Parameters of the aerial robot.
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"},{slug:"suf-and-intechopen-announce-collaboration-20200331",title:"SUF and IntechOpen Announce Collaboration"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6083",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Semiconductors - Growth and Characterization",title:"Semiconductors",subtitle:"Growth and Characterization",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Semiconducting materials are widely used in several applications such as photonics, photovoltaics, electronics, and thermoelectrics, because of their optical and electro-optical features. The fundamental and technological importance of these materials is due to the unique physical and chemical properties. Over the years, numerous methods have been developed for the synthesis of high-efficient semiconductors. Moreover, a variety of approach and characterization methods have been used to study the numerous and fascinating properties of the semiconducting materials. This book collects new developments about semiconductors, from the fundamental issues to their synthesis and applications. Special attention has been devoted to electrochemical growth and characterization.",isbn:"978-953-51-3884-6",printIsbn:"978-953-51-3883-9",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4032-0",doi:"10.5772/68094",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"semiconductors-growth-and-characterization",numberOfPages:186,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:"53bed47ef5d839f8d10d5f1a3b050c49",bookSignature:"Rosalinda Inguanta and Carmelo Sunseri",publishedDate:"March 7th 2018",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6083.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6142,numberOfWosCitations:8,numberOfCrossrefCitations:9,numberOfDimensionsCitations:19,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:36,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"March 6th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 27th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"October 29th 2017",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 29th 2017",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 29th 2018",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"174858",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosalinda",middleName:null,surname:"Inguanta",slug:"rosalinda-inguanta",fullName:"Rosalinda Inguanta",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/174858/images/7013_n.jpg",biography:"Rosalinda Inguanta is currently an assistant professor of Applied Physical Chemistry at the University of Palermo. She received her PhD degree in 2008 at the University of Palermo. Her research interests include the synthesis of nanostructured electrochemical devices for electrochemical sensors, batteries, solar cells, and electrolysers and the synthesis of biocoatings to prevent the corrosion of medical devices in human body and the recovery of precious metals from electronic waste. She has developed a new method for the synthesis of nanostructures and thin film of different materials based on galvanic synthesis. In the field of semiconductors, she has studied the electrochemical deposition of different semiconductors, such as CIGS and CZTS; currently, her research team is employed on the study of perovskite thin film starting from electrodeposition of PbO2 layers.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"University of Palermo",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"174862",title:"Prof.",name:"Carmelo",middleName:null,surname:"Sunseri",slug:"carmelo-sunseri",fullName:"Carmelo Sunseri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/174862/images/7014_n.jpg",biography:"Carmelo Sunseri is a full professor of Applied Thermodynamic at the University of Palermo. His main research interests are in the fields of thermodynamic and kinetic study of electrochemical reactions on both metallic and semiconducting electrodes, electrochemical synthesis and characterization of nanostructured materials, and photoelectrochemical investigation of semiconductor surfaces. His research activity is focused on materials and systems of technological interest in view of their potential application in the following fields: electrochemical storage and conversion of energy (battery and fuel cells), photovoltaics, fabrication of thin-film devices, and electrochemical fabrication of porous devices.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:null},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"159",title:"Semiconductor",slug:"semiconductor"}],chapters:[{id:"58741",title:"Investigation of the Nanostructured Semiconductor Metamaterials",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72801",slug:"investigation-of-the-nanostructured-semiconductor-metamaterials",totalDownloads:696,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Aleksej Trofimov, Tatjana Gric and Ortwin Hess",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58741",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58741",authors:[{id:"212653",title:"Prof.",name:"Tatjana",surname:"Gric",slug:"tatjana-gric",fullName:"Tatjana Gric"},{id:"212660",title:"Prof.",name:"Ortwin",surname:"Hess",slug:"ortwin-hess",fullName:"Ortwin Hess"},{id:"231188",title:"MSc.",name:"Aleksej",surname:"Trofimov",slug:"aleksej-trofimov",fullName:"Aleksej Trofimov"}],corrections:null},{id:"57748",title:"Understanding the Mechanisms that Affect the Quality of Electrochemically Grown Semiconducting Nanowires",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71631",slug:"understanding-the-mechanisms-that-affect-the-quality-of-electrochemically-grown-semiconducting-nanow",totalDownloads:827,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Abhay Singh and Usha Philipose",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57748",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57748",authors:[{id:"24712",title:"Dr.",name:"Usha",surname:"Philipose",slug:"usha-philipose",fullName:"Usha Philipose"},{id:"208020",title:"Dr.",name:"Abhay",surname:"Singh",slug:"abhay-singh",fullName:"Abhay Singh"}],corrections:null},{id:"59407",title:"Semiconductor Quantum Wells with BenDaniel-Duke Boundary Conditions and Janus Nanorods",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73837",slug:"semiconductor-quantum-wells-with-bendaniel-duke-boundary-conditions-and-janus-nanorods",totalDownloads:553,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Victor Barsan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59407",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59407",authors:[{id:"100805",title:"Dr.",name:"Victor",surname:"Barsan",slug:"victor-barsan",fullName:"Victor Barsan"}],corrections:null},{id:"59109",title:"Nanostructured ZnO, Cu2ZnSnS4, Cd1−xZnxTe Thin Films Obtained by Spray Pyrolysis Method",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72988",slug:"nanostructured-zno-cu2znsns4-cd1-xznxte-thin-films-obtained-by-spray-pyrolysis-method",totalDownloads:796,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Oleksandr Dobrozhan, Denys Kurbatov, Petro Danilchenko and\nAnatoliy Opanasyuk",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59109",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59109",authors:[{id:"144156",title:"Dr.",name:"Anatoliy",surname:"Opanasyuk",slug:"anatoliy-opanasyuk",fullName:"Anatoliy Opanasyuk"},{id:"223520",title:"Dr.",name:"Denys",surname:"Kurbatov",slug:"denys-kurbatov",fullName:"Denys Kurbatov"},{id:"237396",title:"MSc.",name:"Oleksandr",surname:"Dobrozhan",slug:"oleksandr-dobrozhan",fullName:"Oleksandr Dobrozhan"},{id:"237398",title:"MSc.",name:"Petro",surname:"Danilchenko",slug:"petro-danilchenko",fullName:"Petro Danilchenko"}],corrections:null},{id:"57273",title:"E-ALD: Tailoring the Optoeletronic Properties of Metal Chalcogenides on Ag Single Crystals",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71014",slug:"e-ald-tailoring-the-optoeletronic-properties-of-metal-chalcogenides-on-ag-single-crystals",totalDownloads:591,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,signatures:"Emanuele Salvietti, Andrea Giaccherini, Filippo Gambinossi, Maria\nLuisa Foresti, Maurizio Passaponti, Francesco Di Benedetto and\nMassimo Innocenti",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/57273",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/57273",authors:[{id:"189009",title:"Prof.",name:"Massimo",surname:"Innocenti",slug:"massimo-innocenti",fullName:"Massimo Innocenti"},{id:"189015",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",surname:"Di Benedetto",slug:"francesco-di-benedetto",fullName:"Francesco Di Benedetto"},{id:"189017",title:"MSc.",name:"Andrea",surname:"Giaccherini",slug:"andrea-giaccherini",fullName:"Andrea Giaccherini"},{id:"218978",title:"Dr.",name:"Emanuele",surname:"Salvietti",slug:"emanuele-salvietti",fullName:"Emanuele Salvietti"},{id:"218979",title:"Dr.",name:"Filippo",surname:"Gambinossi",slug:"filippo-gambinossi",fullName:"Filippo Gambinossi"},{id:"218980",title:"MSc.",name:"Maurizio",surname:"Passaponti",slug:"maurizio-passaponti",fullName:"Maurizio Passaponti"},{id:"218981",title:"Prof.",name:"Maria Luisa",surname:"Foresti",slug:"maria-luisa-foresti",fullName:"Maria Luisa Foresti"}],corrections:null},{id:"58740",title:"Pulsed Electrochemical Deposition of CuInSe2 and Cu(In,Ga)Se2 Semiconductor Thin Films",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71857",slug:"pulsed-electrochemical-deposition-of-cuinse2-and-cu-in-ga-se2-semiconductor-thin-films",totalDownloads:907,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,signatures:"Sreekanth Mandati, Bulusu V. Sarada, Suhash R. Dey and Shrikant V.\nJoshi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58740",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58740",authors:[{id:"207526",title:"Dr.",name:"Sreekanth",surname:"Mandati",slug:"sreekanth-mandati",fullName:"Sreekanth Mandati"},{id:"207714",title:"Dr.",name:"Bulusu V.",surname:"Sarada",slug:"bulusu-v.-sarada",fullName:"Bulusu V. Sarada"},{id:"207715",title:"Dr.",name:"Suhash Ranjan",surname:"Dey",slug:"suhash-ranjan-dey",fullName:"Suhash Ranjan Dey"},{id:"207717",title:"Prof.",name:"Shrikant V.",surname:"Joshi",slug:"shrikant-v.-joshi",fullName:"Shrikant V. Joshi"}],corrections:null},{id:"58469",title:"The Electrochemical Performance of Deposited Manganese Oxide-Based Film as Electrode Material for Electrochemical Capacitor Application",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71957",slug:"the-electrochemical-performance-of-deposited-manganese-oxide-based-film-as-electrode-material-for-el",totalDownloads:1109,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:4,signatures:"Chan Pei Yi and Siti Rohana Majid",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58469",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58469",authors:[{id:"197956",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"S.R.",surname:"Majid",slug:"s.r.-majid",fullName:"S.R. Majid"},{id:"216449",title:"Ms.",name:"Pei Yi",surname:"Chan",slug:"pei-yi-chan",fullName:"Pei Yi Chan"}],corrections:null},{id:"58476",title:"Semiconducting Electrospun Nanofibers for Energy Conversion",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72817",slug:"semiconducting-electrospun-nanofibers-for-energy-conversion",totalDownloads:663,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Giulia Massaglia and Marzia Quaglio",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/58476",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/58476",authors:[{id:"36458",title:"Dr.",name:"Marzia",surname:"Quaglio",slug:"marzia-quaglio",fullName:"Marzia Quaglio"},{id:"223653",title:"Dr.",name:"Giulia",surname:"Massaglia",slug:"giulia-massaglia",fullName:"Giulia Massaglia"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"6845",title:"Graphene and Its Derivatives",subtitle:"Synthesis and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"63a9783e678fc42ce981efb35be02096",slug:"graphene-and-its-derivatives-synthesis-and-applications",bookSignature:"Ishaq Ahmad and Fabian I. Ezema",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6845.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"25524",title:"Prof.",name:"Ishaq",surname:"Ahmad",slug:"ishaq-ahmad",fullName:"Ishaq Ahmad"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8866",title:"Silicon Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c7cfb39af7a429ef119b71a2e1f221e7",slug:"silicon-materials",bookSignature:"Beddiaf Zaidi and Slimen Belghit",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8866.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"230574",title:"Dr.",name:"Beddiaf",surname:"Zaidi",slug:"beddiaf-zaidi",fullName:"Beddiaf Zaidi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"57",title:"Physics and Applications of Graphene",subtitle:"Experiments",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"0e6622a71cf4f02f45bfdd5691e1189a",slug:"physics-and-applications-of-graphene-experiments",bookSignature:"Sergey Mikhailov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/57.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"16042",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Mikhailov",slug:"sergey-mikhailov",fullName:"Sergey Mikhailov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"878",title:"Phytochemicals",subtitle:"A Global Perspective of Their Role in Nutrition and Health",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ec77671f63975ef2d16192897deb6835",slug:"phytochemicals-a-global-perspective-of-their-role-in-nutrition-and-health",bookSignature:"Venketeshwer Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/878.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82663",title:"Dr.",name:"Venketeshwer",surname:"Rao",slug:"venketeshwer-rao",fullName:"Venketeshwer Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"66301",slug:"corrigendum-to-denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",title:"Corrigendum to: Denim Fabrics Woven with Dual Core-Spun Yarns",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66301.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66301",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66301",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66301",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66301",chapter:{id:"63209",slug:"denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",signatures:"Osman Babaarslan, Esin Sarioğlu, Halil İbrahim Çelik and Münevver\nArtek Avci",dateSubmitted:"February 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 13th 2019",book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",email:"teksob@cu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178353",title:"Dr.",name:"Halil",middleName:"İbrahim",surname:"Çelik",fullName:"Halil Çelik",slug:"halil-celik",email:"hcelik@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"216179",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Sarıoğlu",fullName:"Esin Sarıoğlu",slug:"esin-sarioglu",email:"sarioglu@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"245674",title:"Mrs.",name:"Münevver",middleName:null,surname:"Ertek Avci",fullName:"Münevver Ertek Avci",slug:"munevver-ertek-avci",email:"Munevver.ErtekAvci@calikdenim.com",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"63209",slug:"denim-fabrics-woven-with-dual-core-spun-yarns",signatures:"Osman Babaarslan, Esin Sarioğlu, Halil İbrahim Çelik and Münevver\nArtek Avci",dateSubmitted:"February 5th 2018",dateReviewed:"July 12th 2018",datePrePublished:"November 5th 2018",datePublished:"February 13th 2019",book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"119775",title:"Prof.",name:"Osman",middleName:null,surname:"Babaarslan",fullName:"Osman Babaarslan",slug:"osman-babaarslan",email:"teksob@cu.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Cukurova University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178353",title:"Dr.",name:"Halil",middleName:"İbrahim",surname:"Çelik",fullName:"Halil Çelik",slug:"halil-celik",email:"hcelik@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"216179",title:"Dr.",name:"Esin",middleName:null,surname:"Sarıoğlu",fullName:"Esin Sarıoğlu",slug:"esin-sarioglu",email:"sarioglu@gantep.edu.tr",position:null,institution:{name:"Gaziantep University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"245674",title:"Mrs.",name:"Münevver",middleName:null,surname:"Ertek Avci",fullName:"Münevver Ertek Avci",slug:"munevver-ertek-avci",email:"Munevver.ErtekAvci@calikdenim.com",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"7242",title:"Engineered Fabrics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Engineered Fabrics",slug:"engineered-fabrics",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",bookSignature:"Mukesh Kumar Singh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7242.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"36895",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukesh Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"mukesh-kumar-singh",fullName:"Mukesh Kumar Singh"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"6679",leadTitle:null,title:"Serotonin",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"My scientific journey brought me from Lanzhou in China, Leuven in Belgium, Bethesda in the USA, all the way to San Diego. Sometimes I pick up an assortment of scattered seashells while walking along the beautiful Torrey Pines Beach in San Diego. Likewise, this book contains an assortment of discussions of different aspects of serotonin to enrich our knowledge and understanding of this neurochemical. The book contains four different chapters: 1. Introductory chapter: From Measuring Serotonin Neurotransmission to Evaluating Serotonin Post-Receptor Signaling Transduction; 2. Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Their Role in Chronic Pain Management; 3. Serotonin and Emotional Decision-Making; and 4. Clinical Aspects Related to Plasma Serotonin in the Horse.",isbn:"978-1-78985-236-3",printIsbn:"978-1-78985-235-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-026-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72010",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"serotonin",numberOfPages:74,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9c833c86546ec9d3c38fb24a1072dbd0",bookSignature:"Ying Qu",publishedDate:"February 13th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6679.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2038,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:4,numberOfTotalCitations:4,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"November 20th 2017",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"December 11th 2017",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"February 9th 2018",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"April 30th 2018",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"June 29th 2018",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"3 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"94028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying",middleName:null,surname:"Qu",slug:"ying-qu",fullName:"Ying Qu",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94028/images/5914_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ying Qu is a multi-disciplinary scientist, currently working in Leulan Bioscience, USA. She received her BS and MS in Chemistry from Lanzhou University, China and her PhD in Neuroscience from the Catholic University of Leuven, Belgium. Dr. Qu has spent part of her career at the National Institutes of Health, USA, studying depression mechanisms underlying serotonin post-receptor regulated signaling transduction. She is also involved in a drug discovery program at Johnson and Johnson in the USA developing novel dual-acting antidepressants with selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors. In 2002, she received a Sevier Young Investigator Award from the Serotonin Club at the International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology (IUPHAR) Satellite Meeting on Serotonin. She has published over 30 peer-reviewed papers, 40 abstracts and two book chapters in the fields of neuropsychopharmacology and bioanalysis.",institutionString:"Leulan Bioscience",position:"Senior Scientist",outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1115",title:"Neuropharmacology",slug:"neuropharmacology"}],chapters:[{id:"65286",title:"Introductory Chapter: From Measuring Serotonin Neurotransmission to Evaluating Serotonin Post-Receptor Signaling Transduction",slug:"introductory-chapter-from-measuring-serotonin-neurotransmission-to-evaluating-serotonin-post-recepto",totalDownloads:487,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"94028",title:"Dr.",name:"Ying",surname:"Qu",slug:"ying-qu",fullName:"Ying Qu"}]},{id:"63750",title:"Serotonin Reuptake Inhibitors and Their Role in Chronic Pain Management",slug:"serotonin-reuptake-inhibitors-and-their-role-in-chronic-pain-management",totalDownloads:647,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"64092",title:"Serotonin and Emotional Decision-Making",slug:"serotonin-and-emotional-decision-making",totalDownloads:472,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[null]},{id:"61898",title:"Clinical Aspects Related to Plasma Serotonin in the Horse",slug:"clinical-aspects-related-to-plasma-serotonin-in-the-horse",totalDownloads:433,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"185543",firstName:"Maja",lastName:"Bozicevic",middleName:null,title:"Ms.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/185543/images/4748_n.jpeg",email:"maja.b@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"7256",title:"Dopamine",subtitle:"Health and Disease",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e46d08f526c35d787be15bcb17126fb8",slug:"dopamine-health-and-disease",bookSignature:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7256.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"181774",title:"Prof.",name:"Sarat Chandra",surname:"Yenisetti",slug:"sarat-chandra-yenisetti",fullName:"Sarat Chandra Yenisetti"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6404",title:"Drug Addiction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f432d0ab93a06628d3592b4c0fea44ae",slug:"drug-addiction",bookSignature:"Fang Zhao and Meng Li",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6404.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"207525",title:"Dr.",name:"Fang",surname:"Zhao",slug:"fang-zhao",fullName:"Fang Zhao"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5894",title:"Neurotoxins",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4ed24b0789b6d0bf230c24637f2f7575",slug:"neurotoxins",bookSignature:"J. Eric McDuffie",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5894.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"161246",title:"Dr.",name:"J. Eric",surname:"McDuffie",slug:"j.-eric-mcduffie",fullName:"J. Eric McDuffie"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8166",title:"Receptors P1 and P2 as Targets for Drug Therapy in Humans",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"546c9abc8145b3a3ecf13557a03f7590",slug:"receptors-p1-and-p2-as-targets-for-drug-therapy-in-humans",bookSignature:"Robson Faria",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8166.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"79615",title:"Dr.",name:"Robson",surname:"Faria",slug:"robson-faria",fullName:"Robson Faria"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7116",title:"Antidepressants",subtitle:"Preclinical, Clinical and Translational Aspects",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1bd4340dfebb60697e12fc04a461d9ac",slug:"antidepressants-preclinical-clinical-and-translational-aspects",bookSignature:"Olivier Berend",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7116.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71579",title:"Prof.",name:"Berend",surname:"Olivier",slug:"berend-olivier",fullName:"Berend Olivier"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1373",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Applications and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e9ae5ae9167cde4b344e499a792c41c",slug:"ionic-liquids-applications-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1373.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"55883",title:"Nonlinear Dynamics and Control of Aerial Robots",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.69641",slug:"nonlinear-dynamics-and-control-of-aerial-robots",body:'\n
The recent surge of interest in applications involving unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) has inspired several research efforts in UAV dynamic modeling and control. In particular, nonlinear control of fixed-wing UAVs has attracted considerable research efforts during recent years both for civilian and military purposes. The control approaches developed for fixed-wing UAVs include gain scheduling, model predictive control, backstepping, sliding mode, nested saturation, fuzzy control, H∞ control, dynamic inversion based control, model reference adaptive control, and model based fault tolerant control [1–12].
\nWhile control applications involving fixed-wing UAVs have been widely investigated in recent literature, quadrotor UAV (quadcopter) control applications are growing in popularity due to their maneuverability and versatility. Quadcopters offer practical advantages over fixed-wing UAVs in military and civilian applications involving search and rescue, area mapping, and surveillance. However, actuator constraints, sensor limitations, and the high degree of nonlinearity and uncertainty inherent in the system dynamics present specific challenges in control system design for quadcopters. Linear control approaches, such as PID, LQR or LQG are popularly utilized to address the quadcopter control problem [13–15]. Although linear control methods have been shown to perform well in their respective quadcopter control tasks, the effectiveness of linear control methods can only be guaranteed over a limited range of operating conditions. The highly agile nature of quadcopters necessitates the development of control methods that can be applied over a wide range of time-varying, uncertain, and potentially adversarial operating conditions. To achieve reliable quadcopter control over a wider operational envelope, several nonlinear control methods have recently been presented. Popular nonlinear control methods for quadrotor systems include backstepping, feedback linearization, dynamic inversion, adaptive control, Lyapunov-based robust control, fuzzy-model approach, and sliding mode control [16–19]. In Ref. [16], a passivity-based quaternion feedback control strategy is presented for a hover system (quadrotor UAV test bed), which achieves asymptotic attitude regulation. The proposed control design incorporates the input voltage constraints inherent in practical UAV systems. A rigorous Lyapunov-based analysis is provided to prove asymptotic regulation of the hover system attitude to a desired set point. In Ref. [17], a sliding mode control (SMC) strategy is presented for a quadrotor-based hover system, which achieves asymptotic attitude regulation in the presence of electrical and physical constraints. A sliding mode observer is employed to estimate the angular velocities. In addition, the proposed control design incorporates the input voltage constraints inherent in practical systems. A rigorous Lyapunov-based analysis is provided to prove asymptotic regulation of the hover system attitude to a desired set point.
\nAerial robotics is one of the fastest growing industry and has a number of evolving applications. Higher agility make aerial robots ideal candidate for applications like rescue missions especially in difficult to access areas. Furthermore, swarm robotics (multiple robot working together) is another exciting application of the aerial robotics, for example coordinated assembly at higher altitudes. These robots can behave like individuals working in a group without centralized control. Researchers have developed intelligent control algorithms for the swarms after deep study of animal behavior in herds, bird flocks and fish schools. In some applications, for an aerial robot, linear control theory works well but these control techniques are effective in a limited operating regions. Moreover, the motion of arm induces disturbances to the quadcopter dynamics so the linear controllers lose their effectiveness during operation and sometime the closed loop system becomes unstable. In order to accomplish complex missions in presence of uncertainties in the environment, to achieve better maneuverability and precise 3D position and attitude control, nonlinear control techniques have been found effective [20–27], In Ref. [20] a set of nonlinear control laws have been proposed for aerial manipulator that provide asymptotic attitude and position tracking. Backstepping-based nonlinear control scheme for automatic trajectory tracking for aerial manipulators has been proposed in Refs. [22, 24].
\nIn this chapter, we extend our results on the control of quadcopters to the control of aerial robots. We derive the complete nonlinear dynamics of an aerial robot consisting of a quadcopter with a two-link robot manipulator. Precise control of such a robot is a challenging task because attitude and position dynamics of the quadcopter are strongly coupled with the dynamics of the manipulator. We develop nonlinear control laws that ensure the control of position and attitude of the aerial robot. Simulation results are included to demonstrate the effectiveness of the control laws.
\nThis section formulates the dynamics of an aerial robot consisting of a quadcopter with a two-link robot manipulator. The quadcopter is represented as a base body and the links as internal bodies. The equations of motion are expressed in terms of the three dimensional translational velocity vector, the attitude, the angular velocity, and the internal (shape) coordinates representing the configuration of the two links.
\nFollowing the development in [28], let v ∈ \n
where Ft ∈ \n
Note that Eqs. (1) and (2) are identical to Kirchhoff’s equations [29], which can also be expressed in the form of Euler-Poincaré equations.
\nConsider an aerial robot that consists of a quadcopter with a two DOF manipulator arm moving in a three-dimensional space as shown in Figure 1, where p = [x y z]T denotes the inertial position of the center of mass of the quadcopter. Denote by xyz axes the inertial frame \n
Model of a quadcopter with a robotic arm.
The quadcopter consists of four propellers connected to a rigid frame. Each propeller is mounted on the frame at a distance l from the origin. The quadcopter has a mass m and inertia matrix J defined with respect to the axes of rotation. Due to symmetry of the system, J is diagonal, that is, J = diag{Jxx, Jyy, Jzz}. We refer to rotation about the xB-axis as roll, rotation about the yB-axis as pitch, and rotation about the zB-axis as yaw. The propellers generate lift forces
\nwhere Ωi, Vi denote, respectively, the angular rate and input voltage for propeller i, and b is the thrust coefficient. The total thrust is given by
\nwhere e3 = [0 0 1]T ∈ \n
Note that, as shown in Figure 2, propellers 1 and 3 rotate clockwise, and propellers 2 and 4 rotate counter-clockwise. By balancing the torque between opposing propellers, the roll and pitch angle can be controlled. Since all four propellers generate a net torque about the yaw axis, the yaw angle can be controlled by balancing the torque generated by clockwise and counter-clockwise rotating propellers.
\nModel of the quadcopter.
The arm is attached at the CM of the quadcopter and it can only move in xz-plane of the body-fixed frame FB. The physical constants are the quadcopter mass m, the link masses mi, i = 1,2, and the payload mass mp. Let \n
Let Ft = Fg +Fp, where Fg and Fp denote, respectively, the gravitational force acting on aerial robot and the total thrust generated by the four propellers. Also let τr = τg + τp, where τg and τp are the torque acting on the aerial robot due to gravity and the torque generated by the propellers, respectively.
\nClearly, Fg and τg can be computed as
\nwhere mt = m + m1 + m2 + mp.
\nThe generalized torque vector τp (expressed in the body frame) comprises the following components:
\nPropellers 2 and 4 generate a moment \n
Propellers 1 and 3 generate a moment \n
The sum of all torques about z-axis is \n
The rotation of the propellers causes the gyroscopic effect \n
Here d denotes the drag coefficient, l is the distance from the pivot to the motor, and Jr is the rotor inertia. Combined, the generalized torque τp can be expressed as
\nwhere \n
Let \n
where e2 = [0 1 0]T ∈ \n
where \n
and \n
Applying Kirchhoff’s equations (1) and (2), the complete nonlinear equations of motion can be obtained as
\nwhere
\nComplete description of the above coefficient matrices are given in the appendix. The objective is to simultaneously control the 6 DOF motion of the quadcopter and the 2 DOF internal dynamics of the robot arm using only 4 propellers and 2 joint torque motors. In this regard, equations of motion given by (21) represents an interesting example of underactuated mechanical systems. In our previous research [30–32], we have developed theoretical controllability and stabilizability results for a large class of underactuated mechanical systems using tools from nonlinear control theory. We have also developed effective nonlinear control design methodologies [32] that we applied to several examples of underactuated mechanical systems, including underactuated space vehicles [33].
\nThe translational and rotational dynamics of the quadcopter are coupled with the dynamics of its robotic arm; this makes controller design very complicated. The equations of motion in component form are given by
\nEq. (28) can be rewritten as
\nwhere
\nEq. (31) can be simplified as
\nwhere \n
Similarly, Eq. (29) can be rewritten as
\nwhere
\nEq. (35) can be simplified as
\nwhere \n
Ignoring \n
where
\nWe now design a nonlinear controller based on integrator backstepping. If φ, θ and Ψ are small (sin θ ≈ θ and cos θ ≈ θ), then \n
where
\nIn this section a nonlinear controller is designed to stabilize the system (43)–(48) to the desired equilibrium configuration \n
We choose u1 as
\nwhere b ∈ (0, 1), a > b / (2 − b), i = 1,2, are controller parameters. The feedback law (50) controls the quadcopter z-dynamics to \n
After reaching the desired altitude, Eqs. (43) and (44) take the following form:
\nWe now apply a backstepping method to design the controls u2 and u3 to stabilize the system to the equilibrium at \n
Assume that θ and φ are virtual inputs for the x and y subsystems, respectively. Stabilizing feedback functions for the x-subsystem is given by
\nwhere ki > 0, i = 1,…,4, so that
\nDefine
\nand consider the y1 and y2 dynamics given by
\nDefine the sliding variables (s1, s2)
\nwhere αi > 0, i = 1,2, which can be simplified as
\nThe dynamics of sliding variables are found simply by taking time derivative of the sliding variables as
\nSubstituting the expressions for \n
We choose the inputs u2 and u3 as
\nso that the following closed-loop response for the sliding variables is obtained:
\nwhere we choose λ1 > 0 and λ2 > 0 large enough so that the terms Fd and τd are dominated by the sliding mode terms.
\nNow consider the Ψ-dynamics given by (48). The following control law stabilizes the Ψ-dynamics to \n
where k5, k6 > 0.
\nThe voltage inputs Vi, i = 1, …, 4, are determined by substituting the expressions for the virtual control inputs ui, i = 1, …, 4, into Eqs. (34) and (42).
\nConsider Eqs. (31) and (35), and ignore Fd and τd. Then we have
\nEq. (30) can be rewritten as
\nwhich can be expressed in terms of Ft and τr as
\nIn order to have exponential convergence of the shape variables η to the desired ηd we choose τs as
\nwhere λ > 0, so that
\nThe controller developed in the previous sections is applied to the full nonlinear model of the aerial robot. The relevant parameter values of the system are listed in Table 1.
\nSymbol | \nParameter | \nValue | \nUnit | \n
---|---|---|---|
Kv | \nTransformation constant | \n54.945 | \nrad s V−1 | \n
Jr | \nRotor inertia | \n6 × 10−5 | \nkg m2 | \n
Jxx | \nMOI about x axis | \n0.0552 | \nkg m2 | \n
Jyy | \nMOI about y axis | \n0.0552 | \nkg m2 | \n
Jzz | \nMOI about z axis | \n0.1104 | \nkg m2 | \n
b | \nThrust coefficient | \n3.935139 × 10−6 | \nN V−1 | \n
d | \nDrag coefficient | \n1.192564 × 10−7 | \nNm V−1 | \n
l | \nDistance from pivot to motor | \n0.1969 | \nm | \n
m | \nMass | \n2.85 | \nkg | \n
g | \nAcceleration of gravity | \n9.81 | \nms−2 | \n
V | \nMaximum input voltage | \n10 | \nV | \n
m1 | \nMass of link 1 | \n0.1 | \nkg | \n
m2 | \nMass of link 2 | \n0.1 | \nkg | \n
mp | \nMass of the payload | \n0.1 | \nkg | \n
l1 | \nLength of link 1 | \n0.5 | \nm | \n
l2 | \nLength of link 2 | \n0.5 | \nm | \n
Parameters of the aerial robot.
A rest-to-rest motion was simulated with initial conditions \n
The control parameters are chosen as
\nAs shown in Figures 3–5, the position, attitude, and joint angles converge to their desired values in around 40 s. Figure 6 shows the time responses of the control inputs ui, i = 1,…,4.
\nTime responses of the aerial robot’s position x, y, and z.
Time responses of the aerial robot’s Euler angles φ, θ, and Ψ.
Time responses of the robotic arm’s joint angles θ1 and θ2.
Time responses of the control inputs ui, i = 1,…,4.
This chapter first derives the complete nonlinear dynamics of an aerial robot consisting of a quadcopter with a two-link robot manipulator. Precise control of such an aerial robot is a challenging task since the translational and rotational dynamics of the quadcopter are strongly coupled with the dynamics of the manipulator. We extend our previous results on the control of quadrotor UAVs to the control of aerial robots. In particular, we design a backstepping and Lyapunov-based nonlinear feedback control law that achieves the point-to-point control of the areal robot. The effectiveness of this feedback control law is illustrated through a simulation example.
\nThe many avenues considered for future research include problems involving collaborative control of multiple aerial robots. Future research also includes designing nonlinear control laws that achieve robustness, insensitivity to system and control parameters, and improved disturbance rejection. We also plan to explore the use of geometric mechanics formulation of such control problems.
\nThe matrices M and \n
where
\nThe matrix \n
The matrices K, Br, and Bt are given by
\nwhere
\nand
\nMany plant species that are grown for food contain phytotoxins in different parts of the plant. Natural toxins are usually secondary metabolites produced by plants for defensive purposes against threats such as bacteria, fungi, insects, and predators [1]. They may also occur in food plants because of natural selection and new breeding methods that enhance protective mechanisms of the crops [2]. The most common natural toxins found in food plants include lectins in beans, glycoalkaloids in potatoes, and cyanogenic glycosides in cassava, bitter apricot seed, bamboo shoots, and flaxseeds [3]. A review of several natural toxins in food plants commonly consumed in the world, including the toxicological effects associated with the ingestion of these toxins, shows that cyanogenic glycosides are the most important and extensively studied group of phytotoxins [4].
Cyanogenic glycosides are chemical compounds that release hydrogen cyanide (HCN) and are common in certain families such as the Fabaceae, Rosaceae, Leguminosae, Linaceae, and Compositae [2]. Approximately 25 cyanogenic glycosides, which are mostly found in the edible parts of plants, have been identified [4]. The potential toxicity of cyanogenic glycosides and their derivatives largely depends on their ability to release hydrogen cyanide. Dietary cyanide exposure may result in acute poisoning and has also been associated with the etiology of several chronic diseases [5]. Therefore, the presence of cyanogenic glycosides in food and fodder presents a significant social and economic problem in many parts of the world, particularly in developing countries. In Africa, consumption of insufficiently processed cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) has been associated with cyanide poisoning, tropical ataxic neuropathy (TAN) disease, and konzo [6, 7]. In 1992, the death of three people in Nigeria was attributed to cyanide intake from cyanogenic glycosides of cassava [5], and a decade ago five Nigerians died of cyanide poison after reportedly eating a meal prepared with cassava flour.
Cyanogenic glycosides found in plants are not toxic on their own. However, when cell structures of plant are disrupted, cyanogenic glycoside will be brought together with the corresponding hydrolytic β-glucosidase enzyme. Subsequently, the glycoside degenerates to a sugar and a cyanohydrin that rapidly decomposes to hydrogen cyanide and an aldehyde or a ketone [8]. In bitter almonds and peach stones, cyanogenic glycoside, amygdalin, is converted to glucose, benzaldehyde, and toxic hydrogen cyanide. In edible plants, cyanide levels are reduced significantly during the processing to an accepted Food and Agricultural Organization (FAO)/World Health Organization (WHO) level of 10 mg HCN/kg dry weight [9]. However, when poorly processed lethal concentrations of the cyanogens may be obtained in the final edible products.
Cyanogenic glycosides are a structurally diverse class of secondary metabolites that are mostly used by plants as a defense against various threats such as bacteria, fungi, insects, and predators [1]. The compounds consist of α-hydroxynitrile aglycones attached to a sugar moiety (Vetter, 2000) and are widely distributed in the plant kingdom [10]. Cyanogenic glycosides are common in certain families such as the Fabaceae, Rosaceae, Leguminosae, Linaceae, and Compositae, and their constituents provide a useful tool for taxonomic identification [2]. Several important food plants are known to synthesize cyanogenic glycosides; for example, linamarin in cassava and butter bean, dhurrin in sorghum and macadamia nut, and amygdalin in almond, peach, sweet cherry, and sour cherry [2, 11].
In plants, cyanogenic glycosides are derivatives of five amino acids (valine, isoleucine, leucine, phenylalanine, and tyrosine) and the non-proteinogenic amino acid, cyclopentenyl glycine. Linamarin and lotaustralin are derived from valine, isoleucine, and leucine, while dhurrin is derived from tyrosine. Amygdalin and prunasin are derived from phenylalanine [12]. The biosynthesis of various cyanogenic glycosides in different plants has been described, and the most extensively reported are dhurrin in sorghum and linamarin in cassava [10]. The generic biosynthetic pathway for the production of cyanogenic glycosides from amino acids is shown in Figure 1.
The biosynthetic pathway for cyanogenic glycosides from its precursor amino acid [13].
The first two steps of biosynthetic production of cyanogenic glycoside are catalyzed by a cytochrome P450 enzyme through two successive N-hydroxylations of the amino group of the parent amino acid. The α-hydroxynitrile (cyanohydrin) is then generated following the decarboxylation and dehydration of aldoxime and nitrile, respectively [14]. The final step that produces cyanogenic glycoside involves glycosylation of the cyanohydrin moiety, and the process is catalyzed by UDPG-glycosyltransferase [10].
Cyanogenesis is the ability of some plants to synthesize cyanogenic glycosides to form hydrogen cyanide via cyanohydrin intermediate [15, 16]. The hydrolysis of the cyanogenic glycosides is accomplished by the β-glucosidase enzymes, which facilitate the cleavage of the carbohydrate moiety of the cyanogenic glycoside to yield corresponding cyanohydrins which further decompose to release hydrogen cyanide and an aldehyde or ketone [17] as illustrated in Figure 2. The final step that produces the toxic compound, HCN, is catalyzed by hydroxynitrile lyase enzyme, which is widespread in cyanogenic plants [16].
Enzymatic hydrolysis of cyanogenic compounds, linamarin, and dhurrin.
The cyanogenic glycosides linamarin (α-hydroxybutyronitrile-β-
In sorghum, the cyanogenic glycoside dhurrin (4-hydroxymandelonitrile-β-
Cyanogenic glycosides are present in over 100 families of flowering plants, and at least 2000 plant species are known to contain this class of natural toxins. In addition to high plants, they are also found in some species of ferns, fungi, and bacteria [16]. Cyanogenic glycosides are amino acid-derived constituents of plants produced as secondary metabolites and are used as a defensive mechanism against various threats such as bacteria, fungi, insects, and other predators. There are wide variations in the levels of cyanogenic glycosides in plants due to genetic and environmental factors such as location, season, and soil types [3]. Table 1 shows the types of cyanogenic glycosides commonly found in major edible plants.
Approximately 25 cyanogenic glycosides have been reported in different cyanogenic food plants, and Figure 3 shows structures of examples of cyanogenic glycosides commonly found in edible plants.
Structures of cyanogenic glycosides found in major edible plants [20].
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is a perennial crop that originated from South America and was introduced in Africa by the Portuguese explorers during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. The crop is a staple food in most African communities and has economic value in Africa, South America, and Southeast Asia. The crop is widely cultivated in the tropics, and a total area of over 18 million ha is grown to cassava [21], and over half a billion of the world’s population depend on cassava as their major staple [22]. Africa is the largest producer of cassava in the world and accounts for over 53% of the global production [23]. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization, cassava is ranked third, after rice and corn, as the most important source of calories in the tropics [23]. The tuberous roots of the crop have high carbohydrate content, which makes cassava a good source of calorie for over half a billion people in the world. Additionally, cassava leaves are rich in proteins, vitamin C, vitamin A, and dietary fiber. Cassava is one of the world’s most important tuberous food crops, with annual global production estimated at 252 million metric tons (MT) in 2011. Table 2 shows the production trend among the top five producing countries in the world according to the Food and Agriculture Organization statistics [23].
Species | Family | Vegetative part | Source of HCN |
---|---|---|---|
Cassava (Manihot esculenta) | Euphorbiaceae | Leaves, tuber peel, and parenchyma | Linamarin Lotaustralin |
Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor) | Poaceae | Fruits (seeds), shoot tips, and leaves | Dhurrin |
Cocoyam (Colocasia esculenta and Xanthosoma sagittifolium) | Araceae | Leaves and roots | Dhurrin |
Bamboo (Bambusa vulgaris) | Poaceae | Stem and sprouts | Taxiphyllin |
Apple (Malus domestica) | Rosaceae | Seeds and fruits | Amygdalin |
Apricot (Prunus armeniaca) | Rosaceae | Kernels | Amygdalin Prunasin |
Cyanogenic glycosides in major edible plants.
Country | Annual cassava production quantity (million metric tons) | ||||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
2007 | 2008 | 2009 | 2010 | 2011 | |
Nigeria | 43.41 | 44.58 | 36.82 | 42.53 | 52.40 |
Brazil | 26.54 | 26.70 | 24.40 | 24.50 | 25.45 |
Indonesia | 19.99 | 21.59 | 22.04 | 23.92 | 24.01 |
Thailand | 26.92 | 25.16 | 30.09 | 22.21 | 21.91 |
Ghana | 10.22 | 11.35 | 12.23 | 13.50 | 14.24 |
Others | 99.35 | 102.62 | 109.87 | 110.25 | 114.20 |
World | 226.43 | 232.00 | 235.45 | 236.11 | 252.21 |
Major cassava-producing countries in the world.
Despite the nutritional and economic benefits obtained from cassava, almost all parts of the plant contain cyanogenic glycosides, which limits the potential utilization of the plant as food for human and animal consumption. Each part of the cassava plant (leaves, stem, root) contains high levels of cyanogenic glycosides, mainly linamarin and lotaustralin with the former being the most predominant cyanogen at the ratio of 9:1 [17]. The biosynthesis of the major cyanogenic glucoside in cassava, linamarin, occurs in leaves and is then transported to the tuber [24]. Cassava leaves and the cortex or peel of the roots contain large quantities of cyanogenic glycosides (900–2000 mg HCN/kg dry matter) [8], while the tuberous parenchyma has approximately 20-fold lower levels. Studies have found that cassava roots contain a total cyanide content of 10–500 mg/kg of dry matter [25] although higher contents have also been reported, particularly in bitter cultivars. All cassava varieties are known to contain cyanogenic compounds, and cyanide levels depend on factors such as variety, plant age, soil condition, fertilizer application, and environmental conditions [25].
Cocoyam generally refers to two members of the Araceae family, namely, Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott and Xanthosoma sagittifolium (L.) Schott. The plant is native to Central and South America where it has been cultivated and consumed for centuries but has since been naturalized in most tropical regions including sub-Saharan Africa [26]. Cocoyam is an important staple for most rural communities in many developing countries of Africa, Asia, and the Pacific. In sub-Saharan Africa, the most cultivated species, Colocasia esculenta, is extensively grown for livelihood by small-scale resource-poor farmers with minimal input.
For the last 3 decades, Africa’s annual cocoyam output of about 10 MT has consistently been higher than other regions [9]. The continent’s contribution to the global cocoyam output is presented in Table 3. The mean global production in the 2003–2012 decade was more than double the mean production obtained in the years between 1983 and 1992, which could principally be attributed to increased production in Africa. The major cocoyam-producing countries in Africa are Nigeria, Ghana, and Cameroon, which contributed about 68% of the global mean output between 2003 and 2012.
Producer | 1983–1992 | 1993–2002 | 2003–2012 | |||
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Meana | %b | Mean | % | Mean | % | |
World | 4.88 | 8.04 | 10.72 | |||
Africa | 2.74 | 56.26 | 5.88 | 73.13 | 8.25 | 76.96 |
China | 1.20 | 24.62 | 1.40 | 17.47 | 1.61 | 15.04 |
Cameroon | 0.49 | 10.14 | 0.88 | 10.98 | 1.40 | 13.02 |
Ghana | 1.01 | 20.64 | 1.53 | 19.04 | 1.57 | 14.62 |
Nigeria | 0.52 | 10.61 | 2.60 | 32.36 | 4.28 | 39.91 |
Contributions of top producers to global cocoyam output in the last 3 decades [9].
Mean production in million tons over 10 years.
Percentage of contribution to global mean.
Edible cocoyam is a nutrient dense tuber crop that can be processed into flour and used to make mashed meal or porridge. The tubers can also be consumed baked or boiled. Cocoyam is rich in carbohydrates; as a result, it is an important source of calorie for millions of people in the tropical and subtropical regions [27]. In addition to carbohydrates, cocoyam contains other nutrients such as protein, vitamins, carotenoids, and minerals [28]. Apart from the nutrient composition of cocoyam tuber, antinutritional compounds such as cyanogenic glycosides have been reported in the crops albeit in lower concentrations (21.0–171.3 mg/kg dry matter) [29, 30] than other food plants.
Fresh immature bamboo shoots are consumed as vegetable in some Asian countries, and they contain appreciable quantities of vitamin C, carbohydrates, and protein [31]. Apart from the nutritive value, bamboo shoots contain lethal concentrations of cyanogenic glycosides. The cyanogenic glycoside present in bamboo shoot is taxiphyllin, which quickly decomposes when exposed to boiling water. Cyanide contents of 1000–8000 mg HCN/kg have been reported [32]. Although cyanide content of bamboo shoot is much higher than that of cassava root, the cyanide content in bamboo shoots decreases substantially following harvesting and processing.
The plant sorghum [Sorghum bicolor (L.) Moench] belongs to the Poaceae family (tribe Andropogoneae) and is one of the most important crops in Africa, Asia, and Latin America. It is a very genetically diverse crop both in cultivated and wild species. About five sorghum’s landraces are known, and the greatest variation within the sorghum genus is found in the Ethiopia-Sudan region, which is believed to be the origin of the plant. The most important global producers of sorghum are the United States of America, Nigeria, Sudan, Mexico, China, India, Ethiopia, Argentina, Burkina Faso, Brazil, and Australia [23]. Burkina Faso appears to be the world leader of sorghum production and consumption per inhabitant. There has been an increased demand for the crop in Africa over the last 50 years. Studies indicate that more than 35% of sorghum is grown directly for human consumption, while the rest is used primarily for animal feed, alcohol production, and industrial products [33]. Although sorghum is a widely grown cereal crop that resembles corn in general composition, it is an inferior crop due to the presence of cyanogenic glycosides, dhurrin and amygdalin, among other factors. The major cyanogenic glycoside in sorghum is dhurrin, and its content in shoot tips of seedlings is estimated at 30% dry weight. In young sorghum leaves, dhurrin and the enzymes responsible for its hydrolysis to hydrogen cyanide are localized in vacuoles and cytoplasm of plants, respectively. The compartmental separation of the enzyme and the substrate makes tissues free from cyanide in intact leaves. The levels of dhurrin decrease with plant age, and immature sorghum leaves contain higher concentrations of dhurrin than the mature ones [17].
Most fruits and fruit kernels contain the potentially toxic cyanogenic glycoside compound, amygdalin. The contents of amygdalin in fruit seeds vary significantly among varieties and environmental conditions [34]. The following sections will highlight two important sources of amygdalin: apple and apricot fruits.
Apple seeds contain appreciable amounts of amygdalin, a cyanogenic glycoside composed of cyanide and sugar. When metabolized in the digestive system, this chemical degrades into highly poisonous hydrogen cyanide. Studies have reported that amygdalin content in apple seeds ranged from 1 to 4 mg/g, while that of apple juice was reported to be between 0.001 and 0.08 mg/ml [34].
Apricot fruits are widely cultivated in Central Asia, Africa, America, and Europe. There are two varieties of apricot kernels: bitter and sweet. Bitter apricot kernels contain a considerably high amount of the cyanogenic glycoside amygdalin and thus are unsafe for consumption. On the other hand, sweet varieties are safe for human consumption because of their low level of cyanogens [35]. The concentration of hydrogen cyanide in apricot kernels varies widely (49–4000 mg/kg), depending on whether the skin was included or not during cyanide determination. Ingestion of raw or improperly processed apricot kernels with high cyanide levels can cause serious acute problems that could lead to death [2].
Incidences of health conditions associated with dietary intake of cyanogens can be prevented or reduced by effective removal of cyanogenic compounds in food plants prior to consumption. Food plants are traditionally processed using various methods that vary widely depending on geographical location and ethnicity of communities [36]. The main aims of the food processing techniques are to reduce toxicity and improve palatability and storability. The main processing techniques used worldwide for most food plants include drying, boiling/cooking, soaking/wetting, fermentation, and/or a combination of the processes [8]. For example, processing techniques and stages used for production of snacks and main dishes from cassava roots are summarized in Figure 4.
Common cassava processing methods used worldwide.
Drying is one of the most appropriate processing methods for removal of cyanogenic glycosides in food plants. This is a mass transfer process which removes water from the product by evaporation and keeps the product free from microorganisms. There are several drying methods that can be employed to reduce cyanogens from food products, and they include the use of sun, oven, freeze, and superheated steam. Studies have reported that in bamboo shoots around 80% cyanogenic glycoside reduction was obtained after vacuum freeze-drying for 24 hours at −50°C. On the other hand, superheated steam drying at 120–160°C afforded significant decomposition of taxiphyllin, which causes bitterness in bamboo shoots [37], while oven-drying after grating at 60°C for 8 hours led to very high reduction of cyanogen content of up to 95% [38].
In eastern and southern Africa, cassava is traditionally processed into flour by sun drying the peeled roots followed by pounding and sieving or heap fermentation. However, because this process does not allow enough contact between linamarase and linamarin, total cyanogen content of 59 ppm of HCN equivalents has been reported in processed products, which is higher than the WHO safe level of 10 ppm [39]. The high levels of residual cyanogens can be attributed to the drying process, which restricts the contact between the endogenous enzymes linamarase and cyanogenic glucoside and promotes the retention of cyanohydrin and free cyanide in dried cassava.
The effectiveness of boiling/cooking on cyanogen removal from various plant food products shows that the method achieves different results depending on the processing duration and part of the plant species. Several studies have reported that cooking and boiling are among the most effective practices for reducing cyanogenic compounds from food plants. These processes appear to promote the rupture of cell walls, which allow translocation of cell contents including antinutrients and toxic substances [39]. A study on bamboo plant showed that cyanogenic glycoside in the shoots of Bambusa vulgaris were reduced by 67.84–76.92% after boiling for 10 minutes. Boiling the shoots for an additional 10 minutes further achieved up to 87% reduction in cyanogen content [37]. Similar studies in cassava reported that the efficacy of the boiling method for cyanogen reduction is substantially improved when small-sized cassava pieces are boiled in a large volume of water [40].
However, some studies have reported that boiling can only reduce cyanogen content by 50%, and therefore, it is not an effective method for cyanide removal. The inefficiency of this processing method is attributed to the high temperatures. It is reported that at an elevated temperature of 100°C, linamarase, a heat-labile β-glycosidase, is denatured, and linamarin cannot then be hydrolyzed into cyanohydrin and subsequent HCN. A study by Cooke and Maduagwu [41] reported that bound glucosides were reduced to 45 to 50% after 25 min of boiling. Free cyanide and cyanohydrin in boiled cassava roots are found at very low concentrations.
Like most processing methods, soaking or wetting of harvested crops helps to improve the shelf life of the food products. Additionally, processing improves the safety and quality of the products. For example, a study reported that cassava flour and to a lesser extent gari stored under ambient conditions retained cyanogens over long periods [25]. However, if flour is mixed with water and the resultant wet flour left in the shade for 5 hours at about 30°C to allow HCN gas to escape, the total cyanide content is reduced three to sixfold. In Africa, the wetting method is commonly practiced in villages around Uvira in South Kivu Province of the Democratic Republic of Congo (DRC) where sporadic incidences of cyanide poisoning and Konzo have been reported [42]. An improved wetting study that reduced processing time to 2 hours was found to be equally effective in removing cyanogens. However, flour samples dried at temperatures above about 80°C lead to denaturing of linamarase, and the wetting method becomes ineffective.
In Malawi, soaking of cassava roots is mostly practiced in the lakeshore areas of northern Malawi and Nkhotakota in the central region, where cassava roots are soaked peeled or unpeeled [36]. A comparative study of the two soaking methods showed that soaking of peeled roots was more effective in reducing levels of cyanogens than soaking unpeeled roots [36]. In the former case, flours of negligible cyanogen contents were obtained, and the residual cyanogen contents were below the maximum FAO/WHO limit. Soaking of unpeeled cassava roots was found to be ineffective as its products gave values above the FAO/WHO recommended limit of 10 mg HCN eq./kg dry matter. The study showed that inclusion of the peel during processing led to high retention of cyanogens in the pulp.
Fermentation is one of the ancient methods of food preservation and became widely accepted in many cultures due to its nutritional value and variety of sensory attributes. Fermentation enhances the nutritive value of food through biosynthesis of vitamins and essential amino acids and degradation of antinutrients [39]. In the African region, fermentation by lactic acid bacteria is one of the most practiced processing methods. Fermentation is done with grated or soaked cassava roots, which could be peeled or unpeeled [36]. The process results in a decrease in pH of the food material during processing.
In western Africa and southern America, cassava parenchyma is ground, grated, or crushed into small pieces to disrupt many plant cells and allow good contact between linamarin and linamarase. The moist mash is then left to ferment for several days, the water-soluble cyanogens is squeezed out, and the residual HCN gas is removed by roasting. This process significantly reduced the cyanogen content of the product (gari or farinha) [39].
Cyanide, one of the most rapidly acting poisons, exists in many forms. The most common are hydrogen cyanide and cyanide salts such as potassium cyanide, sodium cyanide, and calcium cyanide. Cyanide salts can react with acids and subsequently release HCN. In most developing countries, cyanide intake through food consumption is normally high since processed foods with residual levels of cyanogenic substances are a predominant diet among communities. However, cyanide toxicity appears to be a rare form of poisoning among the general population particularly in developed countries. Cyanide exposure occurs relatively frequently in individuals through a variety of modes including inhalation, ingestion, and dermal absorption. In food plants, ingestion of cyanogenic compounds is the most common form of cyanide exposure. The potential toxicity of cyanogenic plants is largely dependent on their ability to produce lethal concentrations of hydrogen cyanide when exposed to humans. The toxic compound, HCN, is formed following the hydrolysis of potentially toxic compounds, cyanogenic glycosides. The conversion process is initiated by the breakdown of the cyanogenic compounds upon disruption of the plant cells that occur during crushing of the edible plant material either during consumption or during processing of the food crop. The residual cyanogens in food products are the primary source of cyanide toxicity to humans when broken down in the gastrointestinal tract to form cyanide [43]. Generally, small quantities of cyanide are naturally detoxified by cellular enzymes and thiosulfates present in many tissues to form relatively harmless thiocyanate, which is excreted in the urine [44].
Human exposure to cyanide from consumption of food products with considerable amounts of cyanogenic glycosides is associated with health complications such as acute intoxications, chronic toxicity, neurological disorders, growth retardation, and goiter. The following sections will provide the epidemiological information, etiology, and prevalence of health conditions attributed to the toxic effects of cyanogenic glycosides in edible plants.
Acute cyanide poisoning occurs when the cyanide level exceeds the limit an individual can detoxify, and therefore the natural detoxification mechanisms are overwhelmed [44]. In humans, the cyanide ion (CN−) has a strong affinity to the trivalent iron (Fe3+) of the cytochrome oxidase and is readily absorbed from the intestinal and respiratory tracts [45]. A typical cherry red venous blood is seen in cases of acute cyanide poisoning because of the failure of the oxygen-saturated hemoglobin to release its oxygen at the tissues since the enzyme cytochrome oxidase is inhibited by the cyanide [44]. Thus, cyanide inhibits cytochrome oxidase preventing oxygen utilization leading to cytotoxic anoxia. This causes a decrease in the utilization of oxygen in the tissues. Additionally, increases in blood glucose and lactic acid levels and a decrease in the ATP/ADP ratio are observed, indicating a shift from aerobic to anaerobic metabolism [46].
Acute cyanide exposure mainly adversely affects the central nervous system (CNS) and the cardiovascular, endocrine, and respiratory systems. In humans, the clinical signs of acute cyanide intoxication can include rapid respiration, drop in blood pressure, dizziness, headache, stomach pains, vomiting, diarrhea, mental confusion, cyanosis with twitching, and convulsions followed by terminal coma and death. There is great variability of lethal doses reported in the literature. However, the mean lethal dose by mouth of cyanide in human adults is estimated to be in the range of 50 to 200 mg, and if untreated death is rarely delayed more than 1 hour [47].
Persistent and prolonged exposure to low levels of cyanide is known to produce symptoms that are different from those observed in acute exposures described above. Chronic exposure to lower cyanide concentrations has been associated with several health conditions especially among cassava-eating populations. Health manifestations such as malnutrition, congenital malformations, neurological disorders, and myelopathy have been attributed to chronic cyanide toxicity [48]. Reports have also shown that goiter, the swelling of the thyroid glands, has occurred in communities where the levels of cyanogenic glycosides in cassava diets are greater than 10–50 mg/kg food [48].
Although the entire human body is affected by dietary cyanide exposure, adverse effects on the central nervous system are the most prevalent because of the high metabolic demand for oxygen in neurons and its control of respiratory function. Thus, the stimulation of carotid and aortic bodies contributes to the poor functions of the central nervous system and respiratory system.
Chronic human exposure to cyanide has been studied in African regions where populations consume large amounts of cyanide-containing cassava root. Neurological findings among the affected individuals include symmetrical hyperreflexia of the upper limbs, symmetrical spastic paraparesis of the lower limbs, spastic dysarthria, diminished visual acuity, peripheral neuropathy, cerebellar signs, and deafness [6]. Cyanide intake from a cassava-dominated diet is a contributing factor in two forms of nutritional neuropathies, tropical ataxic neuropathy described from Nigeria, and epidemic spastic paraparesis described from Mozambique, Tanzania, and Zaire [49, 50].
The term tropical ataxic neuropathy refers to several neurological disorders caused by many factors including toxiconutritional agents. The syndrome, first reported in Jamaica in 1897 and named tropical ataxic neuropathy in 1959, describes several neurological symptoms effecting the mouth, eyesight, hearing, or gait. In the African population, TAN is predominantly prevalent among the elderly population of mostly older males and females. TAN is mostly attributed to cyanide intake due to constant consumption of foods derived from cassava with high levels of cyanogenic compounds [48]. Studies conducted in West Africa particularly Nigeria, Tanzania, Uganda, Kenya, the West Indies, and tropical Asia have reported that cases of TAN generally occur in older people who have consumed a monotonous cassava diet over the years.
Konzo, which means “bound legs” in Yaka language of Kwango region in the Democratic Republic of Congo, was first described in 1938 by an Italian missionary doctor. It is a distinct neurological disease with selective upper motor neuron damage and is characterized by an abrupt onset of an irreversible, non-progressive and symmetrical spastic paraparesis [50]. The disease is mostly associated with high dietary cyanogen consumption from poorly processed roots of bitter cassava combined with a protein-deficient diet low in sulfur amino acids [43]. Studies have found that cassava processing methods that involve shortcuts, as practiced during times of war and famine, exacerbate the health condition among the communities. Since its first description in the DRC, Konzo epidemics have been reported from many cassava-consuming areas in rural Africa. The disease has extended beyond DRC borders, and it remains a serious health problem among African communities that subsist on cassava [48]. In sub-Saharan Africa, at least seven countries have reported the outbreaks of Konzo, and they include the Democratic Republic of Congo, Mozambique, Tanzania, Central African Republic, Angola, Cameroon, and Zambia. In most of the affected countries, the epidemics were preceded by food shortages and several weeks of exclusive consumption of poorly processed bitter cassava roots, resulting in high dietary cyanide exposure, which was confirmed by high levels of thiocyanate in serum and urine [50].
Goiter and cretinism are common diseases in most developing countries because of low intake of iodine (<100 μg/day) among communities. Populations that exclusively depend on cassava as a staple food have shown high incidences of endemic goiter and cretinism. Several studies have reported that populations with very low iodine intake and correspondingly high thiocyanate levels showed severe endemic goiter. The endocrine effect may be due to formation of thiocyanate, a lesser toxic metabolite of cyanide. Thiocyanate is known to block iodine uptake in the body and compete with iodide ion (I−) as a substrate for the thyroid peroxidase, thereby decreasing the iodination of tyrosine to form iodotyrosine by the thyroid gland. Consumption of food products with residual cyanogenic glycosides even at a very low concentration can cause iodine deficiency leading to goiter [43].
In humans, low birth weights among children are a common health problem especially in developing countries. Chronic exposure to cyanogenic glycosides has been reported as a major contributing factor to this health problem. Growth retardation is particularly a serious problem in populations consuming foods with inadequate proteins especially diets that are low in sulfur-containing amino acids such as methionine and cysteine. Cyanide detoxification in the human body requires sulfur donors from sulfur-containing amino acids [43], and thus, dietary exposure to cyanide has been identified as one of the contributing factors to growth retardation among children [51].
Hydrogen cyanide whether ingested directly or released from cyanogens is readily absorbed in the blood by binding to iron in hemoglobin and quickly distributed to organs such as the liver, kidney, brain, and blood tissue. However, about 80 percent of the absorbed cyanide is detoxified in the liver mainly by the mitochondrial enzyme rhodanese, which catalyzes the transfer of sulfur from a sulfate donor to cyanide, forming a less toxic metabolite, thiocyanate. There are two primary detoxification mechanisms of ingested cyanide in the body. The minor one involves methemoglobin in the red blood cells, which temporarily neutralize cyanide by reversible reaction [52]. The major pathway proceeds by the conversion of cyanide to a less toxic thiocyanate (SCN). This process is catalyzed by the enzyme rhodanese present in most tissues, by a reaction with sulfur [43], as shown in Figure 5. The two amino acids, cysteine and methionine, are the common source of sulfur [53]. The generated SCN is then slowly excreted through urine and sweat.
Cyanide metabolism in the body [54].
Other detoxification mechanisms exist and include the binding of hydroxocobalamin (vitamin B12) to cyanide to form cyanocobalamin. Small quantities of cyanide along with CO2 are eliminated through this pathway.
Cyanogenic glycosides are widely distributed in edible plants, and they play a major role in plant protection against herbivores, pathogens, and competitors. The presence of the potentially toxic compounds in food plants has also contributed to food security, particularly in the sub-Saharan African region. Most of the cyanogenic plants, such as cassava, have several agricultural advantages over other crops due to their outstanding ecological adaptation, low labor requirement, and high tolerance to extreme stress conditions such as drought and poor soils. Additionally, the cyanogenic compounds act as a deterrent against thieves and pests. However, several health disorders and diseases have been associated with consumption of food products with high quantities of residual cyanogens. Consequently, it is recommended that consumers should prepare foods properly before consumption in order to prevent adverse effects of cyanogenic glycosides in food plants. There are various traditional processing techniques that are relatively effective in removing cyanide from food plants, especially those involving grating and crushing. Generally, the efficiency of the technique largely depends on the duration of the process, material size, moisture, and temperature. In order to improve food safety, researchers have extensively studied mechanisms that accelerate cyanogenesis and cyanide volatilization during processing, which is a strategic step in detoxification of food plants. Therefore, effective processing technologies should be promoted among communities to enhance safety and organoleptic properties of products derived from cyanogenic food plants.
The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.
General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
',metaTitle:"Horizon 2020 Compliance",metaDescription:"General requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed. ",metaKeywords:null,canonicalURL:null,contentRaw:'[{"type":"htmlEditorComponent","content":"Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\\n\\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\\n\\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\\n\\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\\n\\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\\n\\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\\n\\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\\n\\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'Publishing with IntechOpen means that your scientific publications already meet these basic requirements. It also means that through our utilization of open licensing, our publications are also able to be copied, shared, searched, linked, crawled, and mined for text and data, optimizing our authors' compliance as suggested by the European Commission.
\n\nMetadata for all publications is also automatically deposited in IntechOpen's OAI repository, making them available through the Open Access Infrastructure for Research in Europe's (OpenAIRE) search interface further establishing our compliance.
\n\nIn other words, publishing with IntechOpen guarantees compliance.
\n\nRead more about Open Access in Horizon 2020 here.
\n\nWhich scientific publication to choose?
\n\nWhen choosing a publication, Horizon 2020 grant recipients are encouraged to provide open access to various types of scientific publications including monographs, edited books and conference proceedings.
\n\nIntechOpen publishes all of the aforementioned formats in compliance with the requirements and criteria established by the European Commission for the Horizon 2020 Program.
\n\nAuthors requiring additional information are welcome to send their inquiries to funders@intechopen.com
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5681},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5161},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1683},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10200},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:886},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15610}],offset:12,limit:12,total:117095},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish",topicId:"25"},books:[{type:"book",id:"8737",title:"Rabies Virus",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"49cce3f548da548c718c865feb343509",slug:null,bookSignature:"Dr. Sergey Tkachev",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8737.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"61139",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergey",surname:"Tkachev",slug:"sergey-tkachev",fullName:"Sergey Tkachev"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10830",title:"Animal Feed Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b6091426454b1c484f4d38efc722d6dd",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10830.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10496",title:"Feed Additives in Animal Nutrition",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"8ffe43a82ac48b309abc3632bbf3efd0",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. László Babinszky",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10496.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"53998",title:"Prof.",name:"László",surname:"Babinszky",slug:"laszlo-babinszky",fullName:"László Babinszky"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:17},{group:"topic",caption:"Business, Management and Economics",value:7,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:7},{group:"topic",caption:"Computer and Information Science",value:9,count:10},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:15},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:5},{group:"topic",caption:"Materials Science",value:14,count:4},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:60},{group:"topic",caption:"Nanotechnology and Nanomaterials",value:17,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmaceutical Science",value:19,count:6},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Technology",value:24,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",value:25,count:2}],offset:12,limit:12,total:3},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9534",title:"Banking and Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"af14229738af402c3b595d7e124dce82",slug:"banking-and-finance",bookSignature:"Razali Haron, Maizaitulaidawati Md Husin and Michael Murg",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9534.jpg",editors:[{id:"206517",title:"Prof.",name:"Razali",middleName:null,surname:"Haron",slug:"razali-haron",fullName:"Razali Haron"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5126},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9343",title:"Trace Metals in the Environment",subtitle:"New Approaches and Recent Advances",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ae07e345bc2ce1ebbda9f70c5cd12141",slug:"trace-metals-in-the-environment-new-approaches-and-recent-advances",bookSignature:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar, Hugo Saldarriaga-Noreña and Agnieszka Saeid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9343.jpg",editors:[{id:"255959",title:"Dr.",name:"Mario Alfonso",middleName:null,surname:"Murillo-Tovar",slug:"mario-alfonso-murillo-tovar",fullName:"Mario Alfonso Murillo-Tovar"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7769",title:"Medical Isotopes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f8d3c5a6c9a42398e56b4e82264753f7",slug:"medical-isotopes",bookSignature:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi and Muhammad Babar Imrani",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7769.jpg",editors:[{id:"259190",title:"Dr.",name:"Syed Ali Raza",middleName:null,surname:"Naqvi",slug:"syed-ali-raza-naqvi",fullName:"Syed Ali Raza Naqvi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9376",title:"Contemporary Developments and Perspectives in International Health Security",subtitle:"Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9a00b84cd04aae458fb1d6c65795601",slug:"contemporary-developments-and-perspectives-in-international-health-security-volume-1",bookSignature:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki, Michael S. Firstenberg, Sagar C. Galwankar, Ricardo Izurieta and Thomas Papadimos",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9376.jpg",editors:[{id:"181694",title:"Dr.",name:"Stanislaw P.",middleName:null,surname:"Stawicki",slug:"stanislaw-p.-stawicki",fullName:"Stanislaw P. Stawicki"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7831",title:"Sustainability in Urban Planning and Design",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c924420492c8c2c9751e178d025f4066",slug:"sustainability-in-urban-planning-and-design",bookSignature:"Amjad Almusaed, Asaad Almssad and Linh Truong - Hong",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7831.jpg",editors:[{id:"110471",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Zaki",surname:"Almusaed",slug:"amjad-almusaed",fullName:"Amjad Almusaed"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9279",title:"Concepts, Applications and Emerging Opportunities in Industrial Engineering",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9bfa87f9b627a5468b7c1e30b0eea07a",slug:"concepts-applications-and-emerging-opportunities-in-industrial-engineering",bookSignature:"Gary Moynihan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9279.jpg",editors:[{id:"16974",title:"Dr.",name:"Gary",middleName:null,surname:"Moynihan",slug:"gary-moynihan",fullName:"Gary Moynihan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7807",title:"A Closer Look at Organizational Culture in Action",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"05c608b9271cc2bc711f4b28748b247b",slug:"a-closer-look-at-organizational-culture-in-action",bookSignature:"Süleyman Davut Göker",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7807.jpg",editors:[{id:"190035",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Süleyman Davut",middleName:null,surname:"Göker",slug:"suleyman-davut-goker",fullName:"Süleyman Davut Göker"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7796",title:"Human 4.0",subtitle:"From Biology to Cybernetic",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5ac5c052d3a593d5c4f4df66d005e5af",slug:"human-4-0-from-biology-to-cybernetic",bookSignature:"Yves Rybarczyk",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7796.jpg",editors:[{id:"72920",title:"Prof.",name:"Yves",middleName:"Philippe",surname:"Rybarczyk",slug:"yves-rybarczyk",fullName:"Yves Rybarczyk"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9711",title:"Pests, Weeds and Diseases in Agricultural Crop and Animal Husbandry Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"12cf675f1e433135dd5bf5df7cec124f",slug:"pests-weeds-and-diseases-in-agricultural-crop-and-animal-husbandry-production",bookSignature:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos, Anna Kourti and Kassio Ferreira Mendes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9711.jpg",editors:[{id:"196691",title:"Dr.",name:"Dimitrios",middleName:null,surname:"Kontogiannatos",slug:"dimitrios-kontogiannatos",fullName:"Dimitrios Kontogiannatos"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10178",title:"Environmental Emissions",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"febf21ec717bfe20ae25a9dab9b5d438",slug:"environmental-emissions",bookSignature:"Richard Viskup",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10178.jpg",editors:[{id:"103742",title:"Dr.",name:"Richard",middleName:null,surname:"Viskup",slug:"richard-viskup",fullName:"Richard Viskup"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"8468",title:"Sheep Farming",subtitle:"An Approach to Feed, Growth and Sanity",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"838f08594850bc04aa14ec873ed1b96f",slug:"sheep-farming-an-approach-to-feed-growth-and-sanity",bookSignature:"António Monteiro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8468.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"190314",title:"Prof.",name:"António",middleName:"Cardoso",surname:"Monteiro",slug:"antonio-monteiro",fullName:"António Monteiro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9523",title:"Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5eb6ec2db961a6c8965d11180a58d5c1",slug:"oral-and-maxillofacial-surgery",bookSignature:"Gokul Sridharan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9523.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82453",title:"Dr.",name:"Gokul",middleName:null,surname:"Sridharan",slug:"gokul-sridharan",fullName:"Gokul Sridharan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9785",title:"Endometriosis",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"f457ca61f29cf7e8bc191732c50bb0ce",slug:"endometriosis",bookSignature:"Courtney Marsh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9785.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9018",title:"Some RNA Viruses",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a5cae846dbe3692495fc4add2f60fd84",slug:"some-rna-viruses",bookSignature:"Yogendra Shah and Eltayb Abuelzein",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9018.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"278914",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Yogendra",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"yogendra-shah",fullName:"Yogendra Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8816",title:"Financial Crises",subtitle:"A Selection of Readings",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6f2f49fb903656e4e54280c79fabd10c",slug:"financial-crises-a-selection-of-readings",bookSignature:"Stelios Markoulis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8816.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"237863",title:"Dr.",name:"Stelios",middleName:null,surname:"Markoulis",slug:"stelios-markoulis",fullName:"Stelios Markoulis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9585",title:"Advances in Complex Valvular Disease",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ef64f11e211621ecfe69c46e60e7ca3d",slug:"advances-in-complex-valvular-disease",bookSignature:"Michael S. Firstenberg and Imran Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9585.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"64343",title:null,name:"Michael S.",middleName:"S",surname:"Firstenberg",slug:"michael-s.-firstenberg",fullName:"Michael S. Firstenberg"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10150",title:"Smart Manufacturing",subtitle:"When Artificial Intelligence Meets the Internet of Things",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"87004a19de13702d042f8ff96d454698",slug:"smart-manufacturing-when-artificial-intelligence-meets-the-internet-of-things",bookSignature:"Tan Yen Kheng",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10150.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78857",title:"Dr.",name:"Tan Yen",middleName:null,surname:"Kheng",slug:"tan-yen-kheng",fullName:"Tan Yen Kheng"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9386",title:"Direct Numerical Simulations",subtitle:"An Introduction and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"158a3a0fdba295d21ff23326f5a072d5",slug:"direct-numerical-simulations-an-introduction-and-applications",bookSignature:"Srinivasa Rao",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9386.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6897",title:"Dr.",name:"Srinivasa",middleName:"P",surname:"Rao",slug:"srinivasa-rao",fullName:"Srinivasa Rao"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9139",title:"Topics in Primary Care Medicine",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ea774a4d4c1179da92a782e0ae9cde92",slug:"topics-in-primary-care-medicine",bookSignature:"Thomas F. Heston",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9139.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"217926",title:"Dr.",name:"Thomas F.",middleName:null,surname:"Heston",slug:"thomas-f.-heston",fullName:"Thomas F. Heston"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9208",title:"Welding",subtitle:"Modern Topics",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7d6be076ccf3a3f8bd2ca52d86d4506b",slug:"welding-modern-topics",bookSignature:"Sadek Crisóstomo Absi Alfaro, Wojciech Borek and Błażej Tomiczek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9208.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"65292",title:"Prof.",name:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi",middleName:"C. Absi",surname:"Alfaro",slug:"sadek-crisostomo-absi-alfaro",fullName:"Sadek Crisostomo Absi Alfaro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"636",title:"Landscape",slug:"landscape",parent:{title:"Geography",slug:"geography"},numberOfBooks:2,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:72,numberOfWosCitations:32,numberOfCrossrefCitations:27,numberOfDimensionsCitations:82,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"landscape",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"6396",title:"Urban Agglomeration",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"da1643c7ce5482ec846a188d34ce2839",slug:"urban-agglomeration",bookSignature:"Mustafa Ergen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6396.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"166961",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Mustafa",middleName:null,surname:"Ergen",slug:"mustafa-ergen",fullName:"Mustafa Ergen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3727",title:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"26e11b6e4cce4e245e6e28b281563139",slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",bookSignature:"Francesco Holecz, Paolo Pasquali, Nada Milisavljevic and Damien Closson",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3727.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"13897",title:"Dr.",name:"Damien",middleName:null,surname:"Closson",slug:"damien-closson",fullName:"Damien Closson"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:2,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"57824",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72047",title:"Waste in the City: Challenges and Opportunities for Urban Agglomerations",slug:"waste-in-the-city-challenges-and-opportunities-for-urban-agglomerations",totalDownloads:1751,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Jutta Gutberlet",authors:[{id:"188532",title:"Prof.",name:"Jutta",middleName:null,surname:"Gutberlet",slug:"jutta-gutberlet",fullName:"Jutta Gutberlet"}]},{id:"58196",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72191",title:"The Multivariated Effect of City Cooperation in Land Use Planning and Decision-Making Processes: A European Analysis",slug:"the-multivariated-effect-of-city-cooperation-in-land-use-planning-and-decision-making-processes-a-eu",totalDownloads:506,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Luís Carlos Loures, Rui Alexandre Castanho, José Manuel Naranjo\nGómez, Ana Vulevic, José Cabezas and Luis Fernández-Pozo",authors:[{id:"108118",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Loures",slug:"luis-loures",fullName:"Luis Loures"},{id:"215340",title:"Dr.",name:"Ana",middleName:null,surname:"Vulevic",slug:"ana-vulevic",fullName:"Ana Vulevic"},{id:"215341",title:"Prof.",name:"José",middleName:null,surname:"Cabezas Fernández",slug:"jose-cabezas-fernandez",fullName:"José Cabezas Fernández"},{id:"215342",title:"Prof.",name:"José Manuel",middleName:null,surname:"Naranjo Gómez",slug:"jose-manuel-naranjo-gomez",fullName:"José Manuel Naranjo Gómez"},{id:"222742",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:null,surname:"Fernández-Pozo",slug:"luis-fernandez-pozo",fullName:"Luis Fernández-Pozo"},{id:"290571",title:"Dr.",name:"Rui Alexandre",middleName:null,surname:"Castanho",slug:"rui-alexandre-castanho",fullName:"Rui Alexandre Castanho"}]},{id:"46357",doi:"10.5772/58220",title:"Large Scale Mapping of Forests and Land Cover with Synthetic Aperture Radar Data",slug:"large-scale-mapping-of-forests-and-land-cover-with-synthetic-aperture-radar-data",totalDownloads:3551,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",title:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Josef Kellndorfer, Oliver Cartus, Jesse Bishop, Wayne Walker and\nFrancesco Holecz",authors:[{id:"168830",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Holecz",slug:"francesco-holecz",fullName:"Francesco Holecz"},{id:"170758",title:"Dr.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Kellndorfer",slug:"josef-kellndorfer",fullName:"Josef Kellndorfer"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"57824",title:"Waste in the City: Challenges and Opportunities for Urban Agglomerations",slug:"waste-in-the-city-challenges-and-opportunities-for-urban-agglomerations",totalDownloads:1751,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:13,book:{slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Jutta Gutberlet",authors:[{id:"188532",title:"Prof.",name:"Jutta",middleName:null,surname:"Gutberlet",slug:"jutta-gutberlet",fullName:"Jutta Gutberlet"}]},{id:"46448",title:"Mapping of Ground Deformations with Interferometric Stacking Techniques",slug:"mapping-of-ground-deformations-with-interferometric-stacking-techniques",totalDownloads:3142,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",title:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Paolo Pasquali, Alessio Cantone, Paolo Riccardi, Marco Defilippi,\nFumitaka Ogushi, Stefano Gagliano and Masayuki Tamura",authors:[{id:"168247",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Pasquali",slug:"paolo-pasquali",fullName:"Paolo Pasquali"},{id:"168811",title:"Mr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Riccardi",slug:"paolo-riccardi",fullName:"Paolo Riccardi"},{id:"168812",title:"Mr.",name:"Alessio",middleName:null,surname:"Cantone",slug:"alessio-cantone",fullName:"Alessio Cantone"},{id:"168813",title:"Mr.",name:"Marco",middleName:null,surname:"Defilippi",slug:"marco-defilippi",fullName:"Marco Defilippi"},{id:"168814",title:"Mr.",name:"Fumitaka",middleName:null,surname:"Ogushi",slug:"fumitaka-ogushi",fullName:"Fumitaka Ogushi"},{id:"168815",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefano",middleName:null,surname:"Gagliano",slug:"stefano-gagliano",fullName:"Stefano Gagliano"},{id:"170671",title:"Prof.",name:"Masayuki",middleName:null,surname:"Tamura",slug:"masayuki-tamura",fullName:"Masayuki Tamura"}]},{id:"57969",title:"The City as an Experimental Space: The Interface between Public Satisfaction and Effects on Urban Planning Resulting from Kampala City’s Sprawl",slug:"the-city-as-an-experimental-space-the-interface-between-public-satisfaction-and-effects-on-urban-pla",totalDownloads:607,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,book:{slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Fred Bidandi",authors:[{id:"215494",title:"Dr.",name:"Fred",middleName:null,surname:"Bidandi",slug:"fred-bidandi",fullName:"Fred Bidandi"}]},{id:"46357",title:"Large Scale Mapping of Forests and Land Cover with Synthetic Aperture Radar Data",slug:"large-scale-mapping-of-forests-and-land-cover-with-synthetic-aperture-radar-data",totalDownloads:3551,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:9,book:{slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",title:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Josef Kellndorfer, Oliver Cartus, Jesse Bishop, Wayne Walker and\nFrancesco Holecz",authors:[{id:"168830",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Holecz",slug:"francesco-holecz",fullName:"Francesco Holecz"},{id:"170758",title:"Dr.",name:"Josef",middleName:null,surname:"Kellndorfer",slug:"josef-kellndorfer",fullName:"Josef Kellndorfer"}]},{id:"58749",title:"Wicked Water Systems: A Review of Challenges and Opportunities",slug:"wicked-water-systems-a-review-of-challenges-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:666,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Tamara Anna Streefland and Yoram Krozer",authors:[{id:"215531",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Tamara",middleName:null,surname:"Streefland",slug:"tamara-streefland",fullName:"Tamara Streefland"},{id:"215532",title:"Dr.",name:"Yoram",middleName:null,surname:"Krozer",slug:"yoram-krozer",fullName:"Yoram Krozer"}]},{id:"46372",title:"High Resolution Radargrammetry – 3D Terrain Modeling",slug:"high-resolution-radargrammetry-3d-terrain-modeling",totalDownloads:3206,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",title:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Paola Capaldo, Francesca Fratarcangeli, Andrea Nascetti, Francesca\nPieralice, Martina Porfiri and Mattia Crespi",authors:[{id:"168800",title:"Dr.",name:"Mattia",middleName:null,surname:"Crespi",slug:"mattia-crespi",fullName:"Mattia Crespi"},{id:"168825",title:"Dr.",name:"Paola",middleName:null,surname:"Capaldo",slug:"paola-capaldo",fullName:"Paola Capaldo"},{id:"168826",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Nascetti",slug:"andrea-nascetti",fullName:"Andrea Nascetti"},{id:"168827",title:"MSc.",name:"Martina",middleName:null,surname:"Porfiri",slug:"martina-porfiri",fullName:"Martina Porfiri"},{id:"168828",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",middleName:null,surname:"Fratarcangeli",slug:"francesca-fratarcangeli",fullName:"Francesca Fratarcangeli"},{id:"168829",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesca",middleName:null,surname:"Pieralice",slug:"francesca-pieralice",fullName:"Francesca Pieralice"}]},{id:"58109",title:"Urban Agglomeration and Supporting Capacity: The Role of Open Spaces within Urban Drainage Systems as a Structuring Condition for Urban Growth",slug:"urban-agglomeration-and-supporting-capacity-the-role-of-open-spaces-within-urban-drainage-systems-as",totalDownloads:787,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:7,book:{slug:"urban-agglomeration",title:"Urban Agglomeration",fullTitle:"Urban Agglomeration"},signatures:"Marcelo Gomes Miguez, Aline Pires Veról, Andréa Queiroz da Silva\nFonseca Rêgo and Ianic Bigate Lourenço",authors:[{id:"97645",title:"Prof.",name:"Marcelo",middleName:"Gomes",surname:"Miguez",slug:"marcelo-miguez",fullName:"Marcelo Miguez"},{id:"215719",title:"Prof.",name:"Aline",middleName:null,surname:"Pires Veról",slug:"aline-pires-verol",fullName:"Aline Pires Veról"},{id:"215720",title:"Prof.",name:"Andréa",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Rêgo",slug:"andrea-queiroz-rego",fullName:"Andréa Queiroz Rêgo"},{id:"215721",title:"MSc.",name:"Ianic",middleName:null,surname:"Bigate Lourenço",slug:"ianic-bigate-lourenco",fullName:"Ianic Bigate Lourenço"}]},{id:"46527",title:"Estimation of Cultivated Areas Using Multi-Temporal SAR Data",slug:"estimation-of-cultivated-areas-using-multi-temporal-sar-data",totalDownloads:2390,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",title:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Nada Milisavljević, Francesco Collivignarelli and Francesco Holecz",authors:[{id:"168830",title:"Dr.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Holecz",slug:"francesco-holecz",fullName:"Francesco Holecz"},{id:"4262",title:"Dr.",name:"Nada",middleName:null,surname:"Milisavljevic",slug:"nada-milisavljevic",fullName:"Nada Milisavljevic"},{id:"168823",title:"MSc.",name:"Francesco",middleName:null,surname:"Collivignarelli",slug:"francesco-collivignarelli",fullName:"Francesco Collivignarelli"}]},{id:"46376",title:"Fusion of Interferometric SAR and Photogrammetric Elevation Data",slug:"fusion-of-interferometric-sar-and-photogrammetric-elevation-data",totalDownloads:2995,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",title:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Loris Copa, Daniela Poli and Fabio Remondino",authors:[{id:"89325",title:"Dr.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"Remondino",slug:"fabio-remondino",fullName:"Fabio Remondino"},{id:"168807",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Copa",slug:"loris-copa",fullName:"Loris Copa"},{id:"168810",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniela",middleName:null,surname:"Poli",slug:"daniela-poli",fullName:"Daniela Poli"}]},{id:"46344",title:"Dikes Stability Monitoring Versus Sinkholes and Subsidence, Dead Sea Region, Jordan",slug:"dikes-stability-monitoring-versus-sinkholes-and-subsidence-dead-sea-region-jordan",totalDownloads:3110,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,book:{slug:"land-applications-of-radar-remote-sensing",title:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing",fullTitle:"Land Applications of Radar Remote Sensing"},signatures:"Damien Closson and Najib Abou Karaki",authors:[{id:"13897",title:"Dr.",name:"Damien",middleName:null,surname:"Closson",slug:"damien-closson",fullName:"Damien Closson"},{id:"168785",title:"Prof.",name:"Najib",middleName:null,surname:"Abou Karaki",slug:"najib-abou-karaki",fullName:"Najib Abou Karaki"},{id:"168786",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Pasquali",slug:"paolo-pasquali",fullName:"Paolo Pasquali"},{id:"168787",title:"Dr.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Riccardi",slug:"paolo-riccardi",fullName:"Paolo Riccardi"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"landscape",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/108426/curtis-hancock",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"108426",slug:"curtis-hancock"},fullPath:"/profiles/108426/curtis-hancock",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var m;(m=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(m)}()