Classification of Cry toxins according to their insect host specificities proposed by Crickmore et al. [18].
\r\n\tThis book will describe the self-assembly of materials and supramolecular chemistry design principles for a broad spectrum of materials, including bio-inspired amphiphiles, metal oxides, metal nanoparticles, and organic-inorganic hybrid materials. It will provide fundamental concepts of self-assembly design approaches and supramolecular chemistry principles for research ideas in nanotechnology applications. The book will focus on three main themes, which include: the self-assembly and supramolecular chemistry of amphiplies by coordination programming, the supramolecular structures and devices of inorganic materials, and the assembly-disassembly of organic-inorganic hybrid materials. The contributing chapters will be written by leading scientists in their field, with the hope that this book will provide a foundation on supramolecular chemistry principles to students and active researchers who are interested in nanoscience and nanoengineering fields.
",isbn:"978-1-83969-702-9",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-701-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-703-6",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!0,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"e9cc643ae0a219e91e445a1e61b33a22",bookSignature:"Prof. Hemali Rathnayake and Dr. Gayani Pathiraja",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11908.jpg",keywords:"Amphiphiles, Artificial Siderophores, Coordination Chemistry, Self-Assembly Design, Supramolecular Structures, Metal Oxides, Metal Particles, 2D Inorganic Materials, Supramolecular Devices, Stimuli-Responsive Materials, Assembly-Disassembly Design, Superstructures",numberOfDownloads:null,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:null,numberOfDimensionsCitations:null,numberOfTotalCitations:null,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 27th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"July 1st 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 30th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"November 18th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"January 17th 2023",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"a month",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!1,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:3,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Rathnayake is a pioneering researcher in self-assembly and supramolecular chemistry, with a Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts Amherst, US. She is an inventor of three innovative technologies, including the Bioinspried Sub-7 nm self-assembled structures for patterning, and holder of multiple registered patents.",coeditorOneBiosketch:"Dr. Gayani Pathiraja is a Postdoctoral Research Scholar at the Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering (JSNN). She received her Ph.D. in Nanoscience from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro in 2021. Her research interests focus on the crystal growth mechanism and kinetics of metal oxide nanostructure formation via self-assembly.",coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"323782",title:"Prof.",name:"Hemali",middleName:null,surname:"Rathnayake",slug:"hemali-rathnayake",fullName:"Hemali Rathnayake",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323782/images/system/323782.jpg",biography:"Dr. Hemali Rathnayake, Associate Professor in the Department of Nanoscience at the Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering, the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, USA, obtained her B.S. in Chemistry from the University of Peradeniya in Sri Lanka. She obtained her Ph.D. from the University of Massachusetts Amherst (UMass), Department of Chemistry in 2007. She was a Postdoctoral research fellow at Polymer Science & Engineering, UMass Amherst. \r\nDr. Rathnayake is a pioneer scientist and a chemist in the field of Nanomaterials Chemistry, with a focus on the interfacial interaction of nanomaterials, molecules, macromolecules, and polymers in homogeneous and heterogeneous media. Her research on the design, synthesis, self-assembly, and application of well-defined superstructures in nanoelectronics, environmental remediation, and sustainable energy has impacted the scientific community with highly rated peer-reviewed journals publications, and more than 80 invited talks to scientific and non-scientific communities including colleges and high schools.",institutionString:"University of North Carolina at Greensboro",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of North Carolina at Greensboro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"427650",title:"Dr.",name:"Gayani",middleName:null,surname:"Pathiraja",slug:"gayani-pathiraja",fullName:"Gayani Pathiraja",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003CCSN2QAP/Profile_Picture_1644217020559",biography:"Dr. Gayani Pathiraja is a Postdoctoral Research Scholar at the Joint School of Nanoscience and Nanoengineering (JSNN). She received her Ph.D. in Nanoscience from the University of North Carolina at Greensboro (UNCG) in 2021. Her expertise area of focus is investigating the crystal growth mechanism and kinetics of metal oxide nanostructure formation via in-situ self-assembly design principles. \r\nDr. Pathiraja earned her master’s degree in electrochemistry/Environmental Engineering from the University of Peradeniya, Sri Lanka, and her Bachelor’s degree in Materials Science and Technology from Uva Wellassa University, Sri Lanka. Dr. Pathiraja started her academic career as a lecturer at the Department of Engineering Technology, University of Ruhuna, Sri Lanka in 2016. She is a co-author of several peer-reviewed journal publications and a book chapter, and she has presented her work at several regional, international, and national conferences.",institutionString:"University of North Carolina at Greensboro",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"University of North Carolina at Greensboro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"8",title:"Chemistry",slug:"chemistry"}],chapters:null,productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"466998",firstName:"Dragan",lastName:"Miljak",middleName:"Anton",title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/466998/images/21564_n.jpg",email:"dragan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. 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Bt toxins have been applied to the environment since 1933 and began to be used commercially in France in 1938, and by 1958 their use had spread to the United States. From the 1980s Bt becomes a pesticide of global interest [11].
\nBt crystal and secreted soluble toxins are highly specific for their hosts and have gained worldwide importance as an alternative to chemical insecticides. Bt toxins have been considered as the most successful bioinsecticide during the last century. Currently, it consists of more than 98 (424 million USD) of formulated sprayable bacterial pesticides [12] and is the most common environmental-friendly insecticide used and is the basis of over 90% of the pesticides available in the market today [13].
\nThe main difference between
Bt strains synthesize crystal (Cry) and cytolytic (Cyt) toxins (also known as δ-endotoxins), at the onset of sporulation and during the stationary growth phase as parasporal crystalline inclusions. Additionally, Bt isolates can also synthesize other insecticidal proteins during the vegetative growth phase; these are subsequently secreted into the culture medium, the vegetative insecticidal proteins (Vip) [5, 16], and the secreted insecticidal proteins (Sip) [17].
\nThis part refers to the nomenclature first used for Cry genes, on the next part of the page it explains the nomenclature currently used for Bacillus thuringiensis genes [18] (Table 1).
\nMain classes | \nOrder | \nCry toxins | \n
---|---|---|
Group 1 | \nLepidoptera | \nCry1, Cry9, and Cry15 | \n
Group 2 | \nLepidopteran and dipterous | \nCry2 | \n
Group 3 | \nColeoptera | \nCry3, Cry7, and Cry8 | \n
Group 4 | \nDiptera | \nCry4, Cry10, Cry11, Cry16, Cry17, Cry19, and Cry20 | \n
Group 5 | \nLepidoptera and Coleoptera | \nCry1I | \n
Group 6 | \nNematodes | \nCry6 | \n
Classification of Cry toxins according to their insect host specificities proposed by Crickmore et al. [18].
However, this nomenclature was not ideal, since the new toxins had to be tested against an increasing number of insects so that the toxin and the gene could be named; that was when the
Based on the amino acid sequences, there are 75 families of Cry proteins, with 800 different
Cry proteins have been reported to be toxic to Lepidoptera, Coleoptera, Hymenoptera, Hemiptera, Diptera, Orthoptera, and Mallophaga and also against nematodes, mites, and Protozoa (Figure 1) [22]. Some toxins have an expanded spectrum of action to two or more order or phylum [10]. For example, Cry1B is one of those that present a remarkable activity against larvae of Lepidoptera, Diptera, and Coleoptera. So, the combination of toxins present in a strain will define its spectrum of action [4].
\nInsecticidal activity of Cry and Cyt δ-endotoxins against the orders Diptera, Coleoptera, Lepidoptera, Hemiptera, and Hymenoptera [
In contrast, Cyt toxins have predominant activity against dipterous; however, they have toxic activity against some lepidopteran and coleopteran [24]; in addition, some Cyt toxins are able to establish synergy for insecticidal activity with other Bt proteins such as Cry or Vip3 and to reduce the resistance levels of Cry proteins toward some insect species of the Coleoptera and Diptera orders (Figure 1). The Cyt1Aa toxin from
Bti serovariety, H-14, is a subspecies of the diversified
Bti toxin Cry4Ba is active primarily against
All Bti insecticidal proteins are produced as protoxins, and all must be activated in vivo by insect midgut proteases prior insecticidal activity.
\nAlthough the mechanism of action of Cry toxins against various insects has been widely investigated, there are still many controversies. Therefore, there are currently different models in the literature that seek to explain it [28].
\nThe sequential union model is known as the classical mechanism. It has been detailed in studies with the Cry1Ab protein in
Mechanism of action of Cry proteins according to the sequential binding model.
The second proposed mechanism called signaling pathway model has similarities with the previous model; however, in this other causes for cell death are assigned. According to this theory, Cry proteins affect the cell in two ways: first by the formation of pores in the membrane, as mentioned in the sequential binding model and, second, by the production of successive reactions that alter the cellular metabolism. According to this hypothesis, Cry toxins bind to cadherin receptors, which stimulate heterotrimeric G protein and adenylyl cyclase with an increase in cAMP production. The cAMP activates the protein kinase A, which stimulates apoptosis with an activation of the Mg2+ channels in the plasma membrane. The opening of these channels causes an abnormal movement of the ions in the cytosol, stimulating the process of apoptosis (Figure 3) [1, 3, 30].
\nMechanism of action of Cry proteins according to the signaling pathway model.
The germination of the spores also contributes to the death of insect, since the vegetative cells can replicate within the host’s hemolymph and cause septicemia; however, the δ-endotoxins alone are sufficient to kill some insect species if they are produced in high doses. This feature has been exploited by expressing the delta endotoxin genes in bacteria that better adapt to a particular environment, as well as its expression in genetically modified plants [31, 32].
\nHoward T. Dulmage was a microbiologist who established his line research in the study of pathogenic bacteria insects [33] and is considered one of the most important pioneers in the development of technologies for the implementation of
Working at the US Department of Agriculture, at the Agricultural Research Service (USDA-ARS), in Brownsville, Texas, Howard T. Dulmage from the pink worm,
Strain HD-1 is one of the best-studied strains, since it is characterized by the carrying of a variety of Cry anti-Lepidoptera genes,
H. Dulmage sets up the basis for the fermentation and formulation procedures of Bt culture extracts for their commercialization [39] and were among the most important pioneers in the development of technologies for the implementation of Bt as a biological pest control agent. He established diverse methodologies for mass production product formulation and power standardization [40].
\nAt the beginning of the 1970s, two great advances were obtained by Dulmage, the first was based on the recovery of the spore-crystal complex by means of precipitation with lactose-acetone to produce powders and wettables, which was rapidly developed and adapted in the industry. The second was the adoption of a standardized system to calibrate the potency of the different preparations of
Dulmage established better bioassay methods to assess the effectiveness of powders [37, 44].
\nIn 1984, Dulmage participated in the establishment of a bioassay protocol for toxicity assessment of
Specifies a standard cup for larval exposure to Bti extracts.
Establishes a number of 20 larvae per cup and three replications for the concentrations assayed.
If a minimum of six extract concentrations is tested, a repetition of the assay is required.
A computational probit analysis is required for evaluating the toxicity as LC50.
A mortality or pupation higher than 5% in the control invalidates the bioassay.
Additionally, the study suggested a variability coefficient of less than 20% for each repetition. Dulmage, together with a team of colleagues, tested the validity of this protocol and suggested some considerations for the management of the reference standard strains and for the establishment of new ones.
\nFrom 1970 to 1988, Dulmage established the largest Bt collection in the Americas, and he collected more than 800 isolates that were named using his HD code, belonging to 21 serovarieties. From these 800 isolates, 17 belonged to the H-14 serovariety, corresponding to Bti. He conducted a series of fermentation experiments with Bt in order to optimize the production and to assess the effectiveness of powder; hundreds of fermentation extracts were generated, and some of them were donated by the US Department of Agriculture in 1989 to the International Collection of Entomopathogenic Bacillus of the Faculty of Biological Sciences of the University of Nuevo León, Mexico, which has approximately 4000 stored fermentation extracts of which 3000 of them correspond to HD strains, and currently extracts are found in the form of dry powder, with different times of storage [38].
\nIn the 1970s, Dulmage continued to the control of disease-transmitting mosquito larvae using lepidopteran-active isolates having some reported dipteran activity. When Dulmage became aware of the discovery of a new Bt subspecies capable of attacking dipteran larvae, especially simuliids (
One of the greatest contributions of Dulmage to Bti research was the compilation of a protocol guide for Bt H-14 serovariety local production. This guide was an extension of the procedures developed by him for the production, formulation, and standardization of lepidopteran-specific serovarieties. These guidelines were presented and discussed in the informal consultation on local H-14 Bt production, in Geneva, Switzerland, in October 1982. The 128-page booklet was prepared by Dr. Dulmage, at the request of the Scientific Working Group on biological control of vectors of the Special Program for Research and Training in Tropical Diseases of the World Health Organization, and was published in 1983 [45].
\nIn 1985, Dulmage and a research group proved the tested strain was Bti HD-968-S-1983, which resulted to be 4.74 times more potent than the standard use (IPS-78); the potency assigned to it was 4740 ± 398 ITU/mg. They recommended the use of this strain as the potency reference standard for comparison with any Bti formulation.
\nTwenty samples of the strain HD-500 and HD-567 of Bti fermentation extracts from the collection of Dulmage et al. [44] recovered by lactose-acetone coprecipitation during the period from 1978 to 1983 maintained their residual toxic activity against the mosquito
Bti protein crystals from fermentation extracts showed persistence of toxic activity of fermentation extracts after more than three decades. This opens the possibility of improving the use of special strains and improved formulations to control insect vectors of diseases.
\nDespite the success of the application of Bt crystal proteins for the biological control of pests, at present it is still necessary to identify new Cry toxins with greater toxicity; this approach is considered one of the best ways to counter the potential resistance evolved by insects as well as in developing products against a wider spectrum of insect pests. Traditionally, Bt isolates were screened for their insecticidal spectrum by the time-consuming and laborious insect bioassays [22, 46]. Since only a limited number of cry genes have been used for insect control either in sprays or transgenic crops so far, novel insecticidal genes are required [31].
\nThe most common technique used to predict toxicity is the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), through the identification of new cry genes [47], but high-throughput sequencing technology has also been used in the discovery of toxins [20]. Seventy-two antigenic groups (serovariety) have been distinguished for
Additionally, the construction of
Moreover, a combination of genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and metabolomics could be used to study
Furthermore, recent studies have confirmed more new potentials of different Bt strains. These new features are including plant growth promotion [51], bioremediation of heavy metals and other chemicals [1, 52], anticancer activities [53], polymer production [54], and antagonistic effects against plant and animal pathogenic microorganisms [55].
\nGenetically engineered or transgenic crops producing Cry proteins from
Bt crops produce either a single toxin or more than one Bt toxin; these are called pyramided crops. Bt pyramided crops delay evolution of resistance to target pests, insects resistant to one toxin are killed by other toxins in the pyramid [57, 58]. Nevertheless, pyramided Bt crops are vulnerable to the development of cross-resistance. The use of Bt pyramids and the simultaneous planting of non-Bt crops are the main strategies applied to produce susceptible pest insects (known as the “refuge strategy”) [59].
\nRice is a primary food source for more than half of the world’s population making it one of the most fundamental crops. Since 1989 multiple insect-resistant genetically engineered (IRGE) rice lines expressing
Bt rice lines resistant to rice lepidopteran pests mainly express Cry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry1B, Cry1C, Cry1Ca1, Cry2A, and Cry9C proteins [61, 62, 63].
\nSince Cry1Ab was first introduced into a japonica rice variety, many Bt genes have been found, and only a few of them were selected for developing transgenic crops [60]. Because deploying two or more Bt genes in one rice variety can delay the emergence of pest resistance [64, 74], scientists started to develop Bt hybrid rice lines with Cry1Ab/Cry1Ac into various rice plants which have both high grain yield and good grain quality [65].
\nSome advantages of expressing fusion proteins like Cry1Ab/Cry1Ac and Cry1Ab/Vip3A are the equalization of the expression level of the two proteins, trait integration in different crops, and highly efficient expression strains [66]. Studies on Cry1Ab/Cry1Ac fusion protein have demonstrated great effectiveness significantly reducing the incidence of
Other
The rice water weevil (
Some of the strategies to control this insect pest are the use of pyrethroids, which are toxic to aquatic organisms [72], synthetic insecticides, and weed control around fields to reduce habitat for rice water weevil adults.
The use of transgenic plants has greatly increased the selection pressure on target pest populations and is likely to become much more acute in natural conditions if
In agriculture worldwide, repeated applications of Bt sprays and widespread adoption of Bt crops (transgenic crops protected from insects by the expression of
Field populations of
Resistance to Cry toxins can be developed by mutations in the insect pests that affect any of the steps of the mode of action of Cry toxins [78]. “Field populations” refers to insects on the field, since the conditions are distinct in vitro, can be developed by different mechanisms, such as altered activation of Cry toxins by midgut proteases sequestering the toxin by glycolipid moieties or esterases, by inducing an elevated immune response, and by alteration resulting in reduced binding to insect gut membrane; among all these mechanisms of resistance, the most common mechanism of toxin resistance is the reduction in toxin binding to midgut cells, which in different resistant insect species include mutations in Cry toxin receptors such as cadherin (CAD)-like proteins, alkaline phosphatase (ALP), or aminopeptidase N (APN) or mutations in the ABCC2 transporter [78].
\nThe emergence of resistant insects is a problem that both
There are different methods to counteract the resistance of insects to Bt toxins, for example, assisted mutation with UV light; the combination of Bt toxins with other toxins, such as
Nevertheless, a new method has been used to combat resistance to Bt toxins, the phage-assisted continuous evolution (PACE), which rapidly evolves Bt toxins to bind a new receptor with high affinity and specificity, expressed on the surface of insect midgut cells. The PACE system enhances the insecticidal activity against both sensitive and Bt-resistant insect larvae up to 335-fold, through more than 500 generations of mutation, selection, and replication to bind a new receptor [23]. Collectively, these methods establish an approach to overcoming Bt toxin resistance.
\nThe production of toxic proteins has given
The wide variety of formulations based on spores and crystals intended for being ingested by the white insect are the result of many years of research. The development of a large variety of spore-crystal complex matrices allows for improvements, such as increased toxic activity, increased palatability to insects, or longer storage times. These matrices use chemical, vegetable, or animal products, which are constituted in such a way that they favor contact between crystals and insects, without harming humans or the environment [80].
\nProper formulation can help to overcome several of the factors that limit or reduce its larvicidal activity and improve control performance by enabling greater contact with target larvae, ensuring stability under storage and field conditions, providing a variety of application options, and increasing the ease of handling. There are several types of formulations, among the most used are:
\nFormulated by sorption of an active ingredient on finely ground mineral powder (talc, clay, etc.).
Particle size of 50–100 μm.
Powders can be applied directly to the target, either mechanically or manually.
The inert ingredients for this formulation are anticaking agents, ultraviolet protectors, and adhesive materials to improve adsorption.
Concentration of the active ingredient (organism) in the powder is usually 10%.
Granular particles are larger and heavier than powder formulations.
Particle size coarse of 100–1000 μm for granules and 100–600 μm for microgranules.
Made of mineral materials (kaolin, attapulgite, silica, starch, polymers, dry fertilizers, and residues of ground plants) [81].
Concentration of the active ingredient (organisms) in granules ranges from 5 to 20%.
Once applied, the granules slowly release their active ingredient.
Some granules require soil moisture to release their active ingredient [3, 82].
Finely ground dry formulations that will be applied after suspension in water.
Produced by mixing an active ingredient with surfactants, wetting and dispersing agents, and inert fillers, followed by milling.
Particle size approximately 5 μm.
Long storage stability, good miscibility with water, and convenient application with conventional spray equipment [83].
Designed to be suspended in water.
The granules break to form a uniform suspension similar to that formed by a wettable powder.
Compared to powdered products, these WGs are relatively dust-free and with good storage stability.
The products contain a wetting agent and dispersing agent similar to those used in wettable powders, but the dispersing agent is usually at a higher concentration.
Consist of liquid droplets dispersed in another immiscible liquid.
Size of the droplets in the dispersed phase varies from 0.1 to 10 μm.
The emulsion can be oil in water (EW), which is a normal emulsion, or water in oil (EO), an inverted emulsion. Both products are designed to be mixed with water before use.
A mixture of a finely ground solid active ingredient dispersed in a liquid phase, usually water.
The solid particles do not dissolve in the liquid phase, so that the mixture needs to be stirred before application to keep the particles evenly distributed.
The composition of the suspension concentrate is complex and contains wetting/dispersing agents, thickening agents, antifoaming agents, etc., to ensure the required stability.
They are produced by a wet milling process.
Particle size distribution of 1–10 μm.
Dispersions of solid active ingredients in a nonaqueous liquid intended for dilution before use.
The nonaqueous liquid is more often an oil (vegetable oil).
Oil dispersion provides several important characteristics, such as the ability to supply water-sensitive active ingredients and the ability to use an adjuvant fluid instead of water that can increase and extend pest control.
Stable suspension of microencapsulated active ingredient in an aqueous continuous phase.
Intended for dilution with water before use.
The bioagent as an active ingredient is encapsulated in capsules (coating) made of gelatin, starch, cellulose, and other polymers.
Protected from extreme environmental conditions (UV radiation, rain, temperature, etc.).
Residual stability increases due to slow (controlled) release.
The most frequently applied encapsulation method uses the principle of interfacial polymerization.
The extension of pesticide formulations containing Bt will depend essentially on our capacity to improve the performance of the products used [83]. Therefore, biotechnology companies have the task of providing not only formulations adapted to certain crops and insect pests, but also, they must look for and produce bioinsecticides based on the new high-potency strains originating from the agroecosystems where they are going to apply. It is expected that the new products that appear in the market will provide a spectrum of higher activity that will impact on a greater number of pests in other crops and can help develop sustainable agriculture [80].
\nWorldwide, the use of biopesticides increases 16% annually, which represents approximately 8% of the pesticide trade in the world [12]. The formulations derived from natural materials such as bacteria, animals, plants, or minerals offer a powerful tool to create a new generation of sustainable products [84]. About 90% of microbial biopesticides are derived from a single entomopathogenic species
The varieties of
Susceptible insects | \nδ-Endotoxin | \nProducer company | \n|
---|---|---|---|
Lepidoptera | \nCry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ac, Cry2Aa, and Cry2Ab | \nAbbott-Dupont and Certis | \n|
Lepidoptera | \nCry1Aa, Cry1Ab, Cry1Ba, Cry1Ca, and Cry1Da | \nAbbott-Dupont and Kenogard | \n|
Coleoptera | \nCry3Aa | \nMycogen | \n|
Coleoptera | \nCry3Aa | \nThermo Trilogy, Columbia MD, Certis Mycogen, and Novo Nordisk | \n|
Diptera | \nCry4A, Cry4B, Cry11A, and Cyt1Aa | \nAbbott-Dupont, Novo Nordisk, and Certis | \n|
Coleoptera | \nCry8Da | \nPhyllom BioProducts | \n
Varieties of Bt used as bioinsecticides, susceptible insects, expressing δ-endotoxin, and companies that produce it.
More than a century after its discovery,
These new environmental features include the toxicity against nematodes, mites, and ticks, antagonistic effects against plant and animal pathogenic bacteria and fungi, plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) activities, bioremediation of different heavy metals and other pollutants, biosynthesis of metal nanoparticles, production of polyhydroxyalkanoate biopolymer, and anticancer activities (due to parasporins) [51, 52, 53].
\nToxicity against nematodes with several classes of Cry toxin (Cry5, Cry6, Cry13, Cry14, Cry21, and Cry55) is well established. In addition to these Cry proteins, thuringiensin, chitinase, and a metalloproteinase from
Cry proteins synthesized by
Some strains of
Different strains of
Parasporins are a heterogenous group of Cry proteins produced by noninsecticidal
The biopesticide based on bacteria is probably the most used and is cheaper than the other methods of bioregulation of pests [94]. Almost 90% of the microbial biopesticides that are commercially available are
Advantages | \nDisadvantages | \n
---|---|
Application with difficulty | \n|
It is not easy to produce it | \n|
Little diffusion and acceptance by producers | \n|
Its quality could not be controlled. Sometimes it works, and sometimes it does not | \n|
Variability in insect resistance | \n|
Location. Its use may be limited to faunas of a certain region | \n
Advantages and disadvantages of bioinsecticides based on Bt.
During the last two decades, new methods have been widely used on Bt to overcome resistance to insects, and it is expected that this advancing trend will be well continued in the future, including the search for new toxins and strains with increased toxic activity and the development of new biopesticides and technologies to maintain the success of this bioinsecticide which is a great challenge to overcome.
\nNowadays there exist different lines of research that seek to use
The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Scleractinian corals are complex key habitat-forming organisms that create biogenic reef structures from shallow to deep waters [1], and they are fundamental to the supporting of the biodiversity of the world’s oceans. They have evolved to thrive in conditions of optimal nutrient availability [2], seawater temperature, and oxygenation [3], and are in competition for space with other benthic taxa [4]. Mostly distributed along the tropics, corals can be found also in high-latitude subtropical areas and deep seas [5, 6, 7, 8], where they show adaptive capability to live in fluctuating environmental conditions [9]. Corals can develop several biological structures depending on their capacity to grow via vertical or horizontal extension (Figure 1). These biogenic habitats formed by coral reefs represent one of the worldwide hotspots of biodiversity in the ocean [11], hosting a great variety of organisms, such as fish, macroalgae, and microorganisms [12].
Major scleractinian coral morphologies and different colony growth modes, based on branch, vertical, and horizontal extension. Modified from Pratchett et al. [
Coral reefs can provide ecosystem goods and services, such as the provision of food, touristic activities, and protection of coastline from flooding and tidal movements [12, 13]. However, in the era of Anthropocene, coral reefs are among the habitats on Earth that are suffering the most and are dramatically degrading, since a multitude of factors are plaguing these marine ecosystems. Abiotic factors such as abnormally elevated or reduced temperatures, ocean acidification, high ultraviolet radiations, and fluctuation in salinity are increasing the occurrence of coral bleaching events [14, 15, 16, 17, 18]. Additionally, industrial pollution, coastal development, and excessive nutrient input, as well as biotic stressors such as predation outbreaks, epizootic diseases, and bioerosion are leading to further coral reef degradation around the world [19, 20, 21, 22]. For all these reasons, corals are sensitive to changes in environmental conditions and therefore are considered good bioindicators of the health status of the marine environment [23, 24].
Corals are considered meta-organisms because of the complex biological interactions between the animal host and endosymbionts. Indeed, the concept of corals as holobiont encompasses the symbiotic relationship between dinoflagellate endosymbionts (Symbiodiniaceae [25]) and the animal host tissue (coral polyps), as well as the associated microorganisms found in coral tissue, gastric cavity, and coral skeleton. All components contribute to coral growth through the combined uptake of inorganic nutrients and food particles, photosynthesis, and deposition of calcium carbonate. In particular, the symbiotic relationship of corals is a mutual relationship between the coral polyps and the dinoflagellate endosymbionts. To gain metabolic energy, scleractinian corals are able to shift from heterotrophy (catching particulate food) [26, 27] to autotrophy (through photosynthesis by endosymbionts) [28]. Depending on the species-specific trophic strategy [29, 30], corals exhibit the ability to collect food particles (e.g. zooplankton) as a heterotrophic source of energy. On the other hand, they can rely on the autotrophic system of endosymbionts as an alternative source of oxygen and carbohydrates for aerobic respiration [31]. Oxygen availability determines the balance between the aerobic and anaerobic metabolic pathways, and therefore has significant implications for the energy budgets of corals [32]. These processes, however, are not perfectly balanced. Some species rely more on heterotrophy as an external source of energy, but some more on the photosynthetic system, while others are mixotrophic, meaning that they can increase the ability to modulate energy availability depending on the environmental conditions [30]. In all cases, the energy produced during the metabolic processes, which is stored as adenosine triphosphate (ATP), is used for maintaining the cellular physiology and supporting the intracellular uptake of dissolved inorganic carbon to form calcium carbonate, which is necessary for building the skeleton and sustaining the growth of corals [33]. Energy reserves include proteins, lipids, and carbohydrates [27, 34] can be used when there is a high energy demand, e.g. under thermal stress [35].
Corals also harbor a large variety of microorganisms on their surface, which contribute to biogeochemical cycles and the provision of micronutrients. For instance, bacteria, archaea, and viruses play fundamental roles in the remineralization of organic matter into micronutrients [36]. The nutrition of corals is linked to the uptake of macro- and micronutrients that support the metabolic processes and growth [26]. The roles of micronutrients, such as nitrogen and iron, in enhancing the capacity of symbiosis have also been highlighted, in particular for the endosymbionts to resist abnormal conditions of surrounding waters [34]. The microorganisms living on the coral surface and in the tissue are also related to the probiotic diversity necessary for the general health of corals [37]. In case of disruption of the symbiotic equilibrium during extreme events (e.g. heatwaves or nutrient discharge) and prolonged disturbances (e.g. climate change or pollution), the microbial community can change from the symbiotic to commensal mode, a change that could reduce the capacity of the coral host to maintain the metabolic equilibrium [38].
In this context, the coral holobiont is capable of gaining metabolic energy from multiple sources and therefore has the capacity to modulate its physiology depending on nutrient availability and environmental conditions. The continuous pressures from anthropogenic activities are leading to substantial changes in the capability of corals to develop resistance mechanisms, which in turn define the characterization of coral species living in their specific environments. For instance, ocean warming and acidification are causing drastic changes that affect the sustainability of coral reef ecosystems, including food availability and services provided for humans [15, 39].
In this chapter, the nutrition in corals including recent advancements in the definition of coral health, energy budget, and performance under current environmental challenges of climate changes is explained, and the implications on the survival of corals are highlighted with the aim to define future reef habitats as refugia.
Corals are unique organisms capable of taking in nutrients and gaining energy for their metabolic processes, acting like nearly every trophic level in the marine ecosystem. For instance, it has been demonstrated that corals can behave simultaneously as:
The diet of corals, however, goes beyond a fixed trophic strategy based on the morphology of polyps and corallites [41]. There is a need to consider trophic plasticity as a critical factor of resistance to environmental stress [42]. The position of corals within the reef food web could be considered as the “
Trophic niches of the coral hosts (purple) and photosynthetic endosymbionts (green) analyzed with the stable isotope Bayesian analysis (SIBER). The overlapping of δ13C and δ15N indicates different trophic strategies between autotrophy, mixotrophy, and heterotrophy. From Conti-Jerpe et al. [
A substantial amount of energy in scleractinian corals is acquired through heterotrophy, which has become a key process to determine the resistance of corals to adverse conditions. Through heterotrophy, more energy for metabolic needs is available and therefore enhances the capability to resist stress events, which promotes bleaching resilience, raises protein levels, and in turn, supports the endosymbionts’ physiological status [46]. Trophic differences are recognizable in the feeding rates of different species of corals.
For these reasons, carbohydrates are also considered an indicator of the coral health status. Indeed, the levels of intracellular carbohydrates indicate the capacity of corals to modulate thermal stress, and therefore indicate the thermotolerance of corals [35]. These findings suggest that elevated levels of carbohydrates are related to higher adaptation to future climatic conditions and reduced bleaching susceptibility to extreme events [80, 81].
The coral holobiont is capable of modulating its metabolic processes to dissipate or gain energy from different sources depending on nutrient availability. However, corals need to adopt special measures to face climatic change which is modifying the physicochemical and nutrient environment.
Anthropogenic activities are increasing levels of carbon dioxide (CO2) in the atmosphere, leading to global warming and more frequent heatwaves, which are apparently associated with reduced rates of growth, calcification, and other functional traits, such as skeletal density, volume, and size[82, 83, 84]. These changes may in turn induce coral bleaching and mass mortality, and in the longer term, decline in coral biodiversity [81]. About a quarter of the atmospheric CO2 dissolves in the ocean and reduces the seawater pH and carbonate saturation state, a process which is commonly known as ocean acidification. Ocean surface pH is expected to decrease by 0.3 units by 2100 under the RCP8.5 scenario [85, 86]. This, accompanied by cellular oxidative stress, can reduce the capacity of scleractinian corals and other calcifying organisms to build their calcium carbonate skeletons [87]. Besides global changes, human activities are responsible for multiple local pressures on marine ecosystems, specifically on corals. Coastal water quality declines in overpopulated areas, where high levels of dissolved inorganic nutrients cause eutrophication, sedimentation, and turbidity events [88, 89, 90]. The alteration of water conditions in the surface layer results in changes in the nutrient equilibrium (e.g. in the Redfield stoichiometry of C:N:P elements), which have brought about imbalanced physiological status of corals and their symbionts, and consequently increased frequency and severity of mass coral bleaching events [91, 92].
Among the plethora of stress factors, the rising of sea surface temperature due to global warming is certainly recognized as the prominent cause of coral bleaching inducing mass coral mortality [93, 94]. However, variable spatial and temporal patterns of mass bleaching have been extensively observed and can be generated by several factors that, by operating in combination, can determine different sensitivities of coral taxa to stressors [93, 95, 96]. For example, the extent of bleaching can depend on the duration and frequency of thermal anomalies and on-site-specific environmental conditions [97, 98, 99, 100]. Nevertheless, several studies have pointed out that intrinsic factors of corals, including their morphological and physiological characteristics, play a fundamental role in determining the different levels of physiological resistance to environmental stress. In this context, the identity and clade of the Symbiodiniaceae partner may affect the coral susceptibility to unfavorable conditions [101, 102].
Attempts to understand the differences in the response of corals to stress have also focused on coral physical properties, such as the coral morphology and tissue thickness, which influence growth, metabolic rates, and metabolite exchange across boundary layers and host CO2 supply strategies [103, 104]. Therefore, faster growing branching taxa with thinner tissues appear more susceptible to elevated temperature than slower growing massive taxa with thicker tissues due to the latter’s lower photoprotective capacity and ability to remove oxygen radicals generated during metabolic stress [103, 105].
The cellular stress responses of corals are involved in driving spatial and temporal patterns of coral bleaching at both intra- and inter-specific levels. As sessile organisms, corals cannot easily migrate to new environmental optima. Therefore, in order to cope with perturbations, they rely mainly on the efficiency of their molecular and cellular mechanisms, which represent the first line of defense in reducing the harmful effects of unfavorable conditions [106, 107, 108]. The capacity of acquiring metabolic energy from autotrophy rather than heterotrophy, and vice versa, is the key to a successful symbiotic relationship in corals. However, decreased capacity to take in nutrient has been observed during thermal stress along with reduced levels of dissolved inorganic nutrients [109], impairing the assimilation of carbon and nitrogen from the hosts’ heterotrophy, and inducing starvation and parasitism [38]. Recent studies have identified positive correlation between the trophic status of host and endosymbionts in
At the cellular level, Hsps are expressed under normal physiological conditions for maintenance of normal protein folding, signal transduction, and/or normal development [112]. Moreover, their expression is upregulated as a consequence of exposure to conditions that perturb cellular protein structures [69]. The expression of Hsps, and in particular that of Hsp70 and Hsp60, has been extensively analyzed in corals subjected to extreme temperatures and bleaching conditions [113, 114, 115, 116, 117, 118]. However, Hsp modulation has also been observed in corals exposed to elevated light intensity [119, 120], salinity change [121, 122], and xenobiotics/nutrient enrichments [62, 118, 123]. Recently, it has been observed that Hsps may also play a role in the immune system of corals in response to pathogen invasion [65, 124]. In most of these studies, higher Hsp levels in corals generally infer higher protection toward environmental stressors and bleaching. For instance, corals with different susceptibilities to bleaching differ in their Hsp expression levels, with the bleaching-tolerant corals exhibiting higher expression levels than the bleaching-susceptible ones [96, 119]. A recent field study showed that healthy coral colonies of
In addition, high Hsp levels also contribute to corals adaptation to extreme conditions, such as those characterizing the shallow lagoons of the Maldivian reefs. There, despite the remarkable daily fluctuations in temperature and light and the regular exposure to higher temperature/light regimes than surrounding waters, which can exceed their tolerance threshold and would ordinarily induce stress and bleaching, Hsp modulation seems to play a protective role to prevent the rupture of symbiosis of corals [120]. Likewise, the Hsp levels have been found to be significantly higher in bleaching-tolerant corals originating from highly variable environments compared to corals that live in more stable environments. On Ofu Island (American Samoa), colonies of
Metabolic performance, in particular the thermal performance curve (TPC) which defines the nonlinear relationship of organismal metabolism versus a given source of stress, is another parameter to consider when coral health is concerned. When the metabolic response of corals to low/high temperature is considered, the TPC can be applied to quantify the response of a coral species to thermal stress [132]. Moreover, through the TPC, it is possible to measure the maximum level of such performance, the optimal conditions of temperature, and the capacity of resistance to temperature variation (e.g. thermal breadth). The shape of such curve and its relative breadth will determine the metabolic plasticity of organisms (corals) to temperature variations. This can be used to define the physiological performance of corals and compare their specific responses in the subtropical area to indicate physiological adaptation of corals to living conditions and the challenges that subtropical corals face when optimizing their productivity in subtropical environments [133]. The heritability of coral traits must also be considered in the framework of coral adaptation to future conditions of climate change to better predict the evolution of corals in suboptimal conditions [134].
Coral reefs are often described as biogenic structures which provide nutriments and services to the marine ecosystems formed in oligotrophic areas (i.e. low dissolved nutrients and clear water) with stable environmental conditions. These features are usually optimal for bioconstruction, such as corals, to capture carbonates from seawater and sustain the metabolic energy needed for growth and reproduction [93, 135]. The capacity of corals to modulate their metabolism according to surrounding conditions is the key for their success. Scleractinian corals are thriving also in the so-called marginal reefs, where thermal and salinity anomalies, eutrophication, and elevated sedimentation rates are the causes of metabolic expenditures and, eventually, stress [136, 137, 138, 139].
Marginal reefs are located at high latitudes of subtropical areas and near megalopolis. Corals living in these areas receive multiple pressures from local stressors together with global changes, although the processes involved in these ecosystems operate at different spatial (i.e. geographical) and temporal (i.e. frequency of stress events) scales compared to tropical reefs. In this context, it is important to consider how natural evolution, affected by human pressures, has shaped the coral species living in these areas, and how the marginal reefs can act as refuge area for future conditions. Refugia are considered as those areas with the ability to provide protection from multiple stressors [140], and in this case coral refugia are identified as areas where long-term stressors are low that less likely to influence coral survival. For examples, considering the evolutionary timescales, the current marginal reefs are already serving as refugia due to their environmental conditions [9], although with reduced speciation, growth, and reproduction rates [141]. Moreover, most of the research works have focused on the short-term relief to environmental stressors, and there is a need to understand how the marginal reefs can act as refugia under the climatic scenarios of more frequent heatwave events and continuous development of coastal areas [142]. The understanding of the responses of corals in the adaptation and evolution in these areas is therefore a priority for devising conservation and restoration measures for the future coral reefs [3]. Recent studies have identified areas as future refugia from thermal stress. Corals living in environments with naturally high temperature fluctuation may have developed higher thermal tolerance to heat stress, and therefore these areas can be considered as refugia for future conditions. To represent refugia areas with a high potential to maintain the future coral biodiversity and ecosystem functions, the frequency of thermal stress events (e.g. 12-week sum of 1°C higher than the maximum monthly mean) should be less than one every 10 years [143]. Future warming conditions and more heatwaves might result in too frequent thermal stress events and leave no room for those corals and other marine organisms that live in thermal refugia to adapt. The biological responses to the chronic development of ocean warming will be critical to determine the effectiveness of high-latitude reefs as the thermal refugia [143].
Coral reefs have very high biodiversity values and provide important ecosystem services, with the capacity to resist anthropogenic stress by modulating their energetic budgets as described in this chapter. Current major threats to them are caused by increasing seawater temperature (ocean warming) and reduced pH level (ocean acidification), which cause reduction in survival, calcification, growth, and photosynthesis in several marine taxa [138, 144] with the levels of impacts depending on morphology and the feeding capacity of corals [45]. There are global consequences of this reduced capacity of reef ecosystems to provide crucial services, such as reduced fishing capacity and unsustainable management of marine reserves [145, 146]. A deep understanding of the multiple interactions between stressors and mitigators will be crucial to define the trophic plasticity and reef responses under the future environmental changes.
This study was partially funded by the Research Institute for Future Food, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"56440",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70162",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6438,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"50921",doi:"10.5772/63712",title:"Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet",slug:"menaquinones-bacteria-and-foods-vitamin-k2-in-the-diet",totalDownloads:3328,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Vitamin K2 is a collection of isoprenologues that mostly originate from bacterial synthesis, also called menaquinones (MKs). Multiple bacterial species used as starter cultures for food fermentation are known to synthesize MK. Therefore, fermented food is the best source of vitamin K2. In the Western diet, dairy products are one of the best known and most commonly consumed group of fermented products.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet",authors:[{id:"184784",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Walther",slug:"barbara-walther",fullName:"Barbara Walther"},{id:"188194",title:"Mrs.",name:"Magali",middleName:null,surname:"Chollet",slug:"magali-chollet",fullName:"Magali Chollet"}]},{id:"66098",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84445",title:"Golden Rice: To Combat Vitamin A Deficiency for Public Health",slug:"golden-rice-to-combat-vitamin-a-deficiency-for-public-health",totalDownloads:3386,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) has been recognised as a significant public health problem continuously for more than 30 years, despite current interventions. The problem is particularly severe in populations where rice is the staple food and diversity of diet is limited, as white rice contains no micronutrients. Golden Rice is a public-sector product designed as an additional intervention for VAD. There will be no charge for the nutritional trait, which has been donated by its inventors for use in public-sector rice varieties to assist the resource poor, and no limitations on what small farmers can do with the crop—saving and replanting seed, selling seed and selling grain are all possible. Because Golden Rice had to be created by introducing two new genes—one from maize and the other from a very commonly ingested soil bacterium—it has taken a long time to get from the laboratory to the field. Now it has been formally registered as safe as food, feed, or in processed form by four industrialised counties, and applications are pending in developing countries. The data are summarised here, and criticisms addressed, for a public health professional audience: is it needed, will it work, is it safe and is it economic? Adoption of Golden Rice, the next step after in-country registration, requires strategic and tactical cooperation across professions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and government departments often not used to working together. Public health professionals need to play a prominent role.",book:{id:"7978",slug:"vitamin-a",title:"Vitamin A",fullTitle:"Vitamin A"},signatures:"Adrian Dubock",authors:[{id:"273220",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Dubock",slug:"adrian-dubock",fullName:"Adrian Dubock"}]},{id:"62836",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79350",title:"The Role of Thiamine in Plants and Current Perspectives in Crop Improvement",slug:"the-role-of-thiamine-in-plants-and-current-perspectives-in-crop-improvement",totalDownloads:1566,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Current research is focusing on selecting potential genes that can alleviate stress and produce disease-tolerant crop variety. The novel paradigm is to investigate the potential of thiamine as a crop protection molecule in plants. Thiamine or vitamin B1 is important for primary metabolism for all living organisms. The active form, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), is a cofactor for the enzymes involved in the synthesis of amino acids, tricarboxylic acid cycle and pentose phosphate pathway. Recently, thiamine is shown to have a role in the processes underlying protection of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. The aim of this chapter is to review the role of thiamine in plant growth and disease protection and also to highlight that TPP and its intermediates are involved in management of stress. The perspectives on its potential for manipulating the biosynthesis pathway in crop improvement will also be discussed.",book:{id:"6709",slug:"b-group-vitamins-current-uses-and-perspectives",title:"B Group Vitamins",fullTitle:"B Group Vitamins - Current Uses and Perspectives"},signatures:"Atiqah Subki, Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin and Zetty Norhana\nBalia Yusof",authors:[{id:"240031",title:"Dr.",name:"Zetty-Norhana Balia",middleName:null,surname:"Yusof",slug:"zetty-norhana-balia-yusof",fullName:"Zetty-Norhana Balia Yusof"},{id:"261167",title:"Mr.",name:"Aisamuddin Ardi",middleName:null,surname:"Zainal Abidin",slug:"aisamuddin-ardi-zainal-abidin",fullName:"Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin"},{id:"261169",title:"Ms.",name:"Atiqah",middleName:null,surname:"Subki",slug:"atiqah-subki",fullName:"Atiqah Subki"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56440",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6429,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"56013",title:"Vitamin C: An Antioxidant Agent",slug:"vitamin-c-an-antioxidant-agent",totalDownloads:7817,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:"Vitamin C or ascorbic acid (AsA) is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties, found in both animals and plants. It functions as a redox buffer which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species. It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"69402",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency and Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency-and-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1604,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Vitamin D (VD) is a molecule that can be synthesized directly in the humans’ body or enter the organism with food in the form of inactive precursors. To exert its biological action, VD undergoes two-stage hydroxylation (at the 25th and 1st position) catalyzed by cytochromes P450, the presence of which has already been shown in almost all tissues of the human body. The product of hydroxylation is hormone-active form of vitamin D–1,25(OH)2D. 1,25(OH)2D binds to specific vitamin D receptor (VDR) and regulates the expression of genes involved in bone remodeling (classical function) and genes that control immune response, hormone secretion, cell proliferation, and differentiation (nonclassical functions). VD deficiency is prevalent around the globe and may be one of the key factors for diabetes development. The direct association between vitamin D deficiency and type 1 (T1D) and type 2 (T2D) diabetes has been proven. Detection of VDR in pancreas and adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, and immune cells allowed implying the antidiabetic role of vitamin D by enhancing insulin synthesis and exocytosis, increasing the expression of the insulin receptor, and modulating immune cells’ functions. This chapter summarizes data about relationship between VD insufficiency/deficiency and development of T1D and T2D, and their complications.",book:{id:"7038",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",fullTitle:"Vitamin D Deficiency"},signatures:"Ihor Shymanskyi, Olha Lisakovska, Anna Mazanova and Mykola Veliky",authors:null},{id:"76108",title:"Vitamin D Metabolism",slug:"vitamin-d-metabolism",totalDownloads:498,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Vitamin D plays an important role in bone metabolism. Vitamin D is a group of biologically inactive, fat-soluble prohormones that exist in two major forms: ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) produced by plants in response to ultraviolet irradiation and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) derived from animal tissues or 7-dehydrocholesterol in human skin by the action of ultraviolet rays present in sunlight. Vitamin D, which is biologically inactive, needs two-step hydroxylation for activation. All of these steps are of crucial for Vitamin D to show its effect properly. In this section, we will present vitamin D synthesis and its action steps in detail.",book:{id:"10631",slug:"vitamin-d",title:"Vitamin D",fullTitle:"Vitamin D"},signatures:"Sezer Acar and Behzat Özkan",authors:[{id:"29878",title:"Dr.",name:"Behzat",middleName:null,surname:"Özkan",slug:"behzat-ozkan",fullName:"Behzat Özkan"},{id:"348287",title:"Dr.",name:"Sezer",middleName:null,surname:"Acar",slug:"sezer-acar",fullName:"Sezer Acar"}]},{id:"50754",title:"Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites",slug:"medicinal-chemistry-of-vitamin-k-derivatives-and-metabolites",totalDownloads:1917,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vitamin K acts as a cofactor for γ‐glutamyl carboxylase. Recently, various biological activities of vitamin K have been reported. Anti‐proliferative activities of vitamin K, especially in vitamin K3, are well known. In addition, various physiological and pharmacological functions of vitamin K2, such as transcription modulators as nuclear steroid and xenobiotic receptor (SXR) ligands and anti‐inflammatory effects, have been revealed in the past decade. Characterization of vitamin K metabolites is also important for clinical application of vitamin K and its derivatives. In this chapter, recent progress on the medicinal chemistry of vitamin K derivatives and metabolites is discussed.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika",authors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika"},{id:"180529",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",middleName:null,surname:"Fujii",slug:"shinya-fujii",fullName:"Shinya Fujii"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"42",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",issn:"2632-0983",scope:"Biochemistry, the study of chemical transformations occurring within living organisms, impacts all areas of life sciences, from molecular crystallography and genetics to ecology, medicine, and population biology. Biochemistry examines macromolecules - proteins, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, and lipids – and their building blocks, structures, functions, and interactions. Much of biochemistry is devoted to enzymes, proteins that catalyze chemical reactions, enzyme structures, mechanisms of action and their roles within cells. Biochemistry also studies small signaling molecules, coenzymes, inhibitors, vitamins, and hormones, which play roles in life processes. Biochemical experimentation, besides coopting classical chemistry methods, e.g., chromatography, adopted new techniques, e.g., X-ray diffraction, electron microscopy, NMR, radioisotopes, and developed sophisticated microbial genetic tools, e.g., auxotroph mutants and their revertants, fermentation, etc. More recently, biochemistry embraced the ‘big data’ omics systems. Initial biochemical studies have been exclusively analytic: dissecting, purifying, and examining individual components of a biological system; in the apt words of Efraim Racker (1913 –1991), “Don’t waste clean thinking on dirty enzymes.” Today, however, biochemistry is becoming more agglomerative and comprehensive, setting out to integrate and describe entirely particular biological systems. The ‘big data’ metabolomics can define the complement of small molecules, e.g., in a soil or biofilm sample; proteomics can distinguish all the comprising proteins, e.g., serum; metagenomics can identify all the genes in a complex environment, e.g., the bovine rumen. This Biochemistry Series will address the current research on biomolecules and the emerging trends with great promise.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/11.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:33,editor:{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"14",title:"Cell and Molecular Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/14.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11410,editor:{id:"165627",title:"Dr.",name:"Rosa María",middleName:null,surname:"Martínez-Espinosa",slug:"rosa-maria-martinez-espinosa",fullName:"Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/165627/images/system/165627.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Rosa María Martínez-Espinosa has been a Spanish Full Professor since 2020 (Biochemistry and Molecular Biology) and is currently Vice-President of International Relations and Cooperation development and leader of the research group 'Applied Biochemistry” (University of Alicante, Spain). Other positions she has held at the university include Vice-Dean of Master Programs, Vice-Dean of the Degree in Biology and Vice-Dean for Mobility and Enterprise and Engagement at the Faculty of Science (University of Alicante). She received her Bachelor in Biology in 1998 (University of Alicante) and her PhD in 2003 (Biochemistry, University of Alicante). She undertook post-doctoral research at the University of East Anglia (Norwich, U.K. 2004-2005; 2007-2008).\nHer multidisciplinary research focuses on investigating archaea and their potential applications in biotechnology. She has an H-index of 21. She has authored one patent and has published more than 70 indexed papers and around 60 book chapters.\nShe has contributed to more than 150 national and international meetings during the last 15 years. Her research interests include archaea metabolism, enzymes purification and characterization, gene regulation, carotenoids and bioplastics production, antioxidant\ncompounds, waste water treatments, and brines bioremediation.\nRosa María’s other roles include editorial board member for several journals related\nto biochemistry, reviewer for more than 60 journals (biochemistry, molecular biology, biotechnology, chemistry and microbiology) and president of several organizing committees in international meetings related to the N-cycle or respiratory processes.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Alicante",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/15.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11411,editor:{id:"441442",title:"Dr.",name:"Şükrü",middleName:null,surname:"Beydemir",slug:"sukru-beydemir",fullName:"Şükrü Beydemir",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003GsUoIQAV/Profile_Picture_1634557147521",biography:"Dr. Şükrü Beydemir obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 1995 from Yüzüncü Yıl University, MSc in Biochemistry in 1998, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2002 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He performed post-doctoral studies at Max-Planck Institute, Germany, and University of Florence, Italy in addition to making several scientific visits abroad. He currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Pharmacy, Anadolu University, Turkey. Dr. Beydemir has published over a hundred scientific papers spanning protein biochemistry, enzymology and medicinal chemistry, reviews, book chapters and presented several conferences to scientists worldwide. He has received numerous publication awards from various international scientific councils. He serves in the Editorial Board of several international journals. Dr. Beydemir is also Rector of Bilecik Şeyh Edebali University, Turkey.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Anadolu University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorTwo:{id:"13652",title:"Prof.",name:"Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Ekinci",slug:"deniz-ekinci",fullName:"Deniz Ekinci",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYLT1QAO/Profile_Picture_1634557223079",biography:"Dr. Deniz Ekinci obtained a BSc in Chemistry in 2004, MSc in Biochemistry in 2006, and PhD in Biochemistry in 2009 from Atatürk University, Turkey. He studied at Stetson University, USA, in 2007-2008 and at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Germany, in 2009-2010. Dr. Ekinci currently works as a Full Professor of Biochemistry in the Faculty of Agriculture and is the Head of the Enzyme and Microbial Biotechnology Division, Ondokuz Mayıs University, Turkey. He is a member of the Turkish Biochemical Society, American Chemical Society, and German Genetics society. Dr. Ekinci published around ninety scientific papers, reviews and book chapters, and presented several conferences to scientists. He has received numerous publication awards from several scientific councils. Dr. Ekinci serves as the Editor in Chief of four international books and is involved in the Editorial Board of several international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ondokuz Mayıs University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}},editorThree:null},{id:"17",title:"Metabolism",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/17.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11413,editor:{id:"138626",title:"Dr.",name:"Yannis",middleName:null,surname:"Karamanos",slug:"yannis-karamanos",fullName:"Yannis Karamanos",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002g6Jv2QAE/Profile_Picture_1629356660984",biography:"Yannis Karamanos, born in Greece in 1953, completed his pre-graduate studies at the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, Paris, then his Masters and Doctoral degree at the Université de Lille (1983). He was associate professor at the University of Limoges (1987) before becoming full professor of biochemistry at the Université d’Artois (1996). He worked on the structure-function relationships of glycoconjugates and his main project was the investigations on the biological roles of the de-N-glycosylation enzymes (Endo-N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase and peptide-N4-(N-acetyl-β-glucosaminyl) asparagine amidase). From 2002 he contributes to the understanding of the Blood-brain barrier functioning using proteomics approaches. He has published more than 70 papers. His teaching areas are energy metabolism and regulation, integration and organ specialization and metabolic adaptation.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Artois University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"18",title:"Proteomics",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/18.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,annualVolume:11414,editor:{id:"200689",title:"Prof.",name:"Paolo",middleName:null,surname:"Iadarola",slug:"paolo-iadarola",fullName:"Paolo Iadarola",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSCl8QAG/Profile_Picture_1623568118342",biography:"Paolo Iadarola graduated with a degree in Chemistry from the University of Pavia (Italy) in July 1972. He then worked as an Assistant Professor at the Faculty of Science of the same University until 1984. In 1985, Prof. Iadarola became Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Biotechnologies of the University of Pavia and retired in October 2017. Since then, he has been working as an Adjunct Professor in the same Department at the University of Pavia. His research activity during the first years was primarily focused on the purification and structural characterization of enzymes from animal and plant sources. During this period, Prof. Iadarola familiarized himself with the conventional techniques used in column chromatography, spectrophotometry, manual Edman degradation, and electrophoresis). Since 1995, he has been working on: i) the determination in biological fluids (serum, urine, bronchoalveolar lavage, sputum) of proteolytic activities involved in the degradation processes of connective tissue matrix, and ii) on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. In this context, he has developed and validated new methodologies (e.g., Capillary Electrophoresis coupled to Laser-Induced Fluorescence, CE-LIF) whose application enabled him to determine both the amounts of biochemical markers (Desmosines) in urine/serum of patients affected by Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD) and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (Human Neutrophil Elastase, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in sputa of these patients. More recently, Prof. Iadarola was involved in developing techniques such as two-dimensional electrophoresis coupled to liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (2DE-LC/MS) for the proteomic analysis of biological fluids aimed at the identification of potential biomarkers of different lung diseases. He is the author of about 150 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; Total citations: 1568- According to WOS: H-Index: 20; Total Citations: 1296) of peer-reviewed international journals. He is a Consultant Reviewer for several journals, including the Journal of Chromatography A, Journal of Chromatography B, Plos ONE, Proteomes, International Journal of Molecular Science, Biotech, Electrophoresis, and others. He is also Associate Editor of Biotech.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorTwo:{id:"201414",title:"Dr.",name:"Simona",middleName:null,surname:"Viglio",slug:"simona-viglio",fullName:"Simona Viglio",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKDHQA4/Profile_Picture_1630402531487",biography:"Simona Viglio is an Associate Professor of Biochemistry at the Department of Molecular Medicine at the University of Pavia. She has been working since 1995 on the determination of proteolytic enzymes involved in the degradation process of connective tissue matrix and on the identification of biological markers of lung diseases. She gained considerable experience in developing and validating new methodologies whose applications allowed her to determine both the amount of biomarkers (Desmosine and Isodesmosine) in the urine of patients affected by COPD, and the activity of proteolytic enzymes (HNE, Cathepsin G, Pseudomonas aeruginosa elastase) in the sputa of these patients. Simona Viglio was also involved in research dealing with the supplementation of amino acids in patients with brain injury and chronic heart failure. She is presently engaged in the development of 2-DE and LC-MS techniques for the study of proteomics in biological fluids. The aim of this research is the identification of potential biomarkers of lung diseases. She is an author of about 90 publications (According to Scopus: H-Index: 23; According to WOS: H-Index: 20) on peer-reviewed journals, a member of the “Società Italiana di Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare,“ and a Consultant Reviewer for International Journal of Molecular Science, Journal of Chromatography A, COPD, Plos ONE and Nutritional Neuroscience.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Pavia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Italy"}}},editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:42,paginationItems:[{id:"82914",title:"Glance on the Critical Role of IL-23 Receptor Gene Variations in Inflammation-Induced Carcinogenesis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105049",signatures:"Mohammed El-Gedamy",slug:"glance-on-the-critical-role-of-il-23-receptor-gene-variations-in-inflammation-induced-carcinogenesis",totalDownloads:9,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Chemokines Updates",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11672.jpg",subseries:{id:"18",title:"Proteomics"}}},{id:"82875",title:"Lipidomics as a Tool in the Diagnosis and Clinical Therapy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105857",signatures:"María Elizbeth Alvarez Sánchez, Erick Nolasco Ontiveros, Rodrigo Arreola, Adriana Montserrat Espinosa González, Ana María García Bores, Roberto Eduardo López Urrutia, Ignacio Peñalosa Castro, María del Socorro Sánchez Correa and Edgar Antonio Estrella Parra",slug:"lipidomics-as-a-tool-in-the-diagnosis-and-clinical-therapy",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82440",title:"Lipid Metabolism and Associated Molecular Signaling Events in Autoimmune Disease",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105746",signatures:"Mohan Vanditha, Sonu Das and Mathew John",slug:"lipid-metabolism-and-associated-molecular-signaling-events-in-autoimmune-disease",totalDownloads:17,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Fatty Acids - Recent Advances",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11669.jpg",subseries:{id:"17",title:"Metabolism"}}},{id:"82483",title:"Oxidative Stress in Cardiovascular Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105891",signatures:"Laura Mourino-Alvarez, Tamara Sastre-Oliva, Nerea Corbacho-Alonso and Maria G. Barderas",slug:"oxidative-stress-in-cardiovascular-diseases",totalDownloads:10,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Importance of Oxidative Stress and Antioxidant System in Health and Disease",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11671.jpg",subseries:{id:"15",title:"Chemical Biology"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:33,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7006",title:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7006.jpg",slug:"biochemistry-and-health-benefits-of-fatty-acids",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Viduranga Waisundara",hash:"c93a00abd68b5eba67e5e719f67fd20b",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Biochemistry and Health Benefits of Fatty Acids",editors:[{id:"194281",title:"Dr.",name:"Viduranga Y.",middleName:null,surname:"Waisundara",slug:"viduranga-y.-waisundara",fullName:"Viduranga Y. Waisundara",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/194281/images/system/194281.jpg",biography:"Dr. Viduranga Waisundara obtained her Ph.D. in Food Science\nand Technology from the Department of Chemistry, National\nUniversity of Singapore, in 2010. She was a lecturer at Temasek Polytechnic, Singapore from July 2009 to March 2013.\nShe relocated to her motherland of Sri Lanka and spearheaded the Functional Food Product Development Project at the\nNational Institute of Fundamental Studies from April 2013 to\nOctober 2016. She was a senior lecturer on a temporary basis at the Department of\nFood Technology, Faculty of Technology, Rajarata University of Sri Lanka. She is\ncurrently Deputy Principal of the Australian College of Business and Technology –\nKandy Campus, Sri Lanka. She is also the Global Harmonization Initiative (GHI)",institutionString:"Australian College of Business & Technology",institution:{name:"Kobe College",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"6820",title:"Keratin",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6820.jpg",slug:"keratin",publishedDate:"December 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Miroslav Blumenberg",hash:"6def75cd4b6b5324a02b6dc0359896d0",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Keratin",editors:[{id:"31610",title:"Dr.",name:"Miroslav",middleName:null,surname:"Blumenberg",slug:"miroslav-blumenberg",fullName:"Miroslav Blumenberg",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/31610/images/system/31610.jpg",biography:"Miroslav Blumenberg, Ph.D., was born in Subotica and received his BSc in Belgrade, Yugoslavia. He completed his Ph.D. at MIT in Organic Chemistry; he followed up his Ph.D. with two postdoctoral study periods at Stanford University. Since 1983, he has been a faculty member of the RO Perelman Department of Dermatology, NYU School of Medicine, where he is codirector of a training grant in cutaneous biology. Dr. Blumenberg’s research is focused on the epidermis, expression of keratin genes, transcription profiling, keratinocyte differentiation, inflammatory diseases and cancers, and most recently the effects of the microbiome on the skin. He has published more than 100 peer-reviewed research articles and graduated numerous Ph.D. and postdoctoral students.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"New York University Langone Medical Center",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7978",title:"Vitamin A",subtitle:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7978.jpg",slug:"vitamin-a",publishedDate:"May 15th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Leila Queiroz Zepka, Veridiana Vera de Rosso and Eduardo Jacob-Lopes",hash:"dad04a658ab9e3d851d23705980a688b",volumeInSeries:3,fullTitle:"Vitamin A",editors:[{id:"261969",title:"Dr.",name:"Leila",middleName:null,surname:"Queiroz Zepka",slug:"leila-queiroz-zepka",fullName:"Leila Queiroz Zepka",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/261969/images/system/261969.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Leila Queiroz Zepka is currently an associate professor in the Department of Food Technology and Science, Federal University of Santa Maria, Brazil. She has more than fifteen years of teaching and research experience. She has published more than 550 scientific publications/communications, including 15 books, 50 book chapters, 100 original research papers, 380 research communications in national and international conferences, and 12 patents. She is a member of the editorial board of five journals and acts as a reviewer for several national and international journals. 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The combination of electronics and computer science with biology and medicine has improved patient diagnosis, reduced rehabilitation time, and helped to facilitate a better quality of life. Nowadays, all medical imaging devices, medical instruments, or new laboratory techniques result from the cooperation of specialists in various fields. The series of Biomedical Engineering books covers such areas of knowledge as chemistry, physics, electronics, medicine, and biology. 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Dr. Koprowski has authored more than a hundred research papers with dozens in impact factor (IF) journals and has authored or co-authored six books. Additionally, he is the author of several national and international patents in the field of biomedical devices and imaging. Since 2011, he has been a reviewer of grants and projects (including EU projects) in biomedical engineering.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},subseries:[{id:"7",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. Osma",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDv7QAG/Profile_Picture_1626602531691",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad de Los Andes",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Colombia"}}},{id:"69697",title:"Dr.",name:"Mani T.",middleName:null,surname:"Valarmathi",fullName:"Mani T. Valarmathi",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/69697/images/system/69697.jpg",institutionString:"Religen Inc. | A Life Science Company, United States of America",institution:null},{id:"205081",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco",middleName:"Vinícius",surname:"Chaud",fullName:"Marco Chaud",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bSDGeQAO/Profile_Picture_1622624307737",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade de Sorocaba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}}]}]}},libraryRecommendation:{success:null,errors:{},institutions:[]},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/108266",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"108266"},fullPath:"/profiles/108266",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()