Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
\n\n
This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
\n\n
We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
\n\n
Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-signs-new-contract-with-cepiec-china-for-distribution-of-open-access-books-20210319",title:"IntechOpen Signs New Contract with CEPIEC, China for Distribution of Open Access Books"},{slug:"150-million-downloads-and-counting-20210316",title:"150 Million Downloads and Counting"},{slug:"intechopen-secures-indefinite-content-preservation-with-clockss-20210309",title:"IntechOpen Secures Indefinite Content Preservation with CLOCKSS"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-to-all-global-amazon-channels-with-full-catalog-of-books-20210308",title:"IntechOpen Expands to All Global Amazon Channels with Full Catalog of Books"},{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3613",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Advanced Learning",title:"Advanced Learning",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"The education industry has obviously been influenced by the Internet revolution. Teaching and learning methods have changed significantly since the coming of the Web and it is very likely they will keep evolving many years to come thanks to it. A good example of this changing reality is the spectacular\r\ndevelopment of e-Learning.\r\n\r\nIn a more particular way, the Web 2.0 has offered to the teaching industry a set of tools and practices that are modifying the learning systems and knowledge transmission methods. Teachers and students can use these tools in a variety of ways aimed to the general purpose of promoting collaborative work.\r\n\r\nThe editor would like to thank the authors, who have committed so much effort to the publication of this work. She is sure that this volume will certainly be of great help for students, teachers and researchers. This was, at least, the main aim of the authors.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-307-010-0",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5854-7",doi:"10.5772/170",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"advanced-learning",numberOfPages:446,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,hash:null,bookSignature:"Raquel Hijon-Neira",publishedDate:"October 1st 2009",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3613.jpg",numberOfDownloads:54624,numberOfWosCitations:16,numberOfCrossrefCitations:25,numberOfDimensionsCitations:37,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:78,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:null,dateEndSecondStepPublish:null,dateEndThirdStepPublish:null,dateEndFourthStepPublish:null,dateEndFifthStepPublish:null,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:1,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,7",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,editors:[{id:"1267",title:"Assistant Professor",name:"Raquel",middleName:null,surname:"Hijon-Neira",slug:"raquel-hijon-neira",fullName:"Raquel Hijon-Neira",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/1267/images/system/1267.jpg",biography:"Department of Computing and Statistics, Escuela Técnica Superior de Ingenierı´a Informática, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Móstoles, Spain\nRaquel Hijón-Neira received the European Ph.D. degree in computer science from the Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, Madrid, Spain, in 1998 and 2010, respectively.She worked as a Computer Science Engineer for 5 years and as an Instructor at the university for 15 years. She is currently an Assistant Professor with the Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, and a member of the Laboratory of Information Technologies in Education (LITE). Her research areas are software for programming education, human–computer interaction, and serious games.Dr. Hijón-Neira received the Best Thesis Award by the Spanish Chapter of the IEEE Education Society.",institutionString:null,position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Hospital Universitario Rey Juan Carlos",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"577",title:"Educational Technology",slug:"information-and-knowledge-engineering-educational-technology"}],chapters:[{id:"8588",title:"Enhancing On-line Blended Learning Systems Using a New Human-Computer Interaction Educational Methodology",doi:"10.5772/8100",slug:"enhancing-on-line-blended-learning-systems-using-a-new-human-computer-interaction-educational-method",totalDownloads:1614,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Ismael Pascual-Nieto, Diana Perez-Marin, Mick O'Donnell and Pilar Rodriguez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8588",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8588",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8589",title:"A Conceptual and Technological Framework for Building Collaborative Learning Environments",doi:"10.5772/8101",slug:"a-conceptual-and-technological-framework-for-building-collaborative-learning-environments",totalDownloads:1444,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Lonchamp Jacques",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8589",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8589",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8590",title:"Concerto II: A Collaborative Learning Support System Based on Question Posing",doi:"10.5772/8102",slug:"concerto-ii-a-collaborative-learning-support-system-based-on-question-posing",totalDownloads:1580,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Atsuo Hazeyama and Yuuki Hirai",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8590",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8590",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8591",title:"A Collaborative Medical Case Authoring Environment Based on the UMLS",doi:"10.5772/8103",slug:"a-collaborative-medical-case-authoring-environment-based-on-the-umls",totalDownloads:1788,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Siriwan Suebnukarn",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8591",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8591",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8592",title:"The Interaction Analysis with the ADULT environment (A pilot study)",doi:"10.5772/8104",slug:"the-interaction-analysis-with-the-adult-environment-a-pilot-study-",totalDownloads:1336,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Alexandra Gasparinatou, Grammatiki Tsaganou and Maria Grigoriadou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8592",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8593",title:"Mobile Learning: Two Experiments on Teaching and Learning with Mobile Phones",doi:"10.5772/8105",slug:"mobile-learning-two-experiments-on-teaching-and-learning-with-mobile-phones",totalDownloads:3848,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,signatures:"Adelina Moura and Ana Amelia Carvalho",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8593",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8593",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8594",title:"Designing Collaborative Authoring Tools for Mobile Learning",doi:"10.5772/8106",slug:"designing-collaborative-authoring-tools-for-mobile-learning",totalDownloads:1828,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Alexandre Antonino Goncalves Martinazzo and Roseli de Deus Lopes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8594",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8594",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8595",title:"Development of InfoStation-based and Contextaware mLearning System Architectures",doi:"10.5772/8107",slug:"development-of-infostation-based-and-contextaware-mlearning-system-architectures",totalDownloads:1987,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Ivan Ganchev, Stanimir Stojanov, Mairtin Odroma and Damien Meere",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8595",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8595",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8596",title:"An Interactive Simulation Game to Enhance Learners' Experience on Ubiquitous Computing Devices",doi:"10.5772/8108",slug:"an-interactive-simulation-game-to-enhance-learners-experience-on-ubiquitous-computing-devices",totalDownloads:2003,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Vincent Tam, Zexian Liao, C.H. Leung, Lawrence Yeung and Alvin C.M. Kwan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8596",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8596",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8597",title:"Augmented Reality and Tangible Interfaces for Learning",doi:"10.5772/8109",slug:"augmented-reality-and-tangible-interfaces-for-learning",totalDownloads:2542,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"M. Carmen Juan Lizandra",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8597",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8597",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8598",title:"New Ways for Learning and Knowledge Transfer Using Social Semantic Technologies",doi:"10.5772/8110",slug:"new-ways-for-learning-and-knowledge-transfer-using-social-semantic-technologies",totalDownloads:1841,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Gisela Granitzer, Armin Ulbrich, Klaus Tochtermann and Reinhard Willfort",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8598",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8598",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8599",title:"The Use of XML to Express a Historical Knowledge Base",doi:"10.5772/8111",slug:"the-use-of-xml-to-express-a-historical-knowledge-base",totalDownloads:1775,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Katsuko T. Nakahira, Masashi Matsui, Kazutoshi Abiko and Yoshiki Mikami",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8599",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8599",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8600",title:"Free Text Response Assessment System Based on a Text Comprehension Model",doi:"10.5772/8112",slug:"free-text-response-assessment-system-based-on-a-text-comprehension-model",totalDownloads:2009,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Panagiotis Blitsas and Maria Grigoriadou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8600",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8600",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8601",title:"A Software System for Inference-Based Context-Aware Vocabulary Learning",doi:"10.5772/8113",slug:"a-software-system-for-inference-based-context-aware-vocabulary-learning",totalDownloads:1748,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Yukiko Sasaki Alam",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8601",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8601",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8602",title:"A Web-based Multimedia Annotation System for Language Learning",doi:"10.5772/8114",slug:"a-web-based-multimedia-annotation-system-for-language-learning",totalDownloads:1769,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Kuo-Yu Liu and Herng-Yow Chen",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8602",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8602",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8603",title:"Effects of Media Richness on User Acceptance of Web 2.0 Technologies in Higher Education",doi:"10.5772/8115",slug:"effects-of-media-richness-on-user-acceptance-of-web-2-0-technologies-in-higher-education",totalDownloads:3131,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:6,signatures:"Nauman Saeed and Suku Sinnappan",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8603",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8603",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8604",title:"Supporting Learning in Online Communities with Social Software: an Overview of Community Driven Technologies",doi:"10.5772/8116",slug:"supporting-learning-in-online-communities-with-social-software-an-overview-of-community-driven-techn",totalDownloads:1733,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Stefanos Ziovas, Maria Grigoriadou and Maria Samarakou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8604",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8604",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8605",title:"Improving the Analysis of Students' Participation & Collaboration in Moodle Forums",doi:"10.5772/8117",slug:"improving-the-analysis-of-students-participation-amp-collaboration-in-moodle-forums",totalDownloads:3670,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Raquel Hijon-Neira and Angel Velazquez-Iturbide",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8605",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8605",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8606",title:"A Framework for Dynamic Sequential Behavioral Pattern Detecting and Automatic Feedback/Guidance Designing for Online Discussion Learning Environments",doi:"10.5772/8118",slug:"a-framework-for-dynamic-sequential-behavioral-pattern-detecting-and-automatic-feedback-guidance-desi",totalDownloads:1799,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Huei-Tse Hou",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8606",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8606",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8607",title:"Towards the Integration of Adaptive Educational Systems with SCORM Standard and Authoring Toolkits",doi:"10.5772/8119",slug:"towards-the-integration-of-adaptive-educational-systems-with-scorm-standard-and-authoring-toolkits",totalDownloads:1820,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Ioannis Kazanidis and Maya Satratzemi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8607",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8607",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8608",title:"Impact of Standardisation and Open Source Software in e-Learning",doi:"10.5772/8120",slug:"impact-of-standardisation-and-open-source-software-in-e-learning",totalDownloads:1882,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Kiyoshi Nakabayashi",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8608",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8608",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8609",title:"Application of E-Learning Standardization Technology",doi:"10.5772/8121",slug:"application-of-e-learning-standardization-technology",totalDownloads:1594,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Li Zheng, Lei Xu and Yushan Li",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8609",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8609",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8610",title:"Managing Relevant Learning Objects' Assessments: the Right Place at the Right Time",doi:"10.5772/8122",slug:"managing-relevant-learning-objects-assessments-the-right-place-at-the-right-time",totalDownloads:1750,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Olivier Catteau, Philippe Vidal and Julien Broisin",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8610",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8610",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8611",title:"Learning Paradigms through Fundraising Systems: the RoboBeggar and the InfoKiosk Cases",doi:"10.5772/8123",slug:"learning-paradigms-through-fundraising-systems-the-robobeggar-and-the-infokiosk-cases",totalDownloads:1831,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,signatures:"Gaetano La Russa, Erkki Sutinen and Johannes C. Cronje",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8611",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8611",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8612",title:"Learning in Bioelectronics",doi:"10.5772/8124",slug:"learning-in-bioelectronics",totalDownloads:2542,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,signatures:"Cristian Ravariu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8612",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8612",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8613",title:"Guidelines for Designing and Teaching an Effective Object-Oriented Design and Programming Course",doi:"10.5772/8125",slug:"guidelines-for-designing-and-teaching-an-effective-object-oriented-design-and-programming-course",totalDownloads:2202,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Stelios Xinogalos",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8613",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8613",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"8614",title:"Educational Effect of Externalization of Know-how Information for Care Planning Processes",doi:"10.5772/8126",slug:"educational-effect-of-externalization-of-know-how-information-for-care-planning-processes",totalDownloads:1573,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,signatures:"Kaoru Eto, Tatsunori Matsui and Yasuo Kabasawa",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/8614",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/8614",authors:[null],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"3651",title:"E-learning",subtitle:"Experiences and Future",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"e-learning-experiences-and-future",bookSignature:"Safeeullah Soomro",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3651.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"951",title:"Dr.",name:"Safeeullah",surname:"Soomro",slug:"safeeullah-soomro",fullName:"Safeeullah Soomro"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"603",title:"Methodologies, Tools and New Developments for E-Learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d264034a8e51ed0f264b4c935b115c81",slug:"methodologies-tools-and-new-developments-for-e-learning",bookSignature:"Elvis Pontes, Anderson Silva, Adilson Guelfi and Sérgio Takeo Kofuji",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/603.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51858",title:"MSc",name:"Elvis",surname:"Pontes",slug:"elvis-pontes",fullName:"Elvis Pontes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3702",title:"Advances in Learning Processes",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"advances-in-learning-processes",bookSignature:"Mary Beth Rosson",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3702.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"3280",title:"Dr.",name:"Mary Beth",surname:"Rosson",slug:"mary-beth-rosson",fullName:"Mary Beth Rosson"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4792",title:"E-Learning",subtitle:"Instructional Design, Organizational Strategy and Management",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"09c4d63ffc09c72a13ab15b442a9c2b6",slug:"e-learning-instructional-design-organizational-strategy-and-management",bookSignature:"Boyka Gradinarova",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4792.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"78424",title:"Dr.",name:"Boyka",surname:"Gradinarova",slug:"boyka-gradinarova",fullName:"Boyka Gradinarova"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2131",title:"eLearning",subtitle:"Theories, Design, Software and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3908775b3500496d9370ea1dd2aa97cb",slug:"elearning-theories-design-software-and-applications",bookSignature:"Patrizia Ghislandi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2131.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"82445",title:"Prof.",name:"Patrizia",surname:"Ghislandi",slug:"patrizia-ghislandi",fullName:"Patrizia Ghislandi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2057",title:"E-Learning",subtitle:"Organizational Infrastructure and Tools for Specific Areas",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"6800611ad5f36c76151e3b01e451ee3d",slug:"e-learning-organizational-infrastructure-and-tools-for-specific-areas",bookSignature:"Elvis Pontes, Anderson Silva, Adilson Guelfi and Sergio Takeo Kofuji",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2057.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"95914",title:"Prof.",name:"Adilson",surname:"Guelfi",slug:"adilson-guelfi",fullName:"Adilson Guelfi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2059",title:"E-Learning",subtitle:"Engineering, On-Job Training and Interactive Teaching",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b674f8552bb902d54b4052dc1f8a7329",slug:"e-learning-engineering-on-job-training-and-interactive-teaching",bookSignature:"Anderson Silva, Elvis Pontes, Adilson Guelfi and Sergio Takeo Kofuji",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2059.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51860",title:"Dr.",name:"Sergio",surname:"Kofuji",slug:"sergio-kofuji",fullName:"Sergio Kofuji"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"76",title:"Digital Libraries",subtitle:"Methods and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"683699486ceb61d26610104f47184608",slug:"digital-libraries-methods-and-applications",bookSignature:"Kuo Hung Huang",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/76.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"21382",title:"Dr.",name:"Kuo Hung",surname:"Huang",slug:"kuo-hung-huang",fullName:"Kuo Hung Huang"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3715",title:"E-learning",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:null,slug:"e-learning",bookSignature:"Marina Buzzi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3715.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"887",title:"Dr.",name:"Marina",surname:"Buzzi",slug:"marina-buzzi",fullName:"Marina Buzzi"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2058",title:"E-Learning",subtitle:"Long-Distance and Lifelong Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e3d8574297352f8aaed548a230793d19",slug:"e-learning-long-distance-and-lifelong-perspectives",bookSignature:"Elvis Pontes, Anderson Silva, Adilson Guelfi and Sergio Takeo Kofuji",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2058.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"51858",title:"MSc",name:"Elvis",surname:"Pontes",slug:"elvis-pontes",fullName:"Elvis Pontes"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],ofsBooks:[]},correction:{item:{id:"72181",slug:"corrigendum-to-potassium-channels-as-a-potential-target-spot-for-drugs",title:"Corrigendum to: Potassium Channels as a Potential Target Spot for Drugs",doi:null,correctionPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/72181.pdf",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72181",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72181",totalDownloads:null,totalCrossrefCites:null,bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/72181",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/72181",chapter:{id:"71907",slug:"potassium-channels-as-a-potential-target-spot-for-drugs",signatures:"Vladimir Djokic and Radmila Novakovic",dateSubmitted:"October 13th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 18th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 28th 2020",datePublished:"December 16th 2020",book:{id:"10143",title:"Molecular Pharmacology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Molecular Pharmacology",slug:"molecular-pharmacology",publishedDate:"December 16th 2020",bookSignature:"Angel Catala and Usama Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10143.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"313382",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Radmila",middleName:null,surname:"Novakovic",fullName:"Radmila Novakovic",slug:"radmila-novakovic",email:"radmila.novakovic@med.bg.ac.rs",position:null,institution:null}]}},chapter:{id:"71907",slug:"potassium-channels-as-a-potential-target-spot-for-drugs",signatures:"Vladimir Djokic and Radmila Novakovic",dateSubmitted:"October 13th 2019",dateReviewed:"March 18th 2020",datePrePublished:"April 28th 2020",datePublished:"December 16th 2020",book:{id:"10143",title:"Molecular Pharmacology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Molecular Pharmacology",slug:"molecular-pharmacology",publishedDate:"December 16th 2020",bookSignature:"Angel Catala and Usama Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10143.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"313382",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Radmila",middleName:null,surname:"Novakovic",fullName:"Radmila Novakovic",slug:"radmila-novakovic",email:"radmila.novakovic@med.bg.ac.rs",position:null,institution:null}]},book:{id:"10143",title:"Molecular Pharmacology",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Molecular Pharmacology",slug:"molecular-pharmacology",publishedDate:"December 16th 2020",bookSignature:"Angel Catala and Usama Ahmad",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10143.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"196544",title:"Prof.",name:"Angel",middleName:null,surname:"Catala",slug:"angel-catala",fullName:"Angel Catala"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},ofsBook:{item:{type:"book",id:"7985",leadTitle:null,title:"Circumcision and the Community",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Male circumcision is one of the oldest and the most common procedures in the world; it is performed for both medical and non-medical reasons. Circumcision is a relatively simple procedure; however, if not done properly, can lead to major complications such as iatrogenic injury of the glans or the urethra. The debate over the advantages of the routine cultural circumcision is still ongoing with a significant dichotomy between the opinions of the experts in the field. The main purpose of this book is to present a discussion on the pros and cons of the non-medical male circumcision from a public health point of view, and to raise awareness about the potential complications of this procedure.",isbn:"978-1-83880-294-3",printIsbn:"978-1-83880-293-6",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78985-658-3",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77815",price:100,priceEur:109,priceUsd:129,slug:"circumcision-and-the-community",numberOfPages:88,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"023cc135aeeae6d2ea8cfc01ab3f4dc7",bookSignature:"Ahmad Zaghal and Nishat Rahman",publishedDate:"May 20th 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7985.jpg",keywords:null,numberOfDownloads:1404,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:1,numberOfDimensionsCitations:2,numberOfTotalCitations:3,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 9th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"September 17th 2019",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"November 16th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"February 4th 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"April 4th 2020",remainingDaysToSecondStep:"2 years",secondStepPassed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,biosketch:null,coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"240621",title:"Dr.",name:"Ahmad",middleName:null,surname:"Zaghal",slug:"ahmad-zaghal",fullName:"Ahmad Zaghal",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/240621/images/system/240621.jpeg",biography:"Dr Ahmad Zaghal is an assistant professor of clinical surgery and pediatric surgeon at the American University of Beirut Medical Center (AUBMC), Lebanon. After completing his training in general surgery at AUBMC, he completed a two-year fellowship in pediatric surgery at the University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, US; following which he completed another fellowship in pediatric surgery and urology at Chelsea and Westminster Hospital in London.\n\n \nDr. Zaghal is a fellow of the Higher Education Academy (May 2019), certified by the European Board of Pediatric Surgery (Oct 2017) and the Lebanese Board of General Surgery (Mar 2016). Dr Zaghal has published several articles in peer-reviewed journals, and authored several chapters on general and pediatric surgery.",institutionString:"American University of Beirut",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"American University of Beirut",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Lebanon"}}}],coeditorOne:{id:"297384",title:"Dr.",name:"Nishat",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"nishat-rahman",fullName:"Nishat Rahman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/297384/images/system/297384.jpeg",biography:"Miss Nishat Rahman is a Consultant Paediatric Surgeon and Urologist at Chelsea and Westminster and Imperial College Hospitals in London. She studied medicine at King’s College London and completed her specialist training in Paediatric Surgery in the London region having trained in Great Ormond Street, King’s College, St. George’s and Oxford John Radcliffe Hospital, qualifying as a Fellow of The Royal College of Surgeons of England in Paediatric Surgery in 2011. She gained further sub-specialisation by completing a Royal College of Surgeons Paediatric Urology Fellowship. During her training she was awarded a Research Fellowship from the Royal College of Surgeons studying bladder physiology. Nishat has extensive experience in paediatric urology and is amongst the few Paediatric Robotic surgeons in the UK.",institutionString:"Chelsea and Westminster Hospital",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"0",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"Chelsea and Westminster Hospital",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"1161",title:"Andrology",slug:"andrology"}],chapters:[{id:"70185",title:"The Relationship between Female Circumcision and the Religion",slug:"the-relationship-between-female-circumcision-and-the-religion",totalDownloads:258,totalCrossrefCites:1,authors:[{id:"301412",title:"Dr.",name:"Ozer",surname:"Birge",slug:"ozer-birge",fullName:"Ozer Birge"},{id:"301413",title:"Dr.",name:"Aliye Nigar",surname:"Serin",slug:"aliye-nigar-serin",fullName:"Aliye Nigar Serin"}]},{id:"70312",title:"Scaling Safe Circumcisions in Communities",slug:"scaling-safe-circumcisions-in-communities",totalDownloads:214,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"301403",title:"Dr.",name:"Lubna",surname:"Samad",slug:"lubna-samad",fullName:"Lubna Samad"},{id:"301850",title:"Dr.",name:"Shazia",surname:"Moosa",slug:"shazia-moosa",fullName:"Shazia Moosa"}]},{id:"70967",title:"Voluntary Medical Safe Male Circumcision for HIV/AIDS Prevention in Botswana: Background, Patterns, and Determinants",slug:"voluntary-medical-safe-male-circumcision-for-hiv-aids-prevention-in-botswana-background-patterns-and",totalDownloads:242,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"237985",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Mpho",surname:"Keetile",slug:"mpho-keetile",fullName:"Mpho Keetile"}]},{id:"70634",title:"Rare Yet Devastating Complications of Circumcision",slug:"rare-yet-devastating-complications-of-circumcision",totalDownloads:407,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"302515",title:"Dr",name:"Reem B",surname:"Aldamanhori",slug:"reem-b-aldamanhori",fullName:"Reem B Aldamanhori"}]},{id:"69131",title:"Male Circumcision and Infection",slug:"male-circumcision-and-infection",totalDownloads:285,totalCrossrefCites:0,authors:[{id:"246591",title:"Dr.",name:"Ruth",surname:"Mielke",slug:"ruth-mielke",fullName:"Ruth Mielke"}]}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},personalPublishingAssistant:{id:"287827",firstName:"Gordan",lastName:"Tot",middleName:null,title:"Mr.",imageUrl:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/287827/images/8493_n.png",email:"gordan@intechopen.com",biography:"As an Author Service Manager my responsibilities include monitoring and facilitating all publishing activities for authors and editors. From chapter submission and review, to approval and revision, copyediting and design, until final publication, I work closely with authors and editors to ensure a simple and easy publishing process. I maintain constant and effective communication with authors, editors and reviewers, which allows for a level of personal support that enables contributors to fully commit and concentrate on the chapters they are writing, editing, or reviewing. I assist authors in the preparation of their full chapter submissions and track important deadlines and ensure they are met. I help to coordinate internal processes such as linguistic review, and monitor the technical aspects of the process. As an ASM I am also involved in the acquisition of editors. Whether that be identifying an exceptional author and proposing an editorship collaboration, or contacting researchers who would like the opportunity to work with IntechOpen, I establish and help manage author and editor acquisition and contact."}},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"686",title:"Erectile Dysfunction",subtitle:"Disease-Associated Mechanisms and Novel Insights into Therapy",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c5caa41eb9d576f7765dfcb06a6df94c",slug:"erectile-dysfunction-disease-associated-mechanisms-and-novel-insights-into-therapy",bookSignature:"Kenia Pedrosa Nunes",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/686.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"71405",title:"Dr.",name:"Kenia",surname:"Nunes",slug:"kenia-nunes",fullName:"Kenia Nunes"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"972",title:"Male Infertility",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"92b68c49e083613bc65d3db92f6aca22",slug:"male-infertility",bookSignature:"Anu Bashamboo and Kenneth David McElreavey",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/972.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"87226",title:"Dr.",name:"Anu",surname:"Bashamboo",slug:"anu-bashamboo",fullName:"Anu Bashamboo"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6079",title:"Spermatozoa",subtitle:"Facts and Perspectives",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"2d4488814a6ea68efcd3544209c9e4d2",slug:"spermatozoa-facts-and-perspectives",bookSignature:"Rosaria Meccariello and Rosanna Chianese",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6079.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143980",title:"Prof.",name:"Rosaria",surname:"Meccariello",slug:"rosaria-meccariello",fullName:"Rosaria Meccariello"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7931",title:"Male Reproductive Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5754baea5de6a634c66bae12a33d52d9",slug:"male-reproductive-health",bookSignature:"Wei Wu, Francesco Ziglioli and Umberto Maestroni",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7931.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"178661",title:"Dr.",name:"Wei",surname:"Wu",slug:"wei-wu",fullName:"Wei Wu"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophanides",surname:"Theophile",slug:"theophanides-theophile",fullName:"Theophanides Theophile"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"314",title:"Regenerative Medicine and Tissue Engineering",subtitle:"Cells and Biomaterials",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"bb67e80e480c86bb8315458012d65686",slug:"regenerative-medicine-and-tissue-engineering-cells-and-biomaterials",bookSignature:"Daniel Eberli",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/314.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"6495",title:"Dr.",name:"Daniel",surname:"Eberli",slug:"daniel-eberli",fullName:"Daniel Eberli"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"59905",title:"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.75363",slug:"synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
Silver has too much of modern industrial uses and is considered a store of wealth. However, the story of this legendary precious metal begins with its use by ancient civilizations. Silver has many attributes that made it so valuable to early peoples. It is malleable, ductile, lustrous, resilient, conductive, antibacterial, and rare. Also, it was used as a precious commodity in currencies, ornaments, jewelry, electrical contacts and photography, among others. Although bulk silver is widely known for their brilliant surfaces and colors, there is a drastic color difference when the metal reduces in dimensions. Even though the craftsmen did not know nanoparticles in that period, the mixing of the metal chlorides with molten glass led to the formation of metallic nanoparticles of different shape and size, therefore the physical formats of the metal nanoparticles had interesting interactions with light and produced visibly beautiful colors. The metal chlorides materialized and formed nanoparticles in the molten glass before cooling, making art, one of the first uses for nanotechnology. Nowadays, the nanoparticles are an important field of the modern research dealing with design, synthesis, and manipulation of particle structures ranging from approximately 1 to 100 nm. Nanoparticle research is currently an area of intense scientific research, due to a wide variety of potential applications in fields such as healthcare, cosmetics, food and feed, environmental health, mechanics, optics, biomedical sciences, chemical industries, electronics, space industries, drug-gene delivery, energy science, optoelectronics, catalysis, single electron transistors, light emitters, nonlinear optical devices, and photo-electrochemical area. The silver nanoparticles have been widely used in the fields of chemistry and related branches due to their high surface to volume ratio and excellent conducting capability. From electrical switches, solar panels to chemical-producing catalysts and antimicrobial activity, the silver nanoparticle is an essential component in many industries. Its unique properties make it nearly impossible to substitute and its uses contain a wide range of applications. At the same time, many of the consumer products that claim to contain nanomaterials contain nanosilver. Examples of the consumer products that include nanosilver including computers, mobile phones, automobile appliances, food packaging materials, food supplements, textiles, electronics, household appliances, cosmetics, medical devices, imaging techniques, and water and environment disinfectants. Most of these nanosilver-containing products are manufactured in North America, the Far East, especially in China, South Korea, Taiwan, Vietnam and India, the Russian Federation, and the Western Europe.
\n
The knowledge of the silver nanomaterials synthesis methods is important due to an extensive application and area of use perspective. The main problem in synthesizing the silver nanoparticles is the control of their physical properties such as obtaining uniform particle size distribution, identical shape, morphology, nanoparticle coating or stabilizing agent, chemical composition or type and crystal structure. The methods can be classified and categorized that they follow common approaches and the differences such as reactants and the reaction conditions. Top-down versus bottom-up, green versus nongreen, and conventional versus nonconventional synthesis methods have been reported. The conventional synthesis methods contain the use of citrate, borohydride, two-phase systems (water-organic), organic reducers such as cyclodextrin, and micelles and/or polymer in the synthesis process. The unconventional methods contain laser ablation, radiocatalysis, vacuum evaporation of metal, irradiation, photolithography, electrodeposition and the electrocondensation. Top-down and bottom-up are the two synthesis approaches of metallic nanoparticles involving chemical, physical, and biological means. The common fabrication of the nanoparticles includes chemical and physical processes. The top-down approach uses macroscopic initial structures, which can be externally controlled in the processing of nanostructures. The nanoparticles synthesized by mechanical grinding of bulk metals and the addition of colloidal protecting agents are some examples of the top-down method. The bottom-up approaches contain the miniaturization of materials components (up to atomic level) with further self-assembly process. The reduction of metals, electrochemical methods, and decomposition are the examples of the bottom-up methods. In addition, the synthesis approaches can be classified as either green or non-green. Green synthetic systems use environmentally friendly agents such as sugars, plant extracts, bacteria and fungi to form and stabilize nanosilver.
\n
It is important to measure nanosilver concentration, size, shape, surface charge, crystal structure, surface chemistry, and surface transformation in nanoparticle synthesis. The characterization and detection techniques for the nanosilver contain transmission electron microscopy (TEM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), electrospray scanning mobility particle sizer (ESMPS), zeta size analysis, atomic force microscopy (AFM), dynamic light scattering (DLS), Brunauer-Emmett-Teller analysis (BET), X-ray diffraction (XRD), X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), X-ray absorption near edge structure (XANES), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Raman spectroscopy, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (NMR), inductively coupled plasma mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS), thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA), and atomic absorption spectroscopy (AAS).
\n
\n
\n
2. Physical methods
\n
The most important physical methods for the synthesis of the silver nanoparticles are evaporation-condensation, laser ablation, electrical irradiation, gamma irradiation, and lithography. Kimura and Bandow examined the measurement of the optical spectra of many metal colloid solutions and presented new preparation methods of metal colloids inorganic solvents without the chemicals such as redox reagents, polymers, electrolytes, glue or other kinds of colloid stabilizers. Three different preparation methods as the matrix isolation method, the gas flow-cold trap method, and the gas flow-solution trap method, were used to examine the synthesis of silver NPs [1]. The laser ablation method, which has several types of different applications, is another method to study the synthesis of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs). The laser ablation technique is a new useful and efficient method to prepare and obtain metal colloids in absence of chemical reagents. This method helps to control particle size of colloids by changing the number of laser pulses [2]. Pyatenko et al. produced silver nanoparticles by irradiating an Ag target with a 532 nm laser beam in pure water. This technique is successfully applied to produce small nanoparticles with a narrow size distribution in pure water without using any chemical additives by using a high-power laser and small laser beam spot sizes [3]. Sadrolhesseini et al. prepared a new method for the fabrication of silver nanoparticles which are dispersed in graphene oxide using the laser ablation and thermal effusivity of nanocomposite. This environmentally friendly method, which does not require any chemical agents, polymeric or surfactant stabilizers, works by releasing the nanoparticles inside liquid solution [4]. Tsuji et al. studied to perform to prepare Ag-NPs by laser ablation of a silver plate in polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP) aqueous solutions and laser irradiation onto prepared colloidal solutions. This technique is seen as a remarkable technique due to its procedural simplicity and a very high rate of obtainability of nanoparticles of various species and materials such as metals, metal oxides semiconductors, and organic materials by the irradiation of intense laser light onto those materials settled in solvents [5]. The pulsed photoacoustic (PA) technique is another method to study the synthesis of the Ag-NPs in ethanol by laser ablation and determine the production rate laser pulse and concentration of synthesized Ag-NPs [6]. Researchers have studied mechanisms and processes such as plasma formation, dynamics of the cavitation bubble [7, 8], and also the influence of laser parameters and solvents on nanoparticles [9, 10].
\n
Nanosphere lithography (NLS) is a simple and inexpensive nanofabrication method to produce large variety of nanoparticle (NP) structures and well-ordered 2D NP arrays. Jensen et al. studied the effect of solvent on the optical extinction spectrum of periodic arrays of surface-confined silver nanoparticles fabricated by NSL and four separate samples of NP arrays. Jensen et al. have investigted four separate samples of nanoparticle arrays; three samples were obtained nanoparticles that are truncated tetrahedral in shape but that differ in out-of-plane height and one sample have nanoparticles that are oblate ellipsoidal in shape [11]. Jensen et al. also demonstrated that the localized surface plasmon resonance extinction maximum of a single nanoparticle material system, silver, can be continuously tuned throughout the visible, near-infrared, and mid-infrared regions of the electromagnetic spectrum [12].
\n
\n
\n
3. Chemical method
\n
\n
3.1. Chemical reduction of silver nanoparticles
\n
The size, shape, and surface morphology play an important role in controlling the chemical, physical, optical, and electronic properties of nanomaterials. The chemical reduction is one of the most commonly used methods for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles by inorganic and organic reducing agents. In general, different reducing agents such as sodium citrate, ascorbate, sodium borohydride (NaBH4), elemental hydrogen, polyol process, Tollens reagent, N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), and poly(ethylene glycol)-block copolymers, hydrazine, and ammonium formate are used for the reduction of the silver ions (Ag+) in the aqueous or nonaqueous solutions.
\n
\n
\n
3.2. Different shapes of silver nanoparticles synthesized with various chemical reductants
\n
\n
3.2.1. Synthesis of spherical silver nanoparticles
\n
The spherical silver nanoparticles were synthesized using the reducing agents such as ascorbic acid, sodium citrate, NaBH4, thiosulfate, and polyethylene glycol. In addition to that, the use of the surfactants such as citrate, polyvinylpyrolidone (PVP), cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), and polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) for interactions with particle surfaces can stabilize particle growth and protect particles from sedimentation and agglomeration [13, 14, 15, 16, 17].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.2. Synthesis of silver nanorods
\n
Zhang et al. prepared silver nanorods by photoinduced synthesis (Figure 1). At first step, monodisperse spherical seed nanoparticles were prepared by irradiating silver nitrate, bis(p-sulfonatophenyl)-phenylphosphine dihydrate dipotassium salt (BSPP), trisodium citrate, and sodium hydroxide solutions with 254 nm light. Then, Silver nanorods were grown in the solution with the injection of silver seeds at the growth medium containing silver nitrate and sodium citrate and then irradiated for 24 h using a halogen lamp and a bandpass filter to selectively tune. This photomediated method provided an elegant method for controlling the architectural parameters of the resulting silver nanostructures [18]. Ojha et al. mixed the solution of AgNO3 and citrate and added NaOH into the solution. Then solution of ice cold of NaBH4 was added while stirring. To synthesize Ag nanorods of at three different aspect ratios, three stock solutions of AgNO3, ascorbic acid, and the surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) were prepared separately. These stock solutions were mixed at certain quantities properly. Thereafter, 1.0, 0.5, and 0.25 ml of synthesized seed solution were added to set one, two and three, respectively, and at the end, NaOH solution was also added to each set. The color of each nanorod solutions depends on the seed concentrations added in the final solution [19]. Ajitha et al. prepared the aqueous solution containing AgNO3 with sodium citrate dihydrate as stabilizer. Then, sodium borohydride (reducing agent) solution was injected to the above solution all at once while stirring vigorously. The solution color was changed to light yellow. The entire solution was heated under continuous stirring on magnetic stirrer. CTAB solution was prepared through heating stirring on a magnetic stirrer for dissolution of CTAB. Then, AgNO3 and ascorbic acid solution were added. And then, the seed solution was added and at last, few drops of NaOH were added to maintain constant pH and stirred well. The synthesis temperature was varied from 30 to 70°C [20].
\n
Figure 1.
(A) TEM image of the silver seed nanoparticles. (B) SEM and (C) TEM images of silver nanorods synthesized with a bandpass filter centered at 600 ± 20 nm. (D) Selective-area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern of a single silver nanorod, showing the interpenetration. [100] (red) and [112] (blue) zone patterns (scale bars: 100 nm) [18].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.3. Synthesis of silver nanowires
\n
Sun et al. studied silver nanostructrures that could be varied from nanoparticles and nanorods to long nanowires by adjusting the reaction conditions, including the ratio of PVP to silver nitrate, reaction temperature, and seeding conditions. They found that the large-scale synthesis of silver nanowires with diameters ranged from 30 to 40 nm, and lengths up to ∼50 μm [21]. Li et al. demonstrated that the diameter of Ag nanowires produced by a polyol synthesis could be controlled by adjusting the concentration of bromide. The silver nanowires with diameters of 20 nm and aspect ratios up to 2000 have obtained by adding 2.2 mM NaBr into AgNO3 solution [22]. Gebeyehu et al. synthesized silver nanowire using a simple polyol method (Figure 2). They used polyvinylpyrrolidone as stabilizing and capping agent combined with sodium chloride and potassium bromide salts, ethylene glycol was used as both solvent and a reducing agent, and silver nitrate was used as a silver precursor. They determined that the diameter and uniformity of silver nanowires can be controlled by adjusting the concentration of AgNO3 and [PVP] to [AgNO3] molar ratio keeping the other parameters constant. AgNWs with diameters of 20 nm and aspect ratios >1000 were obtained by adding 30.5 mM AgNO3 to a silver nanowire synthesis [23].
\n
Figure 2.
FE-SEM images of AgNWs synthesized at different [PVP] to [AgNO3] molar ratio: (A) 2:1, (B) 4:1, (C) 6:1, (D) 8:1, (E) 10:1, and (F) 12:1 [23].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.4. Synthesis of cubic silver nanoparticles
\n
The synthesis of cubic silver nanoparticles was achieved by the reduction of silver nitrate using ethylene glycol in the presence of polyvinylpyrrolidone (PVP). In polyol process, ethylene glycol containing hydroxyl groups have functional structure as both solvent and reducing agent. Polyvinylpyrrolidone as capping agent was used to constitute the cubic shape. Molar ratio of the PVP and silver ions determines the shape of the product [24, 25, 26]. Siekkien et al. performed a faster method for synthesis of cubic silver nanoparticle by adding a trace amount of sodium sulfide (Na2S) or sodium hydrosulfide (NaHS) to the conventional polyol synthesis (Figure 3). The reduction agent is important for the synthesis of NPs with different chemical compositions, sizes and morphologies, and controlled dispersities [27].
\n
Figure 3.
SEM images of reactions containing increasing molar ratios between the repeating unit of PVP and silver nitrate. The ratios of PVP to silver nitrate were (a) 0.77, (b) 1.15, (c) 1.5, (d) 1.9, (e) 2.3, and (f) 0.7 [27].
\n
\n
\n
3.2.5. Synthesis of triangular silver nanoparticles
\n
Zhang et al. prepared silver triangular bipyramids using the photoinduced reduction of 0.3 mM silver nitrate in aqueous solutions containing 1.5 mM sodium citrate, 0.3 mM bis(p-sulfonatophenyl) phenylphosphine dihydrate dipotassium salt (BSPP), and 0.005 M NaOH for 8 h using a 150 W halogen lamp and a bandpass filter (Figure 4). The samples were irradiated in the excitation wavelength range (500 ± 20, 550 ± 20, 600 ± 20, 650 ± 20 nm) [28]. Métraux and Mirkin used the chemical reduction method for the fabrication of silver nanoprisms. They synthesized silver nanoprisms at room temperature by using a mixture of AgNO3/NaBH4/polyvinylpyrrolidone/trisodium citrate/H2O2 in an aqueous solution as reagents [29].
\n
Figure 4.
(A–D) SEM images of the triangular bipyramids (scale bar 300 nm) generated with the bandpass filter centered at 500 ± 20, 550 ± 20, 600 ± 20, and 650 ± 20 nm, respectively. Inset of (B): a higher-magnification view, scale bar 100 nm [28].
\n
\n
\n
\n
3.3. Microemulsion techniques
\n
Microemulsion includes a mixture of water, surfactant, and oil or a mixture of water, surfactant, co-surfactant, and oil. Many surfactants are available for the formation of the microemulsion in the preparation of the silver nanoparticles. Generally, many surfactants can be used to form microemulsion, including anionic surfactants such as bis(2-ethylhexyl)sulfosuccinate, sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate, and lauryl sodium sulfate, cationic surfactants such as cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, polyvinylpyrrolidone, and nonionic surfactants such as Triton X-100, etc. The water droplets covered by surfactant molecules act as micro-reactors and offer a unique micro-environment for the formation of nanoparticle [30, 31, 32, 33, 34, 35].
\n
\n
\n
3.4. Microwave-assisted techniques
\n
The microwave synthesis methods provide the reduction of the silver nanoparticles with changeable rate microwave radiation in comparison to the conventional heating technique. Microwave-assisted technology, by accelerating chemical reactions from hours or days to minutes, provides quick results. Also, microwave irradiation provides uniform heating for the preparation of metallic nanoparticles and aids the ripening of these materials without aggregation [36, 37, 38, 39].
\n
\n
\n
\n
4. Green synthesis
\n
Biosynthesis of the nanoparticles has received considerable attention due to the growing need to develop environmentally beneficial technologies in material synthesis. To illustrate, a great deal of effort has been put into the green synthesis of inorganic materials, especially metal nanoparticles using microorganisms and plant extracts. While microorganisms such as bacteria [40], algae [41], yeast [42], and fungi [43] are continued to be examined so far for the intra and extracellular synthesis of metal nanoparticles, the use of parts of the whole plant in analogous with nanoparticles synthesis methodologies is an exciting possibility which is newly explored. In the literature, various bacterial strains such as Bacillus amyloliquefaciens [44], Acinetobacter calcoaceticus [45], Pseudomonas aeruginosa [46], Escherichia coli [47] and Bacillus licheniformis [48] were used effectively for the synthesis of silver nanoparticles.
\n
The benefits of using plants for the synthesis of the nanoparticles are that the plants are easily available and possess a large variety of active functional groups that can promote the reduction of silver ions. Most of the plant parts like leaves, roots, latex, bark, stem, and seeds are being used for the nanoparticle synthesis. Major compounds that ensure the reduction of the nanoparticles are biomolecules such as polysaccharides, tannins, saponins, phenolics, terpenoids, flavones, alkaloids, proteins, enzymes, vitamins, amino acids, and alcoholic component. The procedure for the nanoparticle synthesis of plants requires the collection of the part of the plant of interest from the available sites is done and then it is washed thoroughly several times with tap and distilled water to remove impurities of plants; followed with sterile distilled water to remove related wastes if any. Then, plant is dried clean and dry place in the shade for 10–15 days and then pulverized using a blender. For the plant broth preparation, an approximate amount of the dried powder is boiled with deionized distilled water. The resulting extraction is then filtered thoroughly until no insoluble material appears in the broth. Then a few mL of the plant extract is added to the silver nitrate solution whose concentration is kept at 1 mM. The reduction of Ag+ to Ag0 is confirmed by the color change of the solution. Its formation is confirmed by using UV-visible spectroscopy and transmission electron microscopy or scanning electron microscopy. The most important plants like Alternanthera dentate [49], Cymbopogon citratus [50], Argyreia nervosa [51], phlomis [52], Aloe vera [53], Carica papaya [54], Nelumbo nucifera [55], Moringa oleifera [56], Ziziphora tenuior [57], Centella asiatica [58], Vitex negundo [59], Swietenia mahagoni [60], Boerhavia diffusa [61], Cocos nucifera [62], Brassica rapa [63], Melia dubia [64], Pogostemon benghalensis [65], Garcinia mangostana [66], Psoralea corylifolia [67], Portulaca oleracea [68], Trachyspermum ammi [69], Eclipta prostrate [70], Vitis vinifera [71], Thevetia peruviana [72], Calotropis procera [73], Premna herbacea [74], Ficus carica [75], Abutilon indicum [76], Terminalia chebula [77], Acorus calamus [78], Tinospora cordifolia [79], Ocimum tenuiflorum [80], bamboo hemicelluloses [81], Strychnos potatorum [82], Pine, Persimmon, Ginkgo, Magnolia, and Platanus [83] used by researchers in green synthesis.
\n
Many different plant extracts have been used in the synthesis of silver nanoparticles with the aim of producing Ag-NPs presenting different morphologies. TEM and SEM studies have shown that the presence of reducing agent in a plant-mediated synthesis of Ag-NPs, where the plant extract acts as reducing agents, shapes the nanoparticle during its growth. The use of medicinal plants in the synthesis of Ag-NPs is not only used for size and shape control, but also for providing plant antimicrobial properties to Ag-NPs. Tippayawat et al. reported a one-step hydrothermal method to prepare silver nanoparticles which is effective against gram-positive (Streptococcus epidermidis) and gram-negative (Pseudomonas aeruginosa). Reduction of Ag+ ions to Ag0 nanoparticles was performed in a medium of Aloe vera extract in which no extra reducing agent was used. The silver nanoparticle sizes were found to be in a range of 70.70–192.02 nm and controllable by varying temperature and time conditions of the hydrothermal process (Figure 5) [53]. Kagithoju et al. achieved an economic and environmentally friendly green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using an aqueous leaf extract of Strychnos potatorum from 3 mM silver nitrate solution. The XRD and SEM analysis have shown the average particle size of nanoparticles as 28 nm as well as revealed their (mixed, i.e., cubic and hexagonal) structure. These nanoparticles have shown bactericidal activity against multidrug-resistant human pathogenic bacteria [82].
\n
Figure 5.
SEM images of Ag-NPs were obtained at (A) 100°C for 6 h, (B) 150°C for 6 h, (C) 200°C for 6 h, (D) 100°C for 12 h, (E) 150°C for 12 h, and (F) 200°C for 12 h [53].
\n
Song and Kim compared their extracellular synthesis of metallic silver nanoparticles by using five plant leaf extracts (Pine, Persimmon, Ginkgo, Magnolia, and Platanus). Magnolia leaf broth was the best reductive agent for the synthesis and conversion of the silver nanoparticles. More than 90% of the conversion was completed in 11 min by using Magnolia leaf broth at 95°C of reaction temperature. The average size of the nanoparticles, which was analyzed by TEM and SEM, ranges from 15 to 500 nm. The particle size was controlled by changing the reaction temperature, leaf broth concentration, and AgNO3 concentration [83]. Roy et al. prepared four different shapes (spherical, oval, rod and flower shape) of silver nanoparticles (Ag-NPs) using pomegranate juice as a novel reducing agent via microwave-assisted synthesis. The Ag-NPs were characterized by UV-vis spectroscopy, XRD, SEM and TEM analysis. The synthesized Ag-NPs have shown a very rapid, effective, shape-specific and dose-dependent bacteriostatic/bactericidal effect towards four different bacterial strains. Among the four different shaped AgNPs, the flower shape AgNPs exhibited the best results and led to the fastest bactericidal activity against all the tested strains at similar bacterial concentrations (Figure 6) [84].
\n
Figure 6.
Green synthesis of different shape Ag-NPs and their antibacterial activity [84].
\n
\n
\n
5. Conclusions
\n
Silver nanoparticles can be obtained by physical, chemical, and biological synthesis methods. Hundreds of research articles reporting different synthesis methods for Ag-NP are published every year. Throughout this chapter, we have reviewed only some of the most relevant works, dealing mostly with physical, chemical, and biological methods. In literature, all known applications for metallic silver may involve the use of nanosilver in place of silver to take advantage of nanosilver’s unique properties. Despite all beneficial uses for nanosilver, its impact on the environment is concerning. These synthesis methods may require the use of different raw materials and yield reaction by using toxic products or wastes. But in recent years, also known as “green chemistry”, an environmental-friendly approach has become a new option in chemistry, consisting of reduction and elimination of dangerous substantives for the design of products in the environment. However, as seen, there are numerous studies for the synthesis methods (green or nongreen) of the nanosilver in literature but the most commonly used methods in the industry are not yet known. For this reason, we suggest that researchers should be directed to work on the methods of synthesizing nanosilver used in the industry.
\n
\n\n',keywords:"silver nanoparticles, physical methods, chemical methods, green synthesis, different shape",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/59905.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/59905.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/59905",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/59905",totalDownloads:5222,totalViews:4545,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:8,hasAltmetrics:0,dateSubmitted:"October 11th 2017",dateReviewed:"February 13th 2018",datePrePublished:null,datePublished:"July 18th 2018",dateFinished:"March 13th 2018",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Nanoparticles of noble metals, especially the silver nanoparticles, have been widely used in different fields of science. Their unique properties, which can be incorporated into biosensor materials, composite fibers, cosmetic products, antimicrobial applications, conducting materials and electronic components, make them a very important subject to be studied by chemistry, biology, healthcare, electronic and other related branches. These unique properties depend upon size and shape of the silver nanoparticles. Different preparation methods have been reported for the synthesis of the silver nanoparticles, such as electron irradiation, laser ablation, chemical reduction, biological artificial methods, photochemical methods and microwave processing. This chapter aims to inform the synthesis methods of the silver nanoparticles.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/59905",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/59905",book:{slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications"},signatures:"Remziye Güzel and Gülbahar Erdal",authors:[{id:"226613",title:"Dr.",name:"Remziye",middleName:null,surname:"Güzel",fullName:"Remziye Güzel",slug:"remziye-guzel",email:"guzel.remziye@gmail.com",position:null,institution:null},{id:"240772",title:"MSc.",name:"Gülbahar",middleName:null,surname:"Erdal",fullName:"Gülbahar Erdal",slug:"gulbahar-erdal",email:"gulbaharguzel@yahoo.com",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Physical methods",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Chemical method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1. Chemical reduction of silver nanoparticles",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2. Different shapes of silver nanoparticles synthesized with various chemical reductants",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_3",title:"3.2.1. Synthesis of spherical silver nanoparticles",level:"3"},{id:"sec_5_3",title:"3.2.2. Synthesis of silver nanorods",level:"3"},{id:"sec_6_3",title:"3.2.3. Synthesis of silver nanowires",level:"3"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"3.2.4. Synthesis of cubic silver nanoparticles",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"3.2.5. Synthesis of triangular silver nanoparticles",level:"3"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"3.3. Microemulsion techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"3.4. Microwave-assisted techniques",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13",title:"4. Green synthesis",level:"1"},{id:"sec_14",title:"5. Conclusions",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Kimura K, Bandow S. The study of metal colloids produced by means of gas evaporation technique. I. Preparation method and optical properties in ethanol. Bulletin of the Chemical Society of Japan. 1983;56:3578-3584\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Tsuji T, Iryo K, Watanabe N, Tsuji M. Preparation of silver nanoparticles by laser ablation in solution: Influence of laser wavelength on particle size. Applied Surface Science. 2002;202:80-85\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Pyatenko A, Shimokawa K, Yamaguchi M, Nishimura O, Suzuki M. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles by laser ablation in pure water. Applied Physics A. 2004;79:803-806\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Sadrolhesseini AR, Noor ASM, Mahdi MA, Kharazmi A, Zakaria A, Yunus WMM, Huang NM. Laser ablation synthesis of silver nanoparticle in graphene oxide and thermal effusivity of nanocomposite. In: IEEE 4th International Conference on Photonics (ICP). 2013. pp. 62-65\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Tsuji T, Thang D-H, Okazaki Y, Nakanishi M, Tsuboi Y, Tsuji M. Preparation of silver nanoparticles by laser ablation in polyvinylpyrrolidone solutions. Applied Surface Science. 2008;254:5224-5230\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Valverde-Alvaa MA, García-Fernández T, Villagrán-Munizc M, Sánchez-Akéc C, Castañeda-Guzmánc R, Esparza-Alegríad E, Sánchez-Valdése CF, Sánchez Llamazarese JL, Márquez Herreraf CE. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles by laser ablation in ethanol: A pulsedphotoacoustic study. Applied Surface Science. 2015;355:341-349\n'},{id:"B7",body:'González MG, Liu X, Niessner R, Haisch C. Strong size-dependentphotoacoustic effect on gold nanoparticles by laser-induced nanobubbles. Applied Physics Letters. 2010;96:174104\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Kudryashov SI, Lyon K, Allen SD. Photoacoustic study of relaxation dynamics in multibubble systems in laser-superheated water. Physical Review E. 2006;73:055301R (1-4)\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Osegura-Galindo DO, Machorro-Mejia R, Bogdanchikova N, Mota-Morales JD. Silver nanoparticles synthesized by laser ablation confined in urea choline chloride deep-eutectic solvent. Colloids and Interface Science Communications. 2016;12:1-4\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Galindo DOO, Utrera OH, Mejia RM, Aranda MAS. Silver nanoparticles by laser ablation confined in alcohol using an argon gas environment. JLMN-Journal of Laser Micro/Nanoengineering. 2016;11(2):158-163\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Jensen TR, Duval ML, Kelly KL, Lazarides AA, Schatz GC, Van Duyne RP. Nanosphere lithography: Effect of the external dielectric medium on the surface plasmon resonance spectrum of a periodic array of silver nanoparticles. The Journal of Physical Chemistry. 1999;103:9846-9853\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Jensen TR, Malinsky MD, Haynes CL, Van Duyne RP. Nanosphere lithography: Tunable localized surface plasmon resonance spectra of silver nanoparticles. The Journal of Physical Chemistry B. 2000;104:10549-10556\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Malasis L, Deyfus R, Murphy RJ, Hough LA, Donnino B, Murray CB. One-step green synthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles with ascorbic acid and their versatile surface post-functionalization. RSC Advances. 2016;6:33092-33100\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Mikac L, Ivanda M, Gotic M, Mihelj T, Horvat L. Synthesis and characterization of silver colloidal particles with diffirent coating for SERS application. Journal of Nanoparticle Research. 2014;16(2748):1-13\n'},{id:"B15",body:'Wuithschick M, Paul B, Bienert R, Sarfraz A, Vainio U, Sztucki M, Kraehnert R, Strasser P, Rademann K, Emmerling F, Polte J. Size-controlled synthesis of colloidal silver nanoparticles based on mechanistic understanding. Chemistry of Materials. 2013;25:4679-4689\n'},{id:"B16",body:'Al-Thabaiti SA, Malik MA, Al-Youbi AAO, Khan Z, Hussain JI. Effects of surfactant and polymer on the morphology of advanced nanomaterials in aqueous solution. International Journal of Electrochemical Science. 2013;8:204-218\n'},{id:"B17",body:'Liang H, Wang W, Huang Y, Zhang S, Wei H, Xu H. Controlled synthesis of uniform silver nanospheres. Journal of Physical Chemistry C. 2010;114:7427-7431\n'},{id:"B18",body:'Zhang J, Langille MR, Mirkin CA. Synthesis of silver nanorods by low energy excitation of spherical plasmonic seeds. Nano Letters. 2011;11:2495-2498\n'},{id:"B19",body:'Ojha AK, Forster S, Kumar S, Vats S, Negi S, Fischer I. Synthesis of well–dispersed silver nanorods of different aspect ratios and their antimicrobial properties against gram positive and negative bacterial strains. Journal of Nanobiotechnology. 2013;11(42):1-7\n'},{id:"B20",body:'Ajitha B, Reddy YAK, Reddy PS. Influence of synthesis temperature on growth of silver nanorods. International Journal of Engineering Science. 2014;3(5):144-148\n'},{id:"B21",body:'Sun Y, Yin Y, Mayers BT, Herricks T, Xia Y. Uniform silver nanowires synthesis by reducing AgNO3 with ethylene glycol in the presence of seeds and poly(vinyl pyrrolidone). Chemistry of Materials. 2002;14(11):4736-4745\n'},{id:"B22",body:'Li B, Ye S, Stewart IE, Alvarez S, Wiley BJ. Synthesis and purification of silver nanowires to make conducting films with a transmittance of 99%. Nano Letters. 2015;15(10):6722-6726\n'},{id:"B23",body:'Gebeyehu MB, Chala TF, Chang S-Y, Wu C-M, Lee J-Y. Synthesis and highly effective purification of silver nanowires to enhance transmittance at low sheet resistance with simple polyol and scalable selective precipitation method. RSC Advances. 2017;7:16139-16148\n'},{id:"B24",body:'Im SH, Lee YT, Wiley B, Xia Y. Large-scale synthesis of silver nanocubes: The role of HCl in promoting cube perfection and monodispersity. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2005;44:2154-2157\n'},{id:"B25",body:'Sun Y, Xia Y. Shape-controlled synthesis of gold and silver nanoparticles. Science. 2002a;298(5601):2176-2179\n'},{id:"B26",body:'Tao A, Sinsermsuksakul P, Yang PD. Polyhedral silver nanocrystals with distinct scattering signatures. Angewandte Chemie International Edition. 2006;45(28):4597-4601\n'},{id:"B27",body:'Siekkinen AR, McLellan JM, Chen J, Xia Y. Rapid synthesis of small silver nanocubes by mediating polyol reduction with a trace amount of sodium sulfide or sodium hydrosulfide. Chemical Physics Letters. 2006;432:491-496\n'},{id:"B28",body:'Zhang J, Li S, Wu J, Schatz GC, Mirkin CA. Plasmon-mediated synthesis of silver triangular bipyramids. Angewandte Chemie. 2009;121:7927-7931\n'},{id:"B29",body:'Me’traux GS, Mirkin CA. Rapid thermal synthesis of silver nanoprisms with chemically tailorable thickness. Advanced Materials. 2005;17(4):412-415\n'},{id:"B30",body:'Nourafkan A, Alamdari A. Study of effective parameters in silver nanoparticle synthesis through method of reverse microemulsion. Journal of Industrial and Engineering Chemistry. 2014;20:3639-3645\n'},{id:"B31",body:'Wani IA, Khatoon S, Ganguly A, Ahmed J, Ahmad T. Structural characterization and antimicrobial properties of silver nanoparticles prepared by inverse microemulsion method. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2013;101:243-250\n'},{id:"B32",body:'Chatre A, Solasa P, Sakle S, Thaokar R, Mehra A. Color and surface plasmon effects in nanoparticle systems: Case of silver nanoparticles prepared by microemulsion route. Colloids and Surfaces A: Physicochemical and Engineering Aspects. 2012;404:83-92\n'},{id:"B33",body:'Singha D, Barman N, Sahu K. A facile synthesis of high optical quality silver nanoparticles by ascorbic acid reduction in reverse micelles at room temperature. Journal of Colloids and Interface Science. 2014;413:37-42\n'},{id:"B34",body:'Sun YP, Atorngitjawat P, Meziani MJ. Preparation of silver nanoparticles via rapid expansion of water in carbon dioxide microemulsion into reductant solution. Langmuir. 2001;17(19):5707-5710\n'},{id:"B35",body:'Elmas ŞNK, Güzel R, Say MG, Ersöz A, Say R. Ferritin based bionanocages as novel biomemory device concept. Biosensors and Bioelectronics. 2018;103:19-25\n'},{id:"B36",body:'Pal A, Shah S, Devi S. Microwave-assisted synthesis of silver nanoparticles using ethanol as a reducing agent. Materials Chemistry. 2009;114:530-532\n'},{id:"B37",body:'Guo R, Li Y, Lan J, Jiang S, Liu T, Yan W. Microwave-assisted synthesis of silver nanoparticles on cotton fabric modified with 3-aminopropyltrimethoxysilane. Journal of Applied Polymer Science. 2013;130:3862-3868\n'},{id:"B38",body:'Wang B, Zhuang X, Deng W, Cheng B. Microwave-assisted synthesis of silver nanoparticles in alkalic carboxymethyl chitosan solution. Engineering. 2010;2:387-390\n'},{id:"B39",body:'Pal J, Deb MK, Deshmuk DK. Microwave-assisted synthesis of silver nanoparticles using benzo-18-crown-6 as reducing and stabilizing agent. Applied Nanoscience. 2014;4(4):507-510\n'},{id:"B40",body:'Samadi N, Golkaran D, Eslamifar A, Jamalifar H, Fazeli MR, Mohseni FA. Intra/extracellular biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles by an autochthonous strain of Proteus mirabilis isolated from photographic waste. Journal of Biomedical Nanotechnology. 2009;5(3):247-253\n'},{id:"B41",body:'El-Rafie HM, El-Rafie MH, Zahran MK. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using polysaccharides extracted from marine macro algae. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2013;96:403-410\n'},{id:"B42",body:'Jha AK, Prasad K, Kulkarni AR. Yeast mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles. International Journal of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology. 2008;4(1):17-21\n'},{id:"B43",body:'Bhainsa KC, D’Souza SF. Extracellular synthesis using the fungus Aspergillus fumigates. Colloids Surface B Biointerfaces. 2006;47:152-157\n'},{id:"B44",body:'Fouad H, Hongjie L, Yanmei D, Baoting Y, El-Shakh A, Abbas G, Jianchu M. Synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Bacillus amyloliquefaciens and Bacillus subtilis to control filarial vector Culex pipiens pallens and its antimicrobial activity, artificial cells. Nanomedicine and Biotechnology. 2017;45(7):1369-1378\n'},{id:"B45",body:'Singh R, Wagh P, Wadhwani S, Gaidhani S, Kumbhar A, Bellare J, Chopade BA. Synthesis, optimization, and characterization of silver nanoparticles from Acinetobacter calcoaceticus and their enhanced antibacterial activity when combined with antibiotics. International Journal of Nanomedicine. 2013;8:4277-4290\n'},{id:"B46",body:'Kumar CG, Mamidyala SK. Extracellular synthesis of silver nanoparticles using culture supernatant of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. Colloids Surface B Biointerfaces. 2011;84(2):462-466\n'},{id:"B47",body:'Koilparambil D, Kurian LC, Vijayan S, Shaikmoideen JM. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles by Escherichia coli: Analysis of antibacterial activity. Journal of Water and Environmental Nanotechnology. 2016;1(1):63-74\n'},{id:"B48",body:'Kalimuthu K, Suresh Babu R, Venkataraman D, Bilal M, Gurunathan S. Biosynthesis of silver nanocrystals by Bacillus licheniformis. Colloids Surface B Biointerfaces. 2008;65(1):150-153\n'},{id:"B49",body:'Kumar DA, Palanichamy V, Roopan SM. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Alternanthera dentata leaf extract at room temperature and their antimicrobial activity. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2014;127:168-171\n'},{id:"B50",body:'Masurkar SA, Chaudhari PR, Shidore VB, Kamble SP. Rapid biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using Cymbopogan Citratus (Lemongrass) and its antimicrobial activity. Nano-Micro Letters. 2011;3(3):189-194\n'},{id:"B51",body:'Thombre R, Parekh F, Patil N. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using seed extract of Argyreia nervosa. International Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. 2014;5(1):114-119\n'},{id:"B52",body:'Allafchian AR, Mirahmadi-Zare SZ, Jalali SAH, Hashemi SS, Vahabi MR. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using phlomis leaf extract and investigation of their antibacterial activity. Journal of Nanostructure Chemistry. 2016;6:129-135\n'},{id:"B53",body:'Tippayawat P, Phromviyo N, Boueroy P, Chompoosor A. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles in aloe vera plant extract prepared by a hydrothermal method and their synergistic antibacterial activity. PeerJ. 2016;4:1-15\n'},{id:"B54",body:'Jain D, Daima HK, Kachhwaha S, Kothari S. Synthesis of plant-mediated silver nanoparticles using papaya fruit extract and evaluation of their antimicrobial activities. Digest Journal Nanomaterials Biostructures. 2009;4:557-563\n'},{id:"B55",body:'Santhoshkumar T, Rahuman AA, Rajakumar G, Marimuthu S, Bagavan A, Jayaseelan C. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Nelumbo nucifera leaf extract and its larvicidal activity against malaria and filariasis vectors. Parasitology Research. 2011;108:693-702\n'},{id:"B56",body:'Prasad TNVKV, Elumalai E. Biofabrication of Ag nanoparticles using Moringa oleifera leaf extract and their antimicrobial activity. Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine. 2011;1:439-442\n'},{id:"B57",body:'Sadeghi B, Gholamhoseinpoor F. A study on the stability and green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Ziziphora tenuior (Zt) extract at room temperature. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2015;134:310-315\n'},{id:"B58",body:'Rout A, Jena PK, Parida UK, Bindhani BK. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using leaves extract of Centella asiatica L. For studies against human pathogens. International Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. 2013;4(4):661-674\n'},{id:"B59",body:'Zargar M, Hamid AA, Bakar FA, Shamsudin MN, Shameli K, Jahanshiri F. Green synthesis and antibacterial effect of silver nanoparticles using Vitexnegundo L. Molecules. 2011;16:6667-6676\n'},{id:"B60",body:'Mondal S, Roy N, Laskar RA, Sk I, Basu S, Mandal D. Biogenic synthesis of Ag, Au and bimetallic Au/Ag alloy nanoparticles using aqueous extract of mahogany (Swietenia mahogani JACQ) leaves. Colloids and Surfaces B: Biointerfaces. 2011;82:497-504\n'},{id:"B61",body:'Nakkala JR, Mata R, Gupta AK, Sadras SR. Green synthesis and characterization of silver nanoparticles using Boerhaavia diffusa plant extract and their antibacterial activity. Industrial Crops and Products. 2014;52:562-566\n'},{id:"B62",body:'Mariselvam R, Ranjitsingh AJA, Usha Raja Nanthini A, Kalirajan K, Padmalatha C, Selvakumar MP. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from the extract of the inflorescence of Cocos nucifera (Family: Arecaceae) for enhanced antibacterial activity. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2014;129:537-541\n'},{id:"B63",body:'Narayanan KB, Park HH. Antifungal activity of silver nanoparticles synthesized using turnip leaf extract (Brassica rapa L.) against wood rotting pathogens. European Journal of Plant Pathology. 2014;140:185-192\n'},{id:"B64",body:'Kathiravan V, Ravi S, Kumar SA. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles from Meliadubia leaf extract and their in vitro anticancer activity. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2014;130:116-121\n'},{id:"B65",body:'Gogoi SJ. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles from leaves extract of ethnomedicinal plants Pogostemon benghalensis (B) O.Ktz. Advances in Applied Science Research. 2013;4(4):274-278\n'},{id:"B66",body:'Veerasamy R, Xin TZ, Gunasagaran S, Xiang TFW, Yang EFC, Jeyakumar N. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using mangosteen leaf extract and evaluation of their antimicrobial activities. Journal of Saudi Chemical Society. 2010;15:113-120\n'},{id:"B67",body:'Sunita D, Tambhale D, Parag V, Adhyapak A. Facile green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Psoralea corylifolia. Seed extract and their in-vitro antimicrobial activities. International Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. 2014;5(1):457-467\n'},{id:"B68",body:'Firdhouse MJ, Lalitha P. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using the aqueous extract of Portulaca oleracea (L). Asian Journal of Pharmaceutical and Clinical Research. 2012;6(1):92-94\n'},{id:"B69",body:'Vijayaraghavan K, Nalini S, Prakash NU, Madhankumar D. One step green synthesis of silvernano/microparticles using extracts of Trachyspermum ammi and Papaver somniferum. Colloids and Surfaces B Biointerfaces. 2012;94:114-117\n'},{id:"B70",body:'Rajakumar G, Abdul Rahuman A. Larvicidal activity of synthesized silver nanoparticles using Eclipta prostrata leaf extract against filariasis and malaria vectors. Acta Tropica. 2011;118:196-203\n'},{id:"B71",body:'Gnanajobitha G, Paulkumar K, Vanaja M, Rajeshkumar S, Malarkodi C, Annadurai G, Kannan C. Fruit-mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles using Vitis vinifera and evaluation of their antimicrobial efficacy. Journal of Nanostructure in Chemistry. 2013;3(67):1-6\n'},{id:"B72",body:'Rupiasih NN, Aher A, Gosavi S, Vidyasagar PB. Green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using latex extract of Thevetia peruviana: A novel approach towards poisonous plant utilization. Journal of Physics: Conference Series. 2013;423:1-8\n'},{id:"B73",body:'Gondwal M, Pant GJN. Biological evaluation and green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using aqueous extract of Calotropis procera. International Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. 2013;4(4):635-643\n'},{id:"B74",body:'Kumar S, Daimary RM, Swargiary M, Brahma A, Kumar S, Singh M. Biosynthesis of silver nanoparticles using Premna herbacea leaf extract and evaluation of its antimicrobial activity against bacteria causing dysentery. International Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. 2013;4(4):378-384\n'},{id:"B75",body:'Uluğ B, Türkdemir MH, Ciçek A, Mete A. Role of irradiation in the green synthesis of silver nanoparticles mediated by fig (Ficus carica) leaf extract. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2015;135:153-161\n'},{id:"B76",body:'Ashok Kumar S, Ravi S, Kathiravan V, Velmurugan S. Synthesis of silver nanoparticles using A. indicum leaf extract and their antibacterial activity. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2015;134:34-39\n'},{id:"B77",body:'Edison TJI, Sethuraman MG. Instant green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using terminalia chebula fruit extract and evaluation of their catalytic activity on reduction of methylene blue. Process Biochemistry. 2012;47:1351-1357\n'},{id:"B78",body:'Nakkala JR, Mata R, Kumar Gupta A, Rani Sadras S. Biological activities of green silver nanoparticles synthesized with Acorous calamus rhizome extract. European Journal of Medicinal Chemistry. 2014;85:784-794\n'},{id:"B79",body:'Anuj SA, Ishnava KB. Plant mediated synthesis of silver nanoparticles using dried stem powder of Tinospora cordifolia, its antibacterial activity and its comparison with antibiotics. International Journal of Pharmacy and Biological Sciences. 2013;4:849-863\n'},{id:"B80",body:'Patil RS, Kokate MR, Kolekar SS. Bioinspired synthesis of highly stabilized silver nanoparticles using ocimum tenuiflorum leaf extract and their antibacterial activity. Spectrochimica Acta Part A: Molecular and Biomolecular Spectroscopy. 2012;91:234-238\n'},{id:"B81",body:'Peng H, Yang A, Xiong J. Green, microwave-assisted synthesis of silver nanoparticles using bamboo hemicelluloses and glucose in an aqueous medium. Carbohydrate Polymers. 2013;91:348-355\n'},{id:"B82",body:'Kagithoju S, Godishala V, Nanna RS. Eco-friendly and green synthesis of silver nanoparticles using leaf extract of Strychnos potatorum Linn.F. and their bactericidal activities. 3 Biotech. 2015;5:709-714\n'},{id:"B83",body:'Song JY, Kim BS. Rapid biological synthesis of silver nanoparticles using plant leaf extracts. Bioprocess and Biosystems Engineering. 2009;32:79-84\n'},{id:"B84",body:'Roy E, Patra S, Saha S, Mahduri R, Sharma PK. Shape-specific silver nanoparticles prepared by microwave assisted green synthesis using pomegranate juice for bacterial inactivation and removal. RSC Advances. 2015;5:95433-95442\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Remziye Güzel",address:"guzel.remziye@gmail.com",affiliation:'
Department of Medical Biology and Geneticts, Dicle University, Turkey
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"6552",title:"Silver Nanoparticles",subtitle:"Fabrication, Characterization and Applications",fullTitle:"Silver Nanoparticles - Fabrication, Characterization and Applications",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-fabrication-characterization-and-applications",publishedDate:"July 18th 2018",bookSignature:"Khan Maaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6552.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78923-479-4",printIsbn:"978-1-78923-478-7",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83881-546-2",editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",middleName:null,surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"59905",title:"Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"synthesis-of-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:5222,totalCrossrefCites:3,signatures:"Remziye Güzel and Gülbahar Erdal",authors:[{id:"226613",title:"Dr.",name:"Remziye",middleName:null,surname:"Güzel",fullName:"Remziye Güzel",slug:"remziye-guzel"},{id:"240772",title:"MSc.",name:"Gülbahar",middleName:null,surname:"Erdal",fullName:"Gülbahar Erdal",slug:"gulbahar-erdal"}]},{id:"61218",title:"Silver Nanoparticles: Synthesis, Characterization and Applications",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-synthesis-characterization-and-applications",totalDownloads:4451,totalCrossrefCites:17,signatures:"Neelu Chouhan",authors:[{id:"208475",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Neelu",middleName:null,surname:"Chouhan",fullName:"Neelu Chouhan",slug:"neelu-chouhan"}]},{id:"61044",title:"Synthesis and Optical Properties of Highly Stabilized Peptide- Coated Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"synthesis-and-optical-properties-of-highly-stabilized-peptide-coated-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:699,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Parvathalu Kalakonda and Sreenivas Banne",authors:[{id:"205966",title:"Dr.",name:"Parvathalu",middleName:null,surname:"Kalakonda",fullName:"Parvathalu Kalakonda",slug:"parvathalu-kalakonda"}]},{id:"60180",title:"Synthesis, Characterization and Antimicrobial Properties of Silver Nanocomposites",slug:"synthesis-characterization-and-antimicrobial-properties-of-silver-nanocomposites",totalDownloads:1276,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Mudassar Abbas, Nida Naeem, Hina Iftikhar and Usman Latif",authors:[{id:"225082",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Mudassar",middleName:null,surname:"Abbas",fullName:"Mudassar Abbas",slug:"mudassar-abbas"},{id:"240184",title:"Ms.",name:"Nida",middleName:null,surname:"Naeem",fullName:"Nida Naeem",slug:"nida-naeem"},{id:"240185",title:"Ms.",name:"Hina",middleName:null,surname:"Iftikhar",fullName:"Hina Iftikhar",slug:"hina-iftikhar"},{id:"240186",title:"Dr.",name:"Usman",middleName:null,surname:"Latif",fullName:"Usman Latif",slug:"usman-latif"}]},{id:"59848",title:"Application of Silver Nanoparticles for Water Treatment",slug:"application-of-silver-nanoparticles-for-water-treatment",totalDownloads:1520,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Zenaida Guerra Que, José Gilberto Torres Torres, Hermicenda Pérez\nVidal, María A. Lunagómez Rocha, Juan C. Arévalo Pérez, Ignacio\nCuauhtémoc López, Durvel De La Cruz Romero, Alejandra\nE. Espinosa De Los Monteros Reyna, José G. Pacheco Sosa, Adib A.\nSilahua Pavón and Jorge S. Ferráez Hernández",authors:[{id:"228497",title:"Dr.",name:"Hermicenda",middleName:null,surname:"Perez Vidal",fullName:"Hermicenda Perez Vidal",slug:"hermicenda-perez-vidal"},{id:"229146",title:"Dr.",name:"Zenaida",middleName:null,surname:"Guerra Que",fullName:"Zenaida Guerra Que",slug:"zenaida-guerra-que"},{id:"240565",title:"Dr.",name:"Jose Gilberto",middleName:null,surname:"Torres Torres",fullName:"Jose Gilberto Torres Torres",slug:"jose-gilberto-torres-torres"},{id:"240661",title:"Dr.",name:"María A.",middleName:null,surname:"Lunagómez Rocha",fullName:"María A. Lunagómez Rocha",slug:"maria-a.-lunagomez-rocha"},{id:"240662",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan C.",middleName:null,surname:"Arévalo Pérez",fullName:"Juan C. Arévalo Pérez",slug:"juan-c.-arevalo-perez"},{id:"240663",title:"Dr.",name:"Ignacio",middleName:null,surname:"Cuauhtémoc López",fullName:"Ignacio Cuauhtémoc López",slug:"ignacio-cuauhtemoc-lopez"},{id:"240664",title:"Dr.",name:"Alejandra E.",middleName:null,surname:"Espinosa De Los Monteros Reyna",fullName:"Alejandra E. Espinosa De Los Monteros Reyna",slug:"alejandra-e.-espinosa-de-los-monteros-reyna"},{id:"240665",title:"Dr.",name:"Durvel",middleName:null,surname:"De La Cruz Romero",fullName:"Durvel De La Cruz Romero",slug:"durvel-de-la-cruz-romero"},{id:"240666",title:"Dr.",name:"José G.",middleName:null,surname:"Pacheco Sosa",fullName:"José G. Pacheco Sosa",slug:"jose-g.-pacheco-sosa"},{id:"240667",title:"MSc.",name:"Adib A.",middleName:null,surname:"Silahua Pavón",fullName:"Adib A. Silahua Pavón",slug:"adib-a.-silahua-pavon"},{id:"240668",title:"MSc.",name:"Jorge S.",middleName:null,surname:"Ferráez Hernández",fullName:"Jorge S. Ferráez Hernández",slug:"jorge-s.-ferraez-hernandez"}]},{id:"60717",title:"Antibacterial Effect of Silver Nanoparticles Versus Chlorhexidine Against Streptococcus mutans and Lactobacillus casei",slug:"antibacterial-effect-of-silver-nanoparticles-versus-chlorhexidine-against-streptococcus-mutans-and-l",totalDownloads:613,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Raul Alberto Morales Luckie, Rafael Lopez Casatañares, Rogelio\nSchougall, Sarai Carmina Guadarrama Reyes and Víctor Sanchez\nMendieta",authors:[{id:"226386",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Morales Luckie",fullName:"Raul Alberto Morales Luckie",slug:"raul-alberto-morales-luckie"},{id:"228578",title:"Dr.",name:"Víctor",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez Mendieta",fullName:"Víctor Sanchez Mendieta",slug:"victor-sanchez-mendieta"},{id:"228580",title:"MSc.",name:"Sarai Carmina",middleName:null,surname:"Guadarrama Reyes",fullName:"Sarai Carmina Guadarrama Reyes",slug:"sarai-carmina-guadarrama-reyes"},{id:"228581",title:"Dr.",name:"Rogelio",middleName:null,surname:"Schougall",fullName:"Rogelio Schougall",slug:"rogelio-schougall"},{id:"228584",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez Casatañares",fullName:"Rafael Lopez Casatañares",slug:"rafael-lopez-casatanares"}]},{id:"61686",title:"Biological Activity of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Applications in Anticancer Therapy",slug:"biological-activity-of-silver-nanoparticles-and-their-applications-in-anticancer-therapy",totalDownloads:1062,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Magdalena Skonieczna and Dorota Hudy",authors:[{id:"243029",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Magdalena",middleName:null,surname:"Skonieczna",fullName:"Magdalena Skonieczna",slug:"magdalena-skonieczna"},{id:"249509",title:"MSc.",name:"Dorota",middleName:null,surname:"Hudy",fullName:"Dorota Hudy",slug:"dorota-hudy"}]},{id:"59446",title:"Silver Nanoparticles and PDMS Hybrid Nanostructure for Medical Applications",slug:"silver-nanoparticles-and-pdms-hybrid-nanostructure-for-medical-applications",totalDownloads:864,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Solano-Umaña Victor and Vega-Baudrit José Roberto",authors:[{id:"224271",title:"Prof.",name:"Jose",middleName:null,surname:"Vega Baudrit",fullName:"Jose Vega Baudrit",slug:"jose-vega-baudrit"}]},{id:"61862",title:"Exploring the Effect of Operational Factors and Characterization Imperative to the Synthesis of Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"exploring-the-effect-of-operational-factors-and-characterization-imperative-to-the-synthesis-of-silv",totalDownloads:1002,totalCrossrefCites:6,signatures:"Adewumi O. Dada, Folahan A. Adekola, Oluyomi S. Adeyemi,\nOluwasesan M. Bello, Adetunji C. Oluwaseun, Oluwakemi J.\nAwakan and Femi-Adepoju A. Grace",authors:[{id:"34132",title:"Dr.",name:"Folahan",middleName:null,surname:"A. Adekola",fullName:"Folahan A. Adekola",slug:"folahan-a.-adekola"},{id:"65667",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluyomi",middleName:null,surname:"Adeyemi",fullName:"Oluyomi Adeyemi",slug:"oluyomi-adeyemi"},{id:"208501",title:"Dr.",name:"Adewumi",middleName:null,surname:"Dada",fullName:"Adewumi Dada",slug:"adewumi-dada"},{id:"222614",title:"Dr.",name:"Charles",middleName:null,surname:"Adetunji",fullName:"Charles Adetunji",slug:"charles-adetunji"},{id:"240641",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluwasesan Micheal",middleName:null,surname:"Bello",fullName:"Oluwasesan Micheal Bello",slug:"oluwasesan-micheal-bello"},{id:"241975",title:"Dr.",name:"Oluwakemi Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Awakan",fullName:"Oluwakemi Josephine Awakan",slug:"oluwakemi-josephine-awakan"},{id:"246421",title:"Dr.",name:"Abiola Grace",middleName:null,surname:"Femi-Adepoju",fullName:"Abiola Grace Femi-Adepoju",slug:"abiola-grace-femi-adepoju"}]},{id:"60486",title:"Assessment of Nano-toxicity and Safety Profiles of Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"assessment-of-nano-toxicity-and-safety-profiles-of-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:1125,totalCrossrefCites:2,signatures:"Yasemin Budama-Kilinc, Rabia Cakir-Koc, Tolga Zorlu, Burak\nOzdemir, Zeynep Karavelioglu, Abdurrahim Can Egil and Serda\nKecel-Gunduz",authors:[{id:"146042",title:"MSc.",name:"Rabia",middleName:null,surname:"Cakir Koc",fullName:"Rabia Cakir Koc",slug:"rabia-cakir-koc"},{id:"182570",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Budama Kilinc",fullName:"Yasemin Budama Kilinc",slug:"yasemin-budama-kilinc"},{id:"239962",title:"MSc.",name:"Burak",middleName:null,surname:"Özdemir",fullName:"Burak Özdemir",slug:"burak-ozdemir"},{id:"241550",title:"Dr.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Zorlu",fullName:"Tolga Zorlu",slug:"tolga-zorlu"},{id:"241551",title:"MSc.",name:"Zeynep",middleName:null,surname:"Karavelioglu",fullName:"Zeynep Karavelioglu",slug:"zeynep-karavelioglu"},{id:"241552",title:"BSc.",name:"A. Can",middleName:null,surname:"Egil",fullName:"A. Can Egil",slug:"a.-can-egil"},{id:"241998",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Serda",middleName:null,surname:"Kecel-Gunduz",fullName:"Serda Kecel-Gunduz",slug:"serda-kecel-gunduz"}]},{id:"61345",title:"Use of Silver Nanoparticles as Tougheners of Alumina Ceramics",slug:"use-of-silver-nanoparticles-as-tougheners-of-alumina-ceramics",totalDownloads:464,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Enrique Rocha-Rangel, Azucena Pérez-de la Fuente, José A.\nRodríguez-García, Eddie N. Armendáriz-Mireles and Carlos A.\nCalles-Arriaga",authors:[{id:"30489",title:"Dr.",name:"Enrique",middleName:null,surname:"Rocha",fullName:"Enrique Rocha",slug:"enrique-rocha"}]},{id:"60328",title:"Modification of Electrical Properties of Silver Nanoparticle",slug:"modification-of-electrical-properties-of-silver-nanoparticle",totalDownloads:927,totalCrossrefCites:9,signatures:"Markus Diantoro, Thathit Suprayogi, Ulwiyatus Sa’adah, Nandang\nMufti, Abdulloh Fuad, Arif Hidayat and Hadi Nur",authors:[{id:"230167",title:"Dr.",name:"Markus",middleName:null,surname:"Diantoro",fullName:"Markus Diantoro",slug:"markus-diantoro"},{id:"240354",title:"MSc.",name:"Abdulloh",middleName:null,surname:"Fuad",fullName:"Abdulloh Fuad",slug:"abdulloh-fuad"},{id:"240355",title:"Dr.",name:"Nandang",middleName:null,surname:"Mufti",fullName:"Nandang Mufti",slug:"nandang-mufti"},{id:"240356",title:"Prof.",name:"Arif",middleName:null,surname:"Hidayat",fullName:"Arif Hidayat",slug:"arif-hidayat"},{id:"240357",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Nur",fullName:"Hadi Nur",slug:"hadi-nur"}]},{id:"59980",title:"Antimicrobial Effect of Silk and Catgut Suture Threads Coated with Biogenic Silver Nanoparticles",slug:"antimicrobial-effect-of-silk-and-catgut-suture-threads-coated-with-biogenic-silver-nanoparticles",totalDownloads:812,totalCrossrefCites:1,signatures:"Saraí C. Guadarrama-Reyes, Rogelio J. Scougall-Vilchis, Raúl A.\nMorales-Luckie, Víctor Sánchez-Mendieta and Rafael López-\nCastañares",authors:[{id:"226386",title:"Dr.",name:"Raul Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Morales Luckie",fullName:"Raul Alberto Morales Luckie",slug:"raul-alberto-morales-luckie"},{id:"228578",title:"Dr.",name:"Víctor",middleName:null,surname:"Sanchez Mendieta",fullName:"Víctor Sanchez Mendieta",slug:"victor-sanchez-mendieta"},{id:"228584",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafael",middleName:null,surname:"Lopez Casatañares",fullName:"Rafael Lopez Casatañares",slug:"rafael-lopez-casatanares"},{id:"240222",title:"Mrs.",name:"Sarai C",middleName:null,surname:"Guadarrama-Reyes",fullName:"Sarai C Guadarrama-Reyes",slug:"sarai-c-guadarrama-reyes"},{id:"240223",title:"Dr.",name:"Rogelio J",middleName:null,surname:"Scougall-Vilchis",fullName:"Rogelio J Scougall-Vilchis",slug:"rogelio-j-scougall-vilchis"}]},{id:"59355",title:"Electrochemical Formation of Silver Nanoparticles and Nanoclusters on Multiwall Carbon Nanotube Electrode Films",slug:"electrochemical-formation-of-silver-nanoparticles-and-nanoclusters-on-multiwall-carbon-nanotube-elec",totalDownloads:591,totalCrossrefCites:0,signatures:"Andrés Alberto Arrocha Arcos and Margarita Miranda-Hernández",authors:[{id:"229755",title:"Dr.",name:"Margarita",middleName:null,surname:"Miranda-Hernández",fullName:"Margarita Miranda-Hernández",slug:"margarita-miranda-hernandez"},{id:"229760",title:"MSc.",name:"Andres A.",middleName:null,surname:"Arocha Arcos",fullName:"Andres A. Arocha Arcos",slug:"andres-a.-arocha-arcos"}]}]},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"5195",title:"Magnetic Materials",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4f04cfbb54e455378de5fc7725e36a0c",slug:"magnetic-materials",bookSignature:"Khan Maaz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5195.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"107765",title:"Dr.",name:"Maaz",surname:"Khan",slug:"maaz-khan",fullName:"Maaz Khan"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},chapters:[{id:"51314",title:"Scaling in Magnetic Materials",slug:"scaling-in-magnetic-materials",signatures:"Krzysztof Z. Sokalski, Barbara Ślusarek and Jan Szczygłowski",authors:[{id:"179335",title:"Prof.",name:"Krzysztof",middleName:"Zdzislaw",surname:"Sokalski",fullName:"Krzysztof Sokalski",slug:"krzysztof-sokalski"},{id:"181153",title:"Prof.",name:"Barbara",middleName:null,surname:"Slusarek",fullName:"Barbara Slusarek",slug:"barbara-slusarek"},{id:"181154",title:"Prof.",name:"Jan",middleName:null,surname:"Szczyglowski",fullName:"Jan Szczyglowski",slug:"jan-szczyglowski"}]},{id:"51443",title:"How to Characterize Cylindrical Magnetic Nanowires",slug:"how-to-characterize-cylindrical-magnetic-nanowires",signatures:"Fanny Béron, Marcos V. Puydinger dos Santos, Peterson G. de\nCarvalho, Karoline O. Moura, Luis C.C. Arzuza and Kleber R. Pirota",authors:[{id:"180153",title:"Prof.",name:"Fanny",middleName:null,surname:"Béron",fullName:"Fanny Béron",slug:"fanny-beron"},{id:"180848",title:"MSc.",name:"Peterson",middleName:null,surname:"Grandini De Carvalho",fullName:"Peterson Grandini De Carvalho",slug:"peterson-grandini-de-carvalho"},{id:"180849",title:"MSc.",name:"Luis Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Costa Arzuza",fullName:"Luis Carlos Costa Arzuza",slug:"luis-carlos-costa-arzuza"},{id:"180850",title:"MSc.",name:"Karoline",middleName:null,surname:"Moura",fullName:"Karoline Moura",slug:"karoline-moura"},{id:"180851",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcos",middleName:"Vincius",surname:"Puydinger Dos Santos",fullName:"Marcos Puydinger Dos Santos",slug:"marcos-puydinger-dos-santos"},{id:"180853",title:"Prof.",name:"Kleber Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Pirota",fullName:"Kleber Roberto Pirota",slug:"kleber-roberto-pirota"}]},{id:"51213",title:"Magnetization Dynamics–Induced Charge and Spin Transport on the Surface of a Topological Insulator Subjected to Magnetism",slug:"magnetization-dynamics-induced-charge-and-spin-transport-on-the-surface-of-a-topological-insulator-s",signatures:"Katsuhisa Taguchi",authors:[{id:"181168",title:"Dr.",name:"Katsuhisa",middleName:null,surname:"Taguchi",fullName:"Katsuhisa Taguchi",slug:"katsuhisa-taguchi"}]},{id:"51474",title:"Metamaterial Properties of 2D Ferromagnetic Nanostructures: From Continuous Ferromagnetic Films to Magnonic Crystals",slug:"metamaterial-properties-of-2d-ferromagnetic-nanostructures-from-continuous-ferromagnetic-films-to-ma",signatures:"Roberto Zivieri",authors:[{id:"181334",title:"Prof.",name:"Roberto",middleName:null,surname:"Zivieri",fullName:"Roberto Zivieri",slug:"roberto-zivieri"}]},{id:"51707",title:"Molecular Magnetism Modeling with Applications in Spin Crossover Compounds",slug:"molecular-magnetism-modeling-with-applications-in-spin-crossover-compounds",signatures:"Mihai Dimian and Aurelian Rotaru",authors:[{id:"179954",title:"Dr.",name:"Mihai",middleName:null,surname:"Dimian",fullName:"Mihai Dimian",slug:"mihai-dimian"},{id:"181093",title:"Dr.",name:"Aurelian",middleName:null,surname:"Rotaru",fullName:"Aurelian Rotaru",slug:"aurelian-rotaru"}]},{id:"50157",title:"Proteresis of Core-Shell Nanocrystals: Investigation through Theoretical Simulation and Experimental Analysis",slug:"proteresis-of-core-shell-nanocrystals-investigation-through-theoretical-simulation-and-experimental-",signatures:"Jhong-Yi Ji and Sheng Yun Wu",authors:[{id:"7156",title:"Prof.",name:"Sheng Yun",middleName:null,surname:"Wu",fullName:"Sheng Yun Wu",slug:"sheng-yun-wu"},{id:"184417",title:"Dr.",name:"Jhong-Yi",middleName:null,surname:"Ji",fullName:"Jhong-Yi Ji",slug:"jhong-yi-ji"}]},{id:"50909",title:"Radiation and Propagation of Waves in Magnetic Materials with Helicoidal Magnetic Structure",slug:"radiation-and-propagation-of-waves-in-magnetic-materials-with-helicoidal-magnetic-structure",signatures:"Igor V. Bychkov, Dmitry A. Kuzmin and Vladimir G. Shavrov",authors:[{id:"178503",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Bychkov",fullName:"Igor Bychkov",slug:"igor-bychkov"},{id:"179168",title:"Dr.",name:"Dmitry",middleName:null,surname:"Kuzmin",fullName:"Dmitry Kuzmin",slug:"dmitry-kuzmin"},{id:"179169",title:"Prof.",name:"Vladimir",middleName:null,surname:"Shavrov",fullName:"Vladimir Shavrov",slug:"vladimir-shavrov"}]},{id:"50527",title:"Giant Magnetoimpedance Effect and AC Magnetic Susceptibility in Amorphous Alloys System of FeCoNbBSiCu",slug:"giant-magnetoimpedance-effect-and-ac-magnetic-susceptibility-in-amorphous-alloys-system-of-feconbbsi",signatures:"Zulia Isabel Caamaño De Ávila, Amilkar José Orozco Galán and\nAndrés Rosales-Rivera",authors:[{id:"181146",title:"Dr.",name:"Zulia",middleName:null,surname:"Caamaño",fullName:"Zulia Caamaño",slug:"zulia-caamano"}]},{id:"51160",title:"Magnetization Statics and Ultrafast Photoinduced Dynamics in Co/garnet Heterostructures",slug:"magnetization-statics-and-ultrafast-photoinduced-dynamics-in-co-garnet-heterostructures",signatures:"Andrzej Stupakiewicz",authors:[{id:"41112",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrzej",middleName:null,surname:"Stupakiewicz",fullName:"Andrzej Stupakiewicz",slug:"andrzej-stupakiewicz"}]},{id:"51644",title:"Magnetic Micro-Origami",slug:"magnetic-micro-origami",signatures:"Leszek Malkinski and Rahmatollah Eskandari",authors:[{id:"115596",title:"Dr.",name:"Leszek",middleName:"Mariusz",surname:"Malkinski",fullName:"Leszek Malkinski",slug:"leszek-malkinski"},{id:"187129",title:"MSc.",name:"Rahmatollah",middleName:null,surname:"Eskandari",fullName:"Rahmatollah Eskandari",slug:"rahmatollah-eskandari"}]},{id:"51165",title:"Magnetic Properties of Gadolinium-Doped ZnO Films and Nanostructures",slug:"magnetic-properties-of-gadolinium-doped-zno-films-and-nanostructures",signatures:"Iman S. Roqan, S. Assa Aravindh and Singaravelu Venkatesh",authors:[{id:"181087",title:"Dr.",name:"Iman",middleName:null,surname:"Roqan",fullName:"Iman Roqan",slug:"iman-roqan"}]}]}]},onlineFirst:{chapter:{type:"chapter",id:"66697",title:"mDFA Detects Abnormality: From Heartbeat to Material Vibration",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85798",slug:"mdfa-detects-abnormality-from-heartbeat-to-material-vibration",body:'\n
\n
1. Introduction
\n
System failure—ischemic disease of the cardiac system (CS), highway bridge crash, earthquake, space rocket launch failure, and so forth—leads to catastrophic consequences. Watching abnormality by testing toughness is important for preventing disasters. We want to detect early warning sign. But how? We have an idea. The method is modified detrended fluctuation analysis (mDFA).
\n
In this chapter, we show examples of mDFA computation. First, we show mDFA results on the CS, then results on the nonliving, material system.
\n
The CS is composed of the heart and the brain, that is, a pump and a controller. Evolutionally, all creatures have evolved from a common ancestor. If the CS was innovated long ago, “hearted” animals follow fundamental laws of physics (and chemistry and biology). In fact, it is known that all “hearted” animals carry the same DNA for making the heart: development of vertebrate heart is controlled by a common genetic code (a DNA sequence called Nkx, a homeobox, and a cardiac-specific homeobox). However, not only vertebrate heart but also invertebrate heart is controlled by the same genetic code: development of insect heart is regulated by “tinman DNA,” which is Nkx family gene. Surprisingly, Hydra, a simple animal, that exhibits “pumping movement,” has Nkx-like gene (see [1]). Therefore, the pumping-heart design is evolved since Hydra [2]. If we find a primordial basic rule in a simple creature, it is applicable to humans.
\n
In this chapter, we first show experimental results on crustacean animals (crabs and lobsters), on which we have long worked [3]. In the second place, we present human heartbeat analysis, and lastly mechanical vibration analysis. Throughout the study, we use an analytical method, mDFA, which is recently developed by our group [1]. We explain mDFA in the later section.
\n
\n
\n
2. Physiology of animal heart
\n
Circulation failure is absolutely a life-threatening event. Unpredictable cessation of blood flow is the worst-case scenario. For studying the problems, we need physiology, and it is necessary to record heartbeat data from freely moving animals.
\n
Figure 1 shows how to record electrocardiogram (EKG) from invertebrate animals. Two permanently implanted metallic electrodes (+ and −), touching the surface of the heart with extreme caution, were used to record EKG. We used DAM50 C-R coupled AC amplifier (World Precision Instruments, USA) and Power Lab (ADIntrument, Australia) for digital EKG data sampling at 1 kHz.
\n
Figure 1.
Diagrammatic representation for EKG recording from insect (A), lobster (B), and isopod crustacean Ligia (C).
\n
Nervous regulation of the crustacean heart is well documented by great scholars [1]: Carlson (1904), Alexandrowicz (1932), Maynard (1961), and so forth. The heart receives two kinds of nerve fibers. One is acceleratory nerve (CA) and the other is inhibitory nerve (CI) [3]. The nerves are always active and discharge frequency is ever-changing. Moreover, the brain releases slowly functioning cardio-active substances (peptide) via the nonneuronal hormonal method [6]. As a result, the heart never beats at a steady pace. Heart rate exhibits a dynamic change all through life. Heartbeat interval time is never stable, never regular, and is always fluctuating.
\n
\n
\n
3. Analysis of heartbeat
\n
Mechanisms of cessation of heartbeat could be studied by mathematical methods. We believed that the method might be the frequency analysis because heartbeat is a cyclic behavior. The other candidate method is heartbeat-interval time series analysis. Whichever, we need natural data, EKG. We prepared two specimens, intact and isolated hearts. We tested two different analytical methods. One is the power spectral density analysis (PSD) and the other is mDFA [5, 6]. As a result, we found that PSD did not well distinguish the difference between the two heartbeats [5, 6]. In contrast, mDFA was powerful and quantitative to represent the inherent state of the two hearts [4].
\n
PSD is well known worldwide. People who use PSD implicitly suppose that a complex-look signal is a sum of cosine waves at various frequencies such as 10, 20, 30, 40, and 50 Hz. Real world data, such as heartbeat and material-vibration signal, carry hidden information that PSD might not capture.
\n
With this consideration, the mDFA program was invented by a master-student, Tanaka (see [7]), and an author (TY) tested and verified it [1]. It is about 20 years since then.
\n
We repetitively confirmed [1, 4, 5] that freely moving animals’ heartbeat exhibits the scaling exponent (SI, scaling index) of around 1 (SI = ~1.0). In turn, isolated heartbeat data exhibit the SI of around 0.5 (SI = ~0.5).
\n
\n
\n
4. Animal heart experiments
\n
At a very early stage of the study, we learned that mDFA well distinguishes between intact and isolated hearts as aforementioned. We got an idea: mDFA can be a helpful tool in pathophysiology, because cardiac disease is one of the major causes of death worldwide.
\n
We began to record long-term EKGs from model animals. The recordings were started from fresh healthy specimens and were kept continued to the end of their life. Sometimes, the recording period length exceeded 2 years, which is extremely long and painstaking (Figure 1B, lobster). In turn, it was, at one time, only 2 h (Figure 1C, isopod Crustacea).
\n
Figures 2 and 3 show example EKGs at terminal conditions.
\n
Figure 2.
A long-term EKG from coconut crab (Birgus latro) with state space representation. Recording for 18 h. Inset: SI values for the corresponding period from (A) to (F). Note: fibrillation after beating stops. State space representation of cardiac action potentials shows a normal action potential shape in (A), gradually changing to distorted pattern (B, E, F), and finally becomes erratic and unstable at the end (Fz). Modified from Yazawa [10], Chapter 2.
\n
Figure 3.
A long-term EKG from “Mokuzu” crab (Eriocheir japonica). Recording for 11 h. Inset: SI values for the corresponding period from (A) to (D). Note: No fibrillation remained after beating stops: cf. Figure 2. Inset: spike configuration not distorted. Modified from Yazawa [10], Chapter 2.
\n
Figure 2 shows coconut crab EKG. This specimen was captured in March at a Japanese tropical island, south-west Okinawa. We transfer it to Tokyo in a hand-carried baggage. Long-term EKG was recorded in Tokyo instead of the south, tropical zone. The animal eats apples and dry fish meat and lived longer than we expected. Climate in Tokyo got colder in autumn and the tropical crab ended its life in October: non-air-conditioned environment at natural room temperature. SI values in March were ~1.0 (data not shown). The SI values (around 0.9) continued to September.
\n
In Figure 2, one can see that SI values decrease when dying. It is of interest that after the cessation of pumping heartbeat, fibrillation remained (Figure 2), which indicates that heart muscles still try to contract.
\n
Many other specimens tested, including crayfish, crabs, insects, and clams, show a SI-decrease-phenomenon when dying (data not shown). We found it typical that when dying, animals show diminished movements and decremental SI-shift toward 0.5.
\n
At the terminal condition, the brain is not likely to regulate the heart any longer, although the heart is still pumping like the isolated heart. We consider that the terminal condition accompanied by a low SI is a state of brain death.
\n
If we look at dying crab specimens, our intuition tells that relevant specimen is likely to pass away soon. We define this as “natural death.”
\n
In the meantime, we encountered an unforgettable specimen that died unpredictably (Figure 3). At time zero in Figure 3, EKG trace looks normal. After checking EKG on PC screen, an author (TY) left Tokyo, setting out on a journey to see a hospitalized family. Two days later, TY returned and looked at PC and discovered that the crab heart stopped its beating 11 h after TY left (Figure 3). We define this “unpredictable death.” Unpredictable death is a rare event among ~1000 specimens. We always check and dissect all specimens’ body after the death. In case of Figure 3 animal, dissection revealed that the myocardium of relevant crab partially got slightly injured by an EKG electrode (see the electrode in Figure 1B). It is the fault of researchers. We are very sorry that the innocent specimen suffered from the human-caused heart injury for 2 weeks, although we did not know that. From this rare case, we learned that little injury of myocardium causes sudden death. Only partial damage of the heart is life-threatening. It is comparable to a human health problem, well known ischemic heart disease. We found it crab’s “unpredictable death.”
\n
Results of Figure 3 surprised us, the suffering crab’s SI values “always” exceeded 1.0 (see Figure 3, SI = 1.5, 1.4, 1.4, 1.2). We have never seen before. A hypothesis came into my head: “injured heart has a very high SI.” This hypothesis is unproven as far as we know. We have seen many dying specimens that showed reduction of SI-value as shown in Figure 2.
\n
The results suggest that “the scaling exponent methods” distinguish damaged heart from unhurt heart. We biologists consider that medical profession should test mDFA on human hearts. We sent a short abstract to a medical congress in Europe, but the application was rejected immediately. We ourselves began to study human hearts.
\n
\n
\n
5. Biophysics
\n
\n
5.1 Quantitative analysis
\n
In 1982, Kobayashi and Musha reported that healthy hearts exhibit 1/f spectrum [8]. Mathematically, 1/f slope is almost equal to SI = 1.0, while not 100% equivalent. This metric analysis based on SI is not fully proven as far as we know. The criterion-based strategy is better than qualitative research for diagnosing the CS.
\n
For the quantitative expression for the CS state, we need computation. However, in the 1980s, we did not have a PC to calculate SI. Poor biologists found difficulty to use a computer that was installed in a building of a top university. It took until 2001 to prove the idea of mDFA by ourselves. The Windows XP machine was introduced in the year 2001. XP-PC helped us calculate mDFA on the second time scale.
\n
What we liked was Kobayashi-Musha’s concept that one (SI = 1.0) is “healthy” [8]. There is a fixed baseline for diagnosing the heart system, that is, healthy or not.
\n
In the 1990s, Peng and Goldberger and others demonstrated that healthy hearts exhibit the scaling exponent ONE (1.0) by detrended fluctuation analysis (DFA) [9] [DFA is not mDFA (see below)]. These results add critical evidence to the issue of Kobayashi-Musha’s concept.
\n
Moreover, Peng and Goldberger’s group reported that sick hearts exhibit a higher SI, which is SI = ~1.2. It sounds like providing evidence that a sick heart was consistently higher in the scaling exponent. But they only suggested. The truth was unclear. At least we were excited about our crab’s high-SI discovery (Figure 3) because it coincides with it.
\n
Most of the data in [8] and [9] were obtained from in-hospital patients. Peng and Goldberger’s group did not extend their detailed experiments to general population as far as we know.
\n
One is a baseline number for the health. This is testable hypothesis. We began to examine EKGs on general population and model animals. Currently we have ~500 individuals’ EKG and ~1000 animal data. Some EKGs are collected from long-term follow up. Some subjects have passed away. We take medical record with all data including animal data. We never use website data. Physiological interpretation of data is impossible without medical record based on our own physiological observation.
\n
\n
\n
5.2 Accurate data sampling
\n
EKG signal was captured by two commercially available Ag/AgCl electrodes and a lab-made amplifier that can damp undulatory noise. The amplifier has a short input-time-constant (tau = 0.1 or 0.22 s, depending on capacitor used, 0.01 or 0.022 μF). The tau value for EKG-machine in hospital-use is set at about 10 s under the international regulation. A large tau amplifier makes signal-baseline drift when subjects move. We thus needed to make a small-tau amplifier in order to reduce “movement-induced noise and drift” (see Figure 4).
\n
Figure 4.
Accurate peak detection. Human EKG recorded with a lab-made amplifier. A physician diagnosed this heart as a sinus arrhythmia, but not life-threatening; male age: 60s.
\n
Peaks are captured automatically by a lab-made program. R-peaks are the time point at which Vmax is attained over threshold voltage. Once R-peaks were captured, all peaks were 100% affirmed by eye observation on PC screen after the end of recording. If incorrect peaks are captured, or correct peaks are NOT captured, we manually made a correction on PC screen. As a result, all peak interval time series become accurate. It is time consuming work but inevitable for accurate interpretation of data. The sampling rate is 1 kHz for the heartbeat (20–40 kHz for material-vibration as shown in below sections).
\n
Since we consider that accurate data sampling before analysis is paramount for later interpretation of results, skipping heartbeats and irregular heartbeats should not be deleted before analyzing, like someone does. However, any artificial spiky noise should not be counted as a pulse.
\n
In summary, accurately recorded EKG without large noise, accurately captured R-peaks (stars in Figures 4 and dots in Figure 5A), and accurate peak-to-peak time interval time series is important for performing accurate mDFA (Figure 5B).
\n
Figure 5.
Accurate data collection. Peak identification from EKG (A) and construction of time series (B). P, Q , R, S, and T peaks are indicated (see A). Small arrows in A point all the P-peaks. Double arrowhead indicates that there is no P-peak within one heartbeat period. Therefore, this is premature ventricular contraction (PCV). Within 474 beat time period, 10 PVCs are visible. Figure 5 was recorded 5 years before Figure 4 from the same subject.
A diagrammatic explanation of pretreatment of R-R peak data. Measuring a R-R peak interval time Xi, where i = 1, 2, 3, --- 2000 (A), obtaining an average of them, Xave, and thereafter subtracting it from Xi (B), and making additions of each values one by one (C).
\n
\n
5.3.1 First procedure
\n
We first construct an accurate R-R interval time series from EKG recordings, which is [Xi] (Figure 6A, abscissa axis, the number of heart beat i, and vertical axis, rate of beating in beat per min). Figure 6 shows only 1 - 30 beats among 2000 beats. We use “heart rate” instead of “interval time.” If we use R-R-interval time, which is an inverse of “rate,” mDFA results are the same. To biologists, using “rate” is intuitively more understandable about physiology of the heart than using “interval.” The seventh beat in Figure 6A shows an irregular beat.
\n
For mDFA computation, we use 2000 heartbeat data. Both data shorter or longer than 2000 can be usable but we fixed it 2000 after testing [1]. Long data, such as 1 or 2 h data, does not have significant benefit for interpretation of physiological meaning of results. The reason is simple. The cardiac system (CS) never becomes a stable state. The CS is an ever-changing dynamic system, which is our temporary interpretation and we have had consistent results. Currently, we use 2000 beat data. A 2000 beat time period length is about 30–40 min [1].
\n
\n
\n
5.3.2 Second procedure
\n
Mean value from 2000 data is Xave. By removing Xave from each data (X), one can get a time series of pure fluctuation [X − Xave] (Figure 6B).
\n
\n
\n
5.3.3 Third procedure
\n
A computation ∑ 1 2000 x makes a random-walk like temporal sequence [yi] (Figure 6C). Important concepts in mDFA are “averaging” and “sigma (summation of data, Figure 6C).”
\n
\n
\n
\n
5.4 Trend
\n
Figure 6 demonstrates diagrammatically that the fluctuation property is expressed in connection with the average value. The sequence [xi] is heart rate time series in beat per min (Figure 6A). The sequence [Xi − Xave] expresses pure fluctuation (Figure 6B), some larger and some smaller than the average value. One can see that the seventh beat in Figure 6A shows a very small value. The seventh beat makes [yi] trace jump down (see the seventh dot, i = 7, in Figure 6). It is catastrophic happening; thus, this event is an arrhythmic heartbeat. This kind of event becomes a matter of life or death if extremely unlucky. In fact, a single event is not only life threatening but also not so happy of course. Therefore, the trait of fluctuation is directly linked to life or death.
\n
In summary, the sequence [yi] expresses sigma (Σ) of each value. This [yi] is “trend.” This is an explanation about the “pretreatment” of data before conducting mDFA. This [yi] is the data that mDFA analyzes. Both mDFA and DFA use [yi] for calculation, but the concept is different between them as shown below. See [1] for details.
\n
\n
\n
5.5 Box size
\n
In Figure 7A, 2000 beat long data are broken up into small length data; here it is 10 beat long (see three Boxes in Figure 7A). Box-size is freely changeable in program. In Figure 7, we show only box-size-10 as an example. We tested smaller box less than10 in box-size. As a result, it is not so useful than we thought. In our program, mDFA’s box size ranges from 10 to 1000 [1]. In computing, mDFA automatically changes box-size, starting from box-size 10-beat. Then 11-beat, 12-beat, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, …, 30, 31, 32, …, 40, 41, …, 50, 51, …, 60, 61, …, 70, 71, …, 80, …, 90, …, 100, then 110, 120, and so forth [1].
\n
Figure 7.
Diagrammatical representation of the “detrending” procedure. A series shown in Figure 6C is broken up into 10-beat-long box (A), drawing a fitting curve in each box (B), and thereafter executing detrending (C). See text.
\n
\n
\n
5.6 Fitting curve
\n
Figure 7B shows a fitting curve. They are linear fitting curves yv(1), yv(2), and yv(3) (Figure 7B). This example (Figure 7B) is linear fitting, just for the sake of ease. But, in practice, we must use biquadratic fitting [1] (see Figure 8 caption).
\n
Figure 8.
Several kinds of fitting; real human data. The [yi] curve shows raw data. We tested fittings, linear, quadratic, cubic, biquadratic, and further. As a result, less than fourth order computation does not return a stable/unvarying SI value. mDFA uses quadratic fitting.
\n
\n
\n
5.7 Detrending
\n
A fitting yv curve is given by a PC computation as shown in Figure 7B. Next computation is making a detrended curve that is given as zi = yi − yv. After this procedure, true fluctuation remains. This is “detrending.” The [zi] sequence is important.
\n
\n
\n
5.8 DFA and mDFA
\n
In Figure 7C, arrows point two values: “entrance value” and “exit value” in each box (Figure 7). mDFA uses entrance and exit values obtained by detrending procedures.
\n
In turn, Peng’s DFA uses all 10 values in each box (see Figure 9). But the detrending procedure is a common concept between mDFA and DFA.
\n
Figure 9.
Diagrammatic representation of the difference between Pang’s DFA and mDFA. Pang’s DFA calculates vertical difference between data and zero-line (four small arrows). Peng’s DFA computes average of 10 data in a box. Total data length is 2000-beat. There are 200 boxes of 10-beat-box. Peng’s DFA thus can get 2000 data in one-box-size-calculation. In turn, mDFA computes the difference between Ent and Exit (Ext − Ent). mDFA thus can get 200 data. After finishing box-10 computation, the program increases box-size and repeats calculations cyclically: box-11, box-12, box-13, and so on.
\n
For convenience, a portion of Figure 7C (from the 1st to the 16th) is enlarged in Figure 9. Peng’s DFA measures vertical differences between fitting curve and real data (Figure 9). Thus, Peng’s DFA looks at “critical phenomena” according to physicists. But mDFA does not do those measurements: mDFA looks at 10 heartbeats at once (Figure 9).
\n
Peng’s DFA looks at individual heartbeat one by one (Figure 9). What mDFA looks at is how much [zi] sequence has proceeded over time within a box, sometimes up and sometimes down. Therefore, mDFA can see ever changing undulation or fluctuate in each box (Figure 9). Fluctuation is not always stochastic noise. Rather, fluctuation carries previously unknown hidden information. It is sometimes hidden threat. It is sometimes high-risk information.
\n
One might think that both, Peng’s DFA and mDFA, have a similar calculation concept. But, mathematically, there is a gap between their concepts. According to Peng’s paper and successor’s publications, there is a tipping point (changing point and critical point) at the box-size11-beat. Peng et al. labeled the scaling exponent as alpha-1 and alpha-2. Alpha-1 corresponds to box-size ranges smaller than 11. In turn, alpha-2 corresponds to box-size range greater than 11. However, mDFA does not detect this tipping point. We found that box-size smaller than 30 (30-beat-box-sise) does not carry physiologically significant information. mDFA program begins computation from 10-beat-box-size and goes to 1000-beat-box-size (see Figure 10) but draws regression lines from box-size greater than 30 (see next section).
\n
Figure 10.
An example mDFA. (A) Heartbeat interval time series; Gazami crab. (B) mDFA graph, box size versus variance; slope determines the SI. (C) Four box-size-ranges and corresponding SI. Crossover can be seen at two points, at a box-size of ~30 beat and ~200 beat. Physiological interpretation is under study. In this computation, 20,000-beat data were used, although 2000-beat data produce similar results (not shown).
\n
\n
\n
5.9 Scaling
\n
Figure 10 shows typical mDFA results from heartbeat data of a crab (Figure 10A). mDFA makes a log-log plotting graph. Abscissa axis, which is box-size and ordinate is shown in variance (Figure 10B). If a clear slope can be seen in the graph, mathematically, the slope represents scaling property buried in heartbeat signal.
\n
\n
\n
5.10 Scaling range
\n
By drawing a strait regression line, mDFA computes SI (Figure 10B). But the length of the regression line, from where to where, is unsolved. Default mDFA program draws six lines at once in a log-log graph. Each slope corresponds to the respective SI value. In Figure 10C, four SIs are computed. Standard six box-size ranges include: [30; 70], [70; 140], [51; 100], [30; 140], [130; 270], and [30; 270] (Figure 11). In our studies, unless otherwise specified, the six set is not changed for the sake of NOT to create confusion, while it can be changed infinitely. Figure 11 is the final style after testing a variety of ranges. We have been using this “unaltered program” made by former master student, Tanaka [7] for over 10 years.
\n
Figure 11.
Standard six box size range.
\n
Meanwhile, those who have the skill of programing can easily make his/her own program. It is a high school level mathematics. Scaling range can be determined by the person who makes it. Other mathematical procedures, such as averaging, square root fitting, and drawing a scaling line, are not complicated tasks.
\n
So, we can guaranty that any mDFA program surely captures cardiac scaling properties. mDFA works in physiology. Thanks to great names, William Harvey (1628 Circulation), Marcello Malpighi (1653 Medical Dr., Capillary), Ludwig Traube (1872 Alternans pulse), Willem Einthoven (1903 EKG), and Anton Julius Carlson (1904 Heart physiology on model animals), for example, basics of physiology would never change forever.
\n
If two persons have their own mDFA program, then they analyze the same data, and then one can say, “my computed SI is 1.10” and the other can say, “mine is 0.93.” This kind of “contradiction” can happen. But it is NOT a big deal. We need to overlook the details. Both are around 1.
\n
Regarding mDFA computation, please see the following sections that show what we calculate from heartbeat data.
\n
EKG signal is generated by the cardiac system. Elements in the system are linked to each other. The system cannot work properly without feedback connections. If one can find a scaling-line in the graph (Figure 10B), the heart system is working properly. If a line is bending or winding, something is wrong in the body system. We guaranty so. And if a subject is healthy, mDFA tells you that the SI-value is around 1 (1.0).
\n
As far as we know, this scaling property of the heart system was first documented in 1982 [8] and then in 1990s [9]. They proposed this nice metric theory. They used a well-known mathematical idea. We must say we moved it forward. But mDFA is based on different concepts—this is the novelty of this research—than Peng’s concept as shown below. We just use the scaling property that the cardiac system inherently has.
\n
\n
\n
5.11 Physiological interpretation
\n
After finding the slope, linear fitting is necessary to determine SIs. We draw a regression line from box-size 30-beat to 270-beat as the best range for interpreting physiological meaning of heartbeat data [1]. In our study for more than 10 years, SI is “always” obtained from the regression line ranging from box-size 30-beat to box-size 270 beat (Figure 10B).
\n
A 30-beat time length corresponds to about 30 s. A 270-beat time length is approximately 3–5 min. We feel sure that life prefers “3–5 min” period length: boxing round fighting time, for 3 min; hit song one musical performance, for 3 min; instant noodles cooking time, for 3 min; and a pain killer medication, coming on 3 min after taking it. We found that it seems convenient and correct that mDFA draws a line within a box-size range [30; 270] (Figure 10C) to check if the body system is alright or not.
\n
\n
\n
\n
6. Human general population
\n
\n
6.1 Ethics
\n
We try to record EKGs of general population including people in the classroom, in the exhibition hall, company-employees, university-employees, and people at a scientific conference venue [1]. Every experimental subject was treated as per the ethical control regulations of universities (Tokyo Metropolitan University; Tokyo Women’s Medical University; Universitas Advent Indonesia, Bandung; Universitas Airlangga, Surabaya, Indonesia).
\n
\n
\n
6.2 SI: reproducibility
\n
All our data are collected by the author [1, 5, 6]: invertebrate heart study since the 1980s, human data since approximately 2000, and materials data since 2010. The mDFA program was made by a former master student Tanaka [7] in about 2004.
\n
mDFA results are reproducible and consistent. We found stratification phenomena that provide evidence for the quantitative measure SI links to various physiological phenomena in a one-to-one manner [1, 7, 10, 11, 12]. Arrhythmic heartbeat decreases SI [11]. Non-REM sleep decreases SI [12]. Premature ventricular contraction (PVC) decreases SI [11]. Alternans (harbinger of death rhythm) decreases SI [7]. Anxiety, fear, and worry decrease SI [10]. University president, vice president, president-secretary, and dean professor all have a low SI [1] but teaching-only professors have a healthy SI (SI = ~1.0) [1]. A happy content housewife has a healthy SI too [1].
\n
Meanwhile, we encountered some healthy looking but non-healthy-heart subjects in general population [1]. We found that these subjects have had received cardiac surgery. Their myocardium is indeed injured like the crab specimen shown in Figure 3. All of them had a high SI. A person who has an implantable cardioverter had SI = 1.22 [1]. A person who has stent-replacement had SI = 1.26 [1]. A person who had bypass-surgery had SI = 1.38 [1]. A person who had a surgery due to ventricular septal defect had SI = 1.41 [1]. However, until today, we have never met any person, in general population, who keep maintaining a high SI and later passed away.
\n
Ergometric exercise increases SI [1]. We think that hard exercise is probably NOT a healthy behavior for normal humans.
\n
Heartbeat is repetitive muscle contraction. It is a cyclic behavior. It is oscillation. It is a fluctuating event. SI can quantify these unstable movements. SI can tell us the cardiac system’s condition. If SI is around 1, there is no health problem regarding the heart and its control. However, if your SI is high or low, maybe I say, “Better see a doctor.” But the research has only just begun.
\n
We would like to declare that mDFA can sense warning sign although mDFA cannot identify what is wrong or what is going on.
\n
\n
\n
\n
7. Nonliving material
\n
\n
7.1 Introduction
\n
We learned that mDFA detects abnormality of the heart system. Especially, we learned that a system failure increases SI up from the basic value 1.0. The failure of the heart is generally myocardial cell damage. Myocardial cells are the elementary structure of the system. Analogically, it is like a material that is made by granulated elements [13]. We expected that mDFA might contribute to nonliving system because mDFA works well in the heart.
\n
In Figure 3, when a crab heart’s cells were damaged by an electrode, the damage caused a significant shift of SI (toward SI = 1.5) (Figure 3). In human heart cases, a person who had a surgery due to ventricular septal defect, the cardiac surgery might be a major cause that pushed SI up from normal SI [1] (see a large SI, 1.41, in Section 6.2).
\n
Materials have different properties, meaning each has its own quirks when processing [13] like the hearts.
\n
\n
\n
7.2 Abnormal vibration
\n
In nonliving material experiments, we use a piezoelectric sensor for vibration detection. It is a mechanical monitoring device made for a cardiac pulse sensor (ADInstruments, Austuraria). The sampling rate is 1 kHz in our heart experiments. The heart beats at about 1 Hz in rate. In turn, a motor rotates ~3000 times per min. It is 50 Hz oscillation. We set the sampling rate (ADIinstruments) at 20–40 kHz in non-living material experiments. After recording vibration signal, we capture peaks and conduct mDFA as usual.
\n
We use consecutive 2000 peaks for the analysis. We obtained vibration data lasting for about 40–60 s. The methods for both living and nonliving vibration are fundamentally the same.
\n
\n
\n
7.3 Electric motor
\n
A motor has a design that will safely operate for a long time. We realized that a running motor did not break easily [14]. We therefore covered the motor by glass wool to enhance overheat (Figure 12).
\n
Figure 12.
Schematic image of electric motor experiment. A hand-dryer motor (in this study 100 and 200 V tested) is set on a base. A piezoelectric device monitors vibration. The sensor is connected to a logger (ADInstrument). It is the same analysis method as the EKG study, except for a higher sampling rate (20 or 40 kHz).
\n
We monitor vibration wave travelling through the fixed base by a piezoelectric device. Vibration was analyzed by mDFA, like the heartbeat analysis. Figure 13 shows results, which demonstrate that abnormality is captured by mDFA. We used a box-size range [30; 270] as in the heartbeat analysis (Figure 13A). SI is around 0 when running without overheating (see the periods designated as P–U, Figure 13). Figure 14 shows an example of mDFA.
\n
Figure 13.
A 200 V motor, overheating experiment. (A) mDFA results. (B) Example waves and peak-identifications. (C) Time zero, run motor. The time period P, heating up is insignificant. Q , Amplitude of signal decrease. Between U and V, a bang sound. Then smoking is started and gradually become worse, then the room was filled with smoke. Motor was stopped before igniting (see Off). It is perhaps fair to say that the time period lengths of R, S, T, and U are not identical. One thus can ignore R, S, T, and U, which do not interfere interpretation of data. The surge of large increase of SI occurs after Q.
\n
Figure 14.
An example mDFA. Running motor. (A) An interval time series. (B) mDFA graph, log-log plotting and fitting lines. (C) mDFA results. Note that slopes are vertical, meaning a normal healthy motor has an SI around 0. (Supplement note: if the testing motor is set on unstable fixed base, such as the automobile engine in the car, giving rise to a resonance with the surroundings, then SI becomes approximately 0.5, like stochastic noise. Undescribed in this article).
\n
A sound “bang” occurred at the time of the end of U, and smoking started. It is hazardous. We stopped running the motor at about 10 min (Figure 13C). After the bang sound, one can see that SI significantly increases. The motor still ran till 10 min at the same speed although overheated. In Figure 13C, one can see that amplitude of signal significantly decreases. We estimate decreased stiffness and durability. It might be plastic’s inherent weakness. We later opened the motor. Overheat caused softening of plastic parts inside the motor, especially plastic materials surrounding the brush. Softened plastics may absorb vibration energy more than hard-cold one. Figure 13B demonstrates wave patterns. U is much noisier than Q although running speed does not change. It is an induction motor (200 V, 50 Hz).
\n
We found that a box-size range [30; 270] seems to work properly as in the heart. However, the box-size range [130; 270], which is a much narrower range, seems to contribute greatly to capture “warning sign” about “failing” motor (see # in Figure 13A). The plotting “130–270” indicates that the “time-window size [130; 270]” detects malfunctioning earlier than other “window sizes” (Figure 13A). Moreover, the SI value (see the plotting of “window-size 130–270”) increases rapidly in number earlier than the “bang” sounds (Figure 13A). This is beyond doubt. But we must say that details are not known for explicit interpretation.
\n
\n
\n
7.4 Aluminum bar
\n
We test material’s toughness or the fracture toughness by changing stress intensity. Figure 15 shows a diagrammatic image of fracture testing. We set a cantilever. A bar was tightly set on the fixed base (see W, in Figure 15). Vibration was applied by a speaker (see S, in Figure 15). Vibratory wave was monitored by a piezo device. We apply downward pressure to one end of the bar (see caption of Figure 15).
\n
Figure 15.
Schematic image of cantilever set-up. A bar (black bar) set on a base by a weight (W). One end receives downward force accelerating at a constant speed (an arrow). A speaker (S) generates vibration. Fluctuation signal passes through the material bar and reaches to a piezoelectric sensor (P), which is connected to PowerLab 4/20 (ADInstrument, Australia). The recording method is the same as that of EKG-study as aforementioned, except for a higher sampling rate (20 or 40 kHz). Inset: PowerLab’s recorded wave profile, without load.
\n
Figure 16 shows the summary of results. There is no load during the time period P. After P, an increase of a load is started. The bar distorts reversibly (Q , R, S in Figure 16). At time T, a catastrophic event, an irreversible fracture occurred (TU in Figure 16).
\n
Figure 16.
mDFA results of cantilever experiment. (A) Vibration recording. (B) Diagrammatic representation of deflecting bar by a load. (C) SI value change over time. (D) Example waveforms. Material: aluminum L-shaped angle bar, cross section 3 mm thickness and 20 mm side. Load: tap water, flowing into a bucket at a rate approximately 5 L per min.
\n
Figure 16C shows that, at normal state, SI is near 0.5 instead of near zero (Figure 17). This is not like motor (Figure 13).
\n
Before the fracture event, Figure 16C shows unique results: SI attains a very high level, 1.2–1.4. This high value of SIs reminds us of ischemic heart disease’s SI [1] (see Section 6.2). It is hidden threat. It is a high-risk state.
\n
In summary, mDFA can monitor shear stress. Q-R-S periods are a period of reversible deflection. Among them, R-S periods are special. It is at a risky time: an elastic state shifts suddenly into an irreversible condition, which is catastrophe. For the safety, at the level where SI is about 0.6, inspectors are recommended to do their job for checking abnormality of materials, bridges, buildings, etc. However, it is just a biologist idea.
\n
Figure 17.
An example mDFA. Aluminum bar. No load. See Figure 14 for comparison to motor tests.
\n
\n
\n
7.5 Earthquake
\n
We consider that earthquake is fracture of rock structure underground, meaning fracture of materials. We expected that mDFA might help analyze these data. Ground vibration data are available from government institutions. We tested the idea.
\n
Figure 18 shows a gigantic earthquake vibration, recorded by a seismometer at Narita in Japan, approximately 500 km away from the seismic center. The date was 11 March, 2012, afternoon.
\n
Figure 18.
Earthquake data and pretreatment for mDFA. A, Hidden vibration being exposed to view, a raw earthquake data (A1), an enlargement of Y-axis (A2), further enlargement of Y-axis (A3). B, An explanation of pretreatment procedures. A raw earthquake data (B1), logarithmic output of the square of B1, an inverse of B2 (B3). C, An example explanation of peak detection, with a faster chart speed (C1) and with a slower time (C2), accomplished peak-to-peak interval time series (C3).
\n
We obtained raw seismic data (Figure 18) from the High Sensitivity Seismograph Network Japan. Two arrows in Figure 18 show the time of the big event. A flat line before the big event is NOT a true straight line (see A1 in Figure 18). We magnified y-axis scale. The conversion discloses hidden small vibrations (A2 and A3, Figure 18).
\n
Linear y-axis is inconvenient for peak detection, because some are extremely large. We converted y-axis. We plotted it in a logarithmic scale. B2 shows the square of B1 (Figure 18B2). Then, we make it upside down (from Figure 18B2,B3).
\n
After this pretreatment, we captured peaks by a lab made program (Figure 18C). We use the same program for R-R peak detection in the heartbeat study. The C1-trace shows a portion of C2-trace in enlarged time scale. The C3-trace shows an example of peak-to-peak interval time series.
\n
Figure 19 shows mDFA results. The observation period is from 3 to 29 March, 2012. The scaling exponent on 4 March was around 0.5 (SI = ~0.5) (Figure 19B). This means the vibration is stochastic movement. Then, SI grows up and attains a “risky” level about of 1.0. Since we are NOT specialists of seismology, we are afraid to say that it is hidden threat or high-risk state. However, in terms of chaos dynamic theory, 1.0 means the system’s behavior is dynamic. It is like the heart system. It is never stable.
\n
Figure 19.
mDFA results. Data: Narita seismometer. (A) Seismic intensities reported by Japan Meteorological Agency. The marks (X) indicate individual earthquakes. Five or six noticeable tremors before the big event are seen. (B) mDFA results. A plotting (marked -o-) represents averaged SI-value of all box-size ranges.
\n
We know that it is too hasty to mention: this mDFA result is very similar to that of aluminum bar fracture experiment shown in Figure 16. In the aluminum bar fracture, SI grows up during the elasticity period, that is, reversible deflection. After the fracture event, aluminum’s SI returns to a normal SI-value (around 0.5). Figure 19B shows similar trait in Figure 16.
\n
This earthquake investigation using mDFA has just begun. We are not professionals, but Figure 19B results are remarkable. We hope that seismologists and engineers might possibly have an interest in mDFA.
\n
\n
\n
\n
8. Conclusions
\n
mDFA computation is simple. It is high school level mathematics: first, constructing peak-to-peak interval time series [x]; second, calculating an average value xave using 2000 data; third, computing Σ (x – xave); fourth, cutting the time series into box; fifth, drawing a fitting biquadratic line in each box; sixth, finding the first data (Ent) and the last data (Exit) in each box; seventh, calculating the difference (Exit−Ent) in each box; eighth, calculatingΣ (Exit − Ent)2/2000 then obtaining “variance” (statistics of root-mean-square); ninth, changing the size of box one by one, and repeating the statistics cyclically; tenth, making a log-log plotting graph that is box-size versus variance; eleventh, drawing a linear regression line; and twelfth, measuring slope of the line. At the end, the slop denotes SI.
\n
A 2000 “interval” data are fundamental. This length of data is not always rigid. A 2200-interval, for example, produces similar results to that of 2000-interval.
\n
We hope that many people can make their own mDFA program. The basics are averaging, root-mean-square computation, and fitting. It has never been proposed before.
\n
In the present study, we extended mDFA to nonlife system. We then provide the comprehensive results by analyzing various real-world data, which include oscillation/vibration generated from materials. All our results are versatile; it could be applicable to the heart, a motor, materials, and possibly earthquake motion.
\n
The heartbeat data and/or material-vibration are not static and ever-changing phenomena. They fluctuate momentarily. We did not expect that a nonlinear-way-of-thinking method (mDFA) can distinguish the states between “intact heart” and “isolated heart” when we started investigation without questioning. It was more than what we thought. Invertebrate experiments, that is, isolated heart experiments and unpredictable death experiments were a never-to-be-forgotten experiment to discover the power of the mDFA technique.
\n
Peng’s DFA and mDFA each has different scope and concept. Peng’s DFA considers criticality. In turn, mDFA deals with characteristics of fluctuation embedded in signal that fluctuates over time. In the future, not only a biologist but also engineers and seismology physicists hopefully study much more data in their discipline, by using mDFA.
\n
If we need to find abnormality of a system, mDFA always requires comparison with a baseline SI value. There is a baseline value. That quantification method makes mDFA reliable and versatile.
\n
\n
Acknowledgments
\n
This work was supported in part by the JSPS Grant 17K01364.
\n
\n',keywords:"mDFA, heartbeat rhythm, material vibration, quantifying risks, scaling exponent",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/66697.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/66697.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66697",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66697",totalDownloads:451,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"December 28th 2018",dateReviewed:"March 12th 2019",datePrePublished:"April 11th 2019",datePublished:"October 2nd 2019",dateFinished:"April 11th 2019",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Modified detrended fluctuation analysis (mDFA) is a novel method to check abnormality of heartbeat which is developed recently by the author. mDFA can characterize any oscillation such as heartbeat by the scaling exponent (scaling index, SI). Healthy heartbeat shows SI = 1. Dying heart’s SI sifts toward 0.5. Ischemic sick heart experimentally showed an SI way over 1.0 approaching 1.5. Random vibration, such as FM-radio noise and idling car-engine, shows SI = 0.5. Quietly running motor generates an SI almost equal to zero. Using mDFA, it is possible to check potential risk based on SI values. This chapter shows empirical results quantifying various signals from heartbeat to material vibration.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/66697",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/66697",signatures:"Toru Yazawa and Shinji Omata",book:{id:"7778",title:"Noise and Vibration Control",subtitle:"From Theory to Practice",fullTitle:"Noise and Vibration Control - From Theory to Practice",slug:"noise-and-vibration-control-from-theory-to-practice",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2019",bookSignature:"Ehsan Noroozinejad Farsangi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7778.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-771-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-770-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-272-4",editors:[{id:"70678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ehsan",middleName:null,surname:"Noroozinejad Farsangi",slug:"ehsan-noroozinejad-farsangi",fullName:"Ehsan Noroozinejad Farsangi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:[{id:"13822",title:"Dr.",name:"Toru",middleName:null,surname:"Yazawa",fullName:"Toru Yazawa",slug:"toru-yazawa",email:"yazawa-tohru@tmu.ac.jp",position:null,institution:null},{id:"298188",title:"Mr.",name:"Shinji",middleName:null,surname:"Omata",fullName:"Shinji Omata",slug:"shinji-omata",email:"s-omata@symphodia.co.jp",position:null,institution:null}],sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Physiology of animal heart",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Analysis of heartbeat",level:"1"},{id:"sec_4",title:"4. Animal heart experiments",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5",title:"5. Biophysics",level:"1"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"5.1 Quantitative analysis",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"5.2 Accurate data sampling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_2",title:"5.3 Time series",level:"2"},{id:"sec_7_3",title:"5.3.1 First procedure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_8_3",title:"5.3.2 Second procedure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_9_3",title:"5.3.3 Third procedure",level:"3"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"5.4 Trend",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"5.5 Box size",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"5.6 Fitting curve",level:"2"},{id:"sec_14_2",title:"5.7 Detrending",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15_2",title:"5.8 DFA and mDFA",level:"2"},{id:"sec_16_2",title:"5.9 Scaling",level:"2"},{id:"sec_17_2",title:"5.10 Scaling range",level:"2"},{id:"sec_18_2",title:"5.11 Physiological interpretation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_20",title:"6. Human general population",level:"1"},{id:"sec_20_2",title:"6.1 Ethics",level:"2"},{id:"sec_21_2",title:"6.2 SI: reproducibility",level:"2"},{id:"sec_23",title:"7. Nonliving material",level:"1"},{id:"sec_23_2",title:"7.1 Introduction",level:"2"},{id:"sec_24_2",title:"7.2 Abnormal vibration",level:"2"},{id:"sec_25_2",title:"7.3 Electric motor",level:"2"},{id:"sec_26_2",title:"7.4 Aluminum bar",level:"2"},{id:"sec_27_2",title:"7.5 Earthquake",level:"2"},{id:"sec_29",title:"8. Conclusions",level:"1"},{id:"sec_30",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Yazawa T. Modified Detrended Fluctuation Analysis (mDFA). ASME Series Momentum Press. NY: LLC; 2015. Print ISBN: 9781606506127\n'},{id:"B2",body:'Shimizu H, Fujisawa T. Peduncle of Hydra and the heart of higher organisms share a common ancestral origin. Genesis. 2003;36(4):182-186. DOI: 10.1002/gene.10213\n'},{id:"B3",body:'Yazawa T, Kuwasawa K. The cardio-regulator nerves of the hermit crabs: Anatomical and electrophysiological identification of their distribution inside the heart. Journal of Comparative Physiology. A. 1984;154:871-881. DOI: 10.1007/BF00610688\n'},{id:"B4",body:'Yazawa T, Katsuyama T. Spontaneous and repetitive cardiac slowdown in the freely moving spiny lobster, Panulirus japonicus. Journal of Comparative Physiology. A. 2001;187:817-824. DOI: 10.1007/s00359-001-0252-z. PMID: 11800038\n'},{id:"B5",body:'Yazawa T, Kiyono K, Tanaka K, Katsuyama T. Neurodynamical control systems of the heart of Japanese spiny lobster, Panulirus japonicus. Izvestiya VUZ. Applied Nonlinear Dynamics. 2004;1-2:114-121\n'},{id:"B6",body:'Yazawa T, Katsuyama T, Katou A, Kaizaki H, Yasumatsu M, Ishiwata T, et al. Fourier spectral analysis and micro-bore column HPLC analysis of neuronal and hormonal regulation of crustacean heart. Hosei University Tama Bulletin. 2001;16:29-40 (In Japanese)\n'},{id:"B7",body:'Yazawa T, Tanaka K. Scaling exponent for the healthy and diseased heartbeat: Quantification of the heartbeat interval fluctuation. In: Sio-Long AO et al., editors. Advances in Computational Algorithms and Data Analysis. Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering, vol. 14 Springer: Dordrecht; 2009. pp. 1-14. DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4020-8919-0.ch1\n'},{id:"B8",body:'Kobayashi M, Musha T. 1/f fluctuation of heartbeat period. IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering. 1982;BME-29:456-457. DOI: 10.1109/TBME.1982.324972\n'},{id:"B9",body:'Peng CK, Havlin S, Stanley HE, Goldberger AL. Quantification of scaling exponents and crossover phenomena in nonstationary heartbeat time series. Chaos. 1995;5:82-87. DOI: 10.1063/1.166141\n'},{id:"B10",body:'Yazawa T. Chapter 2: Anxiety, worry and fear: Quantifying the mind using EKG time series analysis. In: Mohamudally N, editor. Time Series Analysis and Applications. Rijeka, Croatia: InTech Open; 2017. pp. 7-22. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.71041\n'},{id:"B11",body:'Yazawa T, Shimoda Y, Katsuyama T. Chapter 42: DFA, a biomedical checking tool for the heart control system. In: Ao SL, Rieger BB, Amouzegar M, editors. Machine Learning and Systems Engineering. Dordrecht: Springer; 2010. pp. 547-556. DOI: 10.1007/978-90-481-9419-3_42\n'},{id:"B12",body:'Yazawa T, Shimoda Y, Hutapea AM. Evaluation of sleep by detrended fluctuation analysis of the heartbeat. AIP Conference Proceedings. 2011;1737(199):199-210. DOI: 10.1063/1.3627205\n'},{id:"B13",body:'Mogire E. What’s the Difference Between Grinding Materials? Technologies. Materials. Machine Design. February 28, 2019. https://www.machinedesign.com/materials/ [Accessed: March 04, 2019]\n'},{id:"B14",body:'Yazawa T, Shimoda Y. Detrended fluctuation analysis: An experiment about the neural-regulation of the heart and motor vibration. In: Kim H, Ao SI, Amouzegar M, Rieger B. editors IAENG Transactions on Engineering Technologies. Lecture Notes in Electrical Engineering Book Series Vol. 247. Springer: Dordrecht; 2014. pp. 665-682. DOI: 10.1007/978-94-007-6818-5_47\n'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:"yes",contributorFullName:"Toru Yazawa",address:"yazawa-tohru@tmu.ac.jp",affiliation:'
'}],corrections:null},book:{id:"7778",title:"Noise and Vibration Control",subtitle:"From Theory to Practice",fullTitle:"Noise and Vibration Control - From Theory to Practice",slug:"noise-and-vibration-control-from-theory-to-practice",publishedDate:"October 2nd 2019",bookSignature:"Ehsan Noroozinejad Farsangi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7778.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:"Edited by",isbn:"978-1-78984-771-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-770-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-272-4",editors:[{id:"70678",title:"Dr.",name:"Ehsan",middleName:null,surname:"Noroozinejad Farsangi",slug:"ehsan-noroozinejad-farsangi",fullName:"Ehsan Noroozinejad Farsangi"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}},profile:{item:{id:"107843",title:"Dr.",name:"Andre",middleName:null,surname:"Cancado",email:"cancado@gmail.com",fullName:"Andre Cancado",slug:"andre-cancado",position:null,biography:null,institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",totalCites:0,totalChapterViews:"0",outsideEditionCount:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalEditedBooks:"0",personalWebsiteURL:null,twitterURL:null,linkedinURL:null,institution:{name:"University of Brasília",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},booksEdited:[],chaptersAuthored:[{title:"Assessing the Outline Uncertainty of Spatial Disease Clusters",slug:"assessing-the-outline-uncertainty-of-spatial-disease-clusters",abstract:null,signatures:"Fernando L. P. Oliveira, André L. F. Cançado, Luiz H. Duczmal and Anderson R. Duarte",authors:[{id:"107499",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Oliveira",fullName:"Fernando Oliveira",slug:"fernando-oliveira",email:"fernandoluizest@gmail.com"},{id:"107840",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz",surname:"Duczmal",fullName:"Luiz Duczmal",slug:"luiz-duczmal",email:"duczmal@est.ufmg.br"},{id:"107841",title:"Dr.",name:"Anderson",surname:"Duarte",fullName:"Anderson Duarte",slug:"anderson-duarte",email:"duarte.andersonr@gmail.com"},{id:"107843",title:"Dr.",name:"Andre",surname:"Cancado",fullName:"Andre Cancado",slug:"andre-cancado",email:"cancado@gmail.com"}],book:{title:"Public Health",slug:"public-health-methodology-environmental-and-systems-issues",productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume"}}}],collaborators:[{id:"30670",title:"Dr.",name:"Alireza",surname:"Partoazar",slug:"alireza-partoazar",fullName:"Alireza Partoazar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"107499",title:"Dr.",name:"Fernando",surname:"Oliveira",slug:"fernando-oliveira",fullName:"Fernando Oliveira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:"Fernando Luiz Pereira de Oliveira is an Adjunto Professor at the Mathematics Departament of Federal University of Ouro Preto, Brazil. He received her Ph.D degree in Statistics from the Federal University of Minas Gerais, Brazil, in 2011. His major interests are clusters detection, applied probability and inference and industrial statistics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"107840",title:"Dr.",name:"Luiz",surname:"Duczmal",slug:"luiz-duczmal",fullName:"Luiz Duczmal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"107841",title:"Dr.",name:"Anderson",surname:"Duarte",slug:"anderson-duarte",fullName:"Anderson Duarte",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Ouro Preto",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"108168",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",surname:"Navarro",slug:"marcus-navarro",fullName:"Marcus Navarro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"114553",title:"Prof.",name:"Ulrike",surname:"Ravens-Sieberer",slug:"ulrike-ravens-sieberer",fullName:"Ulrike Ravens-Sieberer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hamburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"115554",title:"MSc.",name:"Veronika",surname:"Ottova",slug:"veronika-ottova",fullName:"Veronika Ottova",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Hamburg",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"115555",title:"Prof.",name:"Anders",surname:"Hjern",slug:"anders-hjern",fullName:"Anders Hjern",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Centre for Health Equity Studies",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},{id:"118724",title:"Dr.",name:"Handerson",surname:"Leite",slug:"handerson-leite",fullName:"Handerson Leite",position:"Teacher",profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"138667",title:"Mr.",name:"Carsten-Hendrik",surname:"Rasche",slug:"carsten-hendrik-rasche",fullName:"Carsten-Hendrik Rasche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null}]},generic:{page:{slug:"open-access-funding",title:"Open Access Funding",intro:"
IntechOpen’s Academic Editors and Authors have received funding for their work through many well-known funders, including: the European Commission, Bill and Melinda Gates Foundation, Wellcome Trust, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC), CGIAR Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers, National Institute of Health (NIH), National Science Foundation (NSF), National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA), National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST), German Research Foundation (DFG), Research Councils United Kingdom (RCUK), Oswaldo Cruz Foundation, Austrian Science Fund (FWF), Foundation for Science and Technology (FCT), Australian Research Council (ARC).
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\\n\\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\\n\\n
\\n\\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\\n\\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\\n
\\n\\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\\n\\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at oapf@intechopen.com
\\n\\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
Open Access publication costs can often be designated directly in the grants or in specific budgets allocated for that purpose. Many of the most important funding organisations encourage, and even request, that the projects they fund are made available at no cost to the wider public. IntechOpen strives to maintain excellent relationships with these funders and ensures compliance with mandates.
\n\n
In order to help Authors identify appropriate funding agencies and institutions, we have created a list, based on extensive research on various OA resources (including ROARMAP and SHERPA/JULIET) of organizations that have funds available. Before consulting our list we encourage you to petition your own institution or organization for Open Access funds or check the specifications of your grant with your funder to ascertain if publication costs are included. Where you are in receipt of a grant you should clarify:
\n\n
\n\t
Does your institution already have a budget for covering Open Access publication costs?
\n\t
Does your grant list Open Access publication fees as legitimate direct/indirect costs?
\n
\n\n
If you are associated with any of the institutions in our list below, you can apply to receive OA publication funds by following the instructions provided in the links. Please consult the Open Access policies or grant Terms and Conditions of any institution with which you are linked to explore ways to cover your publication costs (also accessible by clicking on the link in their title).
\n\n
Please note that this list is not a definitive one and is updated regularly. To suggest possible modifications or the inclusion of your institution/funder, please contact us at oapf@intechopen.com
\n\n
Please be aware that you must be a member, or grantee, of the institutions/funders listed in order to apply for their Open Access publication funds.
\n'}]},successStories:{items:[]},authorsAndEditors:{filterParams:{sort:"featured,name"},profiles:[{id:"6700",title:"Dr.",name:"Abbass A.",middleName:null,surname:"Hashim",slug:"abbass-a.-hashim",fullName:"Abbass A. Hashim",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/6700/images/1864_n.jpg",biography:"Currently I am carrying out research in several areas of interest, mainly covering work on chemical and bio-sensors, semiconductor thin film device fabrication and characterisation.\nAt the moment I have very strong interest in radiation environmental pollution and bacteriology treatment. The teams of researchers are working very hard to bring novel results in this field. I am also a member of the team in charge for the supervision of Ph.D. students in the fields of development of silicon based planar waveguide sensor devices, study of inelastic electron tunnelling in planar tunnelling nanostructures for sensing applications and development of organotellurium(IV) compounds for semiconductor applications. I am a specialist in data analysis techniques and nanosurface structure. I have served as the editor for many books, been a member of the editorial board in science journals, have published many papers and hold many patents.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sheffield Hallam University",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"54525",title:"Prof.",name:"Abdul Latif",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmad",slug:"abdul-latif-ahmad",fullName:"Abdul Latif Ahmad",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"20567",title:"Prof.",name:"Ado",middleName:null,surname:"Jorio",slug:"ado-jorio",fullName:"Ado Jorio",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"47940",title:"Dr.",name:"Alberto",middleName:null,surname:"Mantovani",slug:"alberto-mantovani",fullName:"Alberto Mantovani",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"12392",title:"Mr.",name:"Alex",middleName:null,surname:"Lazinica",slug:"alex-lazinica",fullName:"Alex Lazinica",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/12392/images/7282_n.png",biography:"Alex Lazinica is the founder and CEO of IntechOpen. After obtaining a Master's degree in Mechanical Engineering, he continued his PhD studies in Robotics at the Vienna University of Technology. Here he worked as a robotic researcher with the university's Intelligent Manufacturing Systems Group as well as a guest researcher at various European universities, including the Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL). During this time he published more than 20 scientific papers, gave presentations, served as a reviewer for major robotic journals and conferences and most importantly he co-founded and built the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems- world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics. Starting this journal was a pivotal point in his career, since it was a pathway to founding IntechOpen - Open Access publisher focused on addressing academic researchers needs. Alex is a personification of IntechOpen key values being trusted, open and entrepreneurial. Today his focus is on defining the growth and development strategy for the company.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",middleName:null,surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/19816/images/1607_n.jpg",biography:"Alexander I. Kokorin: born: 1947, Moscow; DSc., PhD; Principal Research Fellow (Research Professor) of Department of Kinetics and Catalysis, N. Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics, Russian Academy of Sciences, Moscow.\r\nArea of research interests: physical chemistry of complex-organized molecular and nanosized systems, including polymer-metal complexes; the surface of doped oxide semiconductors. He is an expert in structural, absorptive, catalytic and photocatalytic properties, in structural organization and dynamic features of ionic liquids, in magnetic interactions between paramagnetic centers. The author or co-author of 3 books, over 200 articles and reviews in scientific journals and books. He is an actual member of the International EPR/ESR Society, European Society on Quantum Solar Energy Conversion, Moscow House of Scientists, of the Board of Moscow Physical Society.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Semenov Institute of Chemical Physics",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"62389",title:"PhD.",name:"Ali Demir",middleName:null,surname:"Sezer",slug:"ali-demir-sezer",fullName:"Ali Demir Sezer",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62389/images/3413_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ali Demir Sezer has a Ph.D. from Pharmaceutical Biotechnology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Marmara (Turkey). He is the member of many Pharmaceutical Associations and acts as a reviewer of scientific journals and European projects under different research areas such as: drug delivery systems, nanotechnology and pharmaceutical biotechnology. Dr. Sezer is the author of many scientific publications in peer-reviewed journals and poster communications. Focus of his research activity is drug delivery, physico-chemical characterization and biological evaluation of biopolymers micro and nanoparticles as modified drug delivery system, and colloidal drug carriers (liposomes, nanoparticles etc.).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Marmara University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"61051",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"100762",title:"Prof.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"St David's Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"107416",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrea",middleName:null,surname:"Natale",slug:"andrea-natale",fullName:"Andrea Natale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Texas Cardiac Arrhythmia",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"64434",title:"Dr.",name:"Angkoon",middleName:null,surname:"Phinyomark",slug:"angkoon-phinyomark",fullName:"Angkoon Phinyomark",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/64434/images/2619_n.jpg",biography:"My name is Angkoon Phinyomark. I received a B.Eng. degree in Computer Engineering with First Class Honors in 2008 from Prince of Songkla University, Songkhla, Thailand, where I received a Ph.D. degree in Electrical Engineering. My research interests are primarily in the area of biomedical signal processing and classification notably EMG (electromyography signal), EOG (electrooculography signal), and EEG (electroencephalography signal), image analysis notably breast cancer analysis and optical coherence tomography, and rehabilitation engineering. I became a student member of IEEE in 2008. During October 2011-March 2012, I had worked at School of Computer Science and Electronic Engineering, University of Essex, Colchester, Essex, United Kingdom. In addition, during a B.Eng. I had been a visiting research student at Faculty of Computer Science, University of Murcia, Murcia, Spain for three months.\n\nI have published over 40 papers during 5 years in refereed journals, books, and conference proceedings in the areas of electro-physiological signals processing and classification, notably EMG and EOG signals, fractal analysis, wavelet analysis, texture analysis, feature extraction and machine learning algorithms, and assistive and rehabilitative devices. I have several computer programming language certificates, i.e. Sun Certified Programmer for the Java 2 Platform 1.4 (SCJP), Microsoft Certified Professional Developer, Web Developer (MCPD), Microsoft Certified Technology Specialist, .NET Framework 2.0 Web (MCTS). I am a Reviewer for several refereed journals and international conferences, such as IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Engineering, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electronics, Optic Letters, Measurement Science Review, and also a member of the International Advisory Committee for 2012 IEEE Business Engineering and Industrial Applications and 2012 IEEE Symposium on Business, Engineering and Industrial Applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Joseph Fourier University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"55578",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Jurado-Navas",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",fullName:"Antonio Jurado-Navas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/55578/images/4574_n.png",biography:"Antonio Jurado-Navas received the M.S. degree (2002) and the Ph.D. degree (2009) in Telecommunication Engineering, both from the University of Málaga (Spain). He first worked as a consultant at Vodafone-Spain. From 2004 to 2011, he was a Research Assistant with the Communications Engineering Department at the University of Málaga. In 2011, he became an Assistant Professor in the same department. From 2012 to 2015, he was with Ericsson Spain, where he was working on geo-location\ntools for third generation mobile networks. Since 2015, he is a Marie-Curie fellow at the Denmark Technical University. His current research interests include the areas of mobile communication systems and channel modeling in addition to atmospheric optical communications, adaptive optics and statistics",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Malaga",country:{name:"Spain"}}}],filtersByRegion:[{group:"region",caption:"North America",value:1,count:5822},{group:"region",caption:"Middle and South America",value:2,count:5288},{group:"region",caption:"Africa",value:3,count:1761},{group:"region",caption:"Asia",value:4,count:10549},{group:"region",caption:"Australia and Oceania",value:5,count:909},{group:"region",caption:"Europe",value:6,count:15941}],offset:12,limit:12,total:119348},chapterEmbeded:{data:{}},editorApplication:{success:null,errors:{}},ofsBooks:{filterParams:{hasNoEditors:"1",sort:"dateEndThirdStepPublish"},books:[{type:"book",id:"10231",title:"Proton Therapy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f4a9009287953c8d1d89f0fa9b7597b0",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10231.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10657",title:"Service Robots",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"5f81b9eea6eb3f9af984031b7af35588",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10657.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10662",title:"Pedagogy",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c858e1c6fb878d3b895acbacec624576",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10662.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10677",title:"Topology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"85eac84b173d785f989522397616124e",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10677.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10678",title:"Biostatistics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"f63db439474a574454a66894db8b394c",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10678.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10679",title:"Mass Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2dae91102099b1a07be1a36a68852829",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10679.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10689",title:"Risk Management in Construction",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"e3805b3d2fceb9d33e1fa805687cd296",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10689.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10696",title:"Calorimetry - New Advances",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"bb239599406f0b731bbfd62c1c8dbf3f",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10696.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10715",title:"Brain MRI",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"6d56c88c53776966959f41f8b75daafd",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10715.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10730",title:"Extracorporeal Membrane Oxygenation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"2ac3ed12d9db14ee4bc66d7808c82295",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10730.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10731",title:"Cannabinoids",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"1d2e090ecf2415b8d3c9fba15856b7b1",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10731.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10744",title:"Astrocyte",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"b770f09e3f87daa5d8525fa78f771405",slug:null,bookSignature:"",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10744.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],filtersByTopic:[{group:"topic",caption:"Agricultural and Biological Sciences",value:5,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Biochemistry, Genetics and Molecular Biology",value:6,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Chemistry",value:8,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Earth and Planetary Sciences",value:10,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Engineering",value:11,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Environmental Sciences",value:12,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Immunology and Microbiology",value:13,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Mathematics",value:15,count:2},{group:"topic",caption:"Medicine",value:16,count:9},{group:"topic",caption:"Neuroscience",value:18,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Physics",value:20,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Psychology",value:21,count:1},{group:"topic",caption:"Robotics",value:22,count:3},{group:"topic",caption:"Social Sciences",value:23,count:3}],offset:12,limit:12,total:35},popularBooks:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206443",title:"Prof.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206443/images/system/206443.png",biography:"Professor Asma Salman is a blockchain developer and Professor of Finance at the American University in the Emirates, UAE. An Honorary Global Advisor at the Global Academy of Finance and Management, USA, she completed her MBA in Finance and Accounting and earned a Ph.D. in Finance from an AACSB member, AMBA accredited, School of Management at Harbin Institute of Technology, China. Her research credentials include a one-year residency at the Brunel Business School, Brunel University, UK. Prof. Salman also served as the Dubai Cohort supervisor for DBA students under the Nottingham Business School, UK, for seven years and is currently a Ph.D. supervisor at the University of Northampton, UK, where she is a visiting fellow. She also served on the Board of Etihad Airlines during 2019–2020. One of her recent articles on “Bitcoin and Blockchain” gained wide visibility and she is an active speaker on Fintech, blockchain, and crypto events around the GCC. She holds various professional certifications including Chartered Fintech Professional (USA), Certified Financial Manager (USA), Women in Leadership and Management in Higher Education, (UK), and Taxation GCC VAT Compliance, (UK). She recently won an award for “Blockchain Trainer of the Year” from Berkeley Middle East. Other recognitions include the Women Leadership Impact Award by H.E First Lady of Armenia, Research Excellence Award, and the Global Inspirational Women Leadership Award by H.H Sheikh Juma Bin Maktoum Juma Al Maktoum.",institutionString:"American University in the Emirates",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"American University in the Emirates",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3560",title:"Advances in Landscape Architecture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a20614517ec5f7e91188fe8e42832138",slug:"advances-in-landscape-architecture",bookSignature:"Murat Özyavuz",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3560.jpg",editors:[{id:"93073",title:"Dr.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Ozyavuz",slug:"murat-ozyavuz",fullName:"Murat Ozyavuz"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8511",title:"Cyberspace",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8c1cdeb133dbe6cc1151367061c1bba6",slug:"cyberspace",bookSignature:"Evon Abu-Taieh, Abdelkrim El Mouatasim and Issam H. Al Hadid",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8511.jpg",editors:[{id:"223522",title:"Dr.",name:"Evon",middleName:"M.O.",surname:"Abu-Taieh",slug:"evon-abu-taieh",fullName:"Evon Abu-Taieh"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:12,limit:12,total:5330},hotBookTopics:{hotBooks:[],offset:0,limit:12,total:null},publish:{},publishingProposal:{success:null,errors:{}},books:{featuredBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206443",title:"Prof.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206443/images/system/206443.png",biography:"Professor Asma Salman is a blockchain developer and Professor of Finance at the American University in the Emirates, UAE. An Honorary Global Advisor at the Global Academy of Finance and Management, USA, she completed her MBA in Finance and Accounting and earned a Ph.D. in Finance from an AACSB member, AMBA accredited, School of Management at Harbin Institute of Technology, China. Her research credentials include a one-year residency at the Brunel Business School, Brunel University, UK. Prof. Salman also served as the Dubai Cohort supervisor for DBA students under the Nottingham Business School, UK, for seven years and is currently a Ph.D. supervisor at the University of Northampton, UK, where she is a visiting fellow. She also served on the Board of Etihad Airlines during 2019–2020. One of her recent articles on “Bitcoin and Blockchain” gained wide visibility and she is an active speaker on Fintech, blockchain, and crypto events around the GCC. She holds various professional certifications including Chartered Fintech Professional (USA), Certified Financial Manager (USA), Women in Leadership and Management in Higher Education, (UK), and Taxation GCC VAT Compliance, (UK). She recently won an award for “Blockchain Trainer of the Year” from Berkeley Middle East. Other recognitions include the Women Leadership Impact Award by H.E First Lady of Armenia, Research Excellence Award, and the Global Inspirational Women Leadership Award by H.H Sheikh Juma Bin Maktoum Juma Al Maktoum.",institutionString:"American University in the Emirates",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"American University in the Emirates",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"2160",title:"MATLAB",subtitle:"A Fundamental Tool for Scientific Computing and Engineering Applications - Volume 1",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"dd9c658341fbd264ed4f8d9e6aa8ca29",slug:"matlab-a-fundamental-tool-for-scientific-computing-and-engineering-applications-volume-1",bookSignature:"Vasilios N. Katsikis",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2160.jpg",editors:[{id:"12289",title:"Prof.",name:"Vasilios",middleName:"N.",surname:"Katsikis",slug:"vasilios-katsikis",fullName:"Vasilios Katsikis"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"9385",title:"Renewable Energy",subtitle:"Technologies and Applications",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"a6b446d19166f17f313008e6c056f3d8",slug:"renewable-energy-technologies-and-applications",bookSignature:"Tolga Taner, Archana Tiwari and Taha Selim Ustun",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9385.jpg",editors:[{id:"197240",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Tolga",middleName:null,surname:"Taner",slug:"tolga-taner",fullName:"Tolga Taner"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"186791",title:"Dr.",name:"Archana",middleName:null,surname:"Tiwari",slug:"archana-tiwari",fullName:"Archana Tiwari",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186791/images/system/186791.jpg",biography:"Dr. Archana Tiwari is Associate Professor at Amity University, India. Her research interests include renewable sources of energy from microalgae and further utilizing the residual biomass for the generation of value-added products, bioremediation through microalgae and microbial consortium, antioxidative enzymes and stress, and nutraceuticals from microalgae. She has been working on algal biotechnology for the last two decades. She has published her research in many international journals and has authored many books and chapters with renowned publishing houses. She has also delivered talks as an invited speaker at many national and international conferences. Dr. Tiwari is the recipient of several awards including Researcher of the Year and Distinguished Scientist.",institutionString:"Amity University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"3",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Amity University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},equalEditorTwo:{id:"197609",title:"Prof.",name:"Taha Selim",middleName:null,surname:"Ustun",slug:"taha-selim-ustun",fullName:"Taha Selim Ustun",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/197609/images/system/197609.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Taha Selim Ustun received a Ph.D. in Electrical Engineering from Victoria University, Melbourne, Australia. He is a researcher with the Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA), where he leads the Smart Grid Cybersecurity Laboratory. Prior to that, he was a faculty member with the School of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Carnegie Mellon University, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. His current research interests include power systems protection, communication in power networks, distributed generation, microgrids, electric vehicle integration, and cybersecurity in smart grids. He serves on the editorial boards of IEEE Access, IEEE Transactions on Industrial Informatics, Energies, Electronics, Electricity, World Electric Vehicle and Information journals. Dr. Ustun is a member of the IEEE 2004 and 2800, IEC Renewable Energy Management WG 8, and IEC TC 57 WG17. He has been invited to run specialist courses in Africa, India, and China. He has delivered talks for the Qatar Foundation, the World Energy Council, the Waterloo Global Science Initiative, and the European Union Energy Initiative (EUEI). His research has attracted funding from prestigious programs in Japan, Australia, the European Union, and North America.",institutionString:"Fukushima Renewable Energy Institute, AIST (FREA)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"0",institution:{name:"National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}},{type:"book",id:"3568",title:"Recent Advances in Plant in vitro Culture",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"830bbb601742c85a3fb0eeafe1454c43",slug:"recent-advances-in-plant-in-vitro-culture",bookSignature:"Annarita Leva and Laura M. R. Rinaldi",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3568.jpg",editors:[{id:"142145",title:"Dr.",name:"Annarita",middleName:null,surname:"Leva",slug:"annarita-leva",fullName:"Annarita Leva"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],latestBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9515",title:"Update in Geriatrics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"913e16c0ae977474b283bbd4269564c8",slug:"update-in-geriatrics",bookSignature:"Somchai Amornyotin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9515.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"185484",title:"Prof.",name:"Somchai",middleName:null,surname:"Amornyotin",slug:"somchai-amornyotin",fullName:"Somchai Amornyotin"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9021",title:"Novel Perspectives of Stem Cell Manufacturing and Therapies",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"522c6db871783d2a11c17b83f1fd4e18",slug:"novel-perspectives-of-stem-cell-manufacturing-and-therapies",bookSignature:"Diana Kitala and Ana Colette Maurício",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9021.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"203598",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Diana",middleName:null,surname:"Kitala",slug:"diana-kitala",fullName:"Diana Kitala"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"7030",title:"Satellite Systems",subtitle:"Design, Modeling, Simulation and Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"b9db6d2645ef248ceb1b33ea75f38e88",slug:"satellite-systems-design-modeling-simulation-and-analysis",bookSignature:"Tien Nguyen",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7030.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"210657",title:"Dr.",name:"Tien M.",middleName:"Manh",surname:"Nguyen",slug:"tien-m.-nguyen",fullName:"Tien M. Nguyen"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10413",title:"A Collection of Papers on Chaos Theory and Its Applications",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"900b71b164948830fec3d6254b7881f7",slug:"a-collection-of-papers-on-chaos-theory-and-its-applications",bookSignature:"Paul Bracken and Dimo I. Uzunov",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10413.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"92883",title:"Prof.",name:"Paul",middleName:null,surname:"Bracken",slug:"paul-bracken",fullName:"Paul Bracken"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9154",title:"Spinal Deformities in Adolescents, Adults and Older Adults",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"313f1dffa803b60a14ff1e6966e93d91",slug:"spinal-deformities-in-adolescents-adults-and-older-adults",bookSignature:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov and Gokulakannan Kandasamy",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9154.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"94802",title:"Dr.",name:"Josette",middleName:null,surname:"Bettany-Saltikov",slug:"josette-bettany-saltikov",fullName:"Josette Bettany-Saltikov"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8148",title:"Investment Strategies in Emerging New Trends in Finance",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"3b714d96a68d2acdfbd7b50aba6504ca",slug:"investment-strategies-in-emerging-new-trends-in-finance",bookSignature:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar and Asma Salman",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8148.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"91081",title:"Dr.",name:"Reza",middleName:null,surname:"Gharoie Ahangar",slug:"reza-gharoie-ahangar",fullName:"Reza Gharoie Ahangar"}],equalEditorOne:{id:"206443",title:"Prof.",name:"Asma",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"asma-salman",fullName:"Asma Salman",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/206443/images/system/206443.png",biography:"Professor Asma Salman is a blockchain developer and Professor of Finance at the American University in the Emirates, UAE. An Honorary Global Advisor at the Global Academy of Finance and Management, USA, she completed her MBA in Finance and Accounting and earned a Ph.D. in Finance from an AACSB member, AMBA accredited, School of Management at Harbin Institute of Technology, China. Her research credentials include a one-year residency at the Brunel Business School, Brunel University, UK. Prof. Salman also served as the Dubai Cohort supervisor for DBA students under the Nottingham Business School, UK, for seven years and is currently a Ph.D. supervisor at the University of Northampton, UK, where she is a visiting fellow. She also served on the Board of Etihad Airlines during 2019–2020. One of her recent articles on “Bitcoin and Blockchain” gained wide visibility and she is an active speaker on Fintech, blockchain, and crypto events around the GCC. She holds various professional certifications including Chartered Fintech Professional (USA), Certified Financial Manager (USA), Women in Leadership and Management in Higher Education, (UK), and Taxation GCC VAT Compliance, (UK). She recently won an award for “Blockchain Trainer of the Year” from Berkeley Middle East. Other recognitions include the Women Leadership Impact Award by H.E First Lady of Armenia, Research Excellence Award, and the Global Inspirational Women Leadership Award by H.H Sheikh Juma Bin Maktoum Juma Al Maktoum.",institutionString:"American University in the Emirates",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"2",institution:{name:"American University in the Emirates",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Arab Emirates"}}},equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10201",title:"Post-Transition Metals",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"cc7f53ff5269916e3ce29f65a51a87ae",slug:"post-transition-metals",bookSignature:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman, Abdullah Mohammed Asiri, Anish Khan, Inamuddin and Thamer Tabbakh",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10201.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"24438",title:"Prof.",name:"Mohammed Muzibur",middleName:null,surname:"Rahman",slug:"mohammed-muzibur-rahman",fullName:"Mohammed Muzibur Rahman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"9959",title:"Biomedical Signal and Image Processing",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"22b87a09bd6df065d78c175235d367c8",slug:"biomedical-signal-and-image-processing",bookSignature:"Yongxia Zhou",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9959.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"259308",title:"Dr.",name:"Yongxia",middleName:null,surname:"Zhou",slug:"yongxia-zhou",fullName:"Yongxia Zhou"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8472",title:"Bioactive Compounds in Nutraceutical and Functional Food for Good Human Health",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8855452919b8495810ef8e88641feb20",slug:"bioactive-compounds-in-nutraceutical-and-functional-food-for-good-human-health",bookSignature:"Kavita Sharma, Kanchan Mishra, Kula Kamal Senapati and Corina Danciu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8472.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"197731",title:"Dr.",name:"Kavita",middleName:null,surname:"Sharma",slug:"kavita-sharma",fullName:"Kavita Sharma"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"8760",title:"Structure Topology and Symplectic Geometry",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"8974840985ec3652492c83e20233bf02",slug:"structure-topology-and-symplectic-geometry",bookSignature:"Kamal Shah and Min Lei",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/8760.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"231748",title:"Dr.",name:"Kamal",middleName:null,surname:"Shah",slug:"kamal-shah",fullName:"Kamal Shah"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},subject:{topic:{id:"973",title:"Probability",slug:"probability",parent:{title:"Applied Mathematics",slug:"applied-mathematics"},numberOfBooks:1,numberOfAuthorsAndEditors:1,numberOfWosCitations:24,numberOfCrossrefCitations:8,numberOfDimensionsCitations:20,videoUrl:null,fallbackUrl:null,description:null},booksByTopicFilter:{topicSlug:"probability",sort:"-publishedDate",limit:12,offset:0},booksByTopicCollection:[{type:"book",id:"3750",title:"Bayesian Network",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"e13716028dd76e0c381db287f7410d92",slug:"bayesian-network",bookSignature:"Ahmed Rebai",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3750.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"11939",title:"Prof.",name:"Ahmed",middleName:null,surname:"Rebai",slug:"ahmed-rebai",fullName:"Ahmed Rebai"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}],booksByTopicTotal:1,mostCitedChapters:[{id:"11961",doi:"10.5772/10060",title:"Probabilistic Modelling and Recursive Bayesian Estimation of Trust in Wireless Sensor Networks",slug:"probabilistic-modelling-and-recursive-bayesian-estimation-of-trust-in-wireless-sensor-networks",totalDownloads:2260,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Mohammad Momani and Subhash Challa",authors:null},{id:"11951",doi:"10.5772/10068",title:"Monitoring of Complex Processes with Bayesian Networks",slug:"monitoring-of-complex-processes-with-bayesian-networks",totalDownloads:2548,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:4,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Sylvain Verron, Teodor Tiplica and Abdessamad Kobi",authors:null},{id:"11952",doi:"10.5772/10069",title:"Bayesian Networks for Network Intrusion Detection",slug:"bayesian-networks-for-network-intrusion-detection",totalDownloads:3830,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Pablo Garcia Bringas and Igor Santos Grueiro",authors:null}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"11949",title:"MiniTUBA: a Web-Based Dynamic Bayesian Network Analysis System",slug:"minituba-a-web-based-dynamic-bayesian-network-analysis-system-",totalDownloads:2355,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Yongqun He and Zuoshuang Xiang",authors:null},{id:"11942",title:"Advanced Algorithms of Bayesian Network Learning and Probabilistic Inference from Inconsistent Prior Knowledge and Sparse Data with Applications in Computational Biology and Computer Vision",slug:"advanced-algorithms-of-bayesian-network-learning-and-probabilistic-inference-from-inconsistent-prior",totalDownloads:2178,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Rui Chang",authors:null},{id:"11952",title:"Bayesian Networks for Network Intrusion Detection",slug:"bayesian-networks-for-network-intrusion-detection",totalDownloads:3830,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Pablo Garcia Bringas and Igor Santos Grueiro",authors:null},{id:"11950",title:"Joining Analytic Network Process and Bayesian Network Model for Fault Spreading Problem",slug:"joining-analytic-network-process-and-bayesian-network-model-for-fault-spreading-problem",totalDownloads:3250,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Gabor Szucs and Gyula Sallai",authors:null},{id:"11960",title:"Learning Self-Similarities for Action Recognition Using Conditional Random Fields",slug:"learning-self-similarities-for-action-recognition-using-conditional-random-fields",totalDownloads:2030,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Imran Junejo",authors:null},{id:"11948",title:"Markovian Approach to Time Transition Inference on Bayesian Networks",slug:"markovian-approach-to-time-transition-inference-on-bayesian-networks",totalDownloads:1598,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Adamo Santana, Diego Cardoso, Carlos Renato Frances, and João Costa",authors:null},{id:"11956",title:"Causal Modelling Based on Bayesian Networks for Preliminary Design of Buildings",slug:"causal-modelling-based-on-bayesian-networks-for-preliminary-design-of-buildings",totalDownloads:2203,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:1,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Berardo Naticchia and Alessandro Carbonari",authors:null},{id:"11954",title:"Optimization Strategies for Improving the Interpretability of Bayesian Networks: an Application in Power Systems",slug:"optimization-strategies-for-improving-the-interpretability-of-bayesian-networks-an-application-in-po",totalDownloads:1678,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Claudio Rocha, Diego Cardoso, Adamo Santana and Carlos Renato Frances",authors:null},{id:"11953",title:"A Novel Probabilistic Approach for Analysis and Planning of Large Capillarity Broadband Networks Based on ADSL2+ Technology",slug:"a-novel-probabilistic-approach-for-analysis-and-planning-of-large-capillarity-broadband-networks-bas",totalDownloads:1695,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Diego Cardoso, Adamo Santana, Claudio Rocha and Carlos Renato Frances",authors:null},{id:"11962",title:"Time-Frequency analysis using Bayesian Regularized Neural Network Model",slug:"time-frequency-analysis-using-bayesian-regularized-neural-network-model",totalDownloads:2815,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,book:{slug:"bayesian-network",title:"Bayesian Network",fullTitle:"Bayesian Network"},signatures:"Imran Shafi, Jamil Ahmad, Syed Ismail Shah and Ataul Aziz Ikram",authors:null}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicSlug:"probability",limit:3,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[{type:"book",id:"10176",title:"Microgrids and Local Energy Systems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!0,hash:"c32b4a5351a88f263074b0d0ca813a9c",slug:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Nick Jenkins",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10176.jpg",editedByType:null,editors:[{id:"55219",title:"Prof.",name:"Nick",middleName:null,surname:"Jenkins",slug:"nick-jenkins",fullName:"Nick Jenkins"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter"}}],offset:8,limit:8,total:1},route:{name:"profile.detail",path:"/profiles/107843/andre-cancado",hash:"",query:{},params:{id:"107843",slug:"andre-cancado"},fullPath:"/profiles/107843/andre-cancado",meta:{},from:{name:null,path:"/",hash:"",query:{},params:{},fullPath:"/",meta:{}}}},function(){var e;(e=document.currentScript||document.scripts[document.scripts.length-1]).parentNode.removeChild(e)}()