Production data of 1 kg of clinker.
\r\n\tThe WHO classification in 2007; was based on the histogenesis and cell origin of the tumor. In the latest classification made in 2016; to better characterize the tumor and obtain better data on its prognosis; The combination of molecular and genetic biomarkers and histopathological features of the tumor was used. Despite all current treatment approaches, the median survival time is around 12 months in most GBM patients. Compared with the situation of some types of successfully treated cancers; the survival time of GBM patients is not at an acceptable level today. In the treatment of CNS tumors; surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation treatments (x-rays, gamma rays, electron and proton beams) are used. The therapeutic potential of chemotherapy; New strategies are needed to increase drug concentration at the diseased site, as this largely depends on the ability of the chemotherapeutic agent to achieve effective concentrations at tumor localization. Based on our better understanding of the genetic and molecular characteristics of CNS tumors; Targeted therapies, including vaccines, and treatment protocols such as immunotherapy are promising developments.
\r\n\r\n\tThis book supposes to be written by many authors who have an internationally honored place in their field to share their ideas about the treatment of CNS tumors. Surgery, Radiotherapy, Chemotherapy and Antiangiogenic Therapy Protocols, Immunotherapy, Molecular Therapy, Specific target-agents therapy with Nanoparticles and Gene Therapy for CNS tumors among the book chapters.
\r\n\tIn these sections; there are many practical pieces of information that can help the students who graduated from the Medicine Faculty and specialist doctors who are interested in Neurosurgery.
With the continuous change in globalization, urbanization, and increase in population, people migrate from one region to another for a better quality of life. This in turn leads to increase in population in such regions. Therefore, there is need to make provisions for infrastructures that will support this increase. The construction industry provides the necessary structure and infrastructure needed for a sustainable environment. However, this sector is faced with different environmental impacts throughout its production cycle. Concrete is one of the important materials in the construction Industry. The production of concrete is required to build the global landscape and accommodate the continuous urbanization as a result of population growth. Recently, construction sector has been recorded to produce large environmental impact which is of continuous concern to the society [1, 2, 3, 4]. Ordinary Portland Cement (OPC) is the major constituent of concrete production. Several environmental impacts such as intensive resource and energy consumption are associated with the production of cement [5, 6, 7, 8, 9]. This continuous increase in the environmental impacts of the cement industry at the global level is beckoning for attention because of the possible consequences that can succeed these impacts of great concern.
The OPC consists majorly of calcium silicate minerals (limestone, sand and clay) which are extracted and thereafter transferred to the manufacturing plant where they are crushed and finally pulverized into the required texture. This is preheated and eventually transferred into a large kiln of over 1400°C for further treatment to produce the clinker [2, 10]. The clinker is allowed to cool while the heat is trapped back to the preheater unit and gypsum is added to the cooled clinker to control the setting time of the OPC produced. Clinker production is the most energy consuming of all the production stages as enormous source of fuel and electricity is needed [11, 12]. As a result, cement industry is accountable for about 12-15% of industrial energy use [13, 14, 15]. Also, about 5-7% of global CO2 emission is produced during cement production [16]. About 2.6Gt of CO2 gas emission was recorded from production of cement in 2011, whereby the emission was from the combustion of fossil fuels and the thermal decomposition of limestone (calcination) [17, 18]. International Energy Agency’s (IEA) Greenhouse Gas R&D Programme recorded that over 800 g of CO2 is emitted for every 1000 g of cement produced [19, 20]. Approximately 1 ton of concrete is needed annually by every individual, this makes cement an essential material which requires continuous production [5, 21, 22]. There is a need to quantify the environmental impact of the global production of cement production; the consequent effect on human health, resources and the environment as a whole; and production phases that cause the impacts so that proper recommendation and mitigation strategies can be presented. Studies have shown that the clinker production phase has the highest impact and CO2 is one of the most emitted gases [1, 8, 12, 23]. Recommendation on mitigation strategies varying from partial replacement of clinker, to use of alternative fuel etc. were given. Also, incorporation of best available techniques (BAT) to the production processes were part of the recommendations given [1, 24, 25].
Life cycle assessment (LCA) is a system-oriented tool used for the evaluation and assessment of a product’s or process’ environmental impacts by analyzing the entire stages of a production process beginning from resource extraction (“cradle”) and continues through cement production, to cement applications like concrete structures, their use, and end-of-life (grave) [26]. This brings about the other name known as “cradle to grave”. LCA gives a holistic view of the entire production process. According to International Standard Organization (ISO) 14040, the four stages of LCA are represented in Figure 1 [28, 29].
Goal and scope describe the assessment objectives alongside with the system of the product and/or process, functional unit, target audience, system boundaries, assumptions etc. It basically defines the jurisdiction of the assumption [30]. The functional unit that will be adopted in this study is 1kilogram of cement. All dataset, analysis and interpretation will take into account this functional unit. This study aims to analyze the environmental impact of 1 kg of cement using midpoint and endpoint LCIA approaches so as to rightly quantify the level of impact and make proper recommendation. The study will be conducted from cradle to gate i.e., from extraction to the production of cement. All data or information with respect to administration in the plant, packaging processes and disposal will not be incorporated into the analysis.
Life Cycle Inventory (LCI) stage has to do with the compilation of input and output inventory data that are not only consistent with the product under assessment but equally have several environmental coverages. The database of environmental impacts includes all emissions as a result of the production process. In this study, data modeled after the rest of the world apart from China, India, Europe, US and Switzerland will be considered. Dataset will be taken from Ecoinvent dataset; one of the highly recommended database company [31] which was recently considered to be one of the best database for construction materials [32].
Life cycle impact assessment (LCIA) is a multiple-issue tool used to evaluate potential environmental impacts that are in-line with environmental resources identified in the life cycle inventory. This assessment addresses several environmental issues such as energy, climate change, water pollution, etc., thus allowing for comprehensive evaluation of the impacts of the product [27]. The LCIA stage is a multifaceted process which groups all inventory into their various impact categories, thereafter analysis is conducted at the final stage where LCIA and LCI results are interpreted.
Interpretation which is the last stage is an efficient method used to evaluate, compute and categorize the result from the information provided by LCI and LCIA and relate them effectively by showing the effect each output data has on each impact categories and consequently establishing the goal of the study [33]. In this phase, production processes and substance with significant impacts will be presented in a comprehensive and lucid manner after which proper recommendation are made.
Stages of LCA [
Several studies have been carried out with respect to life cycle assessment of the cement industry to evaluate the impact of its production processes [2, 21, 34, 35, 36].
Often times, these studies are modeled after a country, or particular cement plant in a certain place. Rarely do we find LCA study modeled after the world. Also, more studies are more focused on using the midpoint approach only. This study will therefore carry out a life cycle assessment modeled after the rest of the world other than from China, India, Europe, US and Switzerland using both endpoint and midpoint approaches to analyze the environmental impact of OPC production. The remainder of this article is divided into method under section two, results under section three, discussion under section four and the last section concludes.
LCA is an assessment tool for analyzing the environmental implication of process or product by taking cognizance of the potential effect of the entire cycle chain of such process or product. One good posture LCA takes in a system study is to give holistic LCIA method and its calculations (environmental impacts) are based on definite factors. This helps to speed up the analysis as well as simplify the system studied.
There are two approaches in LCIA: process-oriented approach (midpoints) and damage-oriented approach (endpoints). The life cycle assessment expert can use either of them for evaluation [37]. Midpoints and endpoints are characterization models that indicate effects at different levels. In the midpoint approach, flows are categorized into environmental impacts to which they contribute. This approach contains about 18 impact categories: global warming, stratospheric ozone depletion, ionizing radiation, ozone formation, terrestrial acidification, freshwater eutrophication, marine eutrophication, terrestrial ecotoxicity, freshwater ecotoxicity etc. [38]. This approach helps to simplify numerous flows by streamlining them into few prevalent environmental impacts. Endpoint approach on the other hand classifies impacts into 22 environmental impact categories and thereafter simplifies flow to evaluate impacts at the area of significance to life (AoSL): human health, ecosystem, resources [39]. Although, the midpoint approach gives a cause-effect evaluation right from the emission of substance or usage of resources, endpoint helps to answer the question: why should I worry about these impacts? [40].
ReCiPe, an acronym for the developers: RIVM, Radboud University, CML and PRé Consultants, is the LCIA method that will be adopted in this study; it offers the platform for carrying LCIA using both approaches [37]. The development of ReCiPe was mainly as a result of the need to harmonize the midpoint and endpoint methods and consequently break the barrier of the selection of LCIA method in LCA model [38].
When midpoint LCIA method is used for analysis, the result presents 18 impact categories, which covers several impacts while endpoint on the other hand presents the 22 impact categories. These impacts are later classified in three damage categories in the AoSL which are human health, resources and ecosystem based on their effects; giving a slightly easy result analysis. In human health category, ReCiPe uses the disability-adjusted life years (DALY) which means the years of life expended or the years of damage to life as a result of environmental impacts. Ecosystem damage category is measured by species/yr.; this denotes species lost in a year due to emissions to the environment, water body, etc. and the resources damage is based on economic loss due to marginal increase in costs as a result of scarcity emerging from resource extraction. It is measured using USD (2013) [38, 41, 42].
ReCiPe uses a cultural theory as 3 models are used to qualify 3 basic assumptions and consideration [43]. These are the Individualist (I), the Egalitarian (E) and Hierarchism (H). The Individualist (I) considers the short-range impact because of the greatest significant chemicals. Egalitarian (E) is established on preventive measure that takes into consideration the long-term perception and implied risk. Hierarchism (H) on the other hand is a balanced perspective whose basis is on the prevalent policy principles [44]. Also, ReCiPe provides other set of weighting factors (A) by averaging the weighting factors of the three viewpoints. The balanced term H is the default, recommended choice. The average value (A) will be adopted in this study. Therefore, ReCiPe Midpoint (H)- World H and ReCiPe Endpoint (H)-World H/A, are used in this study for the assessment of ordinary Portland cement. The software used for the LCA in this study is SimaPro 9.0.49 which incorporates the latest version of Ecoinvent (v 3.5) database [45].
The dataset in Table 1 describes the production of clinker; in the production, different types of alternative fuels and raw materials are used. This database is modeled for the world without Europe, US, Switzerland, China, India and it is valid from 2005 to 2018.
Inputs from Technosphere | Amount |
---|---|
Ammonia, liquid | 0.000918 kg |
Bauxite | 0.000148 kg |
Calcareous marl | 0.459 kg |
Cement factory | 6.2e-12 unit |
Clay | 0.326 kg |
Diesel, burned in building machine | 0.0132 MJ |
Diesel, low-sulfur | 5.61e-06 kg |
Electricity, medium voltage | 0.0593 kWh |
Hard coal | 0.0362 kg |
Heavy fuel oil | 0.0249 kg |
Industrial machine, heavy, unspecified | 3.76e-05 kg |
Iron ore, crude ore, 46% Fe | 0.000143 kg |
Light fuel oil | 0.000367 kg |
Lime | 0.821 kg |
Hydrated, lose weight | 0.00388 kg |
Limestone, crushed, for mill | 0.0308 kg |
Liquefied petroleum gas | 6.68e-07 kg |
Lubricating oil | 4.71e-05 kg |
Meat and bone meal | 0.00948 kg |
Natural gas, high pressure | 0.000206 m3 |
Petrol, unleaded | 2.54e-07 kg |
Petroleum coke | 0.00442 kg |
Pulverized lignite | 0.00167 MJ |
Refractory, basic, packed | 0.00019 kg |
Refractory, fireclay, packed | 8.21e-05 kg |
Refractory, high aluminum oxide, packed | 0.000137 kg |
Sand | 0.0103 kg |
Steel, chromium steel 18/8, hot rolled | 5.86e-05 kg |
Tap water | 0.336 kg |
Urea, as N | 1.5e-06 kg |
Transport, freight, lorry | 0.05tkm |
Inert waste, for final disposal | −0.000179 kg |
Municipal solid waste | −4.45e-05 kg |
Water, cooling, unspecified natural origin | 9.57e-06 m3 |
Water, unspecified natural origin | 0.0016 m3 |
Emissions to air | Amount |
---|---|
Acenaphthylene | 2.68e-10 kg |
Ammonia | 2.25e-05 kg |
Antimony | 2.24e-09 kg |
Arsenic | 1.22e-08 kg |
Benz(a)anthracene | 5.18e-12 kg |
Benzene, hexachloro- | 2.59e-12 kg |
Benzo(a)pyrene | 2.08e-12 kg |
Benzo(b)fluoranthene | 6.12e-12 kg |
Benzo(ghi)perylene | 3.77e-13 kg |
Benzo(k)fluoranthene | 4.43e-12 kg |
Beryllium | 2.97e-09 kg |
Cadmium | 6.87e-09 kg |
Carbon dioxide, fossil | 0.838 kg |
Carbon dioxide, non-fossil | 0.0155 kg |
Carbon monoxide, fossil | 0.000489 kg |
Chromium | 2.1e-09 kg |
Chromium VI | 5.44e-10 kg |
Chrysene | 5.65e-13 kg |
Cobalt | 3.98e-09 kg |
Copper | 1.42e-08 kg |
Dibenz(a,h)anthracene | 2.88e-12 kg |
Dioxins, measured as 2,3,7,8-tetrachlorodibenzo-p-dioxin | 9.43e-13 kg |
Fluoranthene | 4.72e-11 kg |
Fluorene | 4.28e-11 kg |
Hydrogen chloride | 6.63e-06 kg |
Indeno(1,2,3-cd)pyrene | 1.13e-12 kg |
Lead | 8.39e-08 kg |
Manganese | 5.74e-10 kg |
Mercury | 3.25e-08 kg |
Methane, dichloro-, HCC-30 | 5.18e-08 kg |
Methane, fossil | 8.79e-06 kg |
NMVOC, non-methane volatile organic compounds. | 5.59e-05 kg |
Nickel | 6.71e-09 kg |
Nitrogen oxides | 0.00109 kg |
PAH, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons | 1.27e-12 kg |
Particulates, > 10 um | 2.37e-05 kg |
Particulates, < 2.5 um | 6.5e-06 kg |
Particulates, > 2.5 um, and < 10um | 7.86e-06 kg |
Phenanthrene | 6.6e-10 kg |
Phosphorus | 3.48e-13 kg |
Pyrene | 3.44e-11 kg |
Selenium | 1.98e-09 kg |
Sulfur dioxide | 0.000392 kg |
Thallium | 1.3e-08 kg |
Tin | 9.05e-09 kg |
Vanadium | 4.97e-09 kg |
Water | 0.000294 m3 |
Zinc | 6.34e-08 kg |
Arsenic, ion | 1.29e-10 kg |
Cadmium, ion | 2.59e-11 kg |
Chromium, ion | 5.18e-11 kg |
Copper, ion | 2.59e-11 kg |
Lead | 2.72e-11 kg |
Mercury | 2.72e-13 kg |
Nickel, ion | 2.59e-11 kg |
Phosphorus | 7.77e-11 kg |
Water | 0.00165 m3 |
Zinc, ion | 5.18e-11 kg |
Inert waste, for final disposal | 0.0001787 kg |
Municipal solid waste | 1.9013E-7 kg |
Production data of 1 kg of clinker.
This dataset was created as a weighted average of the regional clinker production activities. The activities end with the cooling of the produced clinker. It includes the whole manufacturing process to produce clinker (raw material provision, grinding and mixing; rotary kiln process), internal processes (transport, etc.) and for the infrastructure only the rotary kiln (material consumption) is taken into account [46]. No administration is included. Waste (as secondary fuel and raw material) enter the system without environmental burdens from upstream processes. After the production of clinker, cement was thereafter produced. Table 2 represents the production data of 1 kg of cement [47].
Inputs from Technosphere | Amount |
---|---|
Cement factory | 5.36e-11 unit |
Clinker | 0.902 kg |
Electricity, medium voltage | 0.0376 kWh |
Ethylene glycol | 0.00019 kg |
Gypsum, mineral | 0.0475 kg |
Limestone, crushed, for mill | 0.05 kg |
Steel, low-alloyed | 0.00011 kg |
Heat, waste | 0.135 MJ |
Production data of 1 kg of Portland cement.
The midpoint approach presents the results of the impact categories in 2 tiers i.e., characterization and normalization. Normalization is based on the normalization factor which is the annual percentage of damage per capital which is the combination of different impact categories. The normalization factor is highly subjective and often set by method or software producers. Therefore, only characterization will be analyzed in details in this study to reduce uncertainties and also for proper understanding.
Table 3 gives a better insight as the values are given based on the amount of impact for every 1 kg of OPC produced. Environmental impacts are categorized into 18 categories based on their contribution as seen. As said above, different impact categories have their own equivalence (units). The Global warming, terrestrial ecotoxicity and resource scarcity are the impact categories with the highest impacts. These Impact hotspots will further be analyzed to know the production process and substance causing these emissions and bringing about these environmental consequences.
S/N | Impact category | Unit | Portland cement |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Global warming | kg CO2 eq | 0.911 |
2 | Stratospheric ozone depletion | kg CFC 11 eq | 7.84E-8 |
3 | Ionization radiation | kBq Co-60 eq | 0.00127 |
4 | Ozone formation, Human health | kg NOx eq | 0.00145 |
5 | Fine particulate matter formation | kg PM2.5 eq | 0.000577 |
6 | Ozone formation, Terrestrial ecosystem | kg NOx eq | 0.00147 |
7 | Terrestrial acidification | kg SO2 eq | 0.0014 |
8 | Freshwater eutrophication | kg P eq | 1.16E-5 |
9 | Marine eutrophication | kg N eq | 3.56E-7 |
10 | Terrestrial ecotoxicity | kg 1,4-DCB | 0.438 |
11 | Freshwater ecotoxicity | kg 1,4-DCB | 9.92E-5 |
12 | Marine ecotoxicity | kg 1,4-DCB | 0.000383 |
13 | Human carcinogenic toxicity | kg 1,4-DCB | 0.00121 |
14 | Human non-carcinogenic toxicity | kg 1,4-DCB | 0.0153 |
15 | Land use | m2a crop eq | 0.00365 |
16 | Mineral resources scarcity | kg CU eq | 0.00464 |
17 | Fossil resources scarcity | kg oil eq | 0.0784 |
18 | Water consumption | m3 | 0.00185 |
Impact assessment table of 1 kg Portland cement using midpoint LCIA method.
Global warming brings about climate change which affects both human health and species. Table 3 shows that for every 1 kg of OPC produced, 0.911 kg of CO2 equivalent is emitted during the production process. This implies that there is a very high tendency of global warming when cement as low as 1 kg is produced as a result of enormous CO2 that is emitted. This result is further analyzed to know the production process and substances causing this emission. Specification to process gives us information about the particular production process that contributes to the impact category and specification to substance gives the particular substance that is emitted or that affects the impact category. Tables 4 and 5 show the specification to substance and specification to process respectively. While the former gives insight to the particular amount of CO2 emitted and the CO2 equivalent, the latter shows the particular production process that produces these emissions.
S/N | Substance | Portland cement (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all compartment | 100 | |
Remaining substances | 0.102 | |
1 | Carbon dioxide, fossil | 97.1 |
2 | Methane, fossil | 2.61 |
3 | Dinitrogen monoxide | 0.156 |
Specification to substance of global warming.
S/N | Process | Portland cement (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all processes | 100 | |
Remaining processes | 2.8 | |
1 | Clinker production | 85.6 |
2 | Diesel, Burned in building machine | 2.8 |
3 | Electricity high voltage | 6.7 |
4 | Heat | 2.11 |
Specification to process of carbon dioxide (fossil) in global warming.
Table 4 shows that 97.l% of CO2 is produced while less than 3% are other gases. Table 5 shows that 85.6% of 97.1% CO2 seen as in Table 2 was produced during clinker production phase of 1 kg of OPC that was produced. The specification to process of global warming in Table 6 shows that 83.2% of clinker production brings about global warming.
S/N | Substance | Portland cement (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all processes | 100 | |
Remaining processes | 15.23 | |
1 | Clinker production | 83.2 |
2 | Diesel, Burned in building machine | 0.519 |
3 | Electricity high voltage | 0.418 |
4 | Heat | 1.41 |
Specification to process of global warming.
Terrestrial ecotoxicity affects terrestrial species and it is measured by the quantity of 1,4-dichlorobenzene (DCB) produced. Table 1 shows that for every 1 kg of OPC produced, 0.4381 kg of 1,4 DCB equivalent is produced to the terrestrial body. The specification to substance of terrestrial ecotoxicity that contributed to the overall amount of DCB with 61.5% of copper is shown in Table 7. The rest of the percentage comes from heat/power generation, ammonia emission, break wear emissions, electricity and some other with minimal emissions. Table 8 shows the contribution of different stages of production with copper having the highest percentage of 38.72% while Clinker and brake wear emissions, lorry are 16.6% and 16.47% respectively. The rest of the percentage comes from heat/power generation, ammonia emission, electricity and some other with minimal emissions.
S/N | Substance | Cement portland (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all compartments | 100 | |
Remaining substances | 0.083 | |
1 | Beryllium | 0.22 |
2 | Cadmium | 1.06 |
3 | Chromium | 0.208 |
4 | Cobalt | 0.149 |
5 | Copper | 61.5 |
6 | Lead | 2.56 |
7 | Mercury | 11 |
8 | Nickel | 7.53 |
9 | Selenium | 0.34 |
10 | Thallium | 0.158 |
11 | Tin | 0.301 |
12 | Vanadium | 7.06 |
13 | Zinc | 7.77 |
Specification to substance of terrestrial ecotoxicity.
S/N | Process | Cement portland (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all compartments | 100 | |
Remaining processes | 9.74 | |
1 | Ammonia, liquid | 0.949 |
2 | Brake wear emissions, lorry | 16.47 |
3 | Clinker | 16.6 |
4 | Copper | 38.72 |
5 | Diesel burned in building machine | 0.742 |
6 | Electricity (high voltage) | 2.093 |
7 | Ferronickel, 25% Ni | 2.92 |
8 | Heat | 2.482 |
9 | Heavy fuel oil | 1.44 |
10 | Zinc | 1.13 |
Specification to process of terrestrial ecotoxicity.
Fossil resource scarcity results to unavailability of fuel resources such as oil, gas and coal energy. It thereby increases the cost of available ones. It is measured by the quantity of oil produced per 1 kg of OPC produced. Table 9 shows that crude oil (43.7%), coal (43.2%) and natural gas (13.1%) are substances that are used up which eventually result into scarcity. Table 10 shows almost the same result with 41.57% Petroleum, Coal 37% and Natural gas 8.22%.
S/N | Substance | Portland cement (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all compartments | 100 | |
1 | Coal | 43.21 |
2 | Gas, natural/m3 | 13.1 |
3 | Oil, crude | 43.7 |
4 | Peat | 0.00681 |
Specification to substance of fossil resource scarcity.
S/N | Process | Cement portland (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all processes | 100 | |
Remaining processes | 11.6 | |
1 | Hard coal | 37.01 |
2 | Lignite | 1.6 |
3 | Natural gas | 8.22 |
4 | Petroleum | 41.57 |
Specification by process of fossil resource scarcity.
This approach presents several impact categories which is further classified into their various damage categories. The analysis in this approach is majorly on the AoSL (damage category). It also shows impacts at different categories but eliminates other aspects without the knowledge of emission factors [37]. Table 11 give the characterization result of the analysis of 1 kg of OPC. This presents 22 environmental impact categories with three specific damage units based on their effects.
S/N | Impact category | Unit | Portland cement |
---|---|---|---|
1. | Global warming, Human health | DALY | 8.45E-7 |
2. | Stratospheric ozone depletion | DALY | 4.16E-11 |
3. | Ionizing radiation | DALY | 1.08E-11 |
4. | Ozone formation Human health | DALY | 1.32E-9 |
5. | Water consumption Human health | DALY | 2.69E-9 |
6. | Fine particulate Formation | DALY | 3.62E-7 |
7. | Human carcinogenic toxicity | DALY | 4.02E-9 |
8. | Human non-carcinogenic toxicity | DALY | 3.49E-9 |
9. | Global warming, Terrestrial ecosystems | Species/yr | 2.55E-9 |
10. | Global warming, Freshwater ecosystems | Species/yr | 6.97E-14 |
11. | Ozone formation Terrestrial ecosystems | Species/yr | 1.89E-10 |
12. | Terrestrial acidification | Species/yr | 2.96E-10 |
13. | Freshwater Eutrophication | Species/yr | 7.74E-12 |
14. | Marine Eutrophication | Species/yr | 6.05E-16 |
15. | Terrestrial ecotoxicity | Species/yr | 4.99E-12 |
16. | Freshwater ecotoxicity | Species/yr | 6.88E-14 |
17. | Marine ecotoxicity | Species/yr | 4.02E-14 |
18. | Land use | Species/yr | 3.24E-11 |
19. | Water consumption, Terrestrial ecosystems | Species/yr | 1.72E-11 |
20. | Water consumption, Aquatic ecosystems | Species/yr | 1.17E-11 |
21. | Mineral Resource scarcity | USD2013 | 0.00107 |
22. | Fuel resource scarcity | USD2013 | 0.022 |
Impact assessment of 1 kg Portland cement using endpoint LCIA method.
The characterization result of the impact assessment represented in Table 11 gives insight into each of the impacts in the damage category with the individual units of the impact showing what is affected. With their units in view, these impact categories were thereafter classified into their damage categories. This is represented in Table 12.
S/N | Damage category | Unit | Portland cement (%) |
---|---|---|---|
1 | Human health | DALY | 1.22E−6 |
2 | Ecosystem | Species/yr | 3.1E−9 |
3 | Resources | USD2013 | 0.0231 |
Damage assessment of 1 kg Portland cement using endpoint LCIA method.
The damage assessment as shown in Table 12 gives a summary of the damage category each of the impact categories in the characterization falls under, which are Human health, Ecosystem and Resources. Human health has a value of 1.22E−6 DALY, Ecosystem of 3.1E−9 species/yr., Resources of 0.0231 USD 2013.
Thus, further detailed analysis was carried out on the damage assessment. The specification to process of human health as shown in Table 13 reveals that 70.1% of the damage caused on human health is from the clinker production process. Others are from energy generation: diesel (4.02%), electricity (11.1%), hard coal (4.9%), heat (4.5%) and transportation (1%). This is as a result of the emission of primary gases such as CO2, SO2, NO2, particulate matter and water. The specification to substance presented in Table 14 shows that 67.3% of the damage is as a result of CO2 emission with other substances such as Nitrogen oxides (8.23%), Sulfur dioxide (12.2%), particulate matter <2.5 μm (9.01%), water (2.5%).
S/N | Process | Portland cement (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all processes | 100 | |
Remaining processes | 4.38 | |
1 | Clinker | 70.1 |
2 | Diesel burned in building machine | 4.02 |
3 | Electricity, high voltage | 11.1 |
4 | Hard coal mine operation | 4.9 |
5 | Heat, district, or industrial | 4.5 |
6 | Transport freight | 1 |
Specification to process of human health.
S/N | Substance | Portland cement (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all compartment | 100 | |
Remaining substances | 0.79 | |
1 | Carbon dioxide, fossil | 67.3 |
2 | Nitrogen Oxides | 8.23 |
3 | Particulates, <2.5 μm | 9.01 |
4 | Sulfur dioxide | 12.2 |
5 | Water | 2.5 |
Specification to substance of human health.
Also, the specification to process of the damage to the ecosystem summarized in Table 15 opined that 77.8% of the total damage to the ecosystem originates from the clinker production process as observed in the case of human health, a large portion of the remaining percentage is from energy generation (Diesel is 1.81%, electricity 7.7%, hard coal 2.8%, heat 2.6%) during which primary gases (CO2, SO2, NO2) are emitted; 2.2% is from transportation. The Specification to substance analysis of damage to the ecosystem is presented in Table 16. CO2 constitutes the highest emission percentage which is 79.9%, and other substances constitute the rest of the percentages. These other substances are Nitrogen oxides, constituting 9.48%, Sulfur dioxide is 5.6%, methane 2.1%, water 1.2%. These emissions are often emitted into the water body and the environment (air).
S/N | Process | Portland cement (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all processes | 100 | |
Remaining processes | 5.09 | |
1 | Clinker | 77.8 |
2 | Diesel burned in building machine | 1.81 |
3 | Electricity, high voltage | 7.7 |
4 | Hard coal mine operation | 2.8 |
5 | Heat (Natural gas) | 2.6 |
6 | Transport, freight | 2.2 |
Specification to process of ecosystems.
S/N | Substance | Portland cement (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all compartment | 100 | |
Remaining substances | 1.72 | |
1 | Carbon dioxide, fossil | 79.9 |
2 | Nitrogen Oxides | 9.48 |
3 | Sulfur dioxide | 5.6 |
4 | Methane | 2.1 |
5 | Water | 1.2 |
Specification to substance of ecosystems.
Table 17 presents specification to process of damage to resources. This shows that the major resource deletion is from Petroleum (65.8%), natural gas (11.3%), hard coal (8.8%), clay (4.2%) and the specification to substance; Table 18 revealed the same substances as well.
S/N | Process | Portland cement (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all processes | 100 | |
Remaining processes | 0.6 | |
1 | Clay | 4.1 |
2 | Hard coal | 11.8 |
3 | Natural gas, | 16.7 |
4 | Petroleum production, on-shore | 66.8 |
Specification to process of resources.
S/N | Substance | Portland cement (%) |
---|---|---|
Total of all compartment | 100 | |
Remaining substances | 0.473 | |
1 | Clay | 4.19 |
2 | Coal, hard | 11.4 |
3 | Gas, natural/m3 | 16 |
4 | Oil, crude | 67.9 |
Specification to substance of resources.
The characterization result of the midpoint analysis as presented in Table 3 shows that the impact category: global warming is as a result of 0.911 kg of CO2 eq emitted into the air. The consequential effect of global warming is the change in the climatic conditions. Several studies that have been carried out estimated the impact of climatic changes from the production of cement within the range of 0.628 kg CO2 eq −0.920 kg CO2 eq (though their evaluation was with respect to 1ton of cement proceed) per kg of cement produced [10, 24, 35, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52]. Ozone formation, Human health and Ozone formation, Terrestrial ecosystem are as a result of 0.00145 kg NOx eq and 0.00147 respectively per kg of OPC. This impact category is measured with NOx emission into the air and also showed it affects human beings. This is one of the main air pollutants which when react with atmospheric air to produce nitrogen dioxide in which its high concentration in human body when inhaled has both direct and indirect effect on humans. It causes death in species and causes health complication on human. 0.000577 kg PM2.5 eq causes Fine particulate matter formation impact for 1 kg of OPC produced. This means that particulate matter with sizes less than 2.5 micrometer is emitted into air. Due to the small sizes of this particle, they have the ability to go through the nasal cavity of human and affect the lungs and other health issues. This value of fine particulate matter in this study is in line with values in literature within the range of 0.00023–0.0015 kg PM2.5 eq per kg of OPC [36, 52]. The result of terrestrial acidification in this study is 0.0014 SO2 eq and is in line with result of Li et al. (2015) which was in the range 1.144–1.467 kg SO2 eq per kg of OPC [35]. SOx emission is often from the burning of fuel with high Sulfur content and it has high tendency to cause acid rain and other health issues. Emission of 0.00127 kBq Co-60 eq give rise to Ionization radiation. 1 kg of OPC produced emits 0.00127 kilo-Becquerel of Cobalt 60 eq.; this can cause acute radiation, sick burn and even death. Table 3 also showed that per kg of OPC produced, about 0.455 kg 1,4 DCB eq of different toxicity is emitted in to air and water. 1,4 DCB eq represents 1,4 dichlorobenzene equivalents. This is higher than values found in literature. This might be due to energy sources and fossil fuel mix [48, 53]. High toxicity in the environment (air and waterbodies) have effect on both human and ecosystem. Its health implication is wide-ranging and often times terminal. Pandemic in the aquatic community is often time traced to toxicity. Water consumption during the production of cement is 0.00185 m3: it was found to be comparable with that of Tun et al. and Chen et al. which was within 0.00019-0.00187 m3 [52, 53]. Also 0.0784 kg oil eq of Fossil resources scarcity is expected for every 1 kg of OPC produced. This resonates with the value from the study of [48, 53] with values ranging from 0.07 to 0.234 kg oil eq.; the three impacts categories with high environmental impacts are human health, terrestrial ecotoxicity and Fossil resources scarcity. In order to understand and recognize key factors responsible for these major impact categories, a further contribution analysis was carried out to show that exact substances and process stage contributing to these impacts and their level of contribution.
Global warming impact category results from the emission of 0.911 kg of CO2 eq as seen in Table 3. The exact substances that give rise to 0.911 kg of CO2 eq is as represented in Table 4. As presented in this table, 97.1% of 0.911 is from actual emission of CO2 i.e., 0.885 kg of CO2 is emitted per kg of OPC produced. The remaining 0.026 kg of CO2 eq is from the emission of CH4 and N2O. These gases (CO2, CH4 and N2O) are major GHGs, though N2O and CH4 have high capacities to cause global warming: about 25 and 300 respectively, the larger emission of CO2 cause explains why it’s the major greenhouse gas that give rise to global warming and consequently climatic changes. The production processes in which these emissions are produced are as presented in Table 5. 83.2% of 0.911 kg CO2 eq is from the clinker production phase (both from calcination and burning of fuel) i.e., 0.758 kg of CO2 eq is produced at the clinker production phase and the remaining 0.153 kg of CO2 eq is from various energy sources. A further analysis on co2 emission represented in Table 6 reveals that 85.6% of the total CO2 emitted during the production of 1 kg of cement (0.885 kg) is emitted at the clinker production phase i.e., 0.75.8 kg of CO2 is emitted at the clinker production stage. Recall that 0.758 kg of CO2 eq is produced at the clinker production phase. This further analysis therefore shows that 0.76 kg of actual CO2 emitted per kg of OPC produced is from clinker production stage. These results are comparable with that of most studies though the result of this study is lower that Stanford’s result [48]. In this case more emissions of CO2 are experienced in burning of fuels for the road transportation of clinker. Clinker used for the production of cement in this Brazilian cement plant are imported and on-road transportation being one of the major pollutants and CO2 emitters, higher carbon footprint from this cement plant is inevitable.
Terrestrial ecotoxicity impact category as presented in Table 3 is as a result of emission of 0.4381 kg of DCB equivalent which is produced into air. Tables 7 and 8 represent further analysis to know the exact substance and production process respectively contributing to this impact. Table 7 helps us to know that these impacts are as a result of emissions of heavy metals into the air. Copper has the highest value of 61.5% of all these metals and they all have different effects on both human and the ecosystem having established that whatever affects human affects the ecosystem and vice versa. Table 8 on the other hand showed the production processes in which the emissions are produced. This shows that the raw material extraction stage (copper production), clinker production and the transportation (break wear emission, lorry) have the highest percentage contributions while others are majorly from energy sources and raw material extraction.
Fossil resource scarcity shows results represent the potential lack of scarcity that can be experienced per kilogram of cement produced. From Table 3, 0.0784 kg oil eq becomes scarce per kg OPC produced. This because 43.21% of coal, 43.1% of oil, 13.1% of natural gas are burnt during the production of 1 kg of OPC. This is represented in Table 9. These substances are used up at the energy generation phase (in this case are hard coal, petroleum, lignite and natural gas) of the cement production process as represented in Table 10.
Endpoint analysis categorizes the numerous impact categories into their damage categories based on the effects caused. This is represented in Table 11. Further analysis was carried out to show the exact substances production process stage contributing to these damage categories and their level of contribution. Damage to Human health as represented in Table 11 has a value of 1.22E−6 DALY per kg of OPC produced. As seen in the midpoint analysis, clinker production stage has high contribution; in Table 13, clinker production contributes immensely to the damage of human health: 70.1% of damage to human health is from the clinker production process, 24.52% is from energy generation (electricity and fossil fuel) and 1% is from transportation. The substances that are emitted in this production process stages that cause this damage is represented in Table 14. Again, just as in the midpoint analysis, CO2 emission has high contribution; 67.3% of CO2 emission causes damage to human health, other substances are Nitrogen oxides (8.23%), Sulfur dioxide (12.2%), particulate matter <2.5 μm (9.01%), water (2.5%); each of which have respective implications on human health.
Damage to Ecosystem as recorded in Table 11 has a value of 3.1E−9 species/yr. per kg of OPC produced. Tables 15 and 16 show the result of analysis of substance and process responsible for damage to ecosystem respectively. 77.8% of damage to Ecosystem is from the clinker production stage and other production stages are energy generation and transportation. 79.9 of CO2 gas is emitted and thereby cause damage to the ecosystem and other substances such as Nitrogen oxides: 9.48%, Sulfur dioxide 5.6%, methane 2.1% and water 1.2%. Again, this established the fact that whatever will affect ecosystem will affect human health and vice-versa. Table 11 showed that the potential marginal price increase of Resources per kg of OPC produced is 0.0231 USD (2013). This means that every resource used to produce 1 kg of OPC, poses an increase in the price of those resources by 0.0231 USD (2013). Further analysis to know what these resources are presented in Table 18 shows that they are crude oil (67.9%), natural gas (16%), hard coal (11.4%) and clay (4.19%). The result of the specification to process represented in Table 17 shows that about the same percentage amount of the substance is used in the energy generation stage and resource extraction (clay).
The result of the endpoint analysis is comparable with results of literature with CO2 emission and the clinker production stage being the highest contributors [52, 53]. There is variation in the resources of Chen et al. and Tun et al., this is because coal was the major source of fossil fuel for the production of cement.
This study carried out a LCA assessment on 1 kg of OPC so as to analyze the environmental impact of cement production using both the midpoint (process-oriented) and endpoint (damage-oriented) approaches. The production process modeled after the rest of the world excluding China, India, Europe, US and Switzerland; therefore, dataset modeled after the world was used to carry out the assessment. This dataset was extracted from Ecoinvent database incorporated in the SimaPro 9.0.49 software was used for this study.
In the midpoint assessment, characterization result showed the impact of 18 impact categories. The top three with highest impacts: global warming (0.911 kg CO2 eq), terrestrial ecotoxicity (0.438 kg 1,4-DCB), and fossil resources scarcity (0.0784 kg oil eq) were further analyzed. Global Warming has the highest environmental impact of 0.911 kg CO2 eq. Global warming is often times a result of high GHG emission and its effect is seen in changes in climatic conditions. Further analysis on this impact category shows 88.5 kg out of 0.911 kg CO2 eq is the actual CO2 gas emitted and 75.6 kg out of 88.5 kg of CO2 was emitted from the clinker production phase. This shows that clinker production is the production phase that contributes the most to global warming. In the analysis of terrestrial ecotoxicity, result showed that numerous heavy metals that that are emitter into the air are great contributors to this impact category; few of these metals with high values are copper (61.5%), Mercury (11%), zinc (7.77%), nickel (7.53%), vanadium (7.06%). These metals are emitted at the raw material extraction, energy generation and transportation production phases. Fossil resource scarcity shows that the most used resources are coal, crude oil and natural gas and they are maximally used at the energy generation production stage.
In the endpoint assessment, characterization result showed the impact of 22 impact categories. These impacts were further classified into three damage categories based on area of significance to life (AoSL): human health, ecosystem and resources with values of 1.22E−6 DALY, 3.1E−9 species/yr. and 0.0231 USD2013 respectively. Disability-adjusted life years (DALY) represents the years of life spent or years of life damaged because of environmental impacts. Species/yr. denotes the species lost within a year in water bodies and the environment as a whole; USD2013 represent the currency used for the monetary value of economic loss leading to increase in prices as a result of continuous extraction of resources. Analysis of the damage to human health category showed that 67.3% of the damage to human health is as a result of emission of CO2 while the rest are from NOx, so2 ch4, particulates mater <2.5 μm and water; 70.1% of these emissions was from clinker production stage while the rest was for energy generation and transportation. The same trend was observed in the analysis of damage to ecosystem; 79.9% of the damage to ecosystem was found to be as a result of co2 emission while the rest are from NOx, SO2 CH4, methane and water; 77.8% of these emissions was from clinker production stage while the rest was for energy generation and transportation. This thereby establishes the fact that whatever will affect human health will equally affect ecosystem. As also seen in the midpoint emission, clinker production is the production phase has the highest contribution to impact consequently causing damage and CO2 is the most significant pollutant. The analysis of resources shows that the resources that are maximally used are from the energy generation production phase and they are: crude oil (67.9%), natural gas (16%), hard coal (11.4%) and clay (4.19%). This shows that petroleum is the main fossil fuel used for the production of OPC.
The outcome reveals that emission from clinker production contributed immensely to global warming and consequently damage to human health and ecosystem. This study concludes that production processes with impact hotspots are clinker production and energy generation (fossil fuel and electricity) and the major pollutant is CO2 gas emission. The result of this study is in line with other similar studies (including those that do not implement the 2 approaches) carried out but there is variation in the result of the resources because of variation in the fossil fuel sources used for energy generation. Finally, it is recommended that using alternative fuels in place of fossil fuels can be a means to reduce the pressure on fossil resources. Incorporation of best available techniques (BAT) in cement production process, partial replacement of clinker constituent with pozzolans like fly ash are other strategies to reducing impact of cement production. Also, CO2 gas emitted can be trapped, stored and used as input for industrial processes which will reduce global warming impact. Further study is the sensitivity analysis of environmental impacts of cement when alternative fuel and materials are used.
The authors gratefully acknowledge Durban university of technology for an enabling environment. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Authors declare that there is no conflict of interest with respect to the study.
LCA | Life cycle assessment |
LCIA | Life cycle impact assessment |
OPC | Ordinary Portland Cement |
BAT | Best available techniques |
ISO | International Standard Organization |
LCI | Life Cycle Inventory |
ReCiPe | an acronym for the developers: RIVM, Radboud University, CML and PRé Consultants |
1,4 DCB | 1,4-dichlorobenzene |
AoSL | Area of significance to life. |
DALY | Disability-adjusted life years |
Prolonged droughts, increased floods and frequent extreme weather events are evidence of climate change, as a consequence of global warming [1]. Agriculture is adapting to the variability in global climatic conditions, with farmers continually developing strategies to respond to changing weather patterns [2]. Aromatic and medicinal plants are among those plants which are negatively affected by climate change [3]. In addition, there is a concern over climate change affecting the secondary metabolites of many medicinal and aromatic plants [4]. Hailstorms are one of the most common global natural disasters [5], and temperate zones seem especially prone to hailstorm events [6]. To date, there is no recorded data for the impact of hail damage on essential oil plants; however, it was reported that hail causes substantial damage to aromatic plants [7, 8].
Changes in the secondary metabolites of essential oil plants vary depending on the type of damage incurred by the plant [9]. Hail wounding on these plants affect specific aromatic and therapeutic attributes that make these plants economically important [10]. It has also been shown that hail damage, mechanical damage, and insect herbivory cause essential oil compound changes [10]. For example, hail damage simulation through leaf puncturing resulted in reduced menthone levels and increased pulegone concentrations in muña (
A common mitigation strategy for the loss in yield caused by hail damage is crop insurance [11]. Globally, crop insurance against hail damage can be purchased for most commercial plants, but not for essential oil crops [12]. Other alternative strategies include the construction of hail nets as a preventative measure against hail damage. However, this strategy is often unfeasible as the high construction and maintenance costs require more herbage material to produce sufficient essential oil to recover these costs. This, in turn, requires more land for production. Some farmers increase the application of nitrogen after hail to facilitate the formation of new leaves and buds [13]. It has been reported that increased nitrogen fertilization increases rose geranium herbage material [14]; however, the essential oil quality is reduced (based on the ISO standard) [15]. In temperate regions where hail frequencies are high, agro-meteorologists implement strategies, such as hail forecasting and cloud seeding, to reduce the extent of hail damage [11].
Hail is a natural hazard that can cause significant loss to crop yields [16]. Hailstones larger than 8.4 mm in diameter can result in defoliation, which, in turn, initiates cell division and the synthesis of cellular components [6]. Such wounding can also lead to stress that affects plant growth and metabolic activities [10]. To produce a stress-response and recover metabolic functions, plants rely on the crosstalk between phytohormones [9]. Biostimulants are also used in the agricultural industry to mitigate against these types of biotic and abiotic stresses [17].
Plants perform unique functions in plant development and stress repair, as well as improving the primary and secondary metabolite content of plants, which directly affects the essential oil biosynthesis and quality [18]. Exogenous applications of natural and synthetic biostimulants have consistently demonstrated growth enhancement, yield and quality optimization, as well as physiological efficiency in plants [19, 20]. Phytohormones are involved in diverse plant physiological processes, including the regulation of gene expression for adaptive responses to biotic and abiotic stresses [21]. Primary biostimulants include auxins, abscisic acid (ABA), cytokinins (CKs), gibberellic acids (GAs) and ethylene [22]. Secondary biostimulants include jasmonates and its analogues (methyl jasmonate, MeJA), brassinosteroids (BRs), salicylic acid, polyamines, sterols, and dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol glucosides [22]. There is currently no specific hail-mitigation strategy for most medicinal and aromatic crops, and the effects of potential hailstorm damage on essential oil and aromatic plants, as well as mitigation and control mechanisms, require further investigation by researchers.
Extreme climatic conditions can lead to significant losses in the agricultural sector [2]. These losses have drastically increased, by at least 400% from 1960 to 2005 [5, 23, 24]. Hailstorms are one of the most common global natural disasters [5], and temperate zones seem especially prone to hailstorm events [6]. The following review focusses on hailstorm as one of the natural disasters responsible for crop loss and damage.
Hail is defined as precipitation in the form of small pellets, or pieces of ice, which vary in size from 0.5 mm to 100 mm [25]. Hail can cause extensive damage to growing crops and other vegetation [26]. Hail formation takes place in elongated convective cumulonimbus clouds, which are often associated with thunderstorms [6]. Severe hail-related losses result from hailstones above H2 size [27]. Hailstones above H2 cause defoliation, tearing, bruising, breaking, and the loss of stems and flowers [26]. Such wounding can also lead to plant stress, which affects growth and metabolic activities [28]. This can further predispose plants to disease outbreaks since wounds provide an entry point for plant pathogens [28].
The extent of hail damage depends on several factors, such as the number of hailstones per unit area, wind velocity [6], and hailstone size [29]. Changnon [29] and Fernandes et al. [24], reported that hail damage differs extensively among plant species, and is influenced by several factors, such as plant height, and leaf and stem morphology. Certain plant species, e.g. soybean (
Plants also respond differently to wounding stress following hail damage. Physical wounding of plant tissue resulting from hail damage and defoliation initiates a cascade of biochemical or physiological processes, which results in the repair of damaged tissue and resistance to opportunistic pests and pathogens [31]. Such alterations occur both in the tissue immediately surrounding the wound, and in distal tissue not directly in contact with the damaged tissue [31]. At the wound site, cell division and the synthesis of cellular components that are required to isolate the damaged tissue, reduce water loss, and restore tissue integrity, is initiated [31]. In leaves, wounding also induces the synthesis and accumulation of anti-microbial compounds, and in the specific case of damage caused by herbivory, volatile metabolites are released to deter pests and attract their predators and parasitoids [31].
Hail damage hinders plant growth, and affects the yield and quality by changing the cellular metabolic processes [4]. Defoliation and wounding stress in plants results in a knock-back effect that reduces the assimilation of carbon, ultimately affecting the rate of photosynthesis [4]. This stress stimulates the production of bio-inhibitors, reactive oxygen species levels, transient Ca2+ influxes into the cytoplasm, and protein phosphorylation. It also causes irreversible injury to cells and tissue that eventually slows growth [32]. This has been reported in potato plants (
The local and systemic plant responses activate and regulate defense mechanisms for localized tissue damage, such as those resulting from hail damage [36]. Plants can also positively adapt with altered growth habits to contradict the damaging effects of hail [4]. Thus, the responses are both reversible and irreversible modifications, such as cell division, alterations of membrane channels, and a change in the structure of the cell wall [4]. This has been demonstrated with muña (
Phytohormones are molecules that influence the growth and development of plants, even at low concentrations. There are phytohormones which are produced naturally by plants, as well as synthetic regulators, which are have been produced in biotechnology research as biostimulants [9]. Biostimulants are used in global crop production to improve field competitiveness, nutrient use efficiency, and stress resistance in plants [37]. Most biostimulants and their products are extracted from algae, arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi, chitin and chitosan derivatives, fulvic and humic acids, synthetic phytohormones, natural plant extracts and the magnetic field as a growth stimulant for plant species [37, 38]. Exogenous applications of natural and synthetic biostimulants enhance growth, increase oil yield and quality, as well as improving physiological efficiency in plants [37]. This section focuses on the use of biostimulants to recover defoliated, wounded, and hail-damaged plants.
Plant metabolic activities are regulated by phytohormones [39]. Phytohormones are produced naturally by plants and are small organic molecules which, at low endogenous concentrations (10−6 M to 10−9 M), induce metabolic activities within plant cells to modify growth and development [22]. However, synthetic chemicals, with the same properties and effects as natural phytohormones, can be produced [9]. A key research objective in plant biotechnology is to recognize the mechanism used by plants to respond to and overcome different environmental stressors [4]. Phytohormones are classified as either plant growth regulators (CK, GA, BRs, and auxins) or as bio-inhibitors (ABA, jasmonates, and salicylic acid) [20]. Phytohormones are involved in a number of diverse plant physiological processes, including the regulation of gene expression for adaptive responses to biotic and abiotic stress [21] and in wound healing [4, 17].
Primary phytohormones include auxins, ABA, CK, GA, and ethylene [40]. Other naturally occurring phytohormonal-like molecules include jasmonates, BRs, salicylic acid, polyamines, sterols, and dehydrodiconiferyl alcohol glucosides [40]. Phytohormones alter metabolic activities associated with cell division, cell enlargement, flowering, fruiting, and seed formation. Nemhauser et al. [19] found that exogenous applications of phytohormones regulate plant growth, and greatly influence plant stature and organ size. Bio-inhibitors are involved in the alleviation of biotic and abiotic stress that results from wounding, moisture stress, and temperature stress [20].
Phytohormones promote growth and development, the production of secondary metabolites, as well as bio-inhibition, due to the extensive crosstalk and signal integration which affects the plants physio-morphological chemistry [9]. The recovery mechanism of defoliated, wounded, and hail-damaged plants has provided the rationale for investigating the potential of phytohormone application in this chapter. The following section examines the effects of natural and synthetic ABA, jasmonates, BRs, CK and GA on plant growth and development, and changes in primary and secondary metabolite biosynthesis of essential oil plants.
Abscisic acid is a stress-signaling molecule, found to occur in all kingdoms, except Archea. The effect of foliar applications of ABA on plant growth is dependent on the plant species [41]. It is a crucial regulator of important plant processes, including resilience to abiotic stressors, such as wounding, moisture, light, drought, and temperature [42]. Abscisic acid is also involved in primary plant growth development. This includes buffering the day-night alterations of leaf growth rate, and regulating stomatal movement and transpiration rate [43]. It also improves leaf growth by increasing tissue and whole-plant hydraulic conductivity [44]. Dammann et al. [45] found that hail damage, and defoliation causes increased levels of ABA in plants, which in turn activates the biosynthesis of jasmonates.
Abscisic acid is a C15 sesquiterpenoid, formed by the joining of three isoprenoid units [4, 41]. Abscisic acid occurs naturally as (S)-(+)-ABA, which is often called a cis isomer; a combination of 1:1
Transportation of ABA primarily occurs through the vascular tissues of plants [46]. However, ABA responds to abiotic stress through the cells [41]; this requires translocation from ABA-producing cells, via intercellular transport, to allow rapid distribution to other plant tissue [41]. Abscisic acid is ubiquitous in plants; the endogenous levels in plant cells determine its homeostasis [4]. However, developmental and environmental factors such as light, wounding, salinity, and water stress affect ABA concentration levels [4].
Abscisic acid is sensitive to direct sunlight and high temperatures, and rapidly deteriorates under these conditions [47]. Kong and Zhao [48] found that foliar-applied ABA elevates the aroma content of aromatic rice (
As well as direct involvement in plant growth and development, ABA has a significant role in the regulation of environmental stress. [50] reported that there are two distinct pathways responsible for the developmental and environmental stress regulatory processes. Responses to plant wounding includes the local response at the site of the wound, and the systemic response, which occurs throughout the whole plant [36]. The foliar concentrations of ABA applied to wounded plants varies from 0.001 mM to 1.5 mM solution per plant, with the optimal application rate and concentration differing between different crop species [48, 49, 51, 52].
Jasmonates and their methyl ester, MeJA, are natural-occurring growth regulators found in higher plants [53]. Jasmonates were first discovered and isolated from a culture of the fungus
Jasmonates are present throughout the plant body, with the highest concentration in growing tissues such as shoot tips, root tips, immature fruits, and young leaves [54]. Jasmonate biosynthesis in plants ranges from 0.01 μg/g to 3 μg/g in fresh mass [54]; however, it has been found to be as high as 95 μg/g in fresh mass of sagebrush (
Jasmonates, along with their derivatives, control various aspects of plant growth and development, such as stamen development, root development, flowering, and leaf senescence [55]. Jasmonates also induce a variety of physiological processes, such as seed germination, pollen development, ethylene synthesis, tuber formation, fruit ripening, and tendril coiling [56]. However, when applied exogenously, jasmonates can modulate stress by either enhancing or suppressing plant development [57].
Jasmonates also activate a signal transduction pathway in response to different kinds of stress [57]. Plant responses to abiotic stresses, such as wounding, are coordinated both locally and systemically by jasmonate signaling molecules [56]. In addition, there is a causal link between wounding and jasmonates; wounding causes the release of linoleic acid, a jasmonate precursor, from the membrane lipids, in turn forming jasmonate [56]. Thus, the jasmonate signaling pathway involves signal transduction events that are regulated by wounding shock, especially in relation to leaf defoliation [56].
The molecular mechanism of crosstalk between growth and immune-signaling networks are regulated and mediated through biosynthetic pathways of phenylpropanoids, polyketides, terpenoids, and N-containing compounds, which are directly associated with jasmonates [58]. The effects of exogenously applied jasmonic acid on growth, changes in essential oil biosynthesis, and plants subjected to biotic and abiotic stresses has been tested [59, 60]. In a study conducted by [61], a high concentration of MeJA (1 mM) inhibited primary root growth of soybeans, while a low application concentration (0.01 μM) slightly stimulated root growth. Anderson [62] also reported that low levels (1 μM–10 μM) of MeJA alters protein and mRNA populations, without inducing senescence in cell culture, while a high concentration of jasmonic acid or MeJA (50 μM) induces senescence in cell culture, and slows the primary root growth of soybeans [61].
Methyl jasmonate applied at 0.5 mM increases the content of eugenol and linalool in basil plants compared to the control [63]. In another study, MeJA applied to bigleaf marsh-elder (
The effects of phytohomones are based on the synergism to improve the growth and development, as well as the recovery, resistance and survival of stressed plants [60, 69]. Phytohormones rarely function independently; they depend on a crosstalk network between their synergic and antagonistic metabolic processes [40]. Gibberellins primarily controls cell growth and division by stimulating the elongation of internodes [70]. In a study by [71], longer internodes and delayed flowering were observed in tomatoes treated with GA (5 mg/L), while plants treated with only CK (5 mg/L) formed no axillary buds. However, when GA and CK were combined, there was an increase in fresh matter [71]. This demonstrates that there is a possible interaction between the major biostimulants, with antagonistic relations, which improves plant growth and development. The crosstalk between GA and CK involves components from the GA biosynthesis pathways, which plays a central role in the regulation of plant growth and development [72]. Gibberellins and CKs are commonly used in agriculture, viticulture, gardens, and horticulture [73].
Cytokinin was first discovered in the early 1940s when coconut milk was added to aid cell division in tobacco plants [74]. All CKs are adenine derivatives and mostly occur as either free compounds, glucosides, or ribosides in the plant root system, particularly the root apex [44, 75]. According to [44], CK biosynthesis occurs through biochemical modification of dimethylallyl diphosphate, which is initiated through the transference of the isopentenyl moiety from dimethylallyl diphosphate to the N6 position of adenosine triphosphate, catalyzed by isopentenyl transferases. These form the isopentenyl transferases and the isoprene side chain, which is subsequently trans-hydroxylated by cytochrome P450 (CYP450) to yield zeatin ribosides [44]. The metabolic storage and transport of CK is not yet fully understood, however, it is hypothesized that transport takes place via the vascular tissue (particularly the xylem), from the roots to the shoots of the plant [76].
Commonly-used CKs for agricultural purposes include zeatin, kinetin, 6-Benzylaminopurine (BA and BAP), 2-isopentenyl adenine, zeatin riboside, and dihydro-zeatin [40, 77]. The main functional properties of CKs for agricultural use are the stimulation of cell division, release of lateral bud dormancy, the induction of adventitious bud formation, retarded leaf senescence, and the promotion of chlorophyll synthesis [78]. Exogenous application of CKs is currently used to optimize the internal concentrations of CKs for growth and development, organ regeneration after wounding damage, and changing the chemical compositions of essential oils [78].
Gibberellins were first isolated from the fungus,
Gibberellins are a large group of essential diterpenoid acids [73]. They are biosynthesized in shoot apices, young leaves, and flowers of plants, via the terpenoid pathway [81]. Biosynthesis of GA requires three enzymes viz., terpene synthase, CYP450s, and 2-oxoglutarate [81]. Gibberellins are transported through plants by means of the vascular tissues, xylem, and phloem [81].
The most common molecular mechanisms of GA signaling in plants is through the GA receptor, Gibberellin Insensitive Dwarf 1 (
Gibberellins are endogenous hormones functioning as biostimulants that influence a wide range of developmental processes in higher plants [72]. This includes plant growth and development through promoting leaf development, stem elongation, induction of seed germination, promotion of hypocotyls and stem elongation, regulation of pollen development, and flower initiation [81]. Some GA-deficient mutants can cause dwarfism [82]. Different types of GAs are used to achieve specific agronomic objectives, for example, anti-flowering GA7 and GA3 are commonly used for promoting germination, seed development, leaf development, and stem elongation [81].
Several studies have revealed a reciprocal developmental dependence between the two hormones, where the ratio between GA and CK affects the developmental processes of the plant [72]. Cato et al. [71] observed positive synergic crosstalk between GA and CK in tomatoes, and [75] reported that a combination of BA and GA induced longer tomato shoots, under different abiotic stress conditions. High CK and low GA signals are required for normal shoot apical meristem functioning [82]. In contrast to these findings, joint applications of GAs and CKs have been shown to exert antagonistic effects on numerous developmental processes, including shoot and root elongation, cell differentiation, shoot regeneration in culture, and meristem activity [83, 84]. Moreover, GA tends to inhibit CK-induced cell differentiation in plants [72]. This inhibition is attributed to the loss of the
Cytokinin activity is highest during early shoot initiation (controlling meristem activity) [85]; in contrast, GAs act at a later stage to regulate plant cell division and shoot elongation [84]. The GA biosynthetic pathway from trans-geranylgeranyl diphosphate to GA12-aldehyde, leads to the identification of positive and negative signaling components [72]. In Arabidopsis (
Changes in the ratios of GAs and CKs to both each other, and to other hormones, often results in distinct and divergent morphological features, such as dwarfism, contorted or twisted growth, weeping forms, or fastigiated and columnar forms [89]. In addition, the ratios may cause extra-large leaves or elongated stems, and extensive shoot proliferation, especially under less favorable environmental conditions. Weeping forms have been observed in spruce (
Brassinosteroids were named after the genus
The most effective BRs, which have been extracted from plants for agricultural use are brassinolide, castasterone, testosterone, and 6-deoxy castasterone [80]. Of all the BRs, brassinolide is biologically the most active [92]; it is ubiquitous in plants and is produced in almost all plant parts, where it controls growth and developmental processes [93]. Plants synthesize excess brassinolide to meet the continuous need for growth and development, while inactive brassinolide is converted into active forms to maintain BRs homeostasis [92].
Brassinosteroids are found in various plant species, including monoplast freshwater algae and brown algae, suggesting that they are ancient ubiquitous plant hormones [92]. Brassinosteroids are also found in pollen, immature seeds, roots, and flowers [91, 92]. They range from 1 to 100 ng/g fresh weight in flowers, while shoots and leaves have lower amounts of 0.01–0.1 ng/g fresh mass [91, 92]. Brassinosteroids are not mobile within plants, they function by paracrine or autocrine signaling; however, long-distance transport of exogenously-applied BRs does occur in plants, particularly from the roots to shoots, but foliar-applied BRs (24-epibrassinolde) are fixed in the leaves [92]. In addition, [94] reported high mobility of BRs in a plant system.
Brassinosteroids are involved in a wide variety of plant physiological activities. They regulate plant growth, at nanomolar to micromolar concentrations, for multiple developmental processes, including cell division, cell elongation, vascular differentiation, reproductive development, and modulation of gene expression [54]. High metabolic activity, associated with growth, has been observed in rape (
The application of BRs enhances plant biomass, secondary metabolites, antioxidant defense activities, and the accumulation of osmoprotectants under biotic and abiotic stress [93]. This has been demonstrated in soybean, where the application of 1 μmol/L BRs led to hypocotyl and epicotyl elongation. However, epicotyl elongation was affected by photoperiod, with no increase in length under dark conditions [95]. Therefore, BRs applied at higher concentrations (≥1 μmol/L) in dark-grown plants suppress shoot and root development [95]. Mung beans treated with the BR, 28-homobrasinolide, at 10−8 M, had increased leaf area, and plant height, as well as fresh and dry mass of shoots and roots over a 21-day growth period. This treatment also increased proline content [96]. The foliar fresh matter of corn mint (
In light of these studies, it is evident that BRs can have a significant impact on plant growth and development, and therefore on recovering the yield and essential oil quality parameters of defoliated, wounded, or hail-damaged plants. The role of BRs in the alleviation of various abiotic and biotic stressors, such as temperature, salinity, moisture, and heavy metal exposure has been reported [100].
Exogenous applications of synthetic biostimulants have been shown to consistently enhance growth, yield optimization and oil quality [60], as well as physiological efficiency in plants [19]. However, the production and availability of some synthetic phytohormones are expensive and not readily available. In addition, the practical use of these phytohormones is dependent on various environmental factors, such as temperature and light [101]. The use of synthetic biostimulants is a potential ecological hazard as they could pose a threat to the health of non-target organisms, especially when improperly used [90]. As such, the use of less harmful and cheaper bioactive stimulants are preferred over conventional synthetic phytohormones [80].
There are numerous commercially available bio-fertilizers, plant conditioners, allelopathic preparations, biogenic stimulators, elicitors, plant strengtheners, and biostimulants (Table 1). Most of these products are considered as biostimulants, containing biostimulants. However, [102] found that some biostimulants contain traces of natural phytohormones, but their biological action should not be attributed to them, unless registered as biostimulants.
Product | Composition | Citation |
---|---|---|
Gibberellic acid, BRs and traces of CKs | Agraforum, Germany | |
Brassinosteroids (2,4-epibrassinolide) | Agraforum, Germany | |
Brassinosteroids (2,4-epibrassinolide) | Agraforum, Germany | |
Ethyl esters of fatty acids | Agraforum, Germany | |
Cytokinin (Kinetin 0.01%) | [102] | |
Salicylic acid | Pan African Farms | |
Salicylic acid | Pan African Farms | |
Amino acids, betaines, proteins, vitamins, auxin, GA, and cytokinins | [69] | |
Algae extract, GAs, auxin and zeatin, and chelated micronutrients | [69] | |
N-fixing, and phosphate-mineralizing bacteria, and auxins | [69] | |
Seaweed extract, plant growth regulator, vitamins, free amino acids, and alginic acid | [69] | |
Natural plant extract with traces of phytohormones | [103] | |
Seaweed extract and traces of plant growth regulators | [103] | |
Complex biologically active substances of natural origin | [104] | |
Auxins and CK, amino acids, peptides, vitamins, and essential micronutrients | [105] |
Examples of commercial biostimulants containing phytohormones as declared on the labels.
Biostimulants products are developed based on the synergism between natural phytohormones [86, 87]. However, there are only a few published scientific reports on these products, since most industrial companies withhold information for market confidentiality purposes (examples in Table 1). Below are a few of the published reports to highlight the effects of registered biostimulants (containing traces of phytohormones) on plant growth, recovery, and resistance against stressors.
Application of biostimulants (undisclosed brand-name) containing GA (50 mg/L) and CK (90 mg/L) increased the number of leaves, flower heads and the total flavonoid content of marigold plants inflorescences [106]. Peppers (
The emission of magnetic fields (MFs) in the ecosystem due to ever changing and advancing technology has brought significant changes in the human and ecological environment [108]. In the modern days, the use of MFs as a stimulant for plant performance and capability has been far an interesting alternative method to chemical stimulants [109]. Magnetic fields have positively influenced the morphogenesis, showing great modification of seed germination, seedling growth and development in various plants such as cereals, grasses, medicinal plants, horticultural crops and herbs [38]. It is worth noting that MFs constitute non-toxic stimulus resulting in increased food and environmental safety. Application of MFs on crops has been seen to reduce the attack of pathogenic diseases [110]. Many studies have tried to understand the actual mechanism involved on how seeds germinate when exposed to MFs. Vashisth and Joshi [111] exposed seeds of maize to static-MFs for 4 h on strengths ranging from 50, 100, 150, 200 and 250 milliTesla (mT). The results suggested that MFs application enhance the seed percentage-germination, seedling length, dry weight and speed of germination when compared to the referent group. Furthermore, exposure to MFs reduced cellular leakage, improved water absorption and functional root parameters. Kirdan et al. [112] performed an interesting experiment by treating
Plants are outstanding experimental models compared to animals when conducting MFs exposure and response growth relationship studies. According to Vian et al. [113], they efficiently intercept with electromagnetic fields (EMFs) because of immobility and constant orientation. The benefit of magnetic seed germination has been seen in various biochemical events such as enzymatic stimulation, bioenergetic excitements and protein synthesis [110, 114]. Electrons in various molecules absorbs MF energy and utilize it for accelerating seed metabolism that triggers biochemical and enzyme reactions in the early stages of seed germination [115]. Afzal et al. [110] applied magnetic field strengths of 50, 100 and 150 mT for 5, 10 and 15 min on sunflower seed, and observed an increased α-amylase activity, with reduced sugar in high strength magnetically treated seeds. This confirms that magnetic treatment stimulates the protein synthesis of existing enzymes by producing germination metabolites at required amounts. Vashisth et al. [116] studied the effects of 200 mT for 2 h on crop growth and the yield of sunflower crops raised from magnetically treated seeds sown under different moisture stress conditions. The experimental results showed that plants from magnetically treated seeds had a higher leaf index area, chlorophyll content, 1000-seed mass, shoot length and biomass compared to untreated seeds. Magnetic field exposures in plants act as a stimulant in improving crop growth and yield under different ecological stress conditions.
The production and accumulation of essential oils is restricted to specialized structures (e.g. glandular trichomes, secretory cavities, and idioblasts) since they are toxic to healthy plant cells [9, 60]. The production of these essential oils takes place in closely connected secretory structure formations. It has been shown that biotic and abiotic stress factors affect essential oil production [9, 60]. In addition, plants produce some essential oil compounds in response to physiological stress, pathogen attack, and other ecological factors [60]. Therefore, it has a direct effect on the stimulation of the essential oil biosynthesis, which directly benefits essential oil yield and quality.
The recovery response mechanism of plants to hail damage, defoliation, wounding or grafting is complex, starting from upregulation of plant-stress hormones at the wound site, and later plant growth regulators to recover the lost organs [117, 118]. Therefore, the recovery of leaves following hail damage stress or related climate change affect the essential oil biosynthesis through the specialized structures called glandular trichomes, located on both surfaces of the leaf, and on tender stems and buds [52]. Moreover, [119] claimed that the densification of trichomes occurs as early as during leaf differentiation and continues throughout leaf development of
Trichomes play different roles in plant physiology and ecology, especially with regards to morphological, mechanical and phytochemical characteristics [120]. Trichome density may vary with changes in environmental conditions [120]. These variations may indicate trade-offs between the trichomes, subsequently increasing resistance against trichome production. In defoliated plants, the rate of leaf regeneration is slow, possibly due to the endogenous ratio between CK and GA, and regulated plant bio-inhibitors [45, 121]. In the study conducted by [122], increasing the level of combined CK and GA decreased the density of the non-glandular trichomes on rose geranium, particularly on the adaxial leaf surface. In addition, [119] reported that non-glandular trichomes develop before glandular trichomes in the leaf primordial of
A combination of endogenous development and external signals regulate the developmental distribution of trichomes on plant leaves [126]. Therefore, under extreme external stimuli, such as complete defoliation, endogenous phytohormones are only synchronized to regenerate lost material. This directly affects leaf expansion and trichome developmental rate. In the study conducted by [122], the development and densities of the asciiform trichome following simulated hail damage was due to high concentration of GA (300 mg/L), applied at a later stage, in contrast to CK (0.64 mg/L) which was used earlier. Zhou et al. [124, 125] reported similar findings in Arabidopsis, where GA and CK, at concentrations as low as 100 μM, increased the density of glandular trichomes. According to the author, this was ascribed to GA and CK molecules, which regulated the development of glandular trichome through the combined action of
Xue et al. [126] also demonstrated that the development of trichomes, and the biosynthesis of essential oil could be influenced by exogenous applications of BRs and jasmonic acid. According to [127], the
Defoliated plants deploy stored resources to rebuild photosynthetic material and regenerate new organs or tissues following defoliation and wounding [118, 130]. During the refoliation, it is possible that the endogenous CK content in defoliated plants is already too high; then GA accumulation occurred at the later stage to regulate growth. According to [89], the amalgamation of CK and GA following hail damage may cause alterations in morphological features, such as increased trichome density. Other than GA and CK, BRs and jasmonic acid directly affect trichome formation through the accumulation of
Plant chemistry (e.g. the essential oil and phytohormone content) is altered following mechanical damage, as caused by hail and/or animal herbivory [9]. Endogenous phytohormones are the primary inducible defense response for this class of volatiles, signaling to the transduction pathway between wounding stress perception and induction [36, 131]. These physiological response mechanisms occur within matter of minutes to several hours, resulting in the activation of wound-related defense genes [36].
According to [132], increased biomass and essential oil yield was recorded in rose geranium plants when biostimulants such as IAA, IBA, cycocel, cytozyne, biomyze, thephon, mepiquat chloride, triacontanol, and mixtalol were applied. However, the use of most of these natural or synthetic biostimulants as a recovery method for hail-damaged plants has not been tested. In addition, changes in the essential oil yield and quality have been found in most essential oil and medicinal plants, as a result of the exogenous application and endogenous triggering of biostimulants [60]. At least 60 essential oil constituents were identified in elderberry (
Jasmonates are directly involved in the mevalonic acid pathway, through the enzyme mevalonate-5-diphosphate carboxylase, which directly affects the biosynthesis of linalool [134]. Linalool levels decreases with increases in excess endogenous MeJA, which mostly accumulated following simulated hail damage [122]. In other studies, [135, 136] demonstrated that applications over 18 μM (MeJA) may significantly affect the accumulation of linalool content.
Biosynthesis of isomenthone occurs late in leaf development, when mature oil gland cells are in the post-secretory phase [137]. At this late stage of leaf development, ABA is abundant in the epidermal cells, where it is involved in the abscission process [138]. In the study conducted by [122], the daily application of ABA led to an excess of endogenous ABA content, causing toxicity affecting the biosynthesis of isomenthone. Similarly, [60] stated that the chemical composition of essential oil plants could be influenced by exogenous applications of ABA and methyl jasmonate.
In plants, geraniol and ABA biosynthesis share a similar pathway [41]: the ABA biosynthetic pathway starts from oxidative cleavage of the epoxy-carotenoids and 9-
Geraniol usually undergoes biotransformation into other terpenoids in aromatic plants, which influences the quality of the essential oil [141]. Geranyl formate, geranyl butyrate, geranyl tiglate, and geranyl acetate are some of the acyclic monoterpenes derived from geraniol, which are regarded as geraniol esters [142]. It has been noted in the study conducted by [122] that any prolonged application of a low concentration of MeJA increases the content of geranyl tiglate. This was supported by [143], who described that jasmonates are upregulated by wounding stress and are directly involved in the biosynthesis of these terpenes. In addition, the accumulation of geranyl tiglate can be attributed to simulated hail damage as described by [122], followed by the subsequent daily application of methyl jasmonate. The accumulation of geranyl formate is attributed to the biosynthesis of geraniol, and the effects of subsequent daily use of methyl jasmonate [142].
Plants respond to defoliation and wounding through the induction of phenylpropanoids metabolism to accumulate phenolic compounds [144]. Phenolics provide cytotoxic effects, as well as the building blocks for polyphenolic-based cell wall modifications. Polyphenolic-based cell wall modifications assist with organ regeneration in defoliated or wounded plants [118, 144]. The level of endogenous phenolics in refoliated plants influences plant growth and development, clearly indicating the relation of the leaf refoliation with the leaf ontogeny [97]. The age of the plant is associated with the level of the total phenolics. On wampee (
Previous studies have demonstrated that defoliation, wounding and exogenous application of biostimulants on plants may effectively stimulate vegetative growth, improve nutrient acquisition, and increases the antioxidant capacity of plant tissue [69]. Aspects of phenolics accumulation are driven by upregulation of endogenous phytohormones. However, this occurs through crosstalk networks between these phytohormones, for which some commercially available [148]. A combination of spermine, methyl jasmonate, and epibrassinolide was found to induce secondary metabolites, including phenolics, in sweet basil (
Biostimulants stimulate plant growth and terpene biosynthesis in a large number of aromatic plant species, which result in beneficial changes in terpene accumulation [152]. Poyh and Ono [153] recorded higher essential oil content for sage (
Essential oil plants are mostly grown for essential oil production; therefore, the aerial herbage material is a crucial component of these crops. Environmental stress factors, such as hail damage, can cause significant damage to these plants, reducing this valuable material, and directly affecting the essential oil yield and quality [72]. Natural and synthetic biostimulants have been extensively investigated on plant growth and development, and also on the recovery of plants following stress [60]. Based on [60], it was hypothesized that the application of biostimulants will recover the herbage yield and improve the biosynthesis of essential oil plants subjected to simulated hail damage. This chapter has detailed the potential recovery response of plants to hail damage, the response of plants treated with synthetic biostimulants, and the response of plants treated with natural biostimulants extracted from plants. Therefore, it is evident that the use of natural or synthetic biostimulants, as an alternative mitigation strategy against hail damage, might help in the recovery and improve essential oil plant yield following hail damage. However, future studies should explore;
the extents of hail damage on different essential oil plants;
determining the effects of root-applied synthetic cytokinin on the recovery of essential oil yield attributes, and the essential oil yield and quality of hail-damaged essential oil plants.
determining the effects of cytokinin and the auxin ratio on hail-damaged essential oil plants,
identifying the effects of synthetic biostimulants as a contaminant of essential oil quality: A perfumery industry study.
evaluate the use of combined plant growth regulator as a potential recovery mechanism of the herbage yield, and the essential oil yield and quality of simulated hail-damaged essential oil plants, and,
evaluate the use of abscisic acid and methyl jasmonate as a potential mitigating mechanism on simulated hail-damaged rose geranium plants.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"56440",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.70162",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6423,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"50921",doi:"10.5772/63712",title:"Menaquinones, Bacteria, and Foods: Vitamin K2 in the Diet",slug:"menaquinones-bacteria-and-foods-vitamin-k2-in-the-diet",totalDownloads:3315,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:21,abstract:"Vitamin K2 is a collection of isoprenologues that mostly originate from bacterial synthesis, also called menaquinones (MKs). Multiple bacterial species used as starter cultures for food fermentation are known to synthesize MK. Therefore, fermented food is the best source of vitamin K2. In the Western diet, dairy products are one of the best known and most commonly consumed group of fermented products.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Barbara Walther and Magali Chollet",authors:[{id:"184784",title:"Dr.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Walther",slug:"barbara-walther",fullName:"Barbara Walther"},{id:"188194",title:"Mrs.",name:"Magali",middleName:null,surname:"Chollet",slug:"magali-chollet",fullName:"Magali Chollet"}]},{id:"66098",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84445",title:"Golden Rice: To Combat Vitamin A Deficiency for Public Health",slug:"golden-rice-to-combat-vitamin-a-deficiency-for-public-health",totalDownloads:3377,totalCrossrefCites:12,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) has been recognised as a significant public health problem continuously for more than 30 years, despite current interventions. The problem is particularly severe in populations where rice is the staple food and diversity of diet is limited, as white rice contains no micronutrients. Golden Rice is a public-sector product designed as an additional intervention for VAD. There will be no charge for the nutritional trait, which has been donated by its inventors for use in public-sector rice varieties to assist the resource poor, and no limitations on what small farmers can do with the crop—saving and replanting seed, selling seed and selling grain are all possible. Because Golden Rice had to be created by introducing two new genes—one from maize and the other from a very commonly ingested soil bacterium—it has taken a long time to get from the laboratory to the field. Now it has been formally registered as safe as food, feed, or in processed form by four industrialised counties, and applications are pending in developing countries. The data are summarised here, and criticisms addressed, for a public health professional audience: is it needed, will it work, is it safe and is it economic? Adoption of Golden Rice, the next step after in-country registration, requires strategic and tactical cooperation across professions, non-governmental organisations (NGOs) and government departments often not used to working together. Public health professionals need to play a prominent role.",book:{id:"7978",slug:"vitamin-a",title:"Vitamin A",fullTitle:"Vitamin A"},signatures:"Adrian Dubock",authors:[{id:"273220",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Adrian",middleName:null,surname:"Dubock",slug:"adrian-dubock",fullName:"Adrian Dubock"}]},{id:"62836",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79350",title:"The Role of Thiamine in Plants and Current Perspectives in Crop Improvement",slug:"the-role-of-thiamine-in-plants-and-current-perspectives-in-crop-improvement",totalDownloads:1564,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Current research is focusing on selecting potential genes that can alleviate stress and produce disease-tolerant crop variety. The novel paradigm is to investigate the potential of thiamine as a crop protection molecule in plants. Thiamine or vitamin B1 is important for primary metabolism for all living organisms. The active form, thiamine pyrophosphate (TPP), is a cofactor for the enzymes involved in the synthesis of amino acids, tricarboxylic acid cycle and pentose phosphate pathway. Recently, thiamine is shown to have a role in the processes underlying protection of plants against biotic and abiotic stresses. The aim of this chapter is to review the role of thiamine in plant growth and disease protection and also to highlight that TPP and its intermediates are involved in management of stress. The perspectives on its potential for manipulating the biosynthesis pathway in crop improvement will also be discussed.",book:{id:"6709",slug:"b-group-vitamins-current-uses-and-perspectives",title:"B Group Vitamins",fullTitle:"B Group Vitamins - Current Uses and Perspectives"},signatures:"Atiqah Subki, Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin and Zetty Norhana\nBalia Yusof",authors:[{id:"240031",title:"Dr.",name:"Zetty-Norhana Balia",middleName:null,surname:"Yusof",slug:"zetty-norhana-balia-yusof",fullName:"Zetty-Norhana Balia Yusof"},{id:"261167",title:"Mr.",name:"Aisamuddin Ardi",middleName:null,surname:"Zainal Abidin",slug:"aisamuddin-ardi-zainal-abidin",fullName:"Aisamuddin Ardi Zainal Abidin"},{id:"261169",title:"Ms.",name:"Atiqah",middleName:null,surname:"Subki",slug:"atiqah-subki",fullName:"Atiqah Subki"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"56440",title:"Vitamin C: Sources, Functions, Sensing and Analysis",slug:"vitamin-c-sources-functions-sensing-and-analysis",totalDownloads:6429,totalCrossrefCites:15,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:"Vitamin C is a water-soluble compound found in living organisms. It is an essential nutrient for various metabolism in our body and also serves as a reagent for the preparation of many materials in the pharmaceutical and food industry. In this perspective, this chapter can develop interest and curiosity among all practicing scientists and technologists by expounding the details of its sources, chemistry, multifunctional properties and applications.",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Sudha J. Devaki and Reshma Lali Raveendran",authors:[{id:"187911",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sudha",middleName:null,surname:"J Devaki",slug:"sudha-j-devaki",fullName:"Sudha J Devaki"},{id:"204937",title:"Mrs.",name:"Reshma",middleName:null,surname:"Laly Ravindran",slug:"reshma-laly-ravindran",fullName:"Reshma Laly Ravindran"}]},{id:"56013",title:"Vitamin C: An Antioxidant Agent",slug:"vitamin-c-an-antioxidant-agent",totalDownloads:7817,totalCrossrefCites:27,totalDimensionsCites:60,abstract:"Vitamin C or ascorbic acid (AsA) is a naturally occurring organic compound with antioxidant properties, found in both animals and plants. It functions as a redox buffer which can reduce, and thereby neutralize, reactive oxygen species. It is a cofactor for enzymes involved in regulating photosynthesis, hormone biosynthesis, and regenerating other antioxidants; which also regulates cell division and growth, is involved in signal transduction, and has roles in several physiological processes, such as immune stimulation, synthesis of collagen, hormones, neurotransmitters, and iron absorption, has also roles in detoxifying the body of heavy metals. Severe deficiency of vitamin C causes scurvy, whereas limited vitamin C intake causes symptoms, such as increased susceptibility to infections, loosening of teeth, dryness of the mouth and eyes, loss of hair, dry itchy skin, fatigue, and insomnia. In contrast, vitamin C can also act as a prooxidant, especially in the presence of transition metals, such as iron and copper, starting different hazardous radical reactions. Vitamin C can both act as a strong, efficient, and cheap antioxidant agent and, at the same time, behave as a radical promoter. Further investigations are needed to illuminate the dual roles of vitamin C",book:{id:"5940",slug:"vitamin-c",title:"Vitamin C",fullTitle:"Vitamin C"},signatures:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan",authors:[{id:"200567",title:"Dr.",name:"Fadime",middleName:null,surname:"Eryılmaz Pehlivan",slug:"fadime-eryilmaz-pehlivan",fullName:"Fadime Eryılmaz Pehlivan"}]},{id:"69402",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency and Diabetes Mellitus",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency-and-diabetes-mellitus",totalDownloads:1604,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Vitamin D (VD) is a molecule that can be synthesized directly in the humans’ body or enter the organism with food in the form of inactive precursors. To exert its biological action, VD undergoes two-stage hydroxylation (at the 25th and 1st position) catalyzed by cytochromes P450, the presence of which has already been shown in almost all tissues of the human body. The product of hydroxylation is hormone-active form of vitamin D–1,25(OH)2D. 1,25(OH)2D binds to specific vitamin D receptor (VDR) and regulates the expression of genes involved in bone remodeling (classical function) and genes that control immune response, hormone secretion, cell proliferation, and differentiation (nonclassical functions). VD deficiency is prevalent around the globe and may be one of the key factors for diabetes development. The direct association between vitamin D deficiency and type 1 (T1D) and type 2 (T2D) diabetes has been proven. Detection of VDR in pancreas and adipose tissue, skeletal muscles, and immune cells allowed implying the antidiabetic role of vitamin D by enhancing insulin synthesis and exocytosis, increasing the expression of the insulin receptor, and modulating immune cells’ functions. This chapter summarizes data about relationship between VD insufficiency/deficiency and development of T1D and T2D, and their complications.",book:{id:"7038",slug:"vitamin-d-deficiency",title:"Vitamin D Deficiency",fullTitle:"Vitamin D Deficiency"},signatures:"Ihor Shymanskyi, Olha Lisakovska, Anna Mazanova and Mykola Veliky",authors:null},{id:"76108",title:"Vitamin D Metabolism",slug:"vitamin-d-metabolism",totalDownloads:498,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Vitamin D plays an important role in bone metabolism. Vitamin D is a group of biologically inactive, fat-soluble prohormones that exist in two major forms: ergocalciferol (vitamin D2) produced by plants in response to ultraviolet irradiation and cholecalciferol (vitamin D3) derived from animal tissues or 7-dehydrocholesterol in human skin by the action of ultraviolet rays present in sunlight. Vitamin D, which is biologically inactive, needs two-step hydroxylation for activation. All of these steps are of crucial for Vitamin D to show its effect properly. In this section, we will present vitamin D synthesis and its action steps in detail.",book:{id:"10631",slug:"vitamin-d",title:"Vitamin D",fullTitle:"Vitamin D"},signatures:"Sezer Acar and Behzat Özkan",authors:[{id:"29878",title:"Dr.",name:"Behzat",middleName:null,surname:"Özkan",slug:"behzat-ozkan",fullName:"Behzat Özkan"},{id:"348287",title:"Dr.",name:"Sezer",middleName:null,surname:"Acar",slug:"sezer-acar",fullName:"Sezer Acar"}]},{id:"50754",title:"Medicinal Chemistry of Vitamin K Derivatives and Metabolites",slug:"medicinal-chemistry-of-vitamin-k-derivatives-and-metabolites",totalDownloads:1917,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Vitamin K acts as a cofactor for γ‐glutamyl carboxylase. Recently, various biological activities of vitamin K have been reported. Anti‐proliferative activities of vitamin K, especially in vitamin K3, are well known. In addition, various physiological and pharmacological functions of vitamin K2, such as transcription modulators as nuclear steroid and xenobiotic receptor (SXR) ligands and anti‐inflammatory effects, have been revealed in the past decade. Characterization of vitamin K metabolites is also important for clinical application of vitamin K and its derivatives. In this chapter, recent progress on the medicinal chemistry of vitamin K derivatives and metabolites is discussed.",book:{id:"5169",slug:"vitamin-k2-vital-for-health-and-wellbeing",title:"Vitamin K2",fullTitle:"Vitamin K2 - Vital for Health and Wellbeing"},signatures:"Shinya Fujii and Hiroyuki Kagechika",authors:[{id:"180528",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroyuki",middleName:null,surname:"Kagechika",slug:"hiroyuki-kagechika",fullName:"Hiroyuki Kagechika"},{id:"180529",title:"Dr.",name:"Shinya",middleName:null,surname:"Fujii",slug:"shinya-fujii",fullName:"Shinya Fujii"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"42",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188",scope:"This series will provide a comprehensive overview of recent research trends in various Infectious Diseases (as per the most recent Baltimore classification). Topics will include general overviews of infections, immunopathology, diagnosis, treatment, epidemiology, etiology, and current clinical recommendations for managing infectious diseases. Ongoing issues, recent advances, and future diagnostic approaches and therapeutic strategies will also be discussed. This book series will focus on various aspects and properties of infectious diseases whose deep understanding is essential for safeguarding the human race from losing resources and economies due to pathogens.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/6.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:13,editor:{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:4,paginationItems:[{id:"3",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/3.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"205604",title:"Dr.",name:"Tomas",middleName:null,surname:"Jarzembowski",slug:"tomas-jarzembowski",fullName:"Tomas Jarzembowski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRKriQAG/Profile_Picture_2022-06-16T11:01:31.jpg",biography:"Tomasz Jarzembowski was born in 1968 in Gdansk, Poland. He obtained his Ph.D. degree in 2000 from the Medical University of Gdańsk (UG). After specialization in clinical microbiology in 2003, he started studying biofilm formation and antibiotic resistance at the single-cell level. In 2015, he obtained his D.Sc. degree. His later study in cooperation with experts in nephrology and immunology resulted in the designation of the new diagnostic method of UTI, patented in 2017. He is currently working at the Department of Microbiology, Medical University of Gdańsk (GUMed), Poland. Since many years, he is a member of steering committee of Gdańsk branch of Polish Society of Microbiologists, a member of ESCMID. He is also a reviewer and a member of editorial boards of a number of international journals.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorTwo:{id:"484980",title:"Dr.",name:"Katarzyna",middleName:null,surname:"Garbacz",slug:"katarzyna-garbacz",fullName:"Katarzyna Garbacz",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003St8TAQAZ/Profile_Picture_2022-07-07T09:45:16.jpg",biography:"Katarzyna Maria Garbacz, MD, is an Associate Professor at the Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland and she is head of the Department of Oral Microbiology of the Medical University of Gdańsk. She has published more than 50 scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals. She has been a project leader funded by the National Science Centre of Poland. Prof. Garbacz is a microbiologist working on applied and fundamental questions in microbial epidemiology and pathogenesis. Her research interest is in antibiotic resistance, host-pathogen interaction, and therapeutics development for staphylococcal pathogens, mainly Staphylococcus aureus, which causes hospital-acquired infections. Currently, her research is mostly focused on the study of oral pathogens, particularly Staphylococcus spp.",institutionString:"Medical University of Gdańsk, Poland",institution:null},editorThree:null},{id:"4",title:"Fungal Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/4.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"174134",title:"Dr.",name:"Yuping",middleName:null,surname:"Ran",slug:"yuping-ran",fullName:"Yuping Ran",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bS9d6QAC/Profile_Picture_1630330675373",biography:"Dr. Yuping Ran, Professor, Department of Dermatology, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China. Completed the Course Medical Mycology, the Centraalbureau voor Schimmelcultures (CBS), Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Netherlands (2006). International Union of Microbiological Societies (IUMS) Fellow, and International Emerging Infectious Diseases (IEID) Fellow, Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention (CDC), Atlanta, USA. Diploma of Dermatological Scientist, Japanese Society for Investigative Dermatology. Ph.D. of Juntendo University, Japan. Bachelor’s and Master’s degree, Medicine, West China University of Medical Sciences. Chair of Sichuan Medical Association Dermatology Committee. General Secretary of The 19th Annual Meeting of Chinese Society of Dermatology and the Asia Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (2013). In charge of the Annual Medical Mycology Course over 20-years authorized by National Continue Medical Education Committee of China. Member of the board of directors of the Asia-Pacific Society for Medical Mycology (APSMM). Associate editor of Mycopathologia. Vice-chief of the editorial board of Chinses Journal of Mycology, China. Board Member and Chair of Mycology Group of Chinese Society of Dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/5.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"67907",title:"Dr.",name:"Amidou",middleName:null,surname:"Samie",slug:"amidou-samie",fullName:"Amidou Samie",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/67907/images/system/67907.jpg",biography:"Dr. Amidou Samie is an Associate Professor of Microbiology at the University of Venda, in South Africa, where he graduated for his PhD in May 2008. He joined the Department of Microbiology the same year and has been giving lectures on topics covering parasitology, immunology, molecular biology and industrial microbiology. He is currently a rated researcher by the National Research Foundation of South Africa at category C2. He has published widely in the field of infectious diseases and has overseen several MSc’s and PhDs. His research activities mostly cover topics on infectious diseases from epidemiology to control. His particular interest lies in the study of intestinal protozoan parasites and opportunistic infections among HIV patients as well as the potential impact of childhood diarrhoea on growth and child development. He also conducts research on water-borne diseases and water quality and is involved in the evaluation of point-of-use water treatment technologies using silver and copper nanoparticles in collaboration with the University of Virginia, USA. He also studies the use of medicinal plants for the control of infectious diseases as well as antimicrobial drug resistance.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Venda",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:19,paginationItems:[{id:"82804",title:"Psychiatric Problems in HIV Care",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106077",signatures:"Seggane Musisi and Noeline Nakasujja",slug:"psychiatric-problems-in-hiv-care",totalDownloads:1,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Future Opportunities and Tools for Emerging Challenges for HIV/AIDS Control",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11575.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82827",title:"Epidemiology and Control of Schistosomiasis",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105170",signatures:"Célestin Kyambikwa Bisangamo",slug:"epidemiology-and-control-of-schistosomiasis",totalDownloads:4,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"New Horizons for Schistosomiasis Research",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10829.jpg",subseries:{id:"5",title:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82817",title:"Perspective Chapter: Microfluidic Technologies for On-Site Detection and Quantification of Infectious Diseases - The Experience with SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105950",signatures:"Andres Escobar and Chang-qing Xu",slug:"perspective-chapter-microfluidic-technologies-for-on-site-detection-and-quantification-of-infectious",totalDownloads:3,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}},{id:"82667",title:"Perspective Chapter: Analysis of SARS-CoV-2 Indirect Spreading Routes and Possible Countermeasures",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105914",signatures:"Cesare Saccani, Marco Pellegrini and Alessandro Guzzini",slug:"perspective-chapter-analysis-of-sars-cov-2-indirect-spreading-routes-and-possible-countermeasures",totalDownloads:8,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"SARS-CoV-2 Variants - Two Years After",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11573.jpg",subseries:{id:"6",title:"Viral Infectious Diseases"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:13,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"6667",title:"Influenza",subtitle:"Therapeutics and Challenges",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6667.jpg",slug:"influenza-therapeutics-and-challenges",publishedDate:"September 19th 2018",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Shailendra K. Saxena",hash:"105e347b2d5dbbe6b593aceffa051efa",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Influenza - Therapeutics and Challenges",editors:[{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. 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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. Dr. Wang was awarded two research project grants focused on multimodal optical coherence tomography imaging and deep learning in cataract and retinal disease, from the National Natural Science Foundation of China. He has published around 30 peer-reviewed journal papers and four book chapters and co-edited one book.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"7227",title:"Dr.",name:"Hiroaki",middleName:null,surname:"Matsui",slug:"hiroaki-matsui",fullName:"Hiroaki Matsui",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Tokyo",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"312999",title:"Dr.",name:"Bernard O.",middleName:null,surname:"Asimeng",slug:"bernard-o.-asimeng",fullName:"Bernard O. Asimeng",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"318905",title:"Prof.",name:"Elvis",middleName:"Kwason",surname:"Tiburu",slug:"elvis-tiburu",fullName:"Elvis Tiburu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Ghana",country:{name:"Ghana"}}},{id:"336193",title:"Dr.",name:"Abdullah",middleName:null,surname:"Alamoudi",slug:"abdullah-alamoudi",fullName:"Abdullah Alamoudi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"318657",title:"MSc.",name:"Isabell",middleName:null,surname:"Steuding",slug:"isabell-steuding",fullName:"Isabell Steuding",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"318656",title:"BSc.",name:"Peter",middleName:null,surname:"Kußmann",slug:"peter-kussmann",fullName:"Peter Kußmann",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Harz University of Applied Sciences",country:{name:"Germany"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"3",type:"subseries",title:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",keywords:"Antibiotics, Biofilm, Antibiotic Resistance, Host-microbiota Relationship, Treatment, Diagnostic Tools",scope:"