues in human society. We are also surrounded by many complex systems, such as traffic jams, stock and futures trading, etc. An organization composed of multiple individuals is a social complex system [7].
In modern society, we benefit from information and logistics technologies, which not only connect the world and allow us to be informed about events such as natural and human disasters in distant countries but also affect our lives in many ways. Almost all systems in this modern society are connected, creating a huge complex system as a whole. There are several characteristics of a complex system. However, the most important ones are having a specific origin, having a regularity even though the way it spreads is difficult to understand, and interacting with the surrounding external systems and other systems that exist alongside it [7].
Most human activities are communication. We live our lives with others, and “relating” is communication, exchanging information in all its forms. Shannon and Weaver’s most fundamental theory of communication frames and explains the essence of communication [8].
The sender sends a message with an intention. The receiver of the information receives it through a filter of interpretation. Noise exists in the process of transmission and reception, and when the intention at the time of transmission is expressed, it becomes something different from its original form (symbolization). The receiver’s interpretation deciphers it, but there is a twist. Furthermore, the receiver becomes an information transmitter that provides feedback based on interpretation. It may seem like a simple exchange of information, but in fact, various factors are involved, and it is not easy for the sender’s intentions to arrive at the receiver’s side as it is.
The term “butterfly effect” is used to express a slight change in the state of a dynamic system that causes the system’s subsequent state to be significantly different from what it would have been without the slight change [9]. Also, in the communication process, a small element can greatly change the outcome. For example, is there someone you know or a friend of yours who somehow makes you feel more energized when you talk with him or her? In communicating with that person, there may be expressions present in the information provider, which lead to good interpretations. For example, a terrific caregiver professional I know practices “hand-holding.” As the term implies, it is a light touch of the hand on the other’s shoulder when listening to a story. It is an expression of caring. Others may include sitting so that you are facing diagonally rather than face to face in the consultation process, smiling a little when you greet someone and other casual gestures that can make a big difference.
Leadership styles matter the organizational performance. Fiedler (1996) argues that effective leadership is critical for the success or failure of a group, organization, or country [10]. For organizations to become capable enough to cope with the increasing volatility and turbulence of the external environment, leaders should be trained and equipped with the necessary skills [11, 12, 13]. It is very applicable to the ever-changing circumstances caused by the COVID-19 pandemic, and effective leadership is indeed needed.
In the area of management, the relationship between leadership styles and performance has been plentifully discussed [14, 15]. The study’s results are that the democratic and participative leadership styles tend to yield more success for the organization [16].
Among mainly case studies that provide evidence for the relationship between leadership and performance in general (for example, [17, 18, 19]), Thorlindsson (1987) conducted an empirical study that assessed the impact of leadership on performance in the context of Icelandic fishing ships [19]. Analyses of the study data over three years revealed that the captains’ leadership qualities accounted for 35–49% of the variation in the catch of crews. Pointing out the limited empirical evidence of leadership and organizational performance, Ogbonna and Harris (2013) examined the relationship between the leadership style and organizational performance with mediating effects on organizational culture among the middle and large companies in the United Kingdom. They analyzed survey data from 322 key informants who knew various tactical and strategic activities of their companies and found that the associations between the leadership style and the organizational performance were all mediated by some form of organizational culture. They also pointed out that among all of the leadership styles that were indirectly significantly associated with the organizational performance, instrumental leadership styles that focus on exchange [20] were negatively related. In contrast, supportive and participative leadership styles were positively related.
Looking at the area close to social work, the empirical evidence of leadership styles is limited but exists in the management of eldercare homes. Donoghue and Castle (2009) examined the relationship between eldercare home administration (NHA) leadership styles and caregiver turn- over from 2900 eldercare homes [21]. They found that the NHAs’ leadership style that heard and acted upon their employees’ voices (i.g., consensus manager) was associated with the lowest turnover levels. In contrast, the other that did not communicate with their employees about decision making or expectations (i.g., share-holder manager) was associated with the highest turnover levels [21]. Adding the aspect of directors of eldercare homes (DONs) along with NHAs, Castle and Decker (2011) assessed how the top eldercare home management leadership styles were related to the care quality and other performance indices [22]. Their findings showed that a consensus manager leadership style was strongly associated with better quality.
As the research on leadership styles suggests, it would say that leadership styles that are supportive and participative with bi-directional communication processes, including listening and acting upon the employee’s or follower’s voice, can yield better organizational performance.
Psychological safety is one of the important qualities of organizational communication processes, and it is related to the organizational culture that the previous research has focused on (for example, [22]).
Psychological safety is built by the seminal work by Schein and Bennis (1965) [23] on organizational change. They defined it as the extent to which individuals feel secure and confident in their ability to manage changes. Following researchers have explored the concept of psychological safety in work settings. Kahn (1990) renewed its focus by redefining psychological safety as an individual’s perceptions as to whether he or she is comfortable showing and employing himself or herself without fear of negative consequences to self-image, status, or career ([24] p708). He argued that people are more likely to feel psychologically safe when they have trusting and supportive interpersonal relationships with colleagues [24]. Edmondson (1999) proposed psychological safety as a team-level climate and definition of the “shared belief held by members of a team that the team is safe for interpersonal risk-taking” [25].
Newman et al. (2017) conducted a literature review on psychological safety and identified 62 empirical studies focusing on the outcomes of psychological safety at different levels of analysis [26]. Their review showed the body of evidence on the relationship with organizational communication processes.
At the individual and team levels, it was found that psychological safety was related to greater knowledge sharing among team members [27, 28, 29, 30] and reporting of treatment errors, and more interpersonal communication [31, 32]. Psychological safety within couple relationships and teams has been identified its relationship with more voicing behavior among employees [33, 34, 35, 36] and a reduction in silence behaviors [37].
Research has shown positive associations between employee perceptions of psychological safety and learning behaviors at both the individual [38] and team levels [39, 40, 41, 42, 43, 44]. Meta-analyses conducted by Sanner and Bunderson (2013) [45] found the correlation between team psychological safety and team learning to be 0.42 (95% CI = 0.05–0.85).
Beyond organizational communication processes, early empirical work on psychological safety has shown the association of psychological safety with learning and performance outcomes (for example, [25]). More recent studies have shown its direct and strong influence on performance at the individual [46] and team levels [47], indirect influence through facilitating learning behavior at both the individual [48, 49] and team level [25, 50, 51, 52, 53, 54]. Meta-analyses conducted by Sanner and Bunderson (2013) found the indirect effect of psychological safety on team performance through team learning to be 0.17 (95% CI = 0.14–0.20) [45].
In addition to performance, the evidence on the association between the employee’s perceived psychological safety and their organizations and creativity [55, 56], both creative thinking and risk-taking at the team level [57], innovation in R&D teams [58, 59], manufacturing process innovation performance [59, 60], knowledge creation [61], team performance mediated by the sharing knowledge [62]. Referring to the study result of no evidence for the psychological safety leading to higher levels of critical thinking within teams [63], Newman et al. (2017) [26] suggest that psychological safety may influence performance outcomes through promoting social exchange between the employee and organization, and enhancing the extent to which the employee identifies with the organization [46, 47, 64].
Evidence on the effect of supportive leadership behaviors on work outcomes through psychological safety has been accumulated. For example, empirical studies showed that some properties of leaders, such as inclusiveness [33, 55], support [65], trustworthiness [66], openness [34], and behavioral integrity [57], strongly influenced the employee’s perceived psychological safety, and drove the behavioral outcomes such as employees’ voicing behaviors, involvement in creative work, job performance and engagement. At the team level, employees’ collective perceptions of support and coaching forwarded by the team leader [25, 41], leader inclusiveness [51, 67], trust in the leader [47, 48], and the leader’s behavioral integrity [31] have been found to develop psychological safety facilitating team learning behaviors, team performance, engagement in quality improvement work, and reduction in errors among team members.
Research has established the evidence that leaders valuing participation, people, and production use couple discovery rather than group-based discovery methods [44, 68], and an improvement orientation management style [69] are more likely to provide high levels of psychological safety.
The mechanisms of the relationship between supportive leadership behaviors and psychological safety have been referenced in social learning theory [70]. The explanation is that leaders play model roles to employees/followers by listening, forwarding support, and providing clear and consistent directions to them, which makes them feel safe to take risks and engage in honest communication ([38, 51, 71, 72]). The other (for example, [47]) pushes the social exchange theory; when followers are supported by the leader, they will reciprocate with supportive behaviors themselves, which secures the psychologically safe environment of the entire team. Newman et al. (2017) [26] argue that it is likely that the effects will be stronger and more enduring when psychological safety is built through employee/follower’s learning of leaders’ behaviors, rather than them being displayed at points of exchanging certain behaviors with leaders.
So far, I have shared enough scientific evidence for the important roles of communication processes that can be facilitated by the leadership style. Leadership styles strongly affect outcomes in direct and indirect manners, fostering and hampering, for example, a creative and innovative organizational environment with psychological safety. I emphasize leadership styles are displayed and realized only through the leader’s behaviors that are mostly organizational communication processes.
On the other hand, leaders’ personalities matter, and not all leaders have personal properties such as traits and skillsets yet to secure the quality of organizational communication processes. To overcome such obstacles, I introduce the tool for enhancing quality organizational communication processes, e.g.,
As mentioned, the remaining part of this chapter will be devoted to introducing the specific tool that helps leaders in social work equip communication processes for a better organizational environment and performance that is
Although we want to be better in daily performances as a member of social organizations, including private or public, we are not good at making changes. We are in the loop of “habits,” and it is difficult for us to escape from it. Habitual practices in the organization, which are being followed by the majority of members, are thought that there is no other way even though there are other ways. One of the typical habitual practice examples is the communication style. On the public occasion, we commonly use five styles of communication, which are presentations, managed discussions, status updates, brainstorming, and open discussions) (Figure 1) [74].
Big 5 conventional micro-structures. (Source: Lispmanowicz and McCandless, 2020 [
They point out the unintended consequences of following the conventional styles include exclusion, suffocation, unjust participation with over-or under-controls and inability to yield ideas for next steps and the future. Those styles often limit space for good ideas to emerge, be shared, merged, and refined. Thus, they will never produce creativity and innovations. We tend to blindly practice the styles because they are thought to be the only way, although they get frustrated with the consequences. Lipmanowicz and McCandless (2020) point out that huge costs are spent working the way in efforts to fix the problems, which actually creates or exacerbates them [74].
To make real changes in organizations, which are sustainable and habitual with good causes, all levels of individuals should be involved. Involvement means not only participation but engagement as change agents, which requires change methods everybody can use, and those methods should be routinely used in daily living [74].
Lipmanowicz and McCandless (2020) suggest the importance of paying attention to “microstructures” of communication styles, which matter to the quality of communication processes, which are the essence of L.S.
They point out that the requirements for small-scale changes are similar to the requirements for large-scale systemic changes. The caseworker who wants to improve the quality of care for the client, the manager who wants to improve department performance, the teacher who wants to engage students, the doctor who wants to improve teamwork, and so on, all need and are benefitted from methods that are very simple, quickly learned, easy to use, and endlessly adaptable. They listed the key attributes for such methods include, 1)
Equipped with those features, L.S.s are the simple change methods that everybody can use to improve or change the way work supposedly gets done. There are 33 structures in which everybody is included and invited to participate in shaping the group’s shared future (Figure 2). The detailed descriptions of 33 structures are freely and publicly available [75]. Because most L.S.s take only 10 to 30 minutes, they can be used for daily communication processes, including meetings in the organization.
33 L.S. menus. (Source: Lipmanowicz and McCandless, 2020 [
L.S.s have been developed from the founders’ deep interests in complexity science theories [76]. They took close looks into living how those theories could inform the nature and functioning of human organizations. Quo and McCandless (2020) explained the organizational life using metaphors (Figure 3). They argue that we need to take an ecological metaphor rather than a machine metaphor to understand the organization’s life. The machine metaphor is the one we have believed since we got machines in the time of the industrial revolution. It explains that a good organization is supposed to work like a clock. A system is made of interconnected reliable parts (people, functions, and systems), directed and controlled from the top, and designed to produce predictable results. However, organizations are not machines but complex living systems that behave and evolve like ecosystems.
Comparison of machine and ecosystem metaphors: Images. (Source: Fisher and McCandless, 2020 [
Figure 4, which was modified based on the idea by the complexity science scholars [77], presents how to organize activities based on a more conventional machine metaphor and on a complexity-theory-based ecosystem metaphor [76].
Comparison of the machine and ecosystem metaphors: how to organize activities. (Source: Fisher and McCandless, 2020 [
While being easy to understand from the theoretical standpoint, it will pose a question in the practical aspect. That is how organizational members are supposed to manage their operations, make decisions, solve problems, manage people, and so on with such a worldview.
The L.S. founders originally collected methods that allowed people to routinely use to manage in a complex way rather than manage in a mechanistic way [76]. As they accumulated collections, they started simplifying the approach, not requiring the understanding of the complexity theory and terms to use the methods [76].
Such processes of simplifying the methods yielded the aforementioned micro-structural elements. There are five elements of microstructures, and they are the following [73].
For example, one of the most basic L.S.s “1–2–4-All” is best designed to generate and exchange many ideas from group members in a short period of time. It can be used as an alternative to brainstorming and status reports and is often used within other L.S.s. Taking it as an example, micro-structural elements are like the following [76].
This section, following the introduction to the essence of L.S.s, will exemplify its usages through a few case studies and actual use examples. You may not think that they are necessarily considered internal communication processes within an organization. However, I hope that they should give you better pictures of how to use particular L.S.s. I do not provide the readers with detailed descriptions of each L.S. while suggesting you refer to the available resources.
Four provided fictional and non-fictional examples are contextualized in Japan, and the settings are where Japanese social workers are working toward rebuilding the community.
The description here is fictionally based on the real situation where I was involved.
Imagine the “center” is responsible for welfare services in a particular geographic area. The center chief who is a social worker himself leads the center, and the staff members include two social workers and a nurse, and two administrative staff members who deal with paperwork for the public procedures. The center’s responsibilities include 1) the management of the cases of individuals with long-term care needs, who usually use public services to some extent, and 2) the community organization work, which involves developing relationships with individual residents, community organizations, and other community resources such as medical clinics and hospitals, private or non-profit welfare service providers and so on. While staff members need to set and attend various meetings to develop collaborative relationships with outside organizations across the serving community, being understaffed is a chronic condition. The center chief does feel the lack of information sharing, but he does not want the staff members to sacrifice their roles in private life.
The following is a brief description of 4 possible issues of communication processes that the center face and the possible L.S.s use to resolve them.
Issue: With the difference in professional backgrounds, there is a huge perception gap of community organization work among staff members. Because staff members actually do not know well what they are doing, particularly as community organization work done outside the office, some staff members feel that they take the uneven workload. Staff members need to first know and share what the other members are doing as part of their responsibilities, and to have time to think about how community organization work is really what they as the center need to do.
Possible L.S. use: In this case, for the first part of sharing what they do like the role in the center, one of the best fits is “Troika Consulting.” It allows staff members to share their thoughts, feelings, and concerns about their own daily work. Using Troika Consulting, feelings and deep thoughts can be voiced with coaching-like support from colleagues. The invitation may be famed by questions like “How do you feel about your daily work and what is the burning issue recently?”
The second part of sharing the value and goal of community organization can be achievable by “Celebrity Interview.” The social worker takes the celebrity role (interviewee), and the center chief can interview him/her. The interviewer (the center chief) asks a series of questions to reveal the value felt by the interviewee (the social worker). After finishing a “Celebrity Interview,” the other staff members, as if they are press members, can ask additional questions. Then they can reflect on what they thought and felt about what was told by the social worker. This process can be done by “1-2-4-ALL” if the number of participants is large. The communication process is composed of a few L.S.s.
Issue: Some of the key individuals in younger generations who do not perceive the aging of the community as what they need to deal with are not motivated enough to participate in collaborative community works, and the social worker wants to get them involved.
Possible L.S. use: This is a non-fictional example. The L.S. actually used was “Experiential Fishbowl.” Having the leaders from the local community and representatives from various related organizations gather together, we (the center staff members and I in the team) invited them with asking a question, “How would you like to spend your last days?”
As part of the half-day workshop, the social workers who led the “Experiential Fishbowl” session asked a neighborhood association leader, a daycare facility nurse, a doctor of the local clinic, a welfare commissioner, and the social worker to be in the fishbowl, and to them to discuss their own ideas regarding the question (invitation) among them in the fishbowl while other participants surrounded them in the fishbowl. Diverse opinions were expressed, and the conversation did not stop, though, but after all of the individuals inside the fishbowl expressed their ideas and thoughts for about 15 minutes, the other participants surrounding them were given a chance to pose questions and express their ideas and thoughts. Talking about death is not usual, but no one can avoid it, and the communication dynamics were very energizing and promoted the community building for a good life and good death. A participating health care professional mentioned, “It was very good to hear real voices and an opportunity to get to know each other’s thoughts. I realize the importance of having time to think together.” Figures 5 and 6.
“
Ideas shared with a foursome in “
Issue: The social workers think that there must be local resources that have not been captured in the community. They want to expand the list of local resources at various levels because they think recognizing even small-scaled activities by residents and making links will promote supporting systems in the community.
Possible L.S. use: “1-2-4-ALL” the simplest and most basic L.S. can be used with an invitation like “Please introduce each other’s current activities.” Pairs or foursomes of people who are not normally acquainted with each other are usually recommended for “1-2-4-ALL,” and this is very applicable for this case. The invitation can be enhanced by an additional question like “Are there any similarities or similarities?” Foursomes might be asked to make a list of what they heard from each other, and those lists will be merged with the entire group.
Issue: Communities can learn much from each other, and the center wants to set up an environment in which the communities can effectively learn from each other.
Possible L.S. use: It is true that neighboring local communities do not interact with each other enough to know what other communities are doing. Sadly, though but it is very reasonable as the lack of communication can happen within a much organization. However, as the social worker thought, there should be a quality of learning when they interact and communicate with each other.
This example is another real story, and the actual work was done. We invited community leaders from several communities to a community gathering. They share concerns about the aging of members and the lack of supporters of sustainable community initiatives. At the session with a diverse group of participants, using “1-2-4-ALL,” we invited them to pull “Ideas to reduce the number of older adults who are isolated in their homes.” With these invitations, many described what they were actually doing and provided concrete ideas. Those shared and exchanged ideas and information of actual practices were also taken by many as “souvenirs of innovations.” We saw many participants motivated by confirming each other’s efforts. Participants from the medical and welfare professions were in the session, and they responded to what they heard, “I admire community members who voluntarily support other older members on daily basis efforts and innovations and what they are doing is innovative with full of wisdom.”
I introduced very basic and simple uses of L.S.s here, and there are plenty more. Each of the 33 L.S.s covers a range of purposes, from spreading ideas to developing strategies. Users choose which L.S. they use based on particular purposes. In addition, users
Once starting to use L.S.s, users will see its full of potential. It is possible to include and engage everybody and give everyone the opportunity to contribute. L.S.s will make users surprised to see results emerge at a better level than expected and to feel enthusiasm. Another strength is that implementation follows, which truly makes us possible to work in complex systems. As uses are accumulated in the organization, shared experience produces more possibility and confidence in each other, which leads to more innovation. To that point, going back to conventional microstructures (communicating with each other via “Big 5”) will never be an option.
A language is a tool for how communicating. We had known only “Big 5” conventional microstructures as the tools of how to organizationally communicate, but now we have 33 more of that tools that provide us with full of potential. The saying “Use it or lose it” to become a fluent speaker of languages is very applicable to the communication microstructure L.S.s.
The research on leadership styles suggests that leadership styles that are supportive and participative with bi-directional communication processes, including listening and acting upon the employee’s or follower’s voice, can yield better organizational performance. Previous research accumulated evidence on the effect of supportive leadership behaviors on work outcomes through psychological safety.
Although there is no discussion on psychological safety in the context of L.S. uses, to my knowledge, it can be theoretically explained that L.S.s can produce or increase psychological safety because L.S.s can enhance the participation of everybody in very small to large groups by allowing us to be mindful of soft- and hard- microstructures and thus promote flat, just and sound relationships with supposedly high psychological safety. This aspect will call for future empirical research.
L.S.s can help leaders become more effective in organizational communication even though they are naturally not good communicators. Making L.S.s the official language will give the organization possibility of better teamwork and performance. It will require leadership to make it happen. Social work is human care, and the involved organization should be humane to function effectively. Thus, leaders in social work should be mindful of making their leading organization sound with good teamwork by paying enough attention to communication processes.
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Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"39599",doi:"10.5772/50046",title:"Encapsulation Technology to Protect Probiotic Bacteria",slug:"encapsulation-technology-to-protect-probiotic-bacteria",totalDownloads:12448,totalCrossrefCites:45,totalDimensionsCites:87,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"María Chávarri, Izaskun Marañón and María Carmen Villarán",authors:[{id:"150285",title:"Dr.",name:"María",middleName:null,surname:"Chávarri Hueda",slug:"maria-chavarri-hueda",fullName:"María Chávarri Hueda"},{id:"151613",title:"MSc.",name:"Izaskun",middleName:null,surname:"Marañon",slug:"izaskun-maranon",fullName:"Izaskun Marañon"},{id:"151621",title:"Dr.",name:"Mª Carmen",middleName:null,surname:"Villarán",slug:"ma-carmen-villaran",fullName:"Mª Carmen Villarán"}]},{id:"39607",doi:"10.5772/50121",title:"Recent Application of Probiotics in Food and Agricultural Science",slug:"recent-application-of-probiotics-in-food-and-agricultural-science",totalDownloads:10168,totalCrossrefCites:32,totalDimensionsCites:77,abstract:null,book:{id:"3145",slug:"probiotics",title:"Probiotics",fullTitle:"Probiotics"},signatures:"Danfeng Song, Salam Ibrahim and Saeed Hayek",authors:[{id:"107905",title:"Prof.",name:"Salam",middleName:null,surname:"Ibrahim",slug:"salam-ibrahim",fullName:"Salam Ibrahim"},{id:"150202",title:"Dr.",name:"Danfeng",middleName:null,surname:"Song",slug:"danfeng-song",fullName:"Danfeng Song"},{id:"151025",title:"MSc.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Hayek",slug:"saeed-hayek",fullName:"Saeed Hayek"}]},{id:"49246",doi:"10.5772/61300",title:"Chitosan as a Biomaterial — Structure, Properties, and Electrospun Nanofibers",slug:"chitosan-as-a-biomaterial-structure-properties-and-electrospun-nanofibers",totalDownloads:4720,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:63,abstract:"Chitosan is a polysaccharide derived from chitin; chitin is the second most abundant polysaccharide in the world, after cellulose. Chitosan is biocompatible, biodegradable and non-toxic, so that it can be usedin medicalapplications such as antimicrobial and wound healing biomaterials. It also used as chelating agent due to its ability to bind with cholesterol, fats, proteins and metal ions.",book:{id:"4648",slug:"concepts-compounds-and-the-alternatives-of-antibacterials",title:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials",fullTitle:"Concepts, Compounds and the Alternatives of Antibacterials"},signatures:"H. M. Ibrahim and E.M.R. 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These data are crucial to improve the performance, robustness and stability of biofilm-based wastewater treatment technologies.",book:{id:"5197",slug:"microbial-biofilms-importance-and-applications",title:"Microbial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Microbial Biofilms - Importance and Applications"},signatures:"Shama Sehar and Iffat Naz",authors:[{id:"180364",title:"Dr.",name:"Iffat",middleName:null,surname:"Naz",slug:"iffat-naz",fullName:"Iffat Naz"},{id:"183345",title:"Dr.",name:"Shama",middleName:null,surname:"Sehar",slug:"shama-sehar",fullName:"Shama Sehar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"65613",title:"The Methods for Detection of Biofilm and Screening Antibiofilm Activity of Agents",slug:"the-methods-for-detection-of-biofilm-and-screening-antibiofilm-activity-of-agents",totalDownloads:9277,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:26,abstract:"Biofilm producer microorganisms cause nosocomial and recurrent infections. Biofilm that is a sticky exopolysaccharide is the main virulence factor causing biofilm-related infections. Biofilm formation begins with attachment of bacteria to biotic surface such as host cell or abiotic surface such as prosthetic devices. After attachment, aggregation of bacteria is started by cell-cell adhesion. Aggregation continues with the maturation of biofilm. Dispersion is started by certain conditions such as phenol-soluble modulins (PSMs). By this way, sessile bacteria turn back into planktonic form. Bacteria embedded in biofilm (sessile form) are more resistant to antimicrobials than planktonic bacteria. So it is hard to treat biofilm-embedded bacteria than planktonic forms. For this reason, it is important to detect biofilm. There are a few biofilm detection and biofilm production methods on prosthetics, methods for screening antibacterial effect of agents against biofilm-embedded microorganism and antibiofilm effect of agents against biofilm production and mature biofilm. The aim of this chapter is to overview direct and indirect methods such as microscopy, fluorescent in situ hybridization, and Congo red agar, tube method, microtiter plate assay, checkerboard assay, plate counting, polymerase chain reaction, mass spectrometry, MALDI-TOF, and biological assays used by antibiofilm researches.",book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"}]},{id:"62553",title:"Antibiotic Use in Poultry Production and Its Effects on Bacterial Resistance",slug:"antibiotic-use-in-poultry-production-and-its-effects-on-bacterial-resistance",totalDownloads:7327,totalCrossrefCites:43,totalDimensionsCites:92,abstract:"A surge in the development and spread of antibiotic resistance has become a major cause for concern. Over the past few decades, no major new types of antibiotics have been produced and almost all known antibiotics are increasingly losing their activity against pathogenic microorganisms. The levels of multi-drug resistant bacteria have also increased. It is known that worldwide, more than 60% of all antibiotics that are produced find their use in animal production for both therapeutic and non-therapeutic purposes. The use of antimicrobial agents in animal husbandry has been linked to the development and spread of resistant bacteria. Poultry products are among the highest consumed products worldwide but a lot of essential antibiotics are employed during poultry production in several countries; threatening the safety of such products (through antimicrobial residues) and the increased possibility of development and spread of microbial resistance in poultry settings. This chapter documents some of the studies on antibiotic usage in poultry farming; with specific focus on some selected bacterial species, their economic importance to poultry farming and reports of resistances of isolated species from poultry settings (farms and poultry products) to essential antibiotics.",book:{id:"6978",slug:"antimicrobial-resistance-a-global-threat",title:"Antimicrobial Resistance",fullTitle:"Antimicrobial Resistance - A Global Threat"},signatures:"Christian Agyare, Vivian Etsiapa Boamah, Crystal Ngofi Zumbi and\nFrank Boateng Osei",authors:[{id:"182058",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Agyare",slug:"christian-agyare",fullName:"Christian Agyare"},{id:"261271",title:"MSc.",name:"Crystal Ngofi",middleName:null,surname:"Zumbi",slug:"crystal-ngofi-zumbi",fullName:"Crystal Ngofi Zumbi"},{id:"261272",title:"MSc.",name:"Frank Boateng",middleName:null,surname:"Osei",slug:"frank-boateng-osei",fullName:"Frank Boateng Osei"},{id:"261273",title:"Dr.",name:"Vivian Etsiapa",middleName:null,surname:"Boamah",slug:"vivian-etsiapa-boamah",fullName:"Vivian Etsiapa Boamah"}]},{id:"65914",title:"Introductory Chapter: The Action Mechanisms of Antibiotics and Antibiotic Resistance",slug:"introductory-chapter-the-action-mechanisms-of-antibiotics-and-antibiotic-resistance",totalDownloads:4428,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:null,book:{id:"8427",slug:"antimicrobials-antibiotic-resistance-antibiofilm-strategies-and-activity-methods",title:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods",fullTitle:"Antimicrobials, Antibiotic Resistance, Antibiofilm Strategies and Activity Methods"},signatures:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu, Nesrin Gareayaghi and Bekir S. Kocazeybek",authors:[{id:"179460",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sahra",middleName:null,surname:"Kırmusaoğlu",slug:"sahra-kirmusaoglu",fullName:"Sahra Kırmusaoğlu"},{id:"248288",title:"Prof.",name:"Bekir",middleName:null,surname:"Kocazeybek",slug:"bekir-kocazeybek",fullName:"Bekir Kocazeybek"},{id:"406463",title:"Dr.",name:"Nesrin",middleName:null,surname:"Gareayaghi",slug:"nesrin-gareayaghi",fullName:"Nesrin Gareayaghi"}]},{id:"50992",title:"Probiotics: A Comprehensive Review of Their Classification, Mode of Action and Role in Human Nutrition",slug:"probiotics-a-comprehensive-review-of-their-classification-mode-of-action-and-role-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5429,totalCrossrefCites:16,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Probiotics are live microorganisms that live in gastrointestinal (GI) tract and are beneficial for their hosts and prevent certain diseases. In this chapter, after a complete introduction to probiotics, definition, mechanism of action, and their classification, currently used organisms will be discussed in detail. Moreover, different kinds of nutritional synthetic products of probiotics along with their safety and drug interaction will be noticed. This chapter mentions all clinical trial studies that have been done to evaluate probiotic efficacy with a focus on gastrointestinal diseases.",book:{id:"5193",slug:"probiotics-and-prebiotics-in-human-nutrition-and-health",title:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health",fullTitle:"Probiotics and Prebiotics in Human Nutrition and Health"},signatures:"Amirreza Khalighi, Reza Behdani and Shabnam Kouhestani",authors:[{id:"179560",title:"Dr.",name:"Amirreza",middleName:null,surname:"Khalighi",slug:"amirreza-khalighi",fullName:"Amirreza Khalighi"},{id:"185238",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Behdani",slug:"reza-behdani",fullName:"Reza Behdani"},{id:"185239",title:"Dr.",name:"Shabnam",middleName:null,surname:"Kouhestani",slug:"shabnam-kouhestani",fullName:"Shabnam Kouhestani"}]},{id:"72109",title:"Antibiotic Resistance in Biofilm",slug:"antibiotic-resistance-in-biofilm",totalDownloads:1479,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:20,abstract:"Biofilms can be found on several living and nonliving surfaces, which are formed by a group of microorganisms, complex assembly of proteins, polysaccharides, and DNAs in an extracellular polymeric matrix. By forming a biofilm, bacteria protect themselves from host defense, disinfectants, and antibiotics. Bacteria inside biofilm are much more resistant to antimicrobial agents than planktonic forms since bacteria that are unresisting to antimicrobial agents in any way can turn resistant after forming a biofilm. Low penetration of antibiotics into the biofilm, slow reproduction, and the existence of adaptive stress response constitute the multiphased defense of the bacterium. This antibiotic resistance, which is provided by biofilm, makes the treatments, which use effective antibiotic doses on the bacterium in planktonic shape, difficult. Biofilm formation potential of bacteria appears as an important virulence factor in ensuring the colonization on the living tissues or medical devices and makes the treatment difficult. The aim of this chapter is to overview the current knowledge of antimicrobial resistance mechanisms in biofilms.",book:{id:"8967",slug:"bacterial-biofilms",title:"Bacterial Biofilms",fullTitle:"Bacterial Biofilms"},signatures:"Sadık Dincer, Fatima Masume Uslu and Anil Delik",authors:[{id:"188141",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadik",middleName:null,surname:"Dincer",slug:"sadik-dincer",fullName:"Sadik Dincer"},{id:"315992",title:"MSc.",name:"Fatıma Masume",middleName:null,surname:"Uslu",slug:"fatima-masume-uslu",fullName:"Fatıma Masume Uslu"},{id:"315993",title:"MSc.",name:"Anıl",middleName:null,surname:"Delik",slug:"anil-delik",fullName:"Anıl Delik"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"148",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"81704",title:"Quorum Sensing Inhibition Based Drugs to Conquer Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"quorum-sensing-inhibition-based-drugs-to-conquer-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:22,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104125",abstract:"Quorum sensing is the cell to cell communication mechanism in microorganism through signalling molecules. Regulation of virulence factor, sporulation, proteolytic enzymes production, biofilm formation, auto-inducers, cell population density are key physiological process mediated through quorum-sensing (QS) signalling. Elevation of innate immune system and antibiotic tolerance of pathogens is highly increased with perspective of quorum-sensing (QS) activity. Development of novel drugs is highly attractive scenario against cell-cell communication of microbes. Design of synthetic drugs and natural compounds against QS signal molecules is vital combat system to attenuate microbial pathogenicity. Quorum sensing inhibitors (QSIs), quorum quenchers (QQs), efflux pump inhibitors (EPIs) act against multi-drug resistance strains (MDR) and other pathogenic microbes through regulation of auto-inducers and signal molecule with perceptive to growth arrest both in-vitro and in-vivo. QQs, QSIs and EPIs compounds has been validated with various animal models for high selection pressure on therapeutics arsenal against microbe’s growth inhibition. Promising QSI are phytochemicals and secondary metabolites includes polyacetylenes, alkaloids, polyphenols, terpenoids, quinones.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Kothandapani Sundar, Ramachandira Prabu and Gopal Jayalakshmi"},{id:"82372",title:"Unlocking the Potential of Ghost Probiotics in Combating Antimicrobial Resistance",slug:"unlocking-the-potential-of-ghost-probiotics-in-combating-antimicrobial-resistance",totalDownloads:20,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104126",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a global concern that requires immediate attention. Major causes of development of antimicrobial resistance in microbial cells are overuse of antimicrobials along the food chain especially in livestock, in preventing infections as well as misuse of antimicrobials by patients. Probiotics could be a viable alternative to antibiotics in the fight against antimicrobial resistance. Probiotic strains can act as a complement to antimicrobial therapy, improving antimicrobial function and enhancing immunity. However, there are safety concerns regarding the extensive use of live microbial cells especially in immunocompromised individuals; these include microbial translocation, inhibition of other beneficial microorganisms and development of antimicrobial resistance, among other concerns. Inevitably, ghost probiotics have become the favored alternative as they eliminate the safety and shelf-life problems associated with use of probiotics. Ghost probiotics are non-viable microbial cells (intact or broken) or metabolic products from microorganisms, which when administered in adequate amounts have biologic activity in the host and confer health benefits. Ghost probiotics exert biological effects similar to probiotics. However, the major drawback of using ghost probiotics is that the mechanism of action of these is currently unknown, hence more research is required and regulatory instruments are needed to assure the safety of consumers.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Abigarl Ndudzo, Sakhile Ndlovu, Nesisa Nyathi and Angela Sibanda Makuvise"},{id:"82178",title:"Managing Antimicrobial Resistance beyond the Hospital Antimicrobial Stewardship: The Role of One Health",slug:"managing-antimicrobial-resistance-beyond-the-hospital-antimicrobial-stewardship-the-role-of-one-heal",totalDownloads:16,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104170",abstract:"Infections caused by micro-organisms affect the health of people and animals, causing morbidity and mortality, with Asia and Africa as the epicenters. Some of the infectious diseases are emerging and re-emerging in nature. Examples include viral hepatitis, Lassa fever, Ebola, yellow fever, tuberculosis, covid-19, measles, and malaria, among others. Antimicrobials have been playing an important role in the treatment of infections by these microbes. However, there has been a development of resistance to these antimicrobials as a result of many drivers. This write-up used secondary data to explore the management of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) beyond the hospital antimicrobial resistance steward using the one health concept. The findings showed AMR to be a transboundary, multifaceted ecosystem problem affecting both the developed and developing countries. It is also one of the top ten global public health threats facing mankind. Globally, AMR will cost over US$100 trillion in output loss by 2050, about 700,000 deaths a year, and 4,150,000 deaths in Africa by 2050. About 2.4 million people could die in high-income countries between 2015 and 2050 without a sustained effort to contain AMR. The drivers of AMR are beyond the hospital and hospital AMR stewardship. Therefore, the need for one health concept to manage it.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Istifanus Anekoson Joshua, Mathew Bobai and Clement Sokfa Woje"},{id:"81918",title:"Machine Learning for Antimicrobial Resistance Research and Drug Development",slug:"machine-learning-for-antimicrobial-resistance-research-and-drug-development",totalDownloads:52,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104841",abstract:"Machine learning is a subfield of artificial intelligence which combines sophisticated algorithms and data to develop predictive models with minimal human interference. This chapter focuses on research that trains machine learning models to study antimicrobial resistance and to discover antimicrobial drugs. An emphasis is placed on applying machine learning models to detect drug resistance among bacterial and fungal pathogens. The role of machine learning in antibacterial and antifungal drug discovery and design is explored. Finally, the challenges and prospects of applying machine learning to advance basic research on and treatment of antimicrobial resistance are discussed. Overall, machine learning promises to advance antimicrobial resistance research and to facilitate the development of antibacterial and antifungal drugs.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Shamanth A. Shankarnarayan, Joshua D. Guthrie and Daniel A. Charlebois"},{id:"81891",title:"Alternatives to Antibiotics in Semen Extenders Used in Artificial Insemination",slug:"alternatives-to-antibiotics-in-semen-extenders-used-in-artificial-insemination",totalDownloads:27,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104226",abstract:"Antimicrobial resistance is a serious global threat requiring a widespread response. Both veterinarians and medical doctors should restrict antibiotic usage to therapeutic use only, after determining the sensitivity of the causal organism. However, the addition of antibiotics to semen extenders for animal artificial insemination represents a hidden, non-therapeutic use of antimicrobial substances. Artificial insemination for livestock breeding is a huge global enterprise with hundreds of million sperm doses prepared annually. However, reporting of antimicrobial resistance in semen is increasing. This review discusses the consequences of bacteria in semen samples, as well as the effect of antimicrobial substances in semen extenders on bacteria in the environment and even on personnel. Alternatives to antibiotics have been reported in the scientific literature and are reviewed here. The most promising of these, removal of the majority of bacteria by colloid centrifugation, is considered in detail, especially results from an artificial insemination study in pigs. In conclusion, colloid centrifugation is a practical method of physically removing bacteria from semen, which does not induce antibiotic resistance. Sperm quality in stored semen samples may be improved at the same time.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Jane M. Morrell, Pongpreecha Malaluang, Aleksandar Cojkic and Ingrid Hansson"},{id:"81699",title:"Efflux Pumps among Urinary E. coli and K. pneumoniae Local Isolates in Hilla City, Iraq",slug:"efflux-pumps-among-urinary-e-coli-and-k-pneumoniae-local-isolates-in-hilla-city-iraq",totalDownloads:10,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104408",abstract:"Urinary tract infections (UTI) are the most common bacterial infections affecting humans. Escherichia coli and Klebsiella pneumoniae were common enterobacteria engaged with community-acquired UTIs. Efflux pumps were vital resistance mechanisms for antibiotics, especially among enterobacteria. Overexpression of an efflux system, which results in a decrease in antibiotic accumulation, is an effective mechanism for drug resistance. The ATP-binding cassette (ABC) transporters, small multidrug resistance (SMR), and multidrug and toxic compound extrusion (MATE) families, the major facilitator superfamily (MFS), and the resistance-nodulation- cell division (RND) family are the five superfamilies of efflux systems linked to drug resistance. This chapter highlights the results of studying the prevalence of efflux pump genes among local isolates of E. coli and K. pneumoniae in Hilla City, Iraq. class RND AcrAB-TolC, AcrAD-TolC, and AcrFE-TolC genes detected by conventional PCR of E. coli and K. pneumoniae respectively. The result revealed approximately all studied efflux transporter were found in both E. coli and K. pneumoniae in different percentages. Biofilm formation were observed in 50(100%) of K. pneumoniae and 49(98%) of E. coli isolates were biofilm former and follow: 30(60%), 20(40%) were weak, 12(24%), 22(44%) were moderate and 7(14%) and 8(16%) were Strong biofilm former for E. coli and K. pneumoniae, respectively.",book:{id:"11373",title:"The Global Antimicrobial Resistance Epidemic - Innovative Approaches and Cutting-Edge Solutions",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11373.jpg"},signatures:"Hussein Al-Dahmoshi, Sahar A. Ali and Noor Al-Khafaji"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:13},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/3.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 4th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:3,paginationItems:[{id:"86",title:"Business and Management",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/86.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"128342",title:"Prof.",name:"Vito",middleName:null,surname:"Bobek",slug:"vito-bobek",fullName:"Vito Bobek",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/128342/images/system/128342.jpg",biography:"Dr. Vito Bobek works as an international management professor at the University of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Graz, Austria. He has published more than 400 works in his academic career and visited twenty-two universities worldwide as a visiting professor. Dr. Bobek is a member of the editorial boards of six international journals and a member of the Strategic Council of the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the Republic of Slovenia. He has a long history in academia, consulting, and entrepreneurship. His own consulting firm, Palemid, has managed twenty significant projects, such as Cooperation Program Interreg V-A (Slovenia-Austria) and Capacity Building for the Serbian Chamber of Enforcement Agents. He has also participated in many international projects in Italy, Germany, Great Britain, the United States, Spain, Turkey, France, Romania, Croatia, Montenegro, Malaysia, and China. Dr. Bobek is also a co-founder of the Academy of Regional Management in Slovenia.",institutionString:"Universities of Applied Sciences FH Joanneum, Austria",institution:{name:"Universities of Applied Sciences Joanneum",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Austria"}}},editorTwo:{id:"293992",title:"Dr.",name:"Tatjana",middleName:null,surname:"Horvat",slug:"tatjana-horvat",fullName:"Tatjana Horvat",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hXb0hQAC/Profile_Picture_1642419002203",biography:"Tatjana Horvat works as a professor for accountant and auditing at the University of Primorska, Slovenia. She is a Certified State Internal Auditor (licensed by Ministry of Finance RS) and Certified Internal Auditor for Business Sector and Certified accountant (licensed by Slovenian Institute of Auditors). At the Ministry of Justice of Slovenia, she is a member of examination boards for court expert candidates and judicial appraisers in the following areas: economy/finance, valuation of companies, banking, and forensic investigation of economic operations/accounting. At the leading business newspaper Finance in Slovenia (Swedish ownership), she is the editor and head of the area for business, finance, tax-related articles, and educational programs.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Primorska",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"87",title:"Economics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/87.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"327730",title:"Prof.",name:"Jaime",middleName:null,surname:"Ortiz",slug:"jaime-ortiz",fullName:"Jaime Ortiz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00002zaOKZQA2/Profile_Picture_1642145584421",biography:"Dr. Jaime Ortiz holds degrees from Chile, the Netherlands, and the United States. He has held tenured faculty, distinguished professorship, and executive leadership appointments in several universities around the world. Dr. Ortiz has previously worked for international organizations and non-government entities in economic and business matters, and he has university-wide globalization engagement in more than thirty-six countries. He has advised, among others, the United Nations Development Program, Inter-American Development Bank, Organization of American States, Pre-investment Organization of Latin America and the Caribbean, Technical Cooperation of the Suisse Government, and the World Bank. Dr. Ortiz is the author, co-author, or editor of books, book chapters, textbooks, research monographs and technical reports, and refereed journal articles. He is listed in Who’s Who in the World, Who’s Who in America, Who’s Who in Finance and Business, Who’s Who in Business Higher Education, Who’s Who in American Education, and Who’s Who Directory of Economists. Dr. Ortiz has been a Fulbright Scholar and an MSI Leadership Fellow with the W.K. Kellogg Foundation. 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