Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\\n\\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\\n\\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\\n\\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\\n\\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\\n\\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
Preparation of Space Experiments edited by international leading expert Dr. Vladimir Pletser, Director of Space Training Operations at Blue Abyss is the 5,000th Open Access book published by IntechOpen and our milestone publication!
\n\n
"This book presents some of the current trends in space microgravity research. The eleven chapters introduce various facets of space research in physical sciences, human physiology and technology developed using the microgravity environment not only to improve our fundamental understanding in these domains but also to adapt this new knowledge for application on earth." says the editor. Listen what else Dr. Pletser has to say...
\n\n\n\n
Dr. Pletser’s experience includes 30 years of working with the European Space Agency as a Senior Physicist/Engineer and coordinating their parabolic flight campaigns, and he is the Guinness World Record holder for the most number of aircraft flown (12) in parabolas, personally logging more than 7,300 parabolas.
\n\n
Seeing the 5,000th book published makes us at the same time proud, happy, humble, and grateful. This is a great opportunity to stop and celebrate what we have done so far, but is also an opportunity to engage even more, grow, and succeed. It wouldn't be possible to get here without the synergy of team members’ hard work and authors and editors who devote time and their expertise into Open Access book publishing with us.
\n\n
Over these years, we have gone from pioneering the scientific Open Access book publishing field to being the world’s largest Open Access book publisher. Nonetheless, our vision has remained the same: to meet the challenges of making relevant knowledge available to the worldwide community under the Open Access model.
\n\n
We are excited about the present, and we look forward to sharing many more successes in the future.
\n\n
Thank you all for being part of the journey. 5,000 times thank you!
\n\n
Now with 5,000 titles available Open Access, which one will you read next?
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From DNA and individual cells through to the entire animal, this research uses different scientific methods to understand horses and donkeys in greater detail.",isbn:"978-1-83962-317-2",printIsbn:"978-1-83962-316-5",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-318-9",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.83077",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"equine-science",numberOfPages:230,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"ac415ef2f5450fa80fdb9cf6cf32cd2d",bookSignature:"Catrin Rutland and Albert Rizvanov",publishedDate:"September 23rd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9081.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:2379,numberOfWosCitations:1,numberOfCrossrefCitations:3,numberOfDimensionsCitations:3,numberOfTotalCitations:7,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"September 24th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"March 5th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"May 4th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 23rd 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"September 21st 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a year",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.jpg",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. Catrin completed her Degree, Masters then PhD (University of Derby, Technische Universität München and University of Nottingham), undertook post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. She has also achieved her MMedSci (Medical Education) and PGCHE. Catrin is an author on 47 peer-reviewed journal articles, 12 books/book chapters and over 100 research abstracts. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, Fellow of the Galton Institute, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. She has also written popular science books for the public.\n Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. \nWebsite https://www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:"University of Nottingham",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"8",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Russia"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"297",title:"Animal Science",slug:"animal-science"}],chapters:[{id:"71241",title:"Medieval Equine Medicine from Armenia",slug:"medieval-equine-medicine-from-armenia",totalDownloads:251,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"312786",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Jasmine",surname:"Dum-Tragut",slug:"jasmine-dum-tragut",fullName:"Jasmine Dum-Tragut"}]},{id:"72220",title:"Gene Therapy as a Modern Method of Treating Naturally Occurring Tendinitis and Desmitis in 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1. Introduction
\n
The increasing demand for electricity in addition to the need to minimize environmental problems such as global warming had led to the development of renewable sources for production of electricity in recent years. Among the alternative sources for power generation, wind-based generation is becoming increasingly common around the world, mainly due to government incentives and technological advances in recent years [1]. Thus, a worldwide growing number of large and small wind farms installed can be verified.
\n
The design of wind to electricity conversion systems involves different kinds of generators, power electronics, and control, resulting in motivation for the development of numerous works. The analysis of the efficiency of a wind turbine (WT), based on an adequate simulation of its behavior, is an important step in the research and development of technologies for wind generation. A manufacturer needs tools and appropriate resources to test innovations and to evaluate their effects on the overall system. One possible and helpful tool uses a dedicated hardware and software that intends to emulate a real WT in a reduced scale. This tool is a so-called WT emulator.
\n
A WT emulator uses a set of electrical machines (motor and generator) coupled by a shaft, driven by a converter, and controlled in real time by a computing environment in order to emulate different aerodynamic phenomena present in the rotor of a WT [2]. Therefore, using such a system, different control systems can be implemented and verified. In addition, WT emulators can be used as an educational tool in the study of the behavior of a real WT [3].
\n
The emulation of a WT may be obtained by controlling the torque on the motor shaft. In reference [4], the reference torque for the motor is determined based on the wind speed applied to the turbine and on each mechanical shaft speed. This strategy has simple configuration and allows the validation of control strategies of converters connected to the generator side. However, the transient effects are disregarded, and only the steady-state conditions of the system are obtained.
\n
There are several approaches for wind emulators that are used in different situations depending on the desired requirements. DC motors are used in the construction of wind emulators because of their great ease for implementation and due to their direct relationship between armature current and the torque produced by the machine, as shown in references [3] and [5]. However, they demand higher maintenance requirements and these are costly when compared to other electrical machines in the same power range. An emulation system based on an induction motor (IM) has a smaller size relative to the DC motor for a given power range and has lower cost. Emulators from IM are also described in references [6–8].
\n
This chapter describes the development of an emulator of WTs. The emulator is composed of an IM coupled to the shaft of a permanent magnet synchronous generator (PMSG). The IM has an electrical drive system controlled in real time by a software developed in LabVIEW®. The interface between software and drive is performed by an instrumentation circuit and a data acquisition board PCI-2511. In the proposal, given the WT parameters and a specified wind speed the software module of emulator provides the necessary IM torque reference to emulate the desired turbine. A standard x86 personal computer with LabVIEW® executes the software module of wind emulator.
\n
This chapter is organized as follows: Section 2 describes the mathematical modeling of WTs, including aerodynamic, mechanical, and electrical models. Section 3 presents a numerical analysis of horizontal axis WT using these models. Simulation waveforms are presented to show the turbine dynamics under typical wind conditions. Section 4 describes an emulator built using a LabVIEW® environment and IM drive system. The emulator experimental evaluation is presented in Section 5. The waveforms of this evaluation are compared with simulation waveforms in Section 6, which concludes the chapter.
\n
\n
2. Mathematical model of wind turbines
\n
A WT can be described using three mathematical models: aerodynamic, mechanical, and electrical model. The aerodynamic model is responsible to represent the energy conversion from a moving air mass at a certain speed, which creates the rotational movement of the turbine, into mechanical energy at the shaft of the generator. The mechanical power available reflects into the speed and torque of the shaft of the system. The electrical model describes the conversion of the mechanical torque into electrical energy at the generator output. This process is depicted in Figure 1.
\n
Figure 1.
Energy conversion process for wind turbine.
\n
In order to simulate/emulate a WT, it must obtain the three aforementioned mathematical models. From these models, given a wind profile, the mechanical torque and shaft speed that are used in the emulation stage can be obtained. The following topics present the mathematical modeling of a WT.
\n
2.1. Aerodynamic model
\n
The wind power that is converted into mechanical power at the turbine shaft is given by\n
PT=ρAVw3Cp2E1
\n
where PT is the mechanical power extracted by the wind turbine (W), ρ is the air density (1.225 kg/m3 at sea level), A is the swept area (m2), VW is the wind speed (m/s), and Cp refers to the power coefficient. The aerodynamic characteristics and the orientation of a turbine relative to the wind flow result in its power efficiency. The value of Cp depends on the ratio speed of the blades and the wind. This ratio is known as tip speed ratio (TSR). Check reference [9] for more details of this conversion. The TSR is represented by λ and it is defined by\n
λ=ωrRVWE2
\n
where R is the radius of the turbine swept area (m) and ωr the angular velocity in the turbine shaft (rad/s).
\n
For each WT model, the curves that relate Cp to different values of pitch angle (β) and TSR (λ) can be obtained from direct measurements of the turbine in operation. These curves are known as power curves, and they are useful in obtaining Cp for different points of operation of the turbine. The exact determination of Cp is not an easy task and demands complex mathematical models. Therefore, some approximations have been presented for the determination of Cp based on measurements of β and λ [10, 11]. An expression that is commonly used for determining Cp is\n
Cp(λ,β)=c1(c21λi−c3β−c4)ec51λi+c6λE3
\n
1λi=1λ+c7β−c81+β3E4
\n
where c1,c2,…,c8 are constants that depend on the aerodynamic characteristic of the turbine.
\n
The torque developed by the turbine can be expressed as a function of wind speed that strikes the blades Vw, the power coefficient Cp, and the physical characteristics of the blades. A mathematical relationship is given by\n
TT=12λρARVw2Cp(λ,β)E5
\n
According to Eq. (5), the torque developed in the shaft of a WT has a direct relationship with the wind speed. Since the wind has a stochastic behavior, it is expected to produce a resultant mechanical torque also with the stochastic profile.
\n
2.1.1. Oscillatory effects of torque on wind turbines
\n
Power source fluctuations in wind power systems are due to both a stochastic process that determines the wind speed at different time points and heights and a deterministic process. Deterministic processes on WTs are usually related to two aerodynamic effects called wind shear and tower shadow.
\n
The wind shear phenomenon describes the variation of the wind speed (Vωs) that occurs at different heights [12] and its interaction with the turbine due to the rotation of the blades. Wind shear can be represented by the following equation [13]:\n
where H is the elevation of the rotor hub (m), δ is defined as an empirical coefficient of shear which varies in the range 0.1 < δ <1, θb angular position to the blades (degrees) also called azimuthal angle.
\n
The tower shadow effect is the change in wind speed due to the presence of the turbine tower [12]. Due to proximity between the blades and the tower of structure, wind flowing around the tower causes oscillations in the mechanical elements acting on the blades as well as on the mechanical torque developed on its axis. This effect can be modeled as presented in reference [13], that is,\n
where a is the tower radius (m) and x is the average distance between the tower and the blade (m).
\n
Therefore, combining both effects results in the equivalent wind velocity Veq given by\n
Veq(t,θ)=Vws+Vts.E8
\n
Incorporating the shear and tower shadow effects, the total torque TT developed by a WT is expressed by\n
TT=ρARVWCp(λ,β)λ(VW2+Veq(t,θ)).E9
\n
In order to observe the impact of the aforementioned effects, consider two WTs with characteristics given in Table 1.
\n
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Parameters
\n
Small turbine: 2.2 kW
\n
Midsize turbine: 850 kW
\n
\n\n\n
\n
Wind rated speed (VW)
\n
12 m/s
\n
12 m/s
\n
\n
\n
Mechanical nominal speed (ωr)
\n
630 rpm
\n
26 rpm
\n
\n
\n
Rotor radius (R)
\n
1.23 m
\n
26 m
\n
\n
\n
Shear coefficient (δ)
\n
0.1
\n
0.3
\n
\n
\n
Tower radius (a)
\n
0.4 m
\n
1.5 m
\n
\n
\n
Tower height (H)
\n
6 m
\n
86 m
\n
\n
\n
Blade tip away until half tower (x)
\n
1.5 m
\n
3.8 m
\n
\n\n
Table 1.
Specifications of wind turbines.
\n
The tower wind shear effect and the shadow effect for two turbines of different size are presented in Figures 2 and 3, respectively. Note that these effects are more pronounced for a midsized turbine, compared with the effects for a small one.
\n
Figure 2.
Wind shear effect of different wind turbines.
\n
Figure 3.
Tower shadow effect of different wind turbines.
\n
The above-mentioned analysis shows that the tower shadow effect has greater impact on the resulting speed of the turbine than the wind shear effect. The tower shadow effect is responsible for an offset in the resulting torque. In addition, small turbines are less susceptible to oscillatory effects of wind than the midsize turbines.
\n
\n
\n
2.2. Mechanical model
\n
The mechanical dynamics of a WT can be modeled by two rotating masses, which represent the rotor of the WT and the generator shaft. The connection between them can be made with a gearbox or with direct coupling. Damping and torsion are also considered in the model as shown in Figure 4.
\n
Figure 4.
Mechanical model of wind turbine with generator.
\n
The parameters presented in Figure 4 are described below:
\n
– JT: Moment of inertia of the WT;
– Jg: Moment of inertia of the generator;
– TT: Torque of the turbine, as a function of wind speed and power coefficient;
– Tg: Torque of the electrical generator, as a function of output electrical power;
– ωr: Rotational speed of the turbine;
– ωrg: Rotational speed of the turbine seen from the generator (Ke ⋅ wr);
– ωg: Rotational speed of the generator;
– k: Torsion constant of the connection shaft;
– b: Damping coefficient of the shaft;
– Ke: Speed multiplication ratio.
\n
Thus, the equations for the mechanical model of the WT are\n
TgT=Ke−1⋅TTωrg=Ke⋅ωrJgT=Jg+Ke−2⋅JTE10
\n
where TgT is the turbine torque seen by the generator and JgT is the combined moment of inertia of the WT with the generator.
\n
In most cases, for small WTs (that operate in a power range up to 10 kW) the dynamics of the axis are neglected, such as torsion and damping. In this situation, the equation regarding the mechanical model of the system becomes\n
TgT−Tg=JgTddt(ωrg).E11
\n
\n
2.3. Electrical model
\n
Considering Vd, Vq and Id, Iq as the voltages and currents of the stator of a PMSG represented in the synchronous reference frame [14], the electrical power of the generator is given by\n
Pe=32(Vdid+Vqiq).E12
\n
The electrical dynamic equations of the PMSG are expressed by\n
where ωe is the angular velocity of the reference frame (ωe = Npωg), Np is the number of pole pairs, Ld and Lq are the inductances of the stator winding in the synchronous reference frame, Rs is the stator resistance, and ψpm is the flux constant of the generator rotor. The electrical torque (Tg) of the generator is expressed by\n
Tg=32Np2(ψpmiq+(Ld−Lq)idiq)E14
\n
\n
\n
3. Numerical simulation of the wind turbine
\n
Based on the WT models presented in Section 2, an application was developed to simulate the behavior of a wind generator system. The simulator was developed in Matlab/Simulink® and was used for purposes of comparison with the waveforms of the emulator that was also developed for experimental analysis.
\n
Figure 5 shows the block diagram that implements the dynamic behavior of a WT. The wind velocity and pitch angle are user inputs to the aerodynamic model. These inputs as well as the rotor speed are used to compute the power coefficient and the turbine torque. From the turbine torque and generator torque, the rotor speed is obtained. Then, the electrical model applies the load characteristic to obtain voltages, currents, and generator torque.
\n
Figure 5.
Block diagram of the wind turbine mathematical model for simulation implementation.
\n
A 2.2-kW horizontal axis WT was considered as an example for the evaluation of dynamic behavior. The specifications of the aerodynamic model of the turbine are presented in Table 1, while the specifications of the mechanical model are given in Table 2.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Total turbine inertia (JgT)
\n
2.29 kgm2
\n
\n
\n
Gearbox (Ke)
\n
1200/630 = 1.9
\n
\n\n
Table 2.
Parameters of mechanical model.
\n
Due to the high-speed characteristics of the generator, the simulated WT incorporates a gearbox. The inertia of the turbine is obtained according to reference [15], and a resistive load used to terminals PMSG connected to “∆”. Torsion and damping are neglected.
\n
The generator used is a PMSG that corresponds to the machine used in the experimental setup. The parameters of the PMSG were obtained by experimental tests and are described in Table 3.
\n
\n
\n
\n\n
\n
Rated power
\n
2.2 kW
\n
\n
\n
Speed rotation
\n
1200 rpm (125.5 rad/s)
\n
\n
\n
Number of pole pairs
\n
3
\n
\n
\n
Moment of inertia
\n
0.0084 kgm2
\n
\n
\n
Stator resistance (Rs)
\n
1.455 Ω
\n
\n
\n
Axis inductance (Ld,Lq)
\n
1.97 mH; 2.59 mH
\n
\n
\n
Permanent flux (ψpm)
\n
0.205 Wb
\n
\n
\n
Resistive load (R)
\n
7.4 Ω
\n
\n\n
Table 3.
Parameters of PMSG.
\n
Figure 6.
Aerodynamic quantities for a 2.2 kW turbine and wind speed changing from 12 to 11 and back to 12 m/s.
\n
The system operates at variable speed without control for maximum power extraction. Therefore, the system will only provide maximum energy to the load at the nominal operation point. Thus, the analysis of the system starts at the nominal operating point with a wind speed of 12 m/s. After 35 s, the wind speed is reduced to 11 m/s using a ramp profile. At 67 s, the wind velocity is increased using a ramp profile up to the rated speed of 12 m/s. Figure 6 describes the aerodynamic behavior of the simulated turbine.
\n
In Figure 6, the variation in the wind speed results in a reduction of the mechanical power delivered to the generator around 25% (from 2.2 kW to 1.6 kW). The nominal torque of the turbine corresponds to 33.3 Nm. However, the torque seen by the generator is 17.5 Nm due to the gearbox speed ratio Ke. Due to the wind speed variation, the torque delivered to the shaft of the generator has a reduction of 9.7% (from 17.5 Nm to 15.8 Nm). The variation of the point of operation provides a small change in Cp value. The Cp changed from 0.434 to 0.431.
\n
The turbine was also simulated at different points of operation that considered a variation in the wind speed from 12 to 10 m/s. The results are depicted in Figure 7.
\n
Figure 7.
Aerodynamic quantities for a 2.2-kW turbine with a variation in the wind speed from 12 to 10 m/s.
\n
As can be seen in Figure 7, even with a small wind speed variation of 2 m/s, the power coefficient is sensibly reduced. Moreover, the power absorbed by the turbine presents a larger reduction, around 40%. The simulation waveforms obtained in this section will be used to verify the emulator dynamics in the next section.
\n
\n
4. Emulation of the wind turbine
\n
To develop a WT emulator, the setup is divided into two subsystems. The first one is a graphical user interface (GUI) running in a PC. The GUI was developed using LabVIEW® environment and uses an input-output card to communicate with the hardware setup. The second subsystem is an IM drive that emulates the WT following the dynamics evaluated by the software.
\n
The software emulator developed in LabVIEW® incorporates the aerodynamic mathematical model presented in Section 2 and provides the necessary dynamic variables, such that the hardware is able to emulate the intended WT. Using the GUI, the user can provide parameters to the mathematical model. These input parameters include:
\n
– Wind speed characteristics;
– Turbine parameters;
– IM parameters;
– Speed and torque signal specifications.
\n
From input parameters, the software emulator acquires the rotational speed (ωr) of the IM shaft to compute the turbine torque that must be developed on the shaft of the motor-generator set. The software converts both acquired IM torque and speed to the turbine nominal values (per-unit conversion) before using the aerodynamic emulator. After computing the turbine torque, the software converts it back to the IM nominal base, such that it is used as reference torque (TT*) by IM drive.
The software has two tabs in the top of the main screen. The “Specifications” is the interface where the user inputs the parameters of the WT to be emulated. This screen is shown in Figure 8. The second tab, named “Signals Generated - Power – Torque” presents, graphically and in real time, the dynamic characteristics of the emulated turbine. The dynamic characteristics are obtained from the model of the turbine. The mechanical quantities of the system are also shown. Torque and speed sensors installed on the experimental setup provide these quantities. To improve visualization, the quantities are presented in per-unit (pu) values. The user defines the base values in the “Specifications” tab. Figure 9 shows the screen used to show the emulated variables in real time.
\n
Figure 9.
Emulator interface—screen used to present the generated signals.
\n
\n
4.2. Implementation of the drive system
\n
The emulator drive is built using a motor-generator set based on IM-PMSG machines controlled in real time by the software platform. In addition, the drive can be designed to be flexible to receive future hardware upgrades or modifications and to be controlled by a high-level software. In this way, it is capable to emulate different WTs or even to use a new IM-PMSG set, such that it requires the user to inform the new parameters of the system in the GUI.
\n
Since it is monitoring and controlling the system, a computing environment is responsible to provide the torque reference signal (TT*) according to mechanical speed (ωr) measure, and a wind speed to be emulated. The nominal torque (1 pu) to be emulated on the motor shaft corresponds to a load of 16.6 Nm. An acquisition board PCI-2511 performs the hardware-software interface circuit. Afterward, a digitally controlled PWM inverter is used as the IM drive. Moreover, to perform the drive, different approaches can be used. Either a commercial IM drive system (CFW 11) or a DSP/microcontroller user programmable controller with a three-phase PWM inverter are possible choices.
\n
The proposed emulator is a horizontal axis wind turbine (HAWT) with rated power of 2.2 kW. Hence, the nominal power of the IM-PMSG was defined as 3 kW. The IM has eight pole pairs, while the PMSG has four pole pairs. A torque transducer (T22WN) measures the mechanical torque signal developed in the shaft of the machines, which employs VK20A (commercial board) and TCB (user developed) conditioning boards to be read by PCI2511. An absolute encoder (AC58) measures the speed of the motor-generator shaft, which is read by the software through the PCI2511 and a SCB conditioning board (user developed).
\n
Since the mechanical characteristics of the system are given by the IM-PMSG connection, the software obtains the real dynamic speed on the shaft of the machines. The rotational speed is one of the input variables for the aerodynamic model used to determinate TSR. The electrical system for wind system is composed of the real PMSG-load set. Figure 10 shows the representation of the experimental emulator.
\n
Figure 10.
Representation of the wind turbine emulator experimental setup.
\n
\n
\n
\n
5. Emulator experimental evaluation
\n
The emulator performance was analyzed considering two scenarios:
\n
– Scenario 01: The emulation of the real system is carried out for different values of the operation curve of the WT, according to different wind speed profiles;
– Scenario 02: The emulation considers the wind turbulence, like steps and wind ramps.
\n
Initially, the system is subject only to the aerodynamic conditions imposed by the wind speed changes. The emulator activation occurs after 20 s, due to torque control restrictions of the CFW11 drive. This drive requires the motor start at least 30% of its torque nominal. During the first 20 s, the setup operates in open-loop, in order to establish a constant speed in the shaft. Then, the system starts to operate in closed-loop, where the mechanical speed dynamics feds the WT model implemented in the computing environment.
\n
In the first scenario, the analyzed operating points correspond to wind speeds of 10, 11, and 12 m/s. Figure 11 shows the behavior of the WT for emulator running when the wind speed changes from 12 to 11 m/s at 43 s. After 94 s the variation of the wind speed occurs from 11 to 12 m/s, and at 135 s the execution of emulated system considers a wind step 12 to 10 m/s. As can be seen in Figure 11, when the wind speed Vw is reduced from 12 to 11 m/s, the power coefficient is not significantly affected (0.43), such that the absorbed power is reduced as Vw2 and rotor speed and turbine torque are reduced as Vw. On the other way, when Vw diminishes from 12 to 10 m/s, the power coefficient also significantly decreases (under 0.4), and the absorbed power drops to 50%.
\n
Figure 11.
Operating dynamics for wind turbine emulation system.
\n
Figures 12 and 13 show the waveforms of the real-time voltage and line current measured with a digital 1 GS/s oscilloscope in terminals of the PMSG for a resistive load. In these figures, the electrically generated quantities (voltage and current) vary according to the absorbed power when wind speed changes in Figure 11. A large transitory drop in generated quantities can be noted when wind speed changes from 12 to 10 m/s. This drop is due to the dynamics of the turbine torque reference and the IM drive (CFW 11) characteristics.
\n
Figure 12.
Voltage and electric current in the PMSG terminals for Vw changes from 12 to 10 m/s.
\n
Figure 13.
Voltage and electric current in the PMSG terminals for Vw changes between 12 and 10 m/s.
\n
In order to check the response of the emulator in turbulence behavior within the nominal limits of the WT, the second scenario presents ramp conditions for wind speed. As can be seen in Figure 14, the setup exhibits high performance with significant variations in mechanical quantities, especially when drop variations occur in wind speed.
\n
Figure 14.
System emulator for the scenario with wind speed ramps.
\n
It is possible to note the well working of system emulation considering consistent aerodynamic and mechanical quantities wind speed variation. In addition, due to the inertia of the turbine, rotational speed at the mechanical shaft does not respond instantaneously to changes in wind speed. The variation of the mechanical power available on the shaft of the turbine is 0.6 pu, corresponding to 1.3 kW. The Cp behavior shows greater variation during transitory, after the end of the wind ramp. After the transitory, Cp reaches its nominal value for 10 m/s wind speed. The variation of the mechanical torque on the turbine shaft is 0.4 pu, corresponding to 7 Nm. Since the mechanical torque in the shaft of IM-PMSG has also a variation of 0.4 pu, it features the same dynamics between the emulated system and the simulated one. Comparing the results from Simulink and LabVIEW is easy to note; the curves are very close. Small differences are present in mechanical torque since the simulator and the emulator drive applies different scales.
\n
The performance analysis of the laboratory arrangement confirms that the emulator holds similar aerodynamic and mechanical dynamics to simulation models. In this way, the emulator can be used to design power converters as well as to check turbine dynamics in different generator/load arrangements.
\n
\n
\n
6. Conclusion
\n
This chapter presented the main steps for the implementation of a WT emulator through the torque control of an IM. First, it describes the simulation models and their verification. The simulator environment developed in Simulink/Matlab® can be used to analyze models and check the emulator dynamics. Also, it presents the main concepts for building an emulator using LabVIEW, an IM drive, and an electrical generator.
\n
An experimental evaluation presents emulator waveforms, which are compared with simulated ones in order to check emulator dynamics. Considering simulation and experimental waveforms for different wind conditions and their effects on several aerodynamic and mechanical variables, it is possible to validate the algorithm for WT emulation.
\n
The described system permits a number of studies, such as
\n
- design of power converters and correspondent control loops;
- implementation of the generator control to extract maximum wind power;
- implementation of computer platforms for other models of WTs, as well as for vertical axis WTs;
- an educational tool to teach main concepts of WTs and power conversion.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
The authors acknowledge FINEP, CAPES, SETI, CNPq, and Fundação Araucária for scholarships and funding.
\n
\n',keywords:"wind turbine, modeling, emulator, electrical generator, renewable energy, induction motor drive",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/50818.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/50818.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/50818",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/50818",totalDownloads:1627,totalViews:678,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"November 5th 2015",dateReviewed:"April 4th 2016",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 27th 2016",dateFinished:null,readingETA:"0",abstract:"This chapter presents the modeling, simulation, and emulation for small wind turbine (WT) systems. The main objective of the emulation system is to reproduce the WT torque dynamic behavior in the generator shaft, which must be similar to one of real horizontal WTs used for distributed generation. The aerodynamic, mechanical, and electrical models for horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWTs) are presented in detail. The models are used for simulation analysis and emulation synthesis. The emulator consists a (i) computational platform, which is based on LabVIEW® environment and runs the model of the WT and (ii) an induction motor (IM) with AC power drive with torque control. The IM shaft is directly coupled with the real small wind generator and corresponding load. Experimental waveforms are also presented to demonstrate the functionality of the system.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/50818",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/50818",book:{slug:"wind-turbines-design-control-and-applications"},signatures:"Diana Martinello, Emerson G. Carati, Jean P. da Costa, Rafael\nCardoso and Carlos M. O. Stein",authors:[{id:"19926",title:"Prof.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Cardoso",fullName:"Rafael Cardoso",slug:"rafael-cardoso",email:"rcardoso@utfpr.edu.br",position:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Paraná",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"173886",title:"Prof.",name:"Jean Patric",middleName:null,surname:"Da Costa",fullName:"Jean Patric Da Costa",slug:"jean-patric-da-costa",email:"jpcosta@utfpr.edu.br",position:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Paraná",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"174225",title:"Dr.",name:"Emerson",middleName:"Giovani",surname:"Carati",fullName:"Emerson Carati",slug:"emerson-carati",email:"emerson@utfpr.edu.br",position:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Paraná",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"174234",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"Marcelo",surname:"De Oliveira Stein",fullName:"Carlos De Oliveira Stein",slug:"carlos-de-oliveira-stein",email:"cmstein@utfpr.edu.br",position:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Paraná",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"182599",title:"MSc.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Martinello",fullName:"Diana Martinello",slug:"diana-martinello",email:"dianamartinelo@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Mathematical model of wind turbines",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1. Aerodynamic model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_2_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.2. Mechanical model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.3. Electrical model",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7",title:"3. Numerical simulation of the wind turbine",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Emulation of the wind turbine",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"4.1. Software implementation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"4.2. Implementation of the drive system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11",title:"5. Emulator experimental evaluation",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_13",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'\nGWEC: Global Wind Energy Council [dissertation, in Portuguese]. Global Wind Report – Annual Market Update [Internet]. March 2014. Available from: http://www.gwec.net/wp-content/uploads/2015/03/GWEC_Global_Wind_2014_Report_LR.pdf [Accessed: December 2015].\n'},{id:"B2",body:'\nHan B., Lee H., Yoon D. Hardware simulator development for PMSG wind power system. In: Power & Energy Society General Meeting, 26–30 July 2009, Calgary, AB, IEEE; 2009. p. 1–6. DOI: 10.1109/PES.2009.5275770\n'},{id:"B3",body:'\nKouadria S., Belfedhal S., Meslem Y., Berkouk E.M. Development of real time wind turbine emulator based on DC motor controlled by hysteresis regulator. In: Renewable and Sustainable Energy Conference, 7–9 March 2013, Ouarzazate, IEEE; 2013. p. 246–250. DOI: 10.1109/IRSEC.2013.6529649\n'},{id:"B4",body:'\nRocha V.R. Experimental bench for wind turbine emulation [dissertation, in Portuguese]. Rio de Janeiro, Brasil; 2008. 80 p. Available from: http://www.pee.ufrj.br/teses/textocompleto/2008042802.pdf [Accessed: December 2015].\n'},{id:"B5",body:'\nOvando R.I., Aguayo J., Cotorogea M. Emulation of a low power wind turbine with a DC motor in Matlab/Simulink. In: Power Electronics Specialists Conference, 17–21 June 2007, Orlando, FL, IEEE; 2007. p. 859–864. DOI: 10.1109/PESC.2007.4342101\n'},{id:"B6",body:'\nTammaruckwattana S., Ohyama K. Experimental verification of variable speed wind power generation system using permanent magnet synchronous generator by wind turbine emulator. In: IECON 2012 – 38th Annual Conference on IEEE Industrial Electronics Society, 25–28 Oct. 2012, Montreal, QC, IEEE; 2012. p. 5827–5832. DOI: 10.1109/IECON.2012.6389131\n'},{id:"B7",body:'\nNye J.M., de la Bat J.G., Khan M.A., Barendse P. Design and implementation of a variable speed wind turbine emulator. In: 2012 XXth International Conference on Electrical Machines (ICEM), 2–5 Sept. 2012, Marseille, IEEE; 2012. p. 2060–2065. DOI: 10.1109/ICElMach.2012.6350166\n'},{id:"B8",body:'\nXie Z., Zhang X., Yang S., Cao R. A dynamic wind turbine simulator of the wind turbine generator system. In: 2012 Second International Conference on Intelligent System Design and Engineering Application (ISDEA), 6–7 Jan. 2012, Sanya, Hainan, IEEE; 2012. p. 967–970. DOI: 10.1109/ISdea.2012.549\n'},{id:"B9",body:'\nAckermann T., editor. Wind power in power systems, 1st ed. John Wiley – Sons. West Sussex, England. April 2005. 742 p.\n'},{id:"B10",body:'\nSlootweg J.G., Polinder H., Kling W.L. Representing wind turbine electrical generating systems in fundamental frequency simulations. IEEE Transactions on Energy Conversion. 2003;18(4):516–524. DOI: 10.1109/TEC.2003.816593\n'},{id:"B11",body:'\nSilva K.F. Control and integration of wind farms to the power grid using doubly fed induction generators [thesis]. University of São Paulo – USP; 2006. 270 p.\n'},{id:"B12",body:'\nThresher R.W., Wright A.D., Hershberg E.L. A computer analysis of wind turbine blade dynamic loads. Journal of Solar Energy Engineering. 1986;108(1):17–25. DOI: 10.1115/1.3268046\n'},{id:"B13",body:'\nDolan D.S.L., Lehn P.W. Simulation model of wind turbine 3p torque oscillations due to wind shear and tower shadow. In: Power Systems Conference and Exposition, 29 Oct 2006–1 Nov 2006; Atlanta, GA, IEEE; 2006. p. 2050–2057. DOI: 10.1109/PSCE.2006.296240\n'},{id:"B14",body:'\nBernardes A.T. Analysis and control of permanent magnet synchronous generator applied to wind energy conversion system [dissertation, in Portuguese]. Federal University of Santa Maria – UFSM; 2009. 192 p. Available from: http://cascavel.ufsm.br/tede/tde_arquivos/7/TDE-2009-10-23T120114Z-2296/Publico/BERNARDES, THIAGO ARAUJO.pdf [Accessed: December 2015].\n'},{id:"B15",body:'\nTielens P., De Rijcke S., Srivastava K., Reza M., Marinopoulos A., Driesen J. Frequency support by wind power plants in isolated grids with varying generation mix. In: Power and Energy Society General Meeting; 22–26 July 2012; San Diego, CA, IEEE; 2012. p. 1–8. DOI: 10.1109/PESGM.2012.6344690\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Diana Martinello",address:null,affiliation:'
Post-Graduation Program in Electrical Engineering, PPGEE, Federal University of Technology—Paraná, Pato Branco, PR, Brazil
'},{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Emerson G. Carati",address:"emerson@utfpr.edu.br",affiliation:'
Post-Graduation Program in Electrical Engineering, PPGEE, Federal University of Technology—Paraná, Pato Branco, PR, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Jean P. da Costa",address:null,affiliation:'
Post-Graduation Program in Electrical Engineering, PPGEE, Federal University of Technology—Paraná, Pato Branco, PR, Brazil
Post-Graduation Program in Electrical Engineering, PPGEE, Federal University of Technology—Paraná, Pato Branco, PR, Brazil
'},{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Carlos M. O. Stein",address:null,affiliation:'
Post-Graduation Program in Electrical Engineering, PPGEE, Federal University of Technology—Paraná, Pato Branco, PR, Brazil
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1. Introduction
Linear economic model has been constructed on the premise of production, use, and disposal of used resources as wastes. However, there are serious limitations associated with the linear paradigm. These include nonrenewability, unsustainability, and environmental perturbations characterized by negative impacts on air, eco-diversity, soil, and water quality and safety. On the other hand, circular economic model maximizes the 3 (three)Rs of reduce, reuse, and recycle resources. In particular, circular economy applies residue from one process as input material for another process. This approach delivers sustainable benefits for humanity in terms of air, ecology, energy, environment, food, forest, housing, sanitation, soil and water quality, safety and security; as well as improvements in animal and human health, economic, social, and industrial developments.
On the predicate of biorefinery platform, biotechnological upgrading of biomass via biological, chemical, physical or some combinations of these would create bio-based energy, chemicals, and other beneficial metabolites and products within the domain of circular economic model. In this context, anaerobic digestion (AD) is an attractive technology as it would utilize organic resources in waste streams to generate biogas and digestate. However, the quality of digestate is dependent upon variables such as characteristics of feedstock, digester process, and treatment options. Digestates emanating from AD of animal manure, energy crops, agricultural residues, organic fraction of municipal solid wastes (OFMSW), and other feedstocks have been reported in published literature [1, 2, 3]. On the other hand, there is dearth of reports on nutrient properties of digestate generated from AD processes that utilized cassava peeling residue (CPR) as sole feedstock. This chapter presents relevant information on digestates in general, and new results of a technical experiment conducted to secure overview assessment of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P) and potassium (K) compositions of liquid fraction of CPR digestate.
2. Anaerobic digestion (AD)
AD is a biochemical process that decomposes organic matter to generate flammable biogas and residual digestate. The process is achieved with the assistance of a suite of microorganisms in a near oxygen free environment. Biogas is basically composed of methane and carbon dioxide in the respective range of 40–75% and 25–40%. Other constituents are hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen sulfide and other trace components ranging from 0.1 to 3% [4]. Successful AD operations are carried out within digester or reactor systems designed to supply nutrients required for metabolic activities of the microbes, as well as prevent conditions or elements that may become stressors or present inhibitory effects. AD digester operations and systems may be classified according to the following [5, 6, 7]:
Optimal temperature regimen: psychrophilic (<20°C), mesophilic (30–38°C), and thermophilic (48–57°C);
Total solid (TS) content: wet digestion (TS < 12%), semi-dry digestion (TS 12–20%), and dry digestion (TS ˃ 20%);
Feeding mode: batch, fed-batch, semi-continuous, and continuous;
Process stage or step: single-stage (where all AD processes—hydrolysis, fermentation, acetogenesis, and methanogenesis are executed in one reactor), and multi-stage (where the processes are separated into two or more reactors);
Fluid-dynamic mode: plug flow, completely stirred or mixed, and hybrid; as well as
Today there are millions of anaerobic digesters (domestic, medium, and large-scale versions) operating in the world and generating tremendous amount of biogas. In 2016 for instance, about 60.8 billion m3 of biogas (1.31 EJ) was generated worldwide; most of it, 84%; in Europe (54%) and Asia (30%) [8]. The technical status of AD plants varies widely. Advanced state-of-the-art systems are prevalent in Europe and more low-tech installations in Africa, Asia and South America. However, irrespective of the level of sophistication, the two fundamental products of AD are biogas and digestate.
3. Digestate
Digestate is the residual organic matter generated as coproduct of biogas production. Digestate is suitable for direct use as bio-fertilizer, as raw material for production of bio-fertilizers, and as amendment material to improve soil physical properties such as bulk density, hydraulic conductivity, and moisture retention capacity. Digestate is also attributed with improved sustainability and veterinary safety; reductions in odors, weed seeds, plant pathogens, food chain contamination risks and greenhouse gas emissions. The three basic types of digestate are: whole digestate, liquor (liquid fraction) digestate, and fiber (solid fraction) digestate. Whole digestate is the digestate as obtained leaving the digester at the end of AD process. It contains less than 15% dry matter. This whole digestate could be separated into liquid and solid fractions using appropriate technology and method. The liquid fraction constitutes up to 90% of the digestate by volume, contains 2–6% dry matter, particles <1.2 mm in size, and most of the soluble nitrogen and potassium, while the solid fraction retains most of the digestate phosphorus, and contains dry matter content ˃ 15% [9, 10].
However, the quality, safety, and utility of digestate are dependent upon variables such as feedstock characteristics (pH, chemical composition, carbon-nitrogen ratio (C/N), particle size), digester process (temperature, inoculum, microbial community, hydraulic retention time (HRT)), as well as pre- and post-digestion treatments. Feedstock should possess balanced nutrients, including optimal C/N to satisfy physiological needs of the microorganisms. High or low C/N would disrupt biogasification and lead to reduced biogas output due to low buffer capacity (high C/N) or ammonia inhibition (low C/N). Generally, for biogas production, C/N of 20–30 is considered optimal. For food wastes, C/N of around 15 could be appropriate. Digestates within C/N range of 15–20 are regarded as safe for application to agricultural land without further treatment [11]. When sole feedstock lacks sufficient nutrients for adequate C/N, feedstocks with complimentary nutrients profile are co-digested to offset the limitations. Table 1 highlights some feedstocks that have been used in AD operations and digestate studies.
S/N
Feedstock
S/N
Feedstock
1
Agro-industrial residues
61
Miscanthus sacchariflorus (Maxim.) Hack silage
2
Animal manure
62
Miscanthus sinesis giganteus Silage
3
Barley straw
63
Molasses
4
Biodegradable plastics
64
Mozzarella Cheese Whey
5
Biodiesel wastewaters
65
Municipal solid waste
6
Biowastes
66
Municipal waste water
7
Blood industry residues
67
Oat silage
8
Buffalo farming wastewater
68
Olive oil mill wastewater
9
Buffalo manure
69
Olive Pomace, olive waste
10
Cacao
70
Orange peel waste
11
Cardboard
71
Organic fraction of municipal solid waste
12
Cattle/cow: manure/slurry
72
Paper
13
Cattle (beef) urine
73
Paper sludge
14
Cereal bran
74
Peach-juice pulp
15
Cereal-WPS
75
Peeled Cassava wash water
16
Cereals
76
Pharmaceutical industry sludge
17
Cheese Whey
77
Phleum pratense L. silage
18
Chicken manure
78
Pig urine
19
Chroococcus sp. (algal biomass)
79
Piggery wastewater
20
Coconut chips
80
Pig/swine effluent; manure; slurry
21
Coffee grounds
81
Plum stones
22
Corn
82
Potato chips production residues
23
Corn cob mix
83
Potato waste
24
Cornmeal
84
Potatoes
25
Corn residue
85
Poultry litter/manure/waste
26
Cover crops
86
Primary sludge
27
Crushed cassava juice
87
Pumpkin waste
28
Dairy manure
88
Rabbit manure
29
Distiller’s waste
89
Rape residue
30
Dried blood of slaughterhouse waste
90
Restaurant food waste
31
Duck slaughterhouse sludge
91
Rice residues
32
Edible oil
92
Rye
33
Energetic crops
93
Sewage sludge
34
Energy maize
94
Sida Hermaphrodita Rusby silage
35
Fennel waste
95
Slaughterhouse waste
36
Fish by-product
96
Sludge from Slaughterhouse wastewater treatment plant
37
Food industry residues
97
Solid farmyard manure
38
Food waste
98
Sorghum silage
39
Fruits and distillery by-products
99
Source-separated organic household waste
40
Fruit Marc
100
Source-separated municipal solid waste
41
Garden wastes
101
Starch processing wastewater
42
Glycerin
102
Straws (cereal, pea)
43
Grape seeds
103
Sugar beet pulp
44
Grass (clover, Sudan); grass silage
104
Sugar sorghum (S. saccharatum L. Moench.) silage
45
Green waste
105
Sunflower residue, sunflower silage
46
Hemp
106
Tea leaves
47
Household kitchen waste
107
Tetraselmis sp. (algal biomass)
48
Household waste
108
Thin stillage (bioethanol by-product)
49
Human excreta
109
Triticale
50
Human urine
110
Triticale silage
51
Industrial and commercial wastes
111
Turkey manure
52
Jute Caddis
112
Vegetable waste
53
Kitchen waste
113
Vinasse
54
Landscape waste
114
Waste-activated sludge
55
Ley silage
115
Waste potato starch
56
Livestock waste
116
Wastewater
57
Maize stover
117
Wastewater sludge
58
Medicago sativa L. silage
118
Wheat
59
Milk (serum, whey)
119
Yeast production wastewater
60
Millet
120
Zea mays L. (corn, maize) silage
Table 1.
Feedstocks used in digestate production and studies.
Source: Assembled from scientific literatures in the public domain, most of them cited in this present work.
4. Regulations, quality, and safety requirements
Perhaps the most important variable affecting the quality and safety of digestate is feedstock. Starting with a high-quality feedstock would virtually guarantee a safe and quality digestate. Source separation can be used to achieve high purity feedstock. The biological, chemical, and physical properties of digestate may be governed by regulations and quality assurance systems. The European Union (EU) and many European national governments have hygienic, quality and safety standards for digestate certification that consider feedstock source and other aspects such as digester process, treatment options, handling and storage requirements. The essential quality and safety requirements for digestate destined as biofertilizer must be achieved regardless of the initial raw material. Essential quality and safety parameters include nutrients content, dry matter and organic dry matter contents, homogeneity, pH, purity (free of inorganic impurities such as glass, metal, plastic, and stones), sanitized and safe for soil organisms and the environment with regards to biological status (pathogenic organisms) and chemical status (organic and inorganic contaminants/pollutants). Furthermore, the digestate should be free of odor, phytotoxicity and weed seeds; and be satisfactorily stabilized.
Quality assurance systems for digestate certification may comprise monitoring to ensure control; standardization to ensure repeatable performance; characterization label to identify product fitness; declaration to describe product constituents; application guidelines to ensure safe and proper use; and documentation to prove that the product received required treatments following approved protocols. Table 2 presents established criteria and characteristics for the production and use of quality and safe digestates. In the EU, conformity with these criteria is enough to ensure that digestate complies with European “End of Waste” criteria; and can be used without further waste management controls.
Criteria
Process/parameter
Requirements
Hygiene
Pasteurization at 70°C
1 h
Sterilization at 133°C
20 min
Weed seeds and sprouting plant parts
≤2/L
Odor
Free of annoying odors
Pathogens
E. coli
≤1000 CFU/g fresh matter
Salmonella spp.
Absent in 25 g fresh matter
Heavy metals
Cadmium (Cd)
0.8–20 mg/kg DM
Chromium (Cr)
75–1000 mg/kg DM
Copper (Cu)
75–1000 mg/kg DM
Lead (Pb)
80–900 mg/kg DM
Mercury (Hg)
0.6–16 mg/kg DM
Nickel (Ni)
30–300 mg/kg DM
Zinc (Zn)
300–4000 mg/kg DM
Organic pollutants
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
3–6 mg/kg DM
Dioxins and furans
20 ng TE/kg
Chlorinated pesticides
0.5 mg/kg Product
Polychlorinated biphenyls
0.2 mg/kg DM
Absorbable organic halogens
500 mg/kg DM
Linear alkylbenzene sulphonates
1300 mg/kg DM
Nonylphenol and nonylphenolethoxylates
10 mg/kg DM
DEPH: Di (2-ethylhexyl) phthalate
50 mg/kg DM
Inorganic pollutants
Non-stone impurities >2 mm (glass, metal, plastic, etc.)
0.5% m/m dry matter
Stones > 5 mm
8% m/m dry matter
Stability
Volatile fatty acids
0.43 g COD/g VS
Residual biogas potential
0.25 l/g VS
Respiration rate
16 mg CO2 g VS−1 day−1
Declarations
Name of producer, type of product (whole, liquid, solid), mass of product, total nitrogen, ammonium nitrogen, total phosphorus, total potassium, soluble chloride, soluble sodium, dry matter, volatile solids, pH, bulk density, etc.
Relevant units where applicable (e.g., kg; kg/m3; mg/(kg DM); mg/L; %;)
Additives and chemicals
Lime, iron chloride, iron oxide, bentonite, diatomaceous earth
Feedstock sources
Agriculture (e.g., manure, harvesting by-products, silage, energy crops); animal by-products (e.g., manure, stomach intestine, raw milk); food industry (residues from food industry that contain food grade additives); food related shops (e.g., potatoes, dairy waste, bread, meat remnants, flowers, plants); forrest (e.g., bark, wood chips, sludge from the cellulosic industry); parks, gardens (e.g., leaves, grass); greenhouses (e.g., tops, peat products); households, kitchens, restaurants (e.g., fruit and vegetables residues, food, coffee and tea remainders, egg shells); etc.
Table 2.
Quality and safety validation criteria for digestates.
In the context of AD and digestate, we may distinguish between pre- and post-treatment processes. A pretreatment process refers to a processing operation applied upstream, before the digestate emerges from the digester. This could range from size reduction or thermochemical treatment of feedstock substrate; to process management (such as pH, temperature, and retention time control). On the other hand, a posttreatment process is that processing operation applied downstream of digestate harvest. This may also involve size reduction, other unit operations; composting, and end-product requirements that ensure the digestate sanitation. Post treatment may generate nutrient concentrates, liquid and solid fraction digestates conditioned to standardized biofertilizers, and final liquid effluent that could be discharged into a stream or sewage system. Benefits of posttreatment include enhanced marketability, reductions in handling, storage and transportation costs/requirements, and compliance with environmental regulations.
Depending on the starting feedstock and desired end product form of the digestate, similar technologies could be used for pre and post treatment processing. Applied technologies and methods may be classified as biological, chemical, or physical. The methods could also be used in combination. Biological treatment could be accomplished with the use of microorganisms and catalysts; chemical treatment with acids, alkalis and oxidants; and physical treatment by mechanical and thermal means. Physicochemical treatment combines physical and chemical techniques. Ammonia fiber explosion (AFEX), and supercritical CO2 explosion are examples. The major classifications of treatment options and associated technologies are presented in Table 3.
Inorganic acids (hydrochloric, nitric, phosphoric, sulfuric); organic acids (fumaric, maleic). May be used in percolation, plug flow, shrinking-bed, batch, and countercurrent modes
Alkalis
Ammonia, lime
Ammonia recovery
Ion exchange; scrubbing, stripping, precipitation (struvite)
In the service of circular economy, there are many applications management options for digestate. These may include algae cultivation, energy production, bio-adsorbent production, building materials production, nutrients recovery/production, soil creation and other value-added commodities. Perhaps the two most widely recognized utilities of digestate are as land application for soil amendment and as biofertilizer.
6.1 Biofertilizer and soil amendment
Technological aids used in modern agriculture such as inorganic fertilizers and antibiotics have negative impacts on soil, water, and air quality and safety, and therefore pose health risks to humans and the ecosystem. Inorganic fertilizers for instance have caused environmental and soil quality degradation, eutrophication and heavy metals pollution. Similarly, field-spreading agricultural land with raw/untreated manures derived from medicated livestock contributes to dissemination of veterinary antibiotic residues and antibiotic-resistant pathogens. Lincomycin, monensin, and sulfamethazine antibiotics were reported to affect soil microbial community composition and respiration, denitrification and nitrogen transformations [37]. Applications of digestate for biofertilizer and soil amendment purposes could ameliorate some of these adverse effects.
Amendment propensity relates to capability to maintain soil fertility and humus balance. Dairy slurry digestate was found richer in humic substances than raw dairy slurry [38]. Researchers concluded that digestate enhanced soil biological stability, microbial biomass and enzymatic activities [39].
On the other hand, fertilizer properties relate to provision of nutrients necessary for good crop performance. Leaves of alfalfa plant fertilized with digestate had higher contents of N, P, and K in comparison to alfalfa fertilized with mineral fertilizers [40]. Digestate also produced higher yields of dent corn than the application of chemical fertilizers [38]; higher yield of potato (Solanum tuberosum) over the application of compost [41]; and 30% increase in yield over farm yard manure [42].
6.2 Nutrients recovery
Digestate is applied in recovery of nutrients, production of fertilizers and volatile fatty acids (VFAs). Livestock manure contains about 49 g N/kg TS and 6 g P/kg TS; energy crops, 17 g N/kg TS and 2.5 g P/kg TS; and agro-wastes, 27 g N/kg TS and 3 g P/kg TS [43]. Much of these nutrients remain in digestate after AD operation. For example, total N, P, and K values for digestates obtained from wet AD of agricultural wastes were reported respectively in the ranges 44–120, 8–42, and 28–95 g/kg DM [44]. These nutrients could be recovered/harvested with the technologies outlined in Table 3.
VFAs are important input organic acids used extensively in the bioenergy, food, chemical, cosmetic, pharmaceutical, textile, and other industries. Acetic acid (E 260), propionic acid (E 280) and butyric acid are examples; and are GRAS (generally regarded as safe) rated by the FDA. Acetic acid is used to defend against Campylobacter, Escherichia coli, Listeria, Salmonella, and other pathogens in beef, chicken, pork, turkey, carcasses, skin and hides [45]. Butyric acid is used in the textile industry to enhance heat and sunlight resistance of fibers. In the food industry, it is used as additive for flavor formulation and modification [46]. Similarly, propionic acid (E 280) is used as antibacterial and antifungal agent to decontaminate packaging films and coatings, and to protect meat and meat products such as sausages, bologna and ham. VFAs have been harvested from digestates generated from short-term dry AD of swine manure, generated from AD of food waste, and used in recovery of biological nitrogen and phosphorus from sewage sludge [47, 48, 49].
6.3 Energy production
Digestate can be deployed for energy generation. Recirculating digestate into the digester maximizes biogas production, at the same time minimizing methane emissions during digestate storage, transport, and use. Digestate was pyrolyzed (via the use of Pyroformer, quartz rotary kiln reactor, and thermo-catalytic reforming reactor) to produce biofuels: pyrolysis oil (biooil) and pyrolysis gas (syngas). The biooil generated by thermo-catalytic reforming process at 750°C had a higher heating value of 33.9 MJ/kg, and a total acid number of 4.9 mgKOH/g [50].
Algae have widespread applications and potentials in: biofuels, cosmetics, biofertilizer, infant formulas, nutritional supplements, livestock feeds, chemical and allied industries, and biodegradable packaging. Perhaps more importantly, digestate could be used for the cultivation and production of microalgae. In the context of biorefinery platform and circular economy, various compounds produced by microalgae and their applications have been reported [51, 52].
6.4 Other applications
Digestates have other utilities and management options. These include applications in aquaculture, gardening and horticulture, and the production of building materials and biochar.
6.4.1 Biochar
Biochar (charcoal) is the byproduct of thermal pyrolysis of carbonaceous biomass; and has carbon sink properties. Dairy waste and whole sugar beet digestate biochar were effective in eliminating heavy metals (Pb2+, Cu2+, Ni2+, and Cd2+) from aqueous solutions [53].
6.4.2 Gardening and horticulture
Due to its organic origin and physicochemical characteristics, digestate is useful in gardening and horticulture. It could be applied in soil creation or remediation, and has found applications in green houses, plant nurseries, and home gardening [54].
6.4.3 Building materials
A 50% substitution of wood with cattle manure digestate produced particleboard panels that met ANSI performance requirements [55]. USDA reported that medium-density fiberboard and wood/plastic composite engineered materials could be created using digestate solids without compromising mechanical or aesthetic values [56].
6.4.4 Aquaculture
Digestate is better than raw manure in fertilizing fish ponds. Firstly, digestate is hygienic because most of the bacteria, parasites and their eggs are destroyed in the AD process. Thus, pond sanitation is improved; minimizing fish diseases and the cost of veterinary services. Secondly, the digestate is largely stabilized and therefore does not consume and compete with fish for dissolved oxygen. Tilapia, Silver carp, Bighead carp, Silver barb and Mrigal fish species raised in pond fertilized with digestate matured faster and achieved higher net weight gain than counterparts raised in pond fertilized with chemical fertilizer or raw manure. By comparison, while chemical fertilizer increased net yield over raw manure by 27%, digestate increased net yield by 55% [57].
6.4.5 Bio-adsorbents and bedding
Digestates have been applied as bio-adsorbents to scavenge heavy metals from contaminated soils and water [58], and as chicken litter [54], and other livestock bedding [56, 59].
7. Cost implications
The big picture cost elements relevant to AD systems include land acquisition, site preparation/development, plant and machinery (including digester/reactor, pre and post treatment technologies), personnel, feedstock, environmental impact, other operating costs (electricity, logistics, regulations), and revenue from products (biogas and digestate). In the case of digestate, feedstock, treatment processes, and the logistics of storage, transport, handling and field application bear crucial concerns. Cost-effective digestate production process is presaged by efficient feedstock collection and sorting operations. A cost benefit analysis of municipal solid waste management system in Yangon, Myanmar, identified weak organizational structure and ineffective collection methods in the existing system that operated with just 32% waste collection efficiency. An alternative system with increased waste collection efficiency was then proposed. The new system required labor and vehicular productivity; using vehicles with container-hoist handling mechanism. The new system reduced operating and other costs associated with the old system by up to 42% [60]. It is noteworthy that consumer and public environmental behavior and cooperation on waste management could be modified by pecuniary and nonpecuniary information. In Surabaya city, Indonesia, researchers found that in the reference case in which the no information treatment was applied, mean WTP (willingness to pay) for marginal improvements in a waste collection and disposal program was estimated to be US$ 14.65. The researchers reported that pecuniary information increased WTP by 20.5%, whereas non-pecuniary information had a negative but statistically insignificant effect on WTP [61].
A situation where 50% of whole unprocessed digestate was applied on agricultural land near the generating biogas plant and the other 50% transported to a location 20 km away was studied. Cost for digestate utilization near the biogas plant was € 3.34 (US$ 3.73)/t, and that at a location 20 km away was € 5.47 (US$ 6.10)/t [62]. This study highlights the impact that location or site of digestate utilization could have on cost. Such distance related cost also applies to feedstock substrate. Generally, the farther the distance, the higher the cost.
Researchers performed specific cost analysis for six scenarios that involved direct land application of digestate as reference, and various treatment technology options that included screw press and decanter centrifuge separation, belt drying, evaporation concentration, purification by ultrafiltration and reverse osmosis, and nutrients recovery by ammonia stripping and precipitation. Result indicated that net specific costs ranged from € 1.94 (US$ 2.16)/m3 of digestate for the reference scenario, to € 5.45 (US$ 6.08)/m3 for stripping, to € 6.80 (US$ 7.58)/m3 for belt dryer [62]. Similarly, the costs of AD were found to vary up to € 109 (US$ 122)/t of digestate from € 35 (US$ 39)/t for basic storage of digestate for aerobic conditioning, to € 70 (US$ 78)/t for digestate ready for direct land application, to € 79 (US$ 88)/t for on farm co-digestion [63].
Case studies were conducted for separation systems in three regions (Aachen, Borken, and Siegen) of Germany. The researchers determined that investment and variable costs were respectively € 23,000 (US$ 25,536) and € 0.47 (US$ 0.52)/m3 for screw press; € 27,000 (US$ 29,977) and € 0.48 (US$ 0.53)/m3 for screening drum press; and € 163,000 (US$ 180,970) and € 1.46 (US$ 1.62)/m3 for decanter centrifuge. Further analysis revealed the unit cost of digestate disposal for screening drum press varied from € 4.1 (US$ 4.6)/m3 in Aachen to € 4.8 (US$ 5.3)/m3 in Borken, and Siegen [64].
The following were reported about AD in the UK. Least cost post treatment technology for digestate derived from a 10% solids content food waste was biological oxidation at £13.18 (US$ 16.97)/t of feedstock. At 20% solids content, least cost option was direct application of whole digestate to agricultural land at £8.76 (US$ 11.28)/t. The cost of treating 4000 t of slurry with a mechanical screen separator was £0.44 (US$ 0.57)/t per year, and treatment with decanting centrifuge cost £2.21 (US$ 2.85)/t per year. Furthermore, about £3.5M (US$ 4.5 M) would be required to construct a 1 (one) MWe AD plant utilizing farm wastes as feedstock [65, 66, 67].
In the continent of Africa, cost of establishing a 4 m3 anaerobic digester was found to range from US$ 555 in Uganda to US$ 698 in Cameroun to US$ 979 in Rwanda [68]; while that of founding a family size floating drum plant was estimated at US$ 1667 [69].
Techno-economic analyses were performed for post treatment technologies used to recover nutrients from the digestates of five full scale farm AD systems. Results showed membrane technology had specific cost of € 6.97 (US$ 7.72)/m3 of treated digestate. Drying was estimated at € 5.81 (US$ 6.44)/m3, while stripping operated at € 5.44 (US$ 6.03)/m3 [70]. In addition, the process economics of membrane-based nutrients extraction and fractionation from dairy manure digestate indicated cost of solid-liquid separation unit to be US$ 11,000; the microfiltration extraction unit cost US$ 30,000; the nanofiltration fractionation unit was priced at US$ 60,000; and the daily cost of operation (chemicals, energy and water) was approximately US$ 24 [71].
Finally, digestates are used as quilt for cattle bedding and poultry litter due to significant cost offsets to livestock farms. The cost of solid digestate as animal bedding (US$ 55 per dry ton) is cheaper than the cost of alternative wood-based replacement materials such as wood chips at US$ 65 per dry ton or sawdust and shavings at US$ 124 to US$ 248 per tonne [55, 59].
8. Challenges and opportunities
Digestates have good fertilizer qualities: nutrients, safety and other properties required for soil amendment and plants production. However, relative to mineral fertilizers, digestates are not well known in many countries. Therefore, their potential as mineral fertilizer alternative/substitute is limited. Perhaps, standardized quality assurance and control protocols, regulations, certifications, legal and other institutional management systems organized internationally could help demonstrate digestates’ benefits, quality and safety, and thereby engender confidence in their utilization as sustainable fertilizer and soil amendment products. Reconciling and bringing such issues and their benefits to existence present challenges and opportunities. Presented in Table 4 are some of these challenges and opportunities of the waste, AD and digestate system.
Issues
Challenges and opportunities
8.1. Concept of waste
Challenge: the conventional or customary status of looking at waste as a problem presents significant challenge. Opportunity: seeing waste as potential resource would help change perception and attitude, possibly stimulating salient management options. Opportunities may emerge in the areas of prevention, recovery, collection, sorting, reducing, reusing, and recycling. For developing countries these have implications for environmental hygiene and sanitation.
8.2. Biowaste
Challenge: because biodegradable waste could be a source of heavy metals and polluting organic compounds, it presents challenges to life generally, and to the environment. Opportunity: these challenges create opportunities to develop management options (e.g., biological treatments) to protect life, environment, and to benefit agriculture and ecosystem. Biowaste is reported to have potential to tackle climate change in the areas of nitrous oxide (NO2) emissions mitigation, and sequestration capacity of agricultural soils [72].
8.3. E-waste
Challenge: problems and dangers of e-waste, heavy industry products and components; including electrical and electronic equipment, waste batteries, engine blocks, paint, etc. Opportunity: guidance/support for the informal (non or loosely regulated) establishments, to call attention to dangers and health risks that may be associated with used or discarded electronic devices/items (acids, other chemicals, radioactive materials, etc.).
8.4. Mineral waste
Challenge: mining of solid minerals do present health and environmental challenges. Opportunity: chances to implement safeguards for hazardous minerals and to divert safe wastes to beneficial applications. Examples are uses as substitute for backfill material in open pit mining, landfill, or as grit in construction materials. Production of concrete and brick for structural work (bridges, dams, launch pads, highways) are possibilities.
8.5. Source of feedstock
Challenge: the source of digestate feedstock and its treatment could present barriers. PAS 110 in the UK does not approve certification for digestate generated from mechanically biologically treated waste. Such digestates require proof of biodegradability test to be considered suitable for recycling; like land spreading. There is also the issue of digestate originating from co-digestion of industrial waste and household waste. In the Netherlands, the desire in AD electricity regime to maximize biogas production by mixing manure with other organic material conflicts with AD biofertilizer rules for spreading digestate from co-digested manure on farm land. Opportunity: some of these challenges are consumer-induced barriers and lack quantitative elements. Opportunities might lie in the sociocultural realm, such as modifying social and cultural attitudes and behaviors towards waste and its inherent heterogeneity.
8.6. Unrecovered organic matter
Challenge: AD is more adapted to easily putrescible carbohydrates (starch, sugar). Recalcitrant lignocellulosic components (lignin, etc.) remain undigested. Efficiency of organic matter conversion was quite low as ˃97% of lignin in maize stover was found undigested [73]. AD could thus lead to unrecovered organic matter still present in digestate Opportunity: prospects for advanced and innovative pretreatment technologies to fractionate, recover, purify and convert lignin or other recalcitrant organics to more digestible biopolymers. Alkaline treatment, gamma irradiation, membrane technologies, organosolv, steam explosion, wet oxidation, etc. may come to the rescue (Table 3).
8.7. Informal and low status
Challenge: AD and digestate are perceived to be in domain of informal waste management system and service; and therefore, relegated as only appropriate for the rural populace. Opportunity: integration of formal and informal systems. Training to abate misconceptions, lack of awareness, and raise public profile of digestate. These may purge image of biogas and digestate as products that are derived from wastes, and hence belong to poor/rural settings.
8.8. Legal barriers
Challenge: lack of binding global (and for developing countries, own country) coherent rules, laws, directives, regulations and policy frameworks. Opportunity: the formulation of these guidelines and laws on waste governance system. Implementing appropriate technologies and business models for waste management.
8.9. Data and waste reporting system
Challenge: lack of reliable data on waste management systems, design features, standard operating procedures (SOPs), etc. could limit exchange of ideas and retard progress. Opportunity: waste management value chain information is vital. Quantity, type, economic sector, source, and composition data could guide prioritization of strategies and enable trends forecast that deliver better outcomes. Global exchange of briefs would catalyze spread of best practices.
8.10. Standardization
Challenge: although digestate products have similar characteristics as commercial chemical fertilizers, they are not classified in any way, are poorly developed in most countries, and there is no overall guidance [20, 62, 70]. These barriers restrict utilization and trade. Opportunity: these challenges create opportunities to establish frameworks that enable digestate utilization through standardization, fair comparison, commerce development, and international trade.
8.11. Marketing
Challenge: regional nutrient availability, agricultural structure, season, feedstock and degree of upgrading have been reported to challenge and impact digestate prices and marketing [54]. Opportunity: upgraded products offer increased marketability due to their denser nutrients. Marketing to nutrient deficient regions, non-agricultural sectors and purposes represent prospects. Manufacturers of organic soils, particle- and fiber- boards, landscapers, and private customers all represent credible market outlets.
8.12. Cost barrier
Challenge: initial investment fund is a major issue. Cost of establishing a 4 m3 AD digester in the continent of Africa ranges from US$ 555 to US$ 979 [68]; and the price for a family size floating drum reactor was reported at US$ 1667 [69]. In Sri Lanka, a family unit digester generating 6–10 m3 of biogas per day cost Rs. 17,000 (US$ 5459); and described as difficult proposition for low-income families [74]. In the UK, a 1 MWe AD plant utilizing farm wastes as feedstock cost about £3.5M (US$ 4.5 M) to construct [67]. Also, costs associated with animal breeding and maintenance (veterinary care, feed, water, etc.) escalate operating costs, and constrain availability of manure for feedstock. Opportunity: easing cost barriers would require support with appropriate and necessary interventions (policies, credit facilities, subsidy schemes, preventive maintenance that promote solutions, prolong facilities productive lifespan, and minimize operating costs). Furthermore, transparency on proposals and bidding for new plants and projects could build confidence in the process.
8.13. Urban and rural dichotomy
Challenge: differences between metropolitan, urban, sub-urban, and rural areas can compromise AD projects. Segregation by infrastructure and income for example could affect waste collection and limit access to feedstock. Opportunity: prospects for rural development with public utilities, services, and infrastructure (roads, power, water, etc.) These would facilitate logistics for waste collection, AD processes, and digestate handling/evacuation.
8.14. Contamination of agricultural land
Challenge: most of the digestate produced in AD is used for soil amendment and as biofertilizer. There are risks of spreading animal pathogens, heavy metals, and other pollutants on soils due to the presence of these hazards in animal by-products used in AD. Sulfadiazine and oxytetracycline are antibiotics found in manure of medicated animals that affect soil quality. Twenty five percent of 70 digestate and compost samples assessed in Switzerland contained polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) concentrations beyond the regulated threshold value of 4000 μg/kgdw [75]. Opportunity: digestate is a sustainable fertilizer and soil improver; thus, necessary to assure its safety. The potential to contaminate soils with pollutants from digestate application beacons vigilance and chances to develop technical and monitoring strategies that sequester and purge the digestates of polluting hazards before their use.
8.15. Air pollution
Challenge: digestate has potential to emit substances and gasses that contaminate the air and influence global warming [11]. Challenges also exist due to lack of practical tools to monitor primary air pollutants [76]. Opportunity: advanced methods of digestate management and reutilization to minimize emissions of air pollutants (ammonia: NH3, nitrous oxide: NO2) and greenhouse gases (methane: CH4, nitrogen dioxide: N2O). Strategies may include processing (composting, curing, dewatering); alternative applications (in construction, aquaculture, regeneration activities); and storage. Development of software tools that enable quantitative monitoring of emissions from digestate soil applications on a routine basis is another prospect area.
8.16. Bad odors
Challenge: compared to raw manure slurry, digestate has fewer bad odors. However, this may not be true when compared to chemical fertilizer. There have been complaints of nuisance odors associated with land-spreading of digestate [77], and at landfills and composting plants [78]. Opportunity: this problem could be due to spreading practice and/or the spreading of unstable digestates. Application of good timing and spreading techniques (trailing-shoes, injection), and use of stabilized digestates (sufficient HRT, aerobic composting) would minimize odor issues.
8.17. Bad legacies
Challenge: there are challenges associated with bad reputation of AD systems and biogas plants around the world. A study in 2006 found that 60% of 600–700 domestic biogas plants in Ethiopia was not functioning [79]. During the 7 years period from 2009, more than 3600 biogas plants were installed in the Tigray region of Ethiopia; and a 2017 study reported that 58.1% of the installations was not operational [80]. The 21 biogas plants installed by Pakistan council for appropriate technology (PCAT) in the 1970s were reported to have failed to perform [81]. In 1986, a survey of the status of 25 biogas plants in Kenya found 36% to be alive, functional and maintained. Another 36% was described as dead, not functional, and not maintained. Unfinished projects accounted for 8%; while remaining plants were reported in disrepair, with varied patterns of being alive, dead, not functional, and not maintained [82]. The regional bioenergy program of the Latin American energy organization (OLADE), catalogs biogas technology projects in Latin American countries. Experience began in 1953 and by 1986 at least 22 countries including Bolivia, Colombia, Costa Rica, Dominican Republic, Ecuador, Grenada, Guatemala, Guyana, Haiti, Honduras, Nicaragua, Jamaica, and Peru had projects at varying levels of implementation. Out of the 3950 biodigesters inventoried, 60% was found operable and 40% was either shut down or functioning irregularly or completely abandoned [83]. Though China rebounded and emerged as a major reference on household digesters, about 50% of biogas tanks installed from 1958 into the 1970s were abandoned in the 1980s. By 1988 the seven million rural digesters existing in 1980 dropped to 4.7 million [84]. In 1986, a survey of biogas plants in Sri Lanka indicated that 61% was functional. By 1996 only 28.5% of completely surveyed 365 biogas systems was reported functional. At this point 16 units had been abandoned and the success rate for biogas systems implementation was reported as 32.9% [74]. In the Netherlands, for a period of over 30 years beginning in the 1970s, many AD projects using biomass were considerably delayed, suspended, abandoned and out rightly never realized. [85, 86]. These failures and circumstances taken together portrayed negative images and bad legacies for biogas plants. Opportunity: reasons adduced for failures included economic, social, technical, and policy components such as high investment and maintenance costs, urbanization and socio-cultural constraints, poor dissemination strategy, complicated permit regulations, shortage of feedstocks, lack of or inadequate training, poor digester design, etc. These reasons provide opportunities to create circumstances, provisions and tools that would promote and sustain biogas systems. Some examples are mobilization of local and external funds, more business-friendly policies and rules, appropriate and sustainable technologies, technical training, warranties for plant performance. Also, public dissemination of information and follow-up on successful programs could help.
8.18. Low diffusion rate
Challenge: in Latin America, the number of rural biogas plants installed yearly from mid-1985 to 1992 was less than 15% of that installed from 1982 to mid-1985. Challenges included technology adoption, technical manpower and materials of construction. However, non-technical reasons for biogas adoption failures accounted for up to 69%, 50% and 25%, respectively, in Cote d’Ivoire (Ivory Coast), Costa Rica and Tanzania [84]. Unstable institutional environment, lack of network and lobby activities, lack of initiatives between academia, research institutes, private sector entrepreneurs and stakeholders were cited nontechnical reasons. For the Netherlands, apart from technological problems; limited economic feasibility, fragmented support from the government, decreases in energy prices, and lack of financial support which made return on investment uncertain contributed to inadequate AD diffusion. Opportunity: cooperation between academia, government, industry and other stakeholders (farmers, energy sector, municipalities). Cooperative efforts that landed mutually beneficial outcomes should be highlighted, applauded and replicated. Well planned long-term, clear and supportive arrangements would facilitate continuity. Government policy that guide search for solutions, market formation and resources mobilization. Ease of technology adoption would also require reliable and sustainable infrastructure (technical assistance, manpower, cohesive farming approach with biogas and digestate, integration and dissemination of societal and cultural values and norms).
8.19. Inhibition of microalgae
Challenge: it has been shown that the green alga (Raphidocelis subcapitata) is sensitive to digestate, with ecotoxicity index; EC50 of 0.77% [87]. Similarly, Scenedesmus bijuga; and oil-rich Chlorella sp., including C. minutissima and C. sorokiniana were found sensitive to digestate. Also, the dark color of liquid digestate of algal biomass inhibited the growth of Chroococcus sp. Therefore, cultivation of algae for value added products recovery could be minimized in the presence of digestate. Opportunity: because algae are exploited for biofuels, and various other useful biotechnological metabolites production by valorization of digestate, the inhibitory effect of digestate on algae cultivation is of practical interest. Therefore, digestate pretreatment or at least its dilution before use [88], would aid good algal productivity.
8.20. Nomadic and free-range culture
Challenge: many developing nations have nomadic animal husbandry architecture and free-range culture. These make the gathering of animal manure as feedstock for digesters a major challenge. In Pakistan, for example, livestock farmers from time to time relocate to weather conditions more benign to their livestock. However, current digester designs used by rural populations such as the fixed dome and floating drum are sedentary and cannot be readily moved by the farmers with their livestock. Opportunity: perhaps this challenge creates opportunity for a mobile biogas system such as the portable biogas plant reported in the year 2016 [81].
8.21. Disparity between developed and developing countries
Challenge: the economic, political and technological mismatches and divides between industrialized and industrially developing countries are challenging local, regional and international waste management systems. Environmental and health dangers do not know or respect boundaries (local, regional, or international) by land, sea, air or space. Planet earth is perhaps at the cusp of the axiomatic global village and economy. Sooner than later, pollution and instability at one corner of the earth would reverberate and affect other parts (Plastics in the oceans? Heavy metals in food, aquatic and terrestrial biota? Ebola in America? Flood events in Zimbabwe, Mozambique, Puerto Rico and U.S. Virgin Islands? Wildfires in Australia, Brazil, Portugal and USA? Coronavirus (COVID–19) in Japan, Singapore, and USA?). Opportunity: cooperation and support are needed to enable developing nations to leapfrog and shorten the learning curve and development timescales. Developing nations need guidance and assistance to cope with technological demands and challenges, and eschew reinventing the wheel. Waste management offers an opportunity for cooperation among nations for the betterment of humanity and planet earth.
Table 4.
Challenges and opportunities of the waste, AD and digestate system.
9. Cassava peeling residue (CPR) digestate
N, P, and K are critical macro nutrients for crops production. N is considered the limiting nutrient in growth and yield [89]. P is required for energy transfer, signal transduction, photosynthesis, and macromolecular respiration [90]. K is responsible for metabolism of cell division, enzymatic reactions of amide formation, and amino acid activation during proteins biosynthesis and substrate phosphorylation [91]. To be a credible mineral fertilizer substitute, digestate must have the capacity to deliver the necessities and requirements of N, P, and K.
Table 1 presented a broad gamut of materials used in biogas and digestate creation. The table covered energy crops, agricultural byproducts, food processing residues, livestock effluents, organic fraction of municipal solid wastes, and pharmaceutical industry sludge. However, cassava peeling residue (CPR) was not represented in the table. There is a published report on ammonium, potassium, total nitrogen, and total phosphorus contents of digestate generated from co-digestion of human urine, cow dung, and cassava effluent (a mixture of peeled cassava wash water and crushed cassava juice) [92]. CPR is a solid substrate abundantly generated during production of cassava root-based food systems such as gari and starch [93]. The present author is not aware of any report on nutrients value of digestate generated from the AD of CPR as sole feedstock. Therefore, a technical experiment was conducted to secure an overview assessment of N, P, and K compositions of liquid fraction of CPR digestate.
Some results of the research work on CPR as sole substrate for AD were reported earlier. These included proximate properties (e.g., moisture content, total solids, volatile solids), digester performance characteristics (methane content of biogas, pH, discharge effluent COD), feedstock materials, sampling procedures, analyses [94]. Presented in Table 5 are results of nutrient values of liquid fraction of CPR digestate. Table 5 results appear to be within the range of some published nutrients values for liquid digestates derived from other feedstocks such as algal biomass (Chroococcus sp.) [88], starch processing wastewater [95], source separated household waste [96], as well as liquid and solid manure slurries [97].
S/N
Nutrient
Value [mg/L]
1
Ammonia nitrogen
561
2
Ortho-phosphorus
20
3
Potassium
1066
4
Total Kjeldahl nitrogen
573
5
Total phosphorus
31
Table 5.
Nutrients values of liquid fraction of cassava peeling residue (CPR) digestate.
10. Conclusions
Cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is perhaps third largest source of food energy for humans. Cassava supports the nutrition and subsistence of up to one billion persons in over 100 countries. Also, cassava is gluten free and could thus assuage medical complications for individuals with celiac disease. Cassava root processing byproduct such as CPR has organic matter content with applications in biogas and digestate production. This is a welcome development in views of biorefinery platform and the emergent circular economy. CPR digestate may be applied directly for agronomic uses or treated to generate products with varied applications and utilities. Treatment technologies may be biological, chemical, physical, or some combinations. Global benefits would include carbon sequestration, energy recovery, resource sustainability and recycling, waste reduction, profitability of AD process, biogas facilities, and agricultural systems in general. End effects of climate change mitigation, enhanced energy and food security, environmental and ecological protection, and sustainable development are good news for humanity and planet earth. These outcomes should motivate and provide consumers, farmers, regulators, managers, and other stakeholders in the emergent circular economy with insights to integrate and apply quality, safety, marketing, handling, storage, transportation, compliance with environmental regulations, and cost considerations and requirements strategies for digestate; into a renewable and sustainable energy production and waste management system.
Acknowledgments
All currency conversions to US$ were based on exchange rate taken at different times and days, during the period of last quarter of the year 2019, from the Foreign Exchange Converter Site: https://www1.oanda.com/currency/converter/
Conflict of interest
There is no conflict of interest (private or public) associated with this work.
\n',keywords:"anaerobic digestion, biofuel, biogas, cassava, cassava peeling residue, CPR, circular economy, digestate, management options, renewability, sustainability",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72107.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/72107.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72107",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72107",totalDownloads:274,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 12th 2019",dateReviewed:"January 23rd 2020",datePrePublished:"May 11th 2020",datePublished:"February 17th 2021",dateFinished:"May 9th 2020",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Circular economic paradigm applies residue from one process as input material for another, fostering sustainable benefits for humanity. Anaerobic digestion (AD) is an attractive technology for biogas production in a circular economy. Digestate is the residual organic matter generated as coproduct of biogas. Because digestate is nutrient rich and largely stabilized, it has varied management options. Digestate is suitable for direct use as bio-fertilizer and is a good amendment material to improve soil physical properties. However, the quality, safety, and utility of digestate are dependent upon the characteristics of feedstock, digester process, pre- and post- digestion treatments. Digestates emanating from AD of animal manure, energy crops, food processing residues, and other feedstocks have been reported in published literature. On the other hand, there is dearth of reports on digestate emanating from AD process that utilized cassava peeling residue (CPR) as sole feedstock. This chapter presents relevant information on digestates including production, feedstock, quality and safety requirements, processing and treatment technologies, regulatory aspects, applications management options, cost implications, as well as challenges and opportunities. In addition, new results of nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), and potassium (K) compositions of liquid fraction of CPR digestate are reported.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72107",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72107",signatures:"Sammy N. Aso",book:{id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",fullTitle:"Renewable Energy - Technologies and Applications",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",publishedDate:"February 17th 2021",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"219927",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sammy N.",middleName:null,surname:"Aso",fullName:"Sammy N. Aso",slug:"sammy-n.-aso",email:"sammyasso@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Anaerobic digestion (AD)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Digestate",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Regulations, quality, and safety requirements",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Treatment technology options",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Applications management options for digestate",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"6.1 Biofertilizer and soil amendment",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"6.2 Nutrients recovery",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"6.3 Energy production",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"6.4 Other applications",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"6.4.1 Biochar",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"6.4.2 Gardening and horticulture",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_3",title:"6.4.3 Building materials",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"6.4.4 Aquaculture",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"6.4.5 Bio-adsorbents and bedding",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16",title:"7. Cost implications",level:"1"},{id:"sec_17",title:"8. Challenges and opportunities",level:"1"},{id:"sec_18",title:"9. Cassava peeling residue (CPR) digestate",level:"1"},{id:"sec_19",title:"10. 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Openness - We communicate honestly and transparently. We are open to constructive criticism and committed to learning from it.
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Disruptiveness - We are eager for discovery, for new ideas and for progression. We approach our work with creativity and determination, with a clear vision that drives us forward. We look beyond today and strive for a better tomorrow.
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IntechOpen is a dynamic, vibrant company, where exceptional people are achieving great things. We offer a creative, dedicated, committed, and passionate environment but never lose sight of the fact that science and discovery is exciting and rewarding. We constantly strive to ensure that members of our community can work, travel, meet world-renowned researchers and grow their own career and develop their own experiences.
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If this sounds like a place that you would like to work, whether you are at the beginning of your career or are an experienced professional, we invite you to drop us a line and tell us why you could be the right person for IntechOpen.
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