Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
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We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
Throughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\n
We wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
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However, simply taking a straight verbatim approach to catalog all proteins in all tissues of different organisms is not viable. Researchers may need to focus on the perspectives of proteomics that are essential to the functional outcome of the cells. In Integrative Proteomics, expert researchers contribute both historical perspectives, new developments in sample preparation, gel-based and non-gel-based protein separation and identification using mass spectrometry. Substantial chapters are describing studies of the sub-proteomes such as phosphoproteome or glycoproteomes which are directly related to functional outcomes of the cells. Structural proteomics related to pharmaceutics development is also a perspective of the essence. Bioinformatics tools that can mine proteomics data and lead to pathway analyses become an integral part of proteomics. Integrative proteomics covers both look-backs and look-outs of proteomics. 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He did his post-doctoral training in Baylor College of Medicine studying genomics and proteomics profiles of pediatrics medulloblastoma and osteosarcoma. Dr. Leung was a research scientists in Ciphergen Biosystems Inc. Briefly, and then was recruited to Genome Institute of Singapore to lead the clinical proteomics section. In 2006 he returned to USA. He was the director of the genomics and proteomics core laboratory of the Texas Children´s Hospital and director of genomics profiling of Baylor College of Medicine. At present, he is the director of the mass spectrometry-proteomics core facility of Baylor College of Medicine.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Baylor College of Medicine",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:{id:"35047",title:"Prof.",name:"Tsz Kwong",middleName:null,surname:"Man",slug:"tsz-kwong-man",fullName:"Tsz Kwong Man",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/35047/images/system/35047.jpg",biography:"Dr. Chris Man is an Associate Professor of Pediatrics at Baylor College of Medicine where he participates in the Bone Tumor Program and the Cancer Genetics and Genomics Program at Texas Children’s Cancer Center. 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\n
1. Introduction
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Graphene is the most studied and explored nanomaterial with exceptional mechanical, electrical, optical and chemical properties. Graphene was discovered by Kostya Novoselov and Andre Geim via mechanical exfoliation method. Graphene has 2D hexagonal honeycomb structure made up of carbon atoms. Graphene is highly transparent as it reflects 2.3% and transmits 97.7% of light falling on it which makes it highly useful for making transparent conducting electrodes. Other exotic properties of graphene are high carrier mobility (200,000 cm2 v−1 s−1), Young’s modulus of 1.0 TPa. Graphene is approximately 200 times more conductive than copper and 100 times stronger than steel. In addition to this it is very flexible in nature as it can be stretched to 20% of its original length.
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Because of its very high electrical conductivity, high transparency and flexibility it is being used for the fabrication of wide variety of devices such as flexible transparent displays, energy storage devices etc. Graphene can be prepared by various methods such as mechanical exfoliation, electrochemical, liquid phase exfoliation and CVD method. This chapter uses liquid phase exfoliation method for the synthesis and concentration enhancement of graphene, after discussing its relative advantages over other techniques.
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2. Graphene synthesis methods
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After the discovery of graphene a lot of research has been done for finding a suitable technique of graphene synthesis. Graphene synthesis method should be facile, economical and can be performed easily in the laboratory and should not require sophisticated equipment. Some of the most prominent graphene synthesis methods are described here (Figure 1).
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Figure 1.
Various synthesis methods of graphene.
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2.1 Mechanical exfoliation method
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Mechanical exfoliation method is the oldest and the simplest method, can be easily used in the college lab to prepare graphene of few micrometer length. It is called scotch tape method because here, a scotch tape repeatedly peels off various layers of graphene from the graphite source [1]. The disadvantage of this method is that it is time consuming and does not give graphene sheets of uniform thickness. Moreover, it is not a scalable method to produce high quality graphene sheets.
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2.2 Chemical exfoliation method
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Chemical exfoliation method uses harmful acids for the exfoliation of graphene sheets from graphite source. When graphite powder is mixed in solution of sulfuric acid and nitric acid, the inter-planar distance between individual graphene sheets increases and hence exfoliation occurs [2]. The technique of increasing the inter-planar distance between graphene sheets is called as intercalation [3]. The advantage of the intercalation is that after intercalation, the intercalated graphite can be easily exfoliated via sonication. Other processes such as ultrasonic heating [4], acid treatment [5] are used for synthesis of graphene nanoribbons.
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2.3 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method
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CVD technique is used to produce good quality graphene on various substrates such as copper, nickel, cobalt etc. Here, the substrate is placed inside a furnace and hydrocarbon gas is passed at high temperatures. The carbon present in the hydrocarbon gas gets deposited on the substrate to form a graphene layer. Usually a mixture of hydrogen, argon and methane gas is passed through the furnace at temperature of 750–1200°C (Figure 2).
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Figure 2.
Schematic illustration of CVD method of graphene synthesis.
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The CVD method is useful for scalable synthesis of high quality graphene. Using this method graphene has been successfully deposited upon various substrates such as Ni [6], Rh [7], Pt [8, 9, 10, 11], Ir [12], Ru [13, 14, 15, 16], Pd [17], Cu [18, 19, 20, 21] using methane and ethylene. Graphene has also been prepared by using table sugar as a solid carbon source [22].
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2.4 Epitaxial growth on SiC
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Graphene layer can be grown on the silicon carbide substrate by heating at high temperature greater than 1100°C (Figure 3). The thickness of the graphene film which is prepared on SiC substrate depends upon size of the silicon carbide substrate because Si atoms are desorbed from surface during this process [23, 24, 25].
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Figure 3.
Process of epitaxial growth of graphene on SiC surface.
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Whether SiC face is silicon or carbon terminated, graphene layer thickness and carrier density changes accordingly [26].
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2.5 Hummer’s method
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Hummer’s method is a well-known method to prepare high yield graphene. Here, graphite powder is first converted to graphite oxide with potassium permanganate, which is further converted into graphene oxide (GO) via sonication process. Graphene oxide is later reduced to reduced graphene oxide (rGO) using various reducing agents such as hydrazine hydrate (Figure 4).
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Figure 4.
Synthesis of reduced graphene oxide using Hummer’s method.
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Most of rGO properties match with graphene, but due to structural defects in rGO, it does not produce high quality graphene. Moreover, because of the use of harmful and toxic chemicals, it is also not safe method.
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2.6 Electrochemical exfoliation method
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Electrochemical exfoliation method is another method for producing graphene from graphite rod in much shorter time as compared to CVD and Hummer’s methods.
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Typically, a platinum wire acts as cathode and graphite rod acts as anode (Figure 5).
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Figure 5.
Electrochemical exfoliation of graphene.
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Both anode and cathode are dipped in an electrolyte solution which is usually an acid solution such as sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid etc. After applying 10 V DC between anode and cathode, graphene exfoliation starts [27]. After 2 h graphene nanosheets accumulated in electrolyte are filtered, washed and dried for characterization using SEM, TEM etc. In this method of graphene synthesis also uses various toxic and harmful acids and chemicals.
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2.7 Liquid phase exfoliation
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Liquid phase exfoliation of graphene uses sonication process to exfoliate graphene from graphite in solvents. Graphite has various layers of graphene attached by Van der Waals forces which is overcome if the solvent used has surface tension near 40–50 mJ/m2 range. Some of the commonly used solvents are DMF (N,N-Dimethylformamide) and ODCB (ortho-dichlorobenzene). Typically, 2 g graphite powder is added to 300 ml of ODCB. This mixture is sonicated for 3 h. Then it is centrifuged for 30 min at 4000 rpm. (Figure 6) Finally supernatants are used for characterization using SEM and TEM [28].
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Figure 6.
Various steps involved in liquid phase exfoliation of graphene.
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Table 1 shows that various synthesis methods have been explored by the researchers for graphene synthesis each having some disadvantages [29, 30, 31, 32, 33, 34].Hummer’s method usually gives high-yield graphene but suffers from defects and impurities in graphene structure. So, rGO prepared by Hummer’s method is not useful for the fabrication of electronics devices [35, 36]. Electronics devices fabrication requires good-quality defect-free graphene which can be easily prepared by liquid-phase exfoliation, and cannot be produced by Hummer’s method [37, 38, 39, 40, 41]. The high quality graphene prepared by liquid-phase exfoliation is suitable for modern electronics device applications [42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47]. Graphene has high quantum capacitance [48], electrochemical properties [49] which can help to detect various explosives such as 2,4,6-trinitrotoluene [50], and generate chemiluminescence [51].
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Synthesis method
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Advantages
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Disadvantages
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Mechanical exfoliation method
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Good quality, low yield
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Not a scalable process, low yield
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Chemical vapor deposition
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High quality, large area graphene
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High temperature and low vacuum conditions
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Epitaxial growth on SiC
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Large continuous film, good quality
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High temperature and low vacuum conditions Not transferable
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Hummer’s method
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High yield
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High defects in graphene, harmful chemicals used
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Electrochemical exfoliation
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Lesser time, facile, economical
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DC voltage and electrolytes requirements
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Liquid phase exfoliation
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Easy, safe, high quality, economical
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Long sonication time requirement, low graphene concentration
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Table 1.
Various graphene synthesis methods with advantages and disadvantages.
Note: The text is in italics to indicate that in this chapter liquid phase exfoliation method is used for the concentration enhancement of graphene.
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Although liquid phase exfoliation technique is the safe and environment friendly technique as compared to other graphene synthesis method, but its disadvantage is lower concentration of graphene obtained (usually less than 0.01 mg/ml). Therefore, there is a need of concentration enhancement of graphene for the fabrication of better and more efficient electronic devices.
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3. Process of concentration enhancement
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It has been experimentally found that graphene concentration can be enhanced by increasing sonication process time upto many weeks instead of hours which create defects in the graphene nanosheets [52]. Other approaches which have been utilized are mixed solvents [53, 54, 55], solvent exchange [56], solvothermal exfoliation [57, 58], intercalants [59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64]. It has been observed that Sodium hydroxide and naphthalene can enhance the graphene concentration in organic solvent [65, 66]. It has been experimentally found that solvents having surface tension near 40–50 mJ/m2 are highly useful for graphene synthesis via sonication process. Some of the solvents satisfying this criterion such as 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidinone (NMP), benzyl benzoate (BB), 1,2-dichlorobenzene (ODCB), acetophenone (ACP), benzonitrile (BZN), dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and 1,4-dioxane are used in concentration enhancement. It has been found that addition of organic salts can enhance the grapheme concentration in various organic solvents [67]. In addition to various salts, some additives such as phenolphthalein and anthracene have been explored for enhancing graphene concentration in solvents.
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Initially, graphite powder is added to NMP, DMSO and CYN solvents (100 ml) with a concentration of 10 mg/ml. Then 100 mg of the additive or salt is added and sonicated for 3 h and centrifuged at 3000 rpm for 30 min (Figure 7). After centrifugation, supernatants are used for characterization using UV-Vis spectrum for finding graphene concentration by applying Lambert Beer’s law.
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Figure 7.
Schematic diagram of liquid phase exfoliation of graphene with addition of additive.
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UV-Vis spectrum plots the variation of absorbance with wavelength. This technique is based on the principle that the absorption in a particular wavelength range is directly proportional to the color of the sample used for characterization. From the UV-Vis spectrum it is observed that at a particular wavelength the absorbance is maximum. For pure graphene sample the peak absorbance is obtained near 270 nm (Figure 8). As the impurities and functional groups are introduced in graphene the absorbance peak is shifted from 270 nm.
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Figure 8.
UV-Vis spectrum of graphene.
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After plotting the UV-Vis spectrum curves we calculated the absorbance value at 660 nm wavelength. This absorbance A can be used to find the concentration of the graphene by applying Lambert Beer’s law. So, according to the Lambert Beer’s law the absorbance in terms of concentration is given by:
\n
\n\nA\n=\nα\n\nC\n\nl\n.\n\nE1
\n
where A is the absorbance measured at 660 nm, l is the sample path length which is 1 cm, C is the graphene concentration in the sample, α is the extinction coefficient.
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This process of UV-Vis spectroscopy is shown in Figure 9 below.
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Figure 9.
Representation of Lambert-Beer’s law.
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The absorbance value at 660 nm in the UV spectrum of graphene is used to calculate the graphene concentration with absorption coefficient value α = 2460 ml/mg/m.
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It is observed that additives intercalate onto the graphitic layers which enhances graphene concentration by helping in the exfoliation process. The grapheme nanosheets produced by this process are used for the characterization using SEM and TEM. The TEM results of the grapheme nanosheets shows that single and few-layered, overlapped nanosheets have been produce (Figure 10).
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Figure 10.
(a) TEM images, (b) SEM images of graphene exfoliated in NMP solvent.
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Figure 10 shows the SEM results of the graphene nanosheets produced in NMP organic solvent which indicates that graphene sheets size varies from 5 μm to 20 μm.
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4. Concentration enhancement with salts and additives
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DMSO solvent is used for grapheme concentration enhancement by adding sodium tartrate (ST), sodium chloride (NaCl), potassium chloride (KCl), edetate disodium (ED), sodium citrate (SC), naphthalene (N) and phenolphthalein (P) in it and analyzing their UV spectrum. The absorbance at 660 nm in UV spectrum is used for finding graphene concentration via Lambert Beer’s law. By using this law graphene concentration is calculated and plotted in Figure 11. From Figure 11 it is observed that SC and ST produces maximum concentration in DMSO.
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Figure 11.
Concentration variation of graphene in DMSO solvent with addition of salts and additives.
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The main reason of the concentration enhancement is that additives intercalates onto graphene layers and helps in exfoliation process. It is also observed that lesser time is required for exfoliation after adding additives. Further, in contrast to organic salts, the inorganic salt KCl does not enhances the graphene concentration in DMSO. One reason for low concentration may be the aggregation of graphene nanosheets upon addition of KCl.
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Firstly, the UV-Vis spectrum of the various graphene samples (with and without addition of additives in DMSO) is used to find the absorbance value at 660 nm. This absorbance value A, with α the absorption coefficient is used to find graphene concentration as given by Beer’s law, A = α C l. Here, A is the absorbance at 660 nm, l is sample path length (1 cm), C is concentration and constant α = 2460 ml/mg/m. This procedure is repeated to calculate the graphene concentration in other solvents such as NMP, ODCB, BB, ACP, BZN etc. from their UV-Vis spectra.
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After repeating this procedure with the CYN solvents it is observed that in CYN maximum concentration is achieved by adding phenolphthalein additive. By adding phenolphthalein additive graphene concentration is increased upto nine times. But, as expected the inorganic salts such as CaCl, KCl does not enhance the graphene concentration. As compared to inorganic salts, organic salts are more useful for concentration enhancement with maximum concentration given by sodium citrate salt.
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Figure 12 shows the UV spectra of NMP with and without adding salts and additives. There is a great change in graphene concentration in NMP solvent after adding salts and additives in it with maximum graphene concentration of 0.08 mg/ml in NMP was observed by adding anthracene additive in it. In comparison to organic salts, inorganic salt KCl does not increase the graphene concentration in NMP. This low concentration may be again due to the aggregation effect.
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Figure 12.
UV-Vis spectra of graphene in NMP solvent with and without addition of various salts and additives.
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Figure 13 shows the effect of adding three additives anthracene, phenolphthalein, naphthalene in NMP, ODCB, BB, ACP, BZN, DMSO and 1,4-dioxane organic solvents. It has been observed that highest concentration is obtained by adding anthracene in NMP solvent, with 0.04 mg/ml concentration. Anthracene additive acts as molecular wedge between the individual edges of graphite and results in higher concentration. Anthracene when intercalates between the graphene layers, it increases the interplanar spacing between adjacent nanosheets and enhances the exfoliation process. It is also observed that by adding larger amount of anthracene additive (>100 mg) in the solvents, much lower concentration is obtained due to f the aggregation effect. But as the additive amount decreases towards 100 mg, molecules are easily adsorbed onto graphene nanosheets which results in higher graphene concentration.
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Figure 13.
Graphene concentration variation in seven organic solvents with and without addition of additives.
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The structure of the additive and solvents also affects the concentration. Anthracene has structure of three benzene rings. Hence, those solvents which have benzene ring in its structure provides highest graphene concentration enhancement. It is found that solvents such as 1,4-dioxane and DMSO produces minimum graphene concentration as there is an absence of benzene ring structure in them [68]. NMP, BZN and ODCB exhibited maximum concentration of graphene because of benzene ring structures. Two organic solvents BB and ACP have side chains in addition to benzene ring which restricts their intercalation between the individual graphitic layers and hence provides least graphene concentration as compared to other solvents [68].
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5. Results and discussions
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Various additives and salts have been explored for graphene concentration enhancement in NMP, ODCB, DMF, CYN, DMSO solvents. It has been observed that addition of phenolphthalein in CYN increases graphene concentration from 0.005 to 0.045 mg/ml. With addition of SC salt in DMSO solvent, graphene concentration increased from 0.002 to 0.015 mg/ml which is comparable to earlier published works [27].
\n
The effect of adding Anthracene additive in solvents NMP, DMSO, ODCB, BZN,ACP, BB and 1,4-dioxane have been explored and it has been observed that the concentration depends upon additive-solvent structures and interactions. Because the molecular structure of anthracene has three benzene rings, hence solvents with benzene ring structure produced maximum concentration such as NMP, BZN, ODCB solvents. The results obtained with various additives are compared and it was found that by adding anthracene in NMP solvent graphene concentration increases upto 0.04 mg/ml.
\n
This result is in agreement with earlier published work on naphthalene additive [26]. Here, it is found that anthracene is more useful in BZN solvent (three times concentration) than naphthalene in NMP solvent (two times concentration) [26]. The effect of anthracene in concentration enhancement is most prominent in 1-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP), orthodichlorobenzene (ODCB) and BZN solvents as compared to others. With addition of anthracene, the graphene concentration in NMP and ODCB solvents is increased to 0.04 mg/ml.
\n
From Figure 13 it is observed that benzyl benzoate (BB) solvent is not very effective in concentration enhancement with anthracene. The least concentration is exhibited by the organic solvents acetophenone, benzyl benzoate, 1,4-dioxane and DMSO. With addition of anthracene, the graphene concentration in NMP and ODCB solvents is increased to 0.04 mg/ml [28]. From Figure 14 a comparison of the graphene concentration enhancement in this work with the earlier published results has been made. The criterion of comparison is the how many times the concentration is increased with additives in various solvents such as CYN, BZN, DMSO, ODCB, NMP etc. From Figure 14 it is observed that by adding additives graphene concentration is increased to approx. nine times in CYN solvent, approx. three times in BZN solvent, approx. seven times in DMSO solvents after experimental verification. On the other hand by observing earlier published results, graphene concentration was increased from 2.5 to 4.5 only in NMP solvent [69, 70, 71].
\n
Figure 14.
Comparison of the enhanced concentration in this work with earlier published works.
\n
\n
6. Conclusion
\n
Generally liquid phase exfoliation produces graphene in low concentration (<0.01 mg/ml) which is not suitable for electronics device fabrication. Various additives and salts have been explored for enhancing graphene concentration in organic solvents such as DMSO, CYN, NMP, ODCB, DMF etc. In this study new additives such as phenolphthalein and anthracene have been found to enhance the graphene concentration in solvents such as NMP, ODCB, DMSO and BZN etc. By adding phenolphthalein in cyclohexanone (CYN) solvent the graphene concentration was increased from 0.005 to 0.045 mg/ml and by adding sodium citrate (SC) organic salt, the graphene concentration in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) was increased from 0.002 to 0.015 mg/ml. Further, the effect of addition of anthracene additive in seven organic solvents NMP, DMSO, ODCB, BZN, ACP, BB and 1,4-dioxane have been studied. It was observed that the additive-solvent interactions affect the graphene production yield. Since, the molecular structure of additive anthracene having three benzene rings matches with structure of the solvents such as NMP, BZN, hence causes enhancement in the graphene concentration. The results obtained with various additives are compared and it was found that by adding anthracene in NMP solvent graphene concentration increases upto 0.04 mg/ml. A significant concentration enhancement (three times) was observed with addition of anthracene additive in BZN solvent as compared to two times enhancement with addition of naphthalene in NMP solvent.
\n
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\n\n',keywords:"graphene synthesis, liquid phase exfoliation, additives, concentration enhancement, organic solvents",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/63951.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/63951.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/63951",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/63951",totalDownloads:1339,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:7,totalAltmetricsMentions:0,introChapter:null,impactScore:3,impactScorePercentile:88,impactScoreQuartile:4,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"May 21st 2018",dateReviewed:"September 11th 2018",datePrePublished:"July 10th 2019",datePublished:"November 27th 2019",dateFinished:"October 8th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Graphene is the wonder carbon nanomaterial with excellent electrical, mechanical, chemical and optical properties suitable for the fabrication of modern electronics devices such as supercapacitors, sensors, FET etc. Liquid phase exfoliation is the economical, safe, facile method of graphene synthesis without the requirement of harmful chemicals, toxic gases. However, the low concentration of graphene (<0.01 mg/ml) obtained by this method limits its application in various fields. Various techniques have been employed for enhancing the graphene concentration in certain organic solvents. Addition of additives and salts can enhance the graphene concentration in organic solvents to some extent. In this chapter, the earlier work done in enhancing graphene concentration is explained. Further, this technique is employed for graphene concentration enhancement in solvents by using new salts and additives. The results obtained with various additives are compared and it was found that by adding anthracene in NMP solvent graphene concentration increases upto 0.04 mg/ml. This process can be easily scaled up for better performance, and resulting high concentration graphene can be used for the fabrication of the efficient modern electronics devices.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/63951",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/63951",book:{id:"6845",slug:"graphene-and-its-derivatives-synthesis-and-applications"},signatures:"Randhir Singh Bhoria",authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Graphene synthesis methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Mechanical exfoliation method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Chemical exfoliation method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"2.3 Chemical vapor deposition (CVD) method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"2.4 Epitaxial growth on SiC",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"2.5 Hummer’s method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"2.6 Electrochemical exfoliation method",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8_2",title:"2.7 Liquid phase exfoliation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_10",title:"3. Process of concentration enhancement",level:"1"},{id:"sec_11",title:"4. Concentration enhancement with salts and additives",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12",title:"5. Results and discussions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6. Conclusion",level:"2"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Geim A, Novoselov K. Nature Materials. 2007;6:183-191'},{id:"B2",body:'Hernandez Y, Nicolosi V, Lotya M, Blighe F, Sun Z, De S, et al. Nature Nanotechnology. 2008;3:563-568'},{id:"B3",body:'Viculis L, Mack J, Kaner R. Science. 2003;299:1361'},{id:"B4",body:'Chen G, Weng W, Wu D, Wu C, Lu J, Wang P, et al. Carbon. 2004;42:753-759'},{id:"B5",body:'Li X, Wang X, Zhang L, Lee S, Dai H. Science. 2008;319:1229'},{id:"B6",body:'Mattevi C, Kim H, Chhowalla M. Journal of Materials Chemistry. 2011;21:3324'},{id:"B7",body:'Eizenberg M, Blakely JM. Surface Science. 1970;82:228'},{id:"B8",body:'Castner DG, Sexton BA, Somorjai GA. Surface Science. 1978;71:519'},{id:"B9",body:'Lang B. 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Chemical Physics Letters. 2013;568:198-201'},{id:"B68",body:'Singh R, Tripathi CC. Enhancing Liquid-Phase Exfoliation of Graphene with Addition of Anthracene in Organic Solvents. Arabian Journal for Science and Engineering. 2017;42(6):2417-2424'},{id:"B69",body:'Haar S, El Gemayel M, Shin Y, Melinte G, Squillaci MA, Ersen O, et al. Enhancing the liquid-phase exfoliation of graphene in organic solvents upon addition of n-octylbenzene. Nature, Scientific Reports. 2015;5 (Article number: 16684)'},{id:"B70",body:'Liua WW, Wang JN. Direct exfoliation of graphene in organic solvents with addition of NaOH. Chemical Communications. 2011;47:6888-6890'},{id:"B71",body:'Wencheng D, Lu J, Sun P, Zhu Y, Jiang X. Organic salt-assisted liquid-phase exfoliation of graphite to produce high-quality graphene. Chemical Physics Letters. 2013;568-569:198-201'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Randhir Singh Bhoria",address:"mr_randhir_singh@yahoo.co.in",affiliation:'
University Institute of Engineering and Technology, Kurukshetra University, Kurukshetra, India
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1. Introduction
Extensive research in the chemical synthetic approaches has led to a huge increment in the poorly water-soluble drug’s development [1]. In the present scenario, statistical reports suggest that there are approximately 70% of poor water-soluble new chemical entities (NCEs) [2]. These newly developed drugs possess lipophilic characteristic and are challenging to deliver through the oral route. They have poor oral bioavailability, show variation in intra- as well as intersubject pharmacokinetics, have poor dose proportionality, and have erratic absorption [3]. Researchers have made many strategies to overcome the limitation of poor solubility and bioavailability. Different delivery system formulation development and chemical and/or physical modification of drug moiety can be used to solve the poor solubility issue of drugs. Though there are many drug delivery system approaches, lipid-based drug delivery system has gained much interest in lipophilic drug delivery. It includes macroemulsion, nanoemulsion, niosomes, self-emulsifying formulation, liposomes, solid-lipid nanoparticle, etc. Among all these formulation approaches, emulsion-based preparation can be considered an industrially feasible approach to overcome the limitation of poor bioavailability [4]. Nanoemulsion is capable of improving the topical drug absorption thereby increasing the bioavailability and permeability of lipophilic drug; thus, it can be a good alternative option for drug delivery [5]. Nanoemulsion is further incorporated into gel matrix to prepare nanoemulgel which has even better permeation and stability. So far, there is no review article reported on the promising future of nanoemulgel applications as a delivery system in the treatment of various diseases. This article is a complete package of nanoemulgel comprising information of potent selected formulation component, formulation procedure, advantages over other delivery system, and widespread possible application of nanoemulgel in the treatment therapy. In this article, we have mentioned only reported applications, and there are many to still go in the upcoming future.
Though oral route offers better patient compliance, it has various limitations like gastric irritation, unavoidable side effects, systemic toxicity, and hepatic first-pass metabolism [6]. To avoid all these issues, a nonirritating, non-painful, and a noninvasive topical drug delivery system can be a suitable alternative. It has several advantages over oral route such as targeted site-specific delivery of drug with least systemic toxicity, no gastric irritation, first-pass metabolism bypass, and improved bioavailability of a drug [7, 8]. Apart from many advantages, traditional topical formulations, namely lotions, creams, and ointments suffer from sticky nature, stability issue, low spreadability, etc. which affect the patient’s compliance. Whereas, modern transdermal preparations like transparent gel, nanogel, and (micro/nano) emulgel not only have shown improved patient compliance but also improves the formulation efficacy, stability, and safety. Several studies have reported that topical drug delivery system improves the bioavailability of the drug [9, 10]. Bioavailability of lacidipine given through transdermal route was found to be increased by 3.5-fold than the oral route. It may be due to the avoidance of the first-pass metabolism of the drug [9]. In another study conducted by Bhaskar and team, it was found that the topical nanoemulsion of flurbiprofen exhibits 4.4 times more bioavailability than oral delivery [10]. Thus, the bioavailability of a lipophilic drug can be enhanced by the topical drug delivery system. Topical delivery not only reduces the drug metabolism but also improves the permeation across the skin by maintaining longer steady-state delivery of the drug [9].
2. Emulsion-based nano-carrier in topical application
Delivery of a lipophilic drug is a big obstacle for the conventional transdermal delivery system due to low therapeutic potential and poor skin permeability capability. Researches propose that nanoscale-sized transdermal preparation can increase the drug permeability by disrupting the skin bilayer of lipid [11] and extending the drug retention time at the site of action [12, 13]. Nanoemulsion can be a promising carrier delivery of hydrophobic drug, since it has greater thermodynamic stability and higher capability of drug solubilization over emulsion and other dispersion systems. It also has longer shelf life and requires a small amount of external energy for manufacturing [14]. Nanoemulsion is a dispersed system which consists of nanoscale-sized (20–200 nm diameter) droplets solvent composed of an oil phase and water phase and stabilized by the suitable surfactant. Drug is entrapped in the core which is surrounded by emulsifier layer as shown in Figure 1. Generally, permeation enhancers are not required when nanoemulsion is used as a carrier for delivery of the lipophilic drug [15]. It has less tendency of phase separation than other ordinary emulsions which makes it more stable [16]. Different studies have reported better permeation of drug into the skin through nanoemulsion delivery system than conventional ointment [17], cream [18], gel [19], and emulsion [20]. Depending on the type of nanoemulsion, viz. oil-in-water or water-in-oil, it can solubilize both hydrophobic and hydrophilic drug in its structure [21].
Figure 1.
Structure of nanoemulsion.
In spite of lots of advantages, nanoemulsion suffers from low spreadability, low viscosity, and poor skin retention issue [22]. Due to these, the clinical application of topical nanoemulsion is restrained [23]. Researchers converted nanoemulsion into nanoemulgel by incorporating it into the gel matrix and solved this problem.
2.1 Nanoemulgel as topical drug delivery system
Nanoemulgel is the fusion of two systems: nanoemulsion system and hydrogel system. Both the systems have some limitations, such as nanoemulsion that suffers low spreadability and poor retention, whereas hydrogels are incapable of incorporating lipophilic molecule [24, 25]. Nanoemulgel has different types of polymeric materials, surfactants, and fatty substances of natural, synthetic, and semisynthetic nature with a droplet size range from 5 to 500 nm [26]. Nanoemulgel has the capability to overcome the limitation of both the systems. The lipophilic drug is dissolved in the oil phase of nanoemulsion which is then added to hydrogel base to form nanoemulgel [27] which enables the incorporation of lipophilic drug into a hydrogel, simultaneously improving the viscosity of nanoemulsion. In transdermal drug delivery, nanoemulgel acts as a reservoir of the drug. The drug is first to release from the inner phase to the outer phase and from there into the skin surface. When applied on skin, oily droplets were released from the gel matrix of nanoemulgel, which then penetrate deep into the skin via stratum corneum, and there they directly deliver the drug moiety [23]. The mechanism of drug release depends on the crosslink density as well as the composition of a network of polymer chains [28].
2.2 Potent components for nanoemulgel formulation
Nanoemulgel is a fusion of two separate systems, viz. the nanoemulsion and a gel system. Nanoemulsion acting as a vehicle for drug delivery can be either water-in-oil or oil-in-water type. In both cases, it consists of an oil phase, aqueous phase, surfactant, and sometime cosurfactant. Overview of commonly used major components of nanoemulgel formulation has been apprehended in this section (Figure 2).
Figure 2.
Potent formulation component of nanoemulgel.
2.2.1 Oils
Oil is an important component of the nanoemulgel formulation that should be selected appropriately based on the solubility, stability, permeability, and viscosity of the formulation. Vegetable oils/edible oils are not frequently used in nanoemulgel formulation, since they had shown poor emulsification properties and drug solubility [29, 30, 31]. Thus, chemically modified oils such as mono or diglyceride or medium-chain triglycerides are commonly used as an oil phase in the nanoemulgel formulation for lipophilic drug delivery [15]. A medium-chain triglyceride, Labrafac, has been used by Syamala and his group to prepare butenafine nanoemulgel [32]. Capryol 90 is another example used as an oil phase in the preparation of nanoemulsion, which has shown better stability of the nanoemulsion formulation of leflunomide and paclitaxel [3, 33].
On the other hand, scientists are focusing on utilizing the supplementary benefit of natural oil in therapeutic effect. Antimicrobial activity of tea tree oil was combined with an antifungal agent itraconazole for a synergistic effect of nanoemulgel preparation against vaginal candidiasis [34]. Another nanoemulgel of curcumin has been reported by Jeengar and team with emu oil. Emu oil obtained from emu bird has analgesic, antipruritic, anesthetic, antioxidants, and anti-inflammatory properties, and it has shown the improvement in permeability of drug in the treatment of joint synovial [35]. Various oils used by different researchers in nanoemulgel preparation are listed in Table 1.
Active Drug
Oil
Surfactant
Cosurfactant
Gelling agents
Reference
Thymol
Caprylic acid, isopropyl myristate, and tea tree oil
Various components used in different nanoemulgel formulations.
2.2.2 Surfactant and cosurfactant
Surfactant reduces the interfacial tension between the mixtures of two immiscible liquids and changes the dispersion entropy, thus stabilizing thermodynamically unstable emulsion system. Selection of appropriate surfactant for nanoemulgel is based on the safety, stability, high drug loading capacity as well as good emulsification properties [31]. Also, the surfactant should be selected based on the solubility with oil like Tween 20 that was used on the basis of solubility of Capryol 90 and oleic acid [15, 40].
Cosurfactant may combine with surfactant and help in the emulsification process by disrupting the interfacial film. It may also help in solubilization of oil [15]. Depending on the physicochemical properties, most frequently used cosurfactants in nanoemulsion and nanoemulgel preparation are propylene glycol, PEG 400, ethanol, transcutol P, carbitol, etc. [35, 40]. Studies suggest that with the increase in the concentration of cosurfactant, the area of nanoemulsion in phase diagram decreases [48, 49].
2.2.3 Aqueous solvents
Aqueous solvents act as the aqueous phase in emulsion preparation. Worldwide widely used aqueous solvents are ethanol and water.
2.2.4 Gelling agents
Carbapol 934, Carbapol 940, and hydroxy propyl methyl cellulose (HPMC) are widely used gelling agent for nanoemulgel. They increased the thickness of the formulation and may interact with the surfactant to modify the viscosity of the formulation [41]. It is added to the nanoemulsion preparation to change the physical state of nanoemulsion formulation from liquid to gel, thus solving the problem of low spreadability, low viscosity, and poor skin retention issue of nanoemulsion.
2.2.5 Miscellaneous components
To protect the formulation from microbial attack and increase the shelf life of formulation, preservatives are added in the preparation. Most commonly used preservatives are methylparaben, benzoic acid, propylparaben, benzalkonium chloride, etc. Antioxidants like butylate hydroxyl toluene, butylate hydroxyl anisole, and ascorbyl palmitate are used to prevent oxidative degradation of formulation components and to prevent loss of moisture, glycerin and propylene glycol are used as humectants [50]. Hence, the stability of the nanoemulsion and nanoemulgel preparation increased.
2.3 Preparation of nanoemulgel formulation
Two steps are involved in the manufacturing of nanoemulgel. The first step is nanoemulsion formulation which is then incorporated into a gelling agent in the second step to form nanoemulgel. Figure 3 schematically represents the procedure of preparation of nanoemulgel.
Figure 3.
Procedure of nanoemulgel preparation.
Methods used for the preparation of nanoemulsion can be high-energy emulsification methods or low-energy emulsification methods [49, 51]. In high-energy emulsification methods, external energy is applied which rupture the oil phase to form nanosized droplets in the aqueous phase. It includes ultrasonic emulsification and high-pressure homogenization. Solvent displacement method, phase inversion composition method, and phase inversion temperature method are low-energy emulsification in which low energy is required for prepared nanoemulsion [21].
2.3.1 Procedure for nanoemulsion preparation
The selected surfactant is dissolved in either the aqueous phase or the oil phase. Based on the solubility, the drug is then added and solubilized in the oil phase or aqueous phase followed by heating. Then one phase is gradually added into another with continuous stirring till the temperature of the mixture reaches to room temperature.
2.3.2 Procedure for nanoemulgel preparation
The appropriate gelling agent is dissolved in distilled water with continuous stirring to prepare gel base. The pH of prepared gel is adjusted, then the nanoemulsion system is incorporated slowly into the prepared gel at a particular ratio with continuous stirring to get nanoemulgel preparation.
2.4 Advantages of nanoemulgel
Nanoemulgel preparations have various advantages over other topical as well as conventional preparation. Some of the advantages are listed as follows (Figure 4).
Figure 4.
Advantages of nanoemulgel preparation.
2.4.1 Incorporation of lipophilic drug
The lipophilic drug moieties base show improper drug release mechanism in the gel due to its insolubility in aqueous base. Fusion of the hydrogel system with emulsion system enables the incorporation of lipophilic drug into the aqueous base, thus improving the release mechanism of the drug. Lipophilic drug is dissolved in the oil phase of emulsion which is then incorporated into hydrogel system [52].
2.4.2 Better loading capacity
Better loading capacity has been observed by nanoemulgel as compared to than other novel drug delivery systems. Due to its nanoscale size, it has a larger surface area and better entrapment efficiency which enable it to load more amount of drugs in its network-like system [52].
2.4.3 Better stability
Nanoemulgel system is more stable than other transdermal drug delivery system, because it decreases the interfacial as well as the surface tension of the formulation, which make it superior from a conventional transdermal delivery system [53].
2.4.4 Controlled release
Nanoemulgel acts as a drug reservoir and has shown prolong residence time leading to sustain release of the drug. Thus, it is beneficial for the drugs having shorter half-life [52].
2.4.5 Better pharmacokinetic profile
Nanoemulgel formulation gives higher Tmax and peak plasma concentration of lipophilic drugs than the conventional gel as well as oral formulation. Thereby, nanoemulgel preparation improves the bioavailability of lipophilic drug many folds than the other lipophilic drug formulations [53].
2.4.6 Better pharmacodynamics activity
2.4.7 Improved permeability of nanoemulgel preparation through the skin enables more drugs to penetrate into the site of action. This enhances the pharmacodynamic activity of the drug increasing its therapeutic efficacy [53]
2.4.8 Better patient compliance
Major issue with the transdermal preparation is the sticky nature and low spreading coefficient which require rubbing mechanism. Nanoemulgel being nonsticky and easily spreadable preparation results in better patient compliance than other transdermal preparations [28].
2.4.9 Enhanced drug permeability through skin
Nanoemulgel has shown significant enhancement in the permeability of the drug through skin than other formulation since from nanoemulgel preparation, the drug can permeate the skin layer through both paracellular and transcellular route, whereas, in nanoemulsion, only transcellular permeation route is seen [53]. Comparison of cumulative drug permeability through the skin from different formulation is represented in Figure 5 [24].
Figure 5.
Comparative representation of cumulative cyclosporine permeated through the skin of albino rat from different formulations. Regenerated from [24].
2.4.10 Better safety profile
Nanoemulgel bypasses the first-pass metabolism, thus solving one of the major problems of drug, that is, the oral side effect. It does not cause skin irritation or any toxicity on the application [53].
3. Health claim
A significant number of the nanoemulgel formulation of drugs has been carried out and reported by various researchers to show its application as a more potent and effective drug delivery system. Some of the studies have shown outstanding result over the conventional oral drug delivery system, suggesting a promising future of nanoemulgel application.
3.1 Acne and pimple
Thymol nanoemulgel formulation for acne vulgaris, a common chronic skin disease, was prepared by Ahmad and team. The preparation showed better efficacy [36].
3.2 Psoriasis
It is the skin condition in which skin cells build up and form itchy, dry patches, and scales. A nanoemulgel formulation of leflunomide by Pund and team showed considerably higher anti-psoriatic and anti-melanoma activity in human keratinocyte cell line due to improved permeability of drug. Amount of drug deposited in the skin after 12 hours by nanoemulgel was found to be sixfold more than ordinary gel [33]. In another study by Somagoni and team, nanoemulgel showed 3.22- and 2.01-fold more reduction of ear swelling than drug solution and marketed product, respectively, in psoriatic-like model [43].
3.3 Fungal infection
High skin permeability of nanoemulgel has made it a better alternative for the faster treatment of fungal infection. Syamala has reported that it took only 12 days to Butenafine nanoemulgel to cure fungus-infected rat skin, whereas cream took 16 days [32]. Nanoemulgel has also shown a notable increase in antifungal activity of the drug. Higher area of inhibition zone was observed with Ketoconazole nanoemulgel than drug solution when incubated for 48 hours [38]. Nanoemulgel of Amphotericin B can overcome formulation limitation of Amphotericin B making it a better alternative to painful intravenous administration. It could be used as a stable, effective, and safe carrier for sustained and enhanced localized delivery of Amphotericin B against fungal infection [42].
3.4 Inflammation and pain due to osteoarthritis and rheumatic arthritis
Nanoemulgel is a better alternative for poor water-soluble anti-inflammatory drugs, and it also bypasses the related oral side effects of drugs like gastrointestinal irritation, renal, and cardiovascular problems, etc. Many researchers have reported remarkably higher activity of anti-inflammatory drugs in nanoemulgel formulation than other drug carrier system [35, 40, 54, 55, 56, 57]. Nanoemulgel of ketoprofen, an extensively utilized non steroidal anti inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) for rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis treatment, was developed by Arora and team. Along with enhancing the skin permeability and solubility of ketoprofen, it also bypasses the problems related to chronic oral delivery of ketoprofen. Comparison of the optimized formulation with the marketed product and drug solution showed 1.5- and 2-fold higher permeability, respectively [40].
Another common drug used in osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis is piroxicam. It is also used in the treatment of the musculoskeletal and joint disorder. It also possesses the problem of poor solubility along with undesirable side effect on stomach and kidney. Dhawan and team reported that piroxicam nanoemulgel can be used as a feasible alternative [41].
Apart from these, attempt has also made to establish the stability, efficacy, and safety of certain drugs with anti-inflammatory activity which has poor solubility and permeability profile and/or oral side effect like curcumin [35], Swietenia macrophylla [27], Lornoxicam [54], Nimesulide [55], mangosteen [56], and diclofenac diethylamine [57]. Figure 6 represents the comparison of anti-inflammatory effect of flurbiprofen nanoemulgel by Radhika and Guruprasad with marketed preparation [37].
Figure 6.
Graphical representation of improvement in anti-inflammatory effect of nanoemulgel of flurbiprofen. Regenerated from [56].
3.5 Periodontal disease
Dental nanoemulgel preparation is intended for periodontal delivery of drug to treat chronic bacterial infection of the gum and bone supporting teeth. Periodontal disease causes inflammation of gum forming pockets which may lead to gum tissue and bone damage. Srivastava and team formulated syringeable ketoprofen nanoemulgel for intra-pocket delivery and found satisfied pharmaceutical characterization offering sustained release of ketoprofen into the pocket. Significant reduction was observed in alveolar bone loss, gingival index, and tooth motility by ketoprofen nanoemulgel due to decreased cytokine levels [58]. Whereas, the study of Nayak and team suggested that controlled released delivery of Quercetin nanoemulgel can be used successfully in periodontitis [59].
3.6 Corneal fungus infection
Ocular nanoemulgel can be better alternative drug delivery system to the conventional eye drops to cure corneal fungal infection. Permeation of fluconazole from nanoemulgel preparation was found four times that of commercial fluconazole eye drop due to high permeation, sustained release of drug, and prolongation in the precorneal residence time. Prolong release was achieved by in situ gelation of Gellan gum due to its crosslinking with tear fluid. Fluconazole nanoemulgel formulation showed no sign of any ocular irritation and tissue damage [60]. Whereas, Tayel used a rabbit model to successfully control the release rate of terbinafine-HCL nanoemulgel, which can be an effective alternative to conventional eye drop for ocular fungal infection, into the rabbit aqueous humor [61].
3.7 Vaginal candidiasis
A thermo-sensitive nanoemulgel of itraconazole with tea tree oil was prepared for patients suffering from periodic vaginal candidiasis. Antimicrobial activity of itraconazole and tea tree oil combined to give synergistic effect covering cure for wide range microbial infection [34].
3.8 Alopecia
Minoxidil is the commonly used drug for the treatment of hair loss also known as alopecia. Nanoemulgel is capable of increasing solubility and permeability of drug through the skin; hence, nanoemulgel preparation of minoxidil will be more effective and safer than conventional preparation present in the market for the treatment of alopecia areata [62].
3.9 Insomnia
Nasal nanoemulgel of zaleplon was formulated by Hosny and Banjar for the treatment of insomnia. The main objective was to solve the problem with marketed zaleplon tablet. Zaleplon tablet suffers from poor bioavailability due to extensive first-pass metabolism and delayed onset of action due to poor aqueous solubility. Nasal zaleplon nanoemulgel showed eight times more bioavailability than the marketed zaleplon tablet [63].
3.10 Parkinson’s disease
Selegiline HCL-loaded nanoemulgel possess better sustains release effect of the drug and higher bioavailability than the conventional gel and a marketed tablet. Bioavailability was reported to be 5.53 and 6.56 times that of normal gel and tablet [64]. Microemulgel loaded with rotigotine has also shown significantly higher bioavailability than marketed patch of rotigotine in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease [65].
3.11 Cosmetics
Use of nanotechnology in cosmetics is very common. Fullerenes, solid-lipid nanoparticle, liposomes, nanosomes, etc., are already nourishing in cosmetic industries. Ferulic acid nanoemulgel was developed by Harwansh and team to protect the skin damage from harmful UV radiation. Ferulic acid strongly absorbs the UV radiation. Its incorporation into nanoemulgel system made it effective for more than 4 hours on the UV-exposed skin [39].
Currently available marketed emulgel products for the treatment of acne and pimple, inflammation, and pain caused by osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis and skin infection have been listed in Table 2.
Product brand name
Active pharmaceutical ingredient(s)
Manufacturers
Application
Benzolait AZ emulgel
Benzoylperoxide
Roydermal
Pimple and blacks on skin
Coolnac Gel emulgel 1%
Diclofenac diethyl ammonium
Chumchon
Inflammation and pain due to trauma
Diclobar emulgel
Diclofenac diethyl amine
Barakat Pharma
Inflammation due to trauma and rheumatic diseases
Levorage emulgel
Liquorice, hibiscus, and natural extract
THD Ltd
Anal fissures
Meloxic emulgel
Meloxicum
Laboratories Provet
Musculoskeletal pain management and inflammation
Miconaz-H-emulgel
Miconazole nitrate, hydrocortisone
Medical Union Pharmaceutics
Skin infection by candida
Reumadep emulgel
Ashwagandha, myrrh, arnica, rosemary, mint, and cloves
Erbozeta
Inflammation and pain due to trauma
Voltaren emulgel
Diclofenac diethyl ammonium
Novartis Pharma
Osteoarthritis joint pain
Voveron emulgel
Diclofenac diethyl amine
Novartis Pharma
Osteoarthritis joint pain
Table 2.
Available marketed emulgel preparations.
4. Mechanism involved to enhance permeability and bioavailability from nanoemulgel preparations
The skin permeability as well as bioavailability of nanoemulgel may be enhanced by various mechanisms. Some of the studied mechanisms with types of nanoemulgel are listed in Table 3.
Types of nanoemulgel
Mechanism of permeability/bioavailability
References
Conjugate of curcumin
Induced apoptosis in cancer cells, suppressing the expression of NF-κB, TNF-α, and COX-2 cellular targets
Nanoemulgel has been found to be extraordinarily good vehicle system for hydrophobic drug delivery. High drug loading due to better solubilizing efficacy, improved bioavailability due to better permeability, and capability to control the release of drug make it a potent alternative delivery system in the treatment of various diseases. Application of nanoemulgel preparation in the treatment of acne, pimple, psoriasis, fungal infection, and inflammation due to osteoarthritis as well as rheumatoid arthritis has shown significantly higher efficacy. Besides transdermal application, it can also be applied for ocular, vaginal, dental, and nose to brain delivery of drug for the treatment of diverse local and systemic ailments such as alopecia, periodontitis, and Parkinson’s disease. Nanoemulgel has also shown its application in the cosmetic industries as a UV absorber nanoemulgel to protect skin from sunburn. Precisely, the nanoemulgel system has a marvelous ability to be applied in various local and systemic ailments. Some preparations are already present in the market, whereas others need a further clinical study to launch the product in the market.
\n',keywords:"nanoemulgel, lipophilic, bioavailability, permeability",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/81214.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/81214.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/81214",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/81214",totalDownloads:81,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"January 29th 2022",dateReviewed:"February 22nd 2022",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2022",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"April 11th 2022",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Nanoemulgel delivery system is a fusion of two different delivery systems, wherein the physical state of drug containing nanoemulsion is changed by adding it to the gel matrix, thus enabling more lipophilic drugs to be used in treatment therapies. It solves the major issues such as limiting use of lipophilic drugs, poor oral bioavailability, and unpredictable pharmacokinetic and absorption variations. Simultaneously, its nongreasy nature and easily spreading ability support the patient compliance. Nanoemulgel can be widely used in the treatment of acne, pimple, psoriasis, fungal infection, and inflammation cause by osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis. The delivery of drug via ocular, vaginal, dental, and nose to brain routes for the treatment of diverse local and systemic ailments for instance alopecia, periodontitis, and Parkinson’s are possible. In the cosmetic industries, UV absorber nanoemulgel protected skin from sunburn.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/81214",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/81214",signatures:"Nazneen Sultana, Juber Akhtar, Badruddeen, Mohammad Irfan Khan, Usama Ahmad, Muhammad Arif, Mohammad Ahmad and Tanmay Upadhyay",book:{id:"11091",type:"book",title:"Drug Development Life Cycle",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Drug Development Life Cycle",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Juber Akhtar, Dr. Badruddeen, Dr. Mohammad Ahmad and Dr. Mohammad Irfan Khan",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11091.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-80356-048-9",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-047-2",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-049-6",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"345595",title:"Prof.",name:"Juber",middleName:null,surname:"Akhtar",slug:"juber-akhtar",fullName:"Juber Akhtar"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Emulsion-based nano-carrier in topical application",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2_2",title:"2.1 Nanoemulgel as topical drug delivery system",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"2.2 Potent components for nanoemulgel formulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_3_3",title:"Table 1.",level:"3"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"2.2.2 Surfactant and cosurfactant",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"2.2.3 Aqueous solvents",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"2.2.4 Gelling agents",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"2.2.5 Miscellaneous components",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_2",title:"2.3 Preparation of nanoemulgel formulation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"2.3.1 Procedure for nanoemulsion preparation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_3",title:"2.3.2 Procedure for nanoemulgel preparation",level:"3"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"2.4 Advantages of nanoemulgel",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_3",title:"2.4.1 Incorporation of lipophilic drug",level:"3"},{id:"sec_13_3",title:"2.4.2 Better loading capacity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_14_3",title:"2.4.3 Better stability",level:"3"},{id:"sec_15_3",title:"2.4.4 Controlled release",level:"3"},{id:"sec_16_3",title:"2.4.5 Better pharmacokinetic profile",level:"3"},{id:"sec_17_3",title:"2.4.6 Better pharmacodynamics activity",level:"3"},{id:"sec_18_3",title:"2.4.7 Improved permeability of nanoemulgel preparation through the skin enables more drugs to penetrate into the site of action. This enhances the pharmacodynamic activity of the drug increasing its therapeutic efficacy [53]",level:"3"},{id:"sec_19_3",title:"2.4.8 Better patient compliance",level:"3"},{id:"sec_20_3",title:"2.4.9 Enhanced drug permeability through skin",level:"3"},{id:"sec_21_3",title:"2.4.10 Better safety profile",level:"3"},{id:"sec_24",title:"3. Health claim",level:"1"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"3.1 Acne and pimple",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"3.2 Psoriasis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"3.3 Fungal infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"3.4 Inflammation and pain due to osteoarthritis and rheumatic arthritis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_28_2",title:"3.5 Periodontal disease",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29_2",title:"3.6 Corneal fungus infection",level:"2"},{id:"sec_30_2",title:"3.7 Vaginal candidiasis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_31_2",title:"3.8 Alopecia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_32_2",title:"3.9 Insomnia",level:"2"},{id:"sec_33_2",title:"3.10 Parkinson’s disease",level:"2"},{id:"sec_34_2",title:"3.11 Cosmetics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_36",title:"4. Mechanism involved to enhance permeability and bioavailability from nanoemulgel preparations",level:"1"},{id:"sec_37",title:"5. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Weissig V, Lizano C, Torchilin VP. Selective DNA release from DQAsome/DNA complexes at mitochondria-like membranes. 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Journal of Investigative Dermatology. 2012;132:964-975. DOI: 10.1038/jid.2011.425'},{id:"B14",body:'Muller RH, Benita S, Bohm B, editors. Emulsions and Nanosuspensions for the Formulation of Poorly Soluble Drugs. Vol. 8. Stuttgart: Medpharm Scientific Publishers; 1998. pp. 149-173. DOI: 10.1208/pt0802028'},{id:"B15",body:'Rizwan M, Azeem A, Aqil M, Talegaonkar S, Khar RK, Ahmad FJ, et al. Nanoemulsion components screening and selection: A technical note. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2009;10:69-76. DOI: 10.1208/s12249-008-9178-x'},{id:"B16",body:'Kim BS, Won M, Lee KM, Kim CS. In vitro permeation studies of nanoemulsions containing ketoprofen as a model drug. Drug Delivery. 2008;15:465-469. DOI: 10.1080/10717540802328599'},{id:"B17",body:'De Moraes CAF, Ceschel GC, Bergamante V, Fini A, Ronchi C. Control of transdermal permeation of hydrocortisone acetate from hydrophilic and lipophilic formulations. AAPS PharmSciTech. 2008;9:762-768. DOI: 10.1208/s12249-008-9107-z'},{id:"B18",body:'Teichmann A, Heuschkel S, Jacobi U, Presse G, Neubert RHH, Sterry W, et al. Comparison of stratum corneum penetration and localization of a lipophilic model drug applied in an o/w microemulsion and an amphiphilic cream. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics. 2007;67:699-706. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2007.04.006'},{id:"B19",body:'Abramović Z, Šuštaršič U, Teskač K, Šentjurc M, Kristl J. Influence of nanosized delivery systems with benzyl nicotinate and penetration enhancers on skin oxygenation. International Journal of Pharmaceutics. 2008;359:220-227. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpharm.2008.03.014'},{id:"B20",body:'Bolzinger MA, Briançon S, Pelletier J, Fessi H, Chevalier Y. Percutaneous release of caffeine from microemulsion, emulsion and gel dosage forms. European Journal of Pharmaceutics and Biopharmaceutics. 2008;68:446-451. DOI: 10.1016/j.ejpb.2007.10.018'},{id:"B21",body:'Date AA, Desai N, Dixit R, Nagarsenker M. 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Policy last updated: 2016-06-09
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Various textile production methods used for the formation of textile preforms are explained. Composite fabrication methods are introduced. Engineering properties of textile composites are reviewed with regard to specific application areas. 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\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\t
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t
\r\n
\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
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Saxena",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null}]},subseriesFiltersForPublishedBooks:[{group:"subseries",caption:"Bacterial Infectious Diseases",value:3,count:2},{group:"subseries",caption:"Parasitic Infectious Diseases",value:5,count:4},{group:"subseries",caption:"Viral Infectious Diseases",value:6,count:7}],publicationYearFilters:[{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2022",value:2022,count:2},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2021",value:2021,count:4},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2020",value:2020,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2019",value:2019,count:3},{group:"publicationYear",caption:"2018",value:2018,count:1}],authors:{paginationCount:229,paginationItems:[{id:"318170",title:"Dr.",name:"Aneesa",middleName:null,surname:"Moolla",slug:"aneesa-moolla",fullName:"Aneesa Moolla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/318170/images/system/318170.png",biography:"Dr. Aneesa Moolla has extensive experience in the diverse fields of health care having previously worked in dental private practice, at the Red Cross Flying Doctors association, and in healthcare corporate settings. She is now a lecturer at the University of Witwatersrand, South Africa, and a principal researcher at the Health Economics and Epidemiology Research Office (HE2RO), South Africa. Dr. Moolla holds a Ph.D. in Psychology with her research being focused on mental health and resilience. In her professional work capacity, her research has further expanded into the fields of early childhood development, mental health, the HIV and TB care cascades, as well as COVID. She is also a UNESCO-trained International Bioethics Facilitator.",institutionString:"University of the Witwatersrand",institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"419588",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sergio",middleName:"Alexandre",surname:"Gehrke",slug:"sergio-gehrke",fullName:"Sergio Gehrke",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000038WgMKQA0/Profile_Picture_2022-06-02T11:44:20.jpg",biography:"Dr. Sergio Alexandre Gehrke is a doctorate holder in two fields. The first is a Ph.D. in Cellular and Molecular Biology from the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil, in 2010 and the other is an International Ph.D. in Bioengineering from the Universidad Miguel Hernandez, Elche/Alicante, Spain, obtained in 2020. In 2018, he completed a postdoctoral fellowship in Materials Engineering in the NUCLEMAT of the Pontificia Catholic University, Porto Alegre, Brazil. He is currently the Director of the Postgraduate Program in Implantology of the Bioface/UCAM/PgO (Montevideo, Uruguay), Director of the Cathedra of Biotechnology of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain), an Extraordinary Full Professor of the Catholic University of Murcia (Murcia, Spain) as well as the Director of the private center of research Biotecnos – Technology and Science (Montevideo, Uruguay). Applied biomaterials, cellular and molecular biology, and dental implants are among his research interests. He has published several original papers in renowned journals. In addition, he is also a Collaborating Professor in several Postgraduate programs at different universities all over the world.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Católica San Antonio de Murcia",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"342152",title:"Dr.",name:"Santo",middleName:null,surname:"Grace Umesh",slug:"santo-grace-umesh",fullName:"Santo Grace Umesh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/342152/images/16311_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"333647",title:"Dr.",name:"Shreya",middleName:null,surname:"Kishore",slug:"shreya-kishore",fullName:"Shreya Kishore",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333647/images/14701_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Shreya Kishore completed her Bachelor in Dental Surgery in Chettinad Dental College and Research Institute, Chennai, and her Master of Dental Surgery (Orthodontics) in Saveetha Dental College, Chennai. She is also Invisalign certified. She’s working as a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Orthodontics, SRM Dental College since November 2019. She is actively involved in teaching orthodontics to the undergraduates and the postgraduates. Her clinical research topics include new orthodontic brackets, fixed appliances and TADs. She’s published 4 articles in well renowned indexed journals and has a published patency of her own. Her private practice is currently limited to orthodontics and works as a consultant in various clinics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"SRM Dental College",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"323731",title:"Prof.",name:"Deepak M.",middleName:"Macchindra",surname:"Vikhe",slug:"deepak-m.-vikhe",fullName:"Deepak M. Vikhe",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/323731/images/13613_n.jpg",biography:"Dr Deepak M.Vikhe .\n\n\t\n\tDr Deepak M.Vikhe , completed his Masters & PhD in Prosthodontics from Rural Dental College, Loni securing third rank in the Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences Deemed University. He was awarded Dr.G.C.DAS Memorial Award for Research on Implants at 39th IPS conference Dubai (U A E).He has two patents under his name. He has received Dr.Saraswati medal award for best research for implant study in 2017.He has received Fully funded scholarship to Spain ,university of Santiago de Compostela. He has completed fellowship in Implantlogy from Noble Biocare. \nHe has attended various conferences and CDE programmes and has national publications to his credit. His field of interest is in Implant supported prosthesis. Presently he is working as a associate professor in the Dept of Prosthodontics, Rural Dental College, Loni and maintains a successful private practice specialising in Implantology at Rahata.\n\nEmail: drdeepak_mvikhe@yahoo.com..................",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Pravara Institute of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204110",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmed A.",middleName:null,surname:"Madfa",slug:"ahmed-a.-madfa",fullName:"Ahmed A. Madfa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204110/images/system/204110.jpg",biography:"Dr. Madfa is currently Associate Professor of Endodontics at Thamar University and a visiting lecturer at Sana'a University and University of Sciences and Technology. He has more than 6 years of experience in teaching. His research interests include root canal morphology, functionally graded concept, dental biomaterials, epidemiology and dental education, biomimetic restoration, finite element analysis and endodontic regeneration. Dr. Madfa has numerous international publications, full articles, two patents, a book and a book chapter. Furthermore, he won 14 international scientific awards. Furthermore, he is involved in many academic activities ranging from editorial board member, reviewer for many international journals and postgraduate students' supervisor. Besides, I deliver many courses and training workshops at various scientific events. Dr. Madfa also regularly attends international conferences and holds administrative positions (Deputy Dean of the Faculty for Students’ & Academic Affairs and Deputy Head of Research Unit).",institutionString:"Thamar University",institution:null},{id:"210472",title:"Dr.",name:"Nermin",middleName:"Mohammed Ahmed",surname:"Yussif",slug:"nermin-yussif",fullName:"Nermin Yussif",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210472/images/system/210472.jpg",biography:"Dr. Nermin Mohammed Ahmed Yussif is working at the Faculty of dentistry, University for October university for modern sciences and arts (MSA). Her areas of expertise include: periodontology, dental laserology, oral implantology, periodontal plastic surgeries, oral mesotherapy, nutrition, dental pharmacology. She is an editor and reviewer in numerous international journals.",institutionString:"MSA University",institution:null},{id:"204606",title:"Dr.",name:"Serdar",middleName:null,surname:"Gözler",slug:"serdar-gozler",fullName:"Serdar Gözler",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204606/images/system/204606.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Serdar Gözler has completed his undergraduate studies at the Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1978, followed by an assistantship in the Prosthesis Department of Dicle University Faculty of Dentistry. Starting his PhD work on non-resilient overdentures with Assoc. Prof. Hüsnü Yavuzyılmaz, he continued his studies with Prof. Dr. Gürbüz Öztürk of Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry Department of Prosthodontics, this time on Gnatology. He attended training programs on occlusion, neurology, neurophysiology, EMG, radiology and biostatistics. In 1982, he presented his PhD thesis \\Gerber and Lauritzen Occlusion Analysis Techniques: Diagnosis Values,\\ at Istanbul University School of Dentistry, Department of Prosthodontics. As he was also working with Prof. Senih Çalıkkocaoğlu on The Physiology of Chewing at the same time, Gözler has written a chapter in Çalıkkocaoğlu\\'s book \\Complete Prostheses\\ entitled \\The Place of Neuromuscular Mechanism in Prosthetic Dentistry.\\ The book was published five times since by the Istanbul University Publications. Having presented in various conferences about occlusion analysis until 1998, Dr. Gözler has also decided to use the T-Scan II occlusion analysis method. Having been personally trained by Dr. Robert Kerstein on this method, Dr. Gözler has been lecturing on the T-Scan Occlusion Analysis Method in conferences both in Turkey and abroad. Dr. Gözler has various articles and presentations on Digital Occlusion Analysis methods. He is now Head of the TMD Clinic at Prosthodontic Department of Faculty of Dentistry , Istanbul Aydın University , Turkey.",institutionString:"Istanbul Aydin University",institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"256417",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Sanaz",middleName:null,surname:"Sadry",slug:"sanaz-sadry",fullName:"Sanaz Sadry",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256417/images/8106_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"240870",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Alaa Eddin Omar",middleName:null,surname:"Al Ostwani",slug:"alaa-eddin-omar-al-ostwani",fullName:"Alaa Eddin Omar Al Ostwani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240870/images/system/240870.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Al Ostwani Alaa Eddin Omar received his Master in dentistry from Damascus University in 2010, and his Ph.D. in Pediatric Dentistry from Damascus University in 2014. Dr. Al Ostwani is an assistant professor and faculty member at IUST University since 2014. \nDuring his academic experience, he has received several awards including the scientific research award from the Union of Arab Universities, the Syrian gold medal and the international gold medal for invention and creativity. Dr. Al Ostwani is a Member of the International Association of Dental Traumatology and the Syrian Society for Research and Preventive Dentistry since 2017. He is also a Member of the Reviewer Board of International Journal of Dental Medicine (IJDM), and the Indian Journal of Conservative and Endodontics since 2016.",institutionString:"International University for Science and Technology.",institution:{name:"Islamic University of Science and Technology",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"42847",title:"Dr.",name:"Belma",middleName:null,surname:"Işik Aslan",slug:"belma-isik-aslan",fullName:"Belma Işik Aslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/42847/images/system/42847.jpg",biography:"Dr. Belma IşIk Aslan was born in 1976 in Ankara-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1994, she attended to Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. She completed her PhD in orthodontic education at Gazi University between 1999-2005. Dr. Işık Aslan stayed at the Providence Hospital Craniofacial Institude and Reconstructive Surgery in Michigan, USA for three months as an observer. She worked as a specialist doctor at Gazi University, Dentistry Faculty, Department of Orthodontics between 2005-2014. She was appointed as associate professor in January, 2014 and as professor in 2021. Dr. Işık Aslan still works as an instructor at the same faculty. She has published a total of 35 articles, 10 book chapters, 39 conference proceedings both internationally and nationally. Also she was the academic editor of the international book 'Current Advances in Orthodontics'. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society and Turkish Cleft Lip and Palate Society. She is married and has 2 children. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:"Gazi University Dentistry Faculty Department of Orthodontics",institution:null},{id:"202198",title:"Dr.",name:"Buket",middleName:null,surname:"Aybar",slug:"buket-aybar",fullName:"Buket Aybar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202198/images/6955_n.jpg",biography:"Buket Aybar, DDS, PhD, was born in 1971. She graduated from Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry, in 1992 and completed her PhD degree on Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in Istanbul University in 1997.\r\nDr. Aybar is currently a full-time professor in Istanbul University, Faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery. She has teaching responsibilities in graduate and postgraduate programs. Her clinical practice includes mainly dentoalveolar surgery.\r\nHer topics of interest are biomaterials science and cell culture studies. She has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books; she also has participated in several scientific projects supported by Istanbul University Research fund.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178412",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Guhan",middleName:null,surname:"Dergin",slug:"guhan-dergin",fullName:"Guhan Dergin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178412/images/6954_n.jpg",biography:"Assoc. Prof. Dr. Gühan Dergin was born in 1973 in Izmit. He graduated from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1999. He completed his specialty of OMFS surgery in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry and obtained his PhD degree in 2006. In 2005, he was invited as a visiting doctor in the Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery Department of the University of North Carolina, USA, where he went on a scholarship. Dr. Dergin still continues his academic career as an associate professor in Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry. He has many articles in international and national scientific journals and chapters in books.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"178414",title:"Prof.",name:"Yusuf",middleName:null,surname:"Emes",slug:"yusuf-emes",fullName:"Yusuf Emes",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/178414/images/6953_n.jpg",biography:"Born in Istanbul in 1974, Dr. Emes graduated from Istanbul University Faculty of Dentistry in 1997 and completed his PhD degree in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery in 2005. He has papers published in international and national scientific journals, including research articles on implantology, oroantral fistulas, odontogenic cysts, and temporomandibular disorders. Dr. Emes is currently working as a full-time academic staff in Istanbul University faculty of Dentistry Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"192229",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Ana Luiza",middleName:null,surname:"De Carvalho Felippini",slug:"ana-luiza-de-carvalho-felippini",fullName:"Ana Luiza De Carvalho Felippini",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/192229/images/system/192229.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:"University of São Paulo",institution:{name:"University of Sao Paulo",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"256851",title:"Prof.",name:"Ayşe",middleName:null,surname:"Gülşen",slug:"ayse-gulsen",fullName:"Ayşe Gülşen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/256851/images/9696_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşe Gülşen graduated in 1990 from Faculty of Dentistry, University of Ankara and did a postgraduate program at University of Gazi. \nShe worked as an observer and research assistant in Craniofacial Surgery Departments in New York, Providence Hospital in Michigan and Chang Gung Memorial Hospital in Taiwan. \nShe works as Craniofacial Orthodontist in Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi, Ankara Turkey since 2004.",institutionString:"Orthodontist, Assoc Prof in the Department of Aesthetic, Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Faculty of Medicine, University of Gazi",institution:null},{id:"255366",title:"Prof.",name:"Tosun",middleName:null,surname:"Tosun",slug:"tosun-tosun",fullName:"Tosun Tosun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255366/images/7347_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated at the Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul, Turkey in 1989;\nVisitor Assistant at the University of Padua, Italy and Branemark Osseointegration Center of Treviso, Italy between 1993-94;\nPhD thesis on oral implantology in University of Istanbul and was awarded the academic title “Dr.med.dent.”, 1997;\nHe was awarded the academic title “Doç.Dr.” (Associated Professor) in 2003;\nProficiency in Botulinum Toxin Applications, Reading-UK in 2009;\nMastership, RWTH Certificate in Laser Therapy in Dentistry, AALZ-Aachen University, Germany 2009-11;\nMaster of Science (MSc) in Laser Dentistry, University of Genoa, Italy 2013-14.\n\nDr.Tosun worked as Research Assistant in the Department of Oral Implantology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Istanbul between 1990-2002. \nHe worked part-time as Consultant surgeon in Harvard Medical International Hospitals and John Hopkins Medicine, Istanbul between years 2007-09.\u2028He was contract Professor in the Department of Surgical and Diagnostic Sciences (DI.S.C.), Medical School, University of Genova, Italy between years 2011-16. \nSince 2015 he is visiting Professor at Medical School, University of Plovdiv, Bulgaria. \nCurrently he is Associated Prof.Dr. at the Dental School, Oral Surgery Dept., Istanbul Aydin University and since 2003 he works in his own private clinic in Istanbul, Turkey.\u2028\nDr.Tosun is reviewer in journal ‘Laser in Medical Sciences’, reviewer in journal ‘Folia Medica\\', a Fellow of the International Team for Implantology, Clinical Lecturer of DGZI German Association of Oral Implantology, Expert Lecturer of Laser&Health Academy, Country Representative of World Federation for Laser Dentistry, member of European Federation of Periodontology, member of Academy of Laser Dentistry. Dr.Tosun presents papers in international and national congresses and has scientific publications in international and national journals. He speaks english, spanish, italian and french.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul Aydın University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"260116",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yaltirik",slug:"mehmet-yaltirik",fullName:"Mehmet Yaltirik",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/260116/images/7413_n.jpg",biography:"Birth Date 25.09.1965\r\nBirth Place Adana- Turkey\r\nSex Male\r\nMarrial Status Bachelor\r\nDriving License Acquired\r\nMother Tongue Turkish\r\n\r\nAddress:\r\nWork:University of Istanbul,Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Oral Surgery and Oral Medicine 34093 Capa,Istanbul- TURKIYE",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Istanbul University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"171887",title:"Prof.",name:"Zühre",middleName:null,surname:"Akarslan",slug:"zuhre-akarslan",fullName:"Zühre Akarslan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/171887/images/system/171887.jpg",biography:"Zühre Akarslan was born in 1977 in Cyprus. She graduated from Gazi University Faculty of Dentistry, Ankara, Turkey in 2000. \r\nLater she received her Ph.D. degree from the Oral Diagnosis and Radiology Department; which was recently renamed as Oral and Dentomaxillofacial Radiology, from the same university. \r\nShe is working as a full-time Associate Professor and is a lecturer and an academic researcher. \r\nHer expertise areas are dental caries, cancer, dental fear and anxiety, gag reflex in dentistry, oral medicine, and dentomaxillofacial radiology.",institutionString:"Gazi University",institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"272237",title:"Dr.",name:"Pinar",middleName:"Kiymet",surname:"Karataban",slug:"pinar-karataban",fullName:"Pinar Karataban",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/272237/images/8911_n.png",biography:"Assist.Prof.Dr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban, DDS PhD \n\nDr.Pınar Kıymet Karataban was born in Istanbul in 1975. After her graduation from Marmara University Faculty of Dentistry in 1998 she started her PhD in Paediatric Dentistry focused on children with special needs; mainly children with Cerebral Palsy. She finished her pHD thesis entitled \\'Investigation of occlusion via cast analysis and evaluation of dental caries prevalance, periodontal status and muscle dysfunctions in children with cerebral palsy” in 2008. She got her Assist. Proffessor degree in Istanbul Aydın University Paediatric Dentistry Department in 2015-2018. ın 2019 she started her new career in Bahcesehir University, Istanbul as Head of Department of Pediatric Dentistry. In 2020 she was accepted to BAU International University, Batumi as Professor of Pediatric Dentistry. She’s a lecturer in the same university meanwhile working part-time in private practice in Ege Dental Studio (https://www.egedisklinigi.com/) a multidisciplinary dental clinic in Istanbul. Her main interests are paleodontology, ancient and contemporary dentistry, oral microbiology, cerebral palsy and special care dentistry. She has national and international publications, scientific reports and is a member of IAPO (International Association for Paleodontology), IADH (International Association of Disability and Oral Health) and EAPD (European Association of Pediatric Dentistry).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"172009",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatma Deniz",middleName:null,surname:"Uzuner",slug:"fatma-deniz-uzuner",fullName:"Fatma Deniz Uzuner",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/172009/images/7122_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Deniz Uzuner was born in 1969 in Kocaeli-TURKEY. After graduating from TED Ankara College in 1986, she attended the Hacettepe University, Faculty of Dentistry in Ankara. \nIn 1993 she attended the Gazi University, Faculty of Dentistry, Department of Orthodontics for her PhD education. After finishing the PhD education, she worked as orthodontist in Ankara Dental Hospital under the Turkish Government, Ministry of Health and in a special Orthodontic Clinic till 2011. Between 2011 and 2016, Dr. Deniz Uzuner worked as a specialist in the Department of Orthodontics, Faculty of Dentistry, Gazi University in Ankara/Turkey. In 2016, she was appointed associate professor. Dr. Deniz Uzuner has authored 23 Journal Papers, 3 Book Chapters and has had 39 oral/poster presentations. She is a member of the Turkish Orthodontic Society. Her knowledge of English is at an advanced level.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"332914",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad Saad",middleName:null,surname:"Shaikh",slug:"muhammad-saad-shaikh",fullName:"Muhammad Saad Shaikh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Jinnah Sindh Medical University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"315775",title:"Dr.",name:"Feng",middleName:null,surname:"Luo",slug:"feng-luo",fullName:"Feng Luo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sichuan University",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"344229",title:"Dr.",name:"Sankeshan",middleName:null,surname:"Padayachee",slug:"sankeshan-padayachee",fullName:"Sankeshan Padayachee",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the Witwatersrand",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"315727",title:"Ms.",name:"Kelebogile A.",middleName:null,surname:"Mothupi",slug:"kelebogile-a.-mothupi",fullName:"Kelebogile A. 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\r\n\tThe success of dental implant treatment is not solely dependent on the osseointegration around the implant. Aside from the criteria used to describe the hard tissue response at the implant level, the success criteria in implant dentistry include three additional aspects: peri-implant soft tissue, prosthesis, and patient’s satisfaction.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe Prosthodontics and Implant Dentistry topic will provide readers with up-to-date resources on the prosthodontics factors such as aesthetics, restorative materials, the design of prosthesis, case selection, occlusion, oral rehabilitation, among others, all of which play an important role in determining the success of a well osseointegrated implant. With the help of digital dental technology, these can now be accomplished more predictably.
\r\n
\r\n\tThe end goal of prosthesis is always considered when planning successful implant placement. The readers in this field will be able to learn more about taking a holistic approach when treating their dental implant cases.
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