Barely three months into the new year and we are happy to announce a monumental milestone reached - 150 million downloads.
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This achievement solidifies IntechOpen’s place as a pioneer in Open Access publishing and the home to some of the most relevant scientific research available through Open Access.
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We are so proud to have worked with so many bright minds throughout the years who have helped us spread knowledge through the power of Open Access and we look forward to continuing to support some of the greatest thinkers of our day.
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Thank you for making IntechOpen your place of learning, sharing, and discovery, and here’s to 150 million more!
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As a result of numerical experiments, it was clarified that adequate results can be obtained if the distance of sea transport is sufficiently far apart for the introduction of a modal shift.",signatures:"Kuninori Suzuki and Nobunori Aiura",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/64944",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/64944",authors:[null],corrections:null},{id:"67357",title:"Sustainable Supply Chain through Greater Customer Engagement",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.82485",slug:"sustainable-supply-chain-through-greater-customer-engagement",totalDownloads:982,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Climate change has a worldwide impact, and organisations have the greatest responsibility to make a difference through sustainable development as they have the resources, knowledge and reach. 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\r\n\tHyperspectral imaging is a spectroscopic imaging technique, which can generate either single or a time series of data cubes to yield insight into the spatial distribution of constitutive components in a spatial domain. Hence, the methodology can be used in multiple applications such as probing cellular processes in live cells, developing multiple biomedical imaging modalities, material characterizations, remote sensing, etc. Hyperspectral imaging can also take advantage of deep learning algorithms to retrieve valuable information from high-dimensional data in real-time. It is worth emphasizing that hyperspectral imaging is not limited to visible light. With other available excitation sources such as X-ray, electrons, etc. new hyperspectral imaging modalities can be extended to nanometer scales.
\r\n
\r\n\tThis book intends to bring together diverse research areas of hyperspectral imaging. We hope to provide the reader with a comprehensive overview of the current state-of-the-art in this fascinating and important field and make this book project a useful platform to allow all those working in hyperspectral imaging to be benefited from the knowledge of widely different fields.
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1. Introduction
“I was pregnant with a lot of dreams like other mums. He was cute to look at … all was okay, but still something was not up to the mark. He was slower than other kids of his age, I presumed. With eager anticipation, I took him to play school. Concerns from school followed by the diagnosis came like a jolt; I broke down. Why my son? Everyone around me enthusiastically spoke about their child’s achievements. I know I always wanted to be one of them … Why me?
I slowly realized that I am not in a horrible, disgusting situation as I imagined. My child is different, I need to slow down my pace and expectations. I took a deep breath, met people, read new parenting books. I had the choice of mourning or enjoying my special child! I made my choice … Now I will do anything, whatever it takes me, I will do my best … We shall overcome.”
Parent’s Voice
It is a giant leap from ‘why me’ to ‘we shall overcome.’
Having a child with special needs can be a chronic strain for parents as the child care can cause relatively enduring problems in their day to day lives. These chronic strains differ from life events in that these occurrences are constant and prolonged over time. Caring for a special child is a doubly difficult situation, involving physical, financial and emotional stress. The stigma associated with disabilities also increases the family’s sense of isolation. Given the poor availability of support services (therapists, schools, rehabilitation, occupation), the parents carry the entire burden of responsibility unlike in developed countries where many social services are provided.
From a developing country context of poverty, inequality and multiple stressors, the ability to survive and flourish requires resilience. The concept of ‘competence’ describes the intrinsic need for human beings to adapt to the environment which leads to satisfaction or self-efficacy. The concept of human agency in the construct of resilience is important here. According to Hitlin and Elder [1] human agency is defined as intentionally making choices and taking action. Research by Luthar [2] who analyzed resilience research across five decades concludes that “resilience rests, fundamentally, on relationships”. The availability of support systems ensures smooth adaptation even under severe conditions of stress and trauma.
This chapter illustrates the processes involved in this journey. The journey where human agency and support systems contribute to effective coping and resilience. It looks into the factors influencing the level of stress experienced by the families of children with specific disabilities and variables that aid coping. Professional counselors can help parents alleviate the stress of handling special children. They can also learn from parents who have successfully handled their special children.
2. Impact of a special child on parents and family
The lives of parents take a drastic turn once the diagnosis is done. Their dreams and hopes are shattered and are filled with negative emotions. Parents of special needs children wrestle with multiple problems and unknown demands. The challenges faced are different as compared to experiences of parents of typically developing children. The emotional shock, self-doubt, blame, guilt and anxiety regarding the future, along with a lack of awareness about the child’s disability and lack of parenting skills, are challenges faced by parents. Financial burden and lack of professional support make the situation even worse. Some of the shadow stressors can include marital conflicts, fatigue and loss of leisure time. Thus, the impact on a family with a special child is severe. Parents of special children also reported more physical symptoms than parents of normal children [3]. High parenting stress can worsen child behavior problems overtime, which in turn worsens parent’s stress in pre-school children with intellectual disabilities according to previous research [4].
Every family is unique with its own patterns and experiences and is the primary and important social institution for every child. Family is “interacting communicative networks in which every member influences the nature of the family system and is in turn influenced by the system” [5]. Adversity can either strengthen family relationships or rupture the family bonding. Certain parents and families adapt well and stay resilient in the face of challenges [2]. However, not all of them manage to adapt. Adaptability according to Olson’s Model [6] is defined as a family’s ability to change its rules, roles, and power structure in response to situational and developmental stress. The systems theory in general stresses on circular causality – an idea that events are related through a series of interacting loops. An unhealthy pattern that emerges in these families can be ‘fusion and triangulation’ [7], which comes in the way of the family’s mental health.
The emotional symptoms of a family member are expressions of the emotional symptoms of the family. Parental narrations share experiences similar to Bowen’s findings. The diagnosis often is highly stressful and traumatic when parents experience a myriad of negative emotions. It is observed that parents deal with problems associated with a special child, like how they deal with earlier stressful/traumatic experiences or how they have seen their parents dealing with such situations. Similar to “emotional fusion,” [7], parents often get caught up in the emotional connection with the child, react emotionally, without being able to think through or talk about choices they can enforce in stressful situations. Families going through anxiety show less flexibility in adapting to stress. They may take a longer time in accepting the diagnosis and reaching out to support systems. In highly stressful situations, parents seem to pass on these negative emotions onto their children in the family or to the special child. Research [8] confirms that more fusion was found in college students with disabilities compared to those without disabilities. Fusion and triangulation with family of origin were observed in children, who could not cope up with college.
Family adaptation is based on the interplay of experienced stress, available coping resources, and ecological contexts in which the individual family operates [9]. Parents are the pillars of the family structure and have a major influence on their children. This identifies the importance of working with families of special children. Having a special child is often a turning point for parents, which require a change in perception and a paradigm shift in expectations. Interviews with parents of special needs children share life stories that convey themes which have an obvious trauma (diagnosis of the child) followed by the parent moving ahead and solving/coping with these life situations or stagnating and at times regressing from the point he/she started off. It is important to recognize the unique group of parents who coped effectively in spite of multiple stressors and use this learning to guide and support those parents who need assistance and effective coping strategies.
3. Factors that prevent parents’ coping
A typical scenario in a joint family (as shared by a parent).
Akhil’s (name changed) mother suspected that her son (5years) is highly distracted and slower than her friend’s kid of the same age. His teacher was concerned that his worksheets are incomplete and he hates coloring. She informed mother about his lack of concentration in work. His father, however, felt he is playful and lazy. The father confirmed that as Akhil can concentrate while watching cartoons, his concentration cannot be an issue. Being in a joint family, Akhil’s grandmother confirmed that all her sons disliked school work.
The above case elaborates lack of awareness as one of the factors that come up in parental narrations that impacts the child and eventually the family’s well-being. Parents tend to ignore developmental delays and attribute them to heredity, laziness or playfulness, which affects their understanding of the special child. Some parents attribute the reason for a child’s condition to metaphysical causation (one’s karma) and thus refuse to opt for remedial services.
Parent’s Voices
“If God has decided that he has to be born to us, he will find a way out too. I don’t have to bother; God knows what needs to be done. He will take care.”
“It’s our destiny! My friends told me that marriage between first cousins can affect the mental health of the next generation. Our family did not listen. Nobody can change our fate now. This child is already born.”
The above mindset delays parents opting for support services, resulting in blocking the child’s progress. There is limited awareness about the causes of such conditions among the traditional, rural and lower socio-economic sections in the Indian society. Lack of awareness about the state’s policies regarding the people with special needs adds to their burden.
Parent’s Voice
Mrs. and Mr. S shared “our son is bright as both of us are qualified and well placed. We both hail from highly educated families in the city. Our genes cannot become fragile and we cannot have a brainless child, he is just playful. He is just in the first standard; a little push can make him try harder to remember all alphabets. We don’t want to accept the diagnosis”.
These parents sent their son to multiple tutors for extra coaching and refused to understand or accept their son’s condition. The child was diagnosed with Fragile X syndrome.
Such a diagnosis often triggers stressors due to lack of acceptance, which contribute to imbalance in the family equilibrium. Many parents visualize the situation as a tragedy and are overwhelmed by their powerlessness to prevent it. The future seems depressing, as their child may not be able to achieve those age-appropriate developmental tasks. Grief about their child’s lack of achievements and fear of stigmatization contributes to lack of acceptance. Parents feel that if they accept this diagnosis, they have to face the consequences that they fear. They believe that their persistence and teacher support will help them overcome whatever is mentioned in the medical reports. Some believe miracles to happen. Unfortunately, this attitude prevents the child from getting the adequate care required.
Parent’s Voice
“We believed God will take care, my wife was busy performing rituals told by the priest and I was busy with my work. I can find reasons, but I realize now that we didn’t do our share. Support was around, we did not notice. Like the God who parted the Red Sea … we believed miracles to happen, we were not practical, we can’t say we did not get any support … rather we did not opt for it.”
A parent shared his misfortune that he did not seek help at the right time. Now his daughter is 20 and is still dependent for managing her basic routines.
Some parents highlighted the role of the media for non-acceptance. The media often reflects the society’s attitude, which either shows sympathy or stigmatizes special children, reactions which are not liked by many parents.
This research reflects that academic qualification and financial status do not influence the acceptance level. Lack of acceptance seems to be a factor across socioeconomic classes, while the reasons for lack of acceptance vary across class. Parents from a high socioeconomic status expect more from the child, while parents from a lower socioeconomic status worry about the child’s dependency and care requirements. Both these reasons prevent them from accepting reality. Anxiety about the future seems to be a concern across socioeconomic groups.
4. Other factors that contribute to stress
Parent’s Voice
“I have to travel every day by train (public transport), two hours both ways to reach the hospital where therapy is free, two days for speech therapy, three days for physiotherapy and one day for meeting the doctor. All these happen at different parts of the city. We can’t afford the center near our residence. Now I was told he needs to go to some special teacher for academics. Not sure how we will manage. I have two other normal children whose education is also important. Since I have to take our child everywhere, I have left my job. This adds burden on my husband. We hardly get time to talk to each other. He always comes home tired. I too am drained by the end of the day. Life is miserable.”
Children with challenging behavioral disturbances or complex physical needs add enormous stress to the family. Dependency of the child with respect to managing routine activities contributes to stressful parental experiences. Schools also require the parents to assist the child in school with their routine if the child is dependent. Children with severe behavior problems pose difficulties for parents in care giving, training them with self-help skills and monitoring their routine exercises at home which are mandatory for their progress (as suggested by therapists). Most parents are agonized at their child’s physical health, treatment options and hospitalization.
In developing countries like India, public health resources are severely overburdened and parents are forced to access private healthcare. Parents from the lower socioeconomic status are not aware of the facilities available for special children. They have difficulty accessing special schools and fail to take assistance from professionals/therapists. Parents of lower- and middle-income households feel that they cannot afford private healthcare due to financial limitations. Special services like physiotherapy, occupational therapy, and speech therapy, which need to be accessed regularly for special children, become a luxury for them. Those who are ready to walk that extra mile and access public health care facilities report that they travel long hours to avail public health services and wait for a long time to get an appointment. So, child care becomes a crisis for many parents. When both parents are bread winners, lack of time also becomes an obstacle. Sometimes, families are economically strained, where the mother, the primary care giver, may not be able to return to work, which increases the burden of the working partner. Parents report that to manage the extra expenses in supporting the child, they work double shifts or take up additional part-time work. Poor access to services, lower social support coupled with the strain of poverty lead to lower levels of self-efficacy among parents from a lower socioeconomic status with regard to child care. Parents also report that financial strains, lack of energy and other resources create a lot of problems for family relationships.
Lack of support systems for parents can exacerbate stress. Support can be from professionals, schools, family and friends. Schools provide structure and a setting for the child to grow and develop skills. Schools also provide a context where there are other parents in a similar situation, providing an opportunity to meet and relate with other parents. Support from school authorities and staff members can alleviate stress, whereas a non-cooperative school environment creates stress. Parents report dearth of schools, therapists and special services. As discussed earlier, professional support is essential for parents to care for a special child. Professionals like doctors, paramedical professionals, counselors and special education teachers can help parents understand the child’s condition and provide them hope about the child’s future. Good therapists can be an important source of support, while encounters with unsympathetic health professionals can be very stressful.
Support from the partner, other immediate family members and children in the family can trim down stress. When partners do not actively contribute to child care and household chores, it can overburden the family, which results in special children being denied adequate care. Some parents single-handedly manage child care and expenses, which lead to health problems and emotional breakdowns for the caregiver. Lack of support from the special child’s sibling is seen as one reason for family conflict. In some families, siblings feel they are neglected, which can lead to repressed aggression or open fights at home. Parents report getting lost in these fights, which add to their emotional burden.
Emotional support to caretaking parents is mandatory for child care. Marital discord is also reported due to differences in opinion about what is best for the child. Switching roles as a primary caretaker can alleviate issues, but just one parent taking responsibility can lead to blaming and agony. Lack of time for nurturing the marriage is also reported as a trigger for marital problems.
Parents need space and time to accept and cope with the situation due to a myriad of negative emotions experienced at the time of diagnosis. Many parents are forced to take up jobs less demanding or have to opt out of a full-time dream job to take care of the child. They report feeling socially isolated from friends, extended family or social groups they wish to belong due to lack of personal time. Pessimism, anger and shame can be the emotional turnover parents face due to the child’s dependency, behavior and health problems [10].
5. Resilient parenting and factors that support coping
Despite problems, parents of special children show a lot of resilience. Parents who have coped effectively have narrated their experiences. The following section studies the patterns of successful coping. Parents have narrated their emotions and their inner struggles. These life stories all have an obvious trauma followed by the parents coping with this life situation (in different ways) and their interpretation of it [10].
Professionals working with special children and families may follow various models. This study does not discuss how efficient these models are, but a brief look at the models may benefit further discussions. The medical/biomedical model enumerates that these conditions exist within individuals and they are responsible for themselves. Environmental and functional models suggest that parents carry the stigma of having a special child and have to deal with societal prejudices and discrimination. The sociopolitical model aims at reducing discrimination and does not accept diagnosis aiming at full equality.
A model close to the current work is the peer counselor model, which assumes that people with direct experience with disabilities can be the best helpers, people who can assist and support parents whose children have been recently diagnosed. Counselors who work with the child and family need to understand what problems they face, social and financial. They have to assess the current level of functioning and environmental factors that either hinder or enhance functionality. Theoretical models can incorporate learning from those parents who have handled similar situations successfully.
It was seen that other than diagnosis, one’s handling of the situation and support systems determine whether the situation is stressful or not. An effort is made here to understand the elements contributing to effective coping as evolved from parental experiences and professional support.
The most prominent theme in the narration is parental acceptance and awareness. Acceptance of the diagnosis and the child’s condition helps in effective management of the child. Accepting the child’s diagnosis emerged as the base for adaptation and resilience. The professional’s role in conveying the diagnosis is extremely important. The way the diagnosis is conveyed has an impact on the parents’ beliefs and expectations. It is important to clearly state the diagnosis and its impact on the child with clarity; it is important to be clear about the nature of the condition and its implications. Realistic acceptance of the child’s condition is equally important for effective child management.
Parents conclusively share how ‘hope’ helped them cope with problems. They reflect on their experiences and the role of the school, the doctor and other professionals, who instilled this hope. According to Snyder [11], ‘hope’ is a learned thinking pattern, a set of beliefs and thoughts, having very discrete ways of thinking. Having faith in achieving what one requires is important for coping and resilience. All parents who accepted the condition hoped to see progress in their child.
The ability to appraise the situation positively (Cognitive adaptation) paves the way for acceptance. It is an effective coping strategy seen in parents, who shared that they find meaning in their experiences with special children, which has made them more effective. Cognitive reappraisal of the situation helped parents in understanding the situation as more manageable, helped them to be optimistic and easily accept the diagnosis, thereby maintaining an optimistic outlook.
Many parents shared that they are the chosen parents, as they have the skill to handle special children. The tendency to reappraise the situation is sensed in terms of the parents’ ability to see their inner strength and perceive the fighting spirit in them. They could perceive the situation from a different perspective, which sounds similar to the concept of cognitive illusions proposed by Taylor [12]. The Cognitive Adaptation Model proposed by Taylor [12] is based on the work done with the coping efforts of cancer patients. Taylor’s model proposes that ‘threats’ induce adaptation by searching for meaning in the experiences, trying to gain mastery over the event and eventually life in general and by restoring self-esteem through positive evaluations. Taylor calls it ‘cognitive illusions.’ Adjustment is based on the ability to modify these illusions. The parents in these narrations could make a similar adaptation.
Many parents talked about esteem-enhancing cognitions. The importance of a positive outlook is shared by a parent – “when children are small, we get to think how we will manage, but the faith that we will manage takes us ahead” [10]. Parents share how the birth of the child changed the family dynamics positively. Spirituality aided adaptation in some narrations. Some parents mention the ‘Karma’ theory (sum of person’s actions in one of his successive states of existence, viewed as deciding his fate for the next birth in positive light). Some parents see the birth of a child as a blessing.
Professionals and institutions working with special children can ease this process. The principal of a special school shared in her narration the importance of language used.
Professional’s Voice
“I realize language makes a big difference when I talk to parents. I often tell them that your child is differently abled. He/she is not their disability. He has a disability and we are here to help and streamline things for him. It is important for parents and society to become consciously aware that children are more than their disability.”
Parent’s Voice
“I have accepted that my son is special. Initially, I was reluctant, now I take him everywhere. … sympathy from others at times hurts, knowing to handle those comments is important. I tell them I got a lot of luxury, money after he came, he is God. I started responding positively to questions raised by others about his conditions. This keeps those negative people away” [10].
All the narrations and interactions with professionals working with special children confirm that higher levels of acceptance are associated with parents who either rely on themselves or seek help from support systems.
Other than parental acceptance, there are certain other parental traits that help in coping with the child’s condition. Parental perseverance is the ability to keep pursuing their chosen paths despite difficulties. They often describe themselves in such terms as “I am not a quitter” and “I never want to give up.” “I will do my best.” These parents have a clear goal, which is the child’s well-being. These parents put a lot of effort to learn more about their child, choose the best schools possible, and are willing to travel long distances every day for therapy sessions. These parents show the willingness to take support from others or relocate their residence and change their routines for the child.
Parent’s Voice
“You cannot say somebody else will help, you have to help yourself … the amount of effort you put in, you will see that much outcome, and your effort will not go waste.”
Parents’ perseverance is not just related to how they handle their children. It is also seen in how they handle themselves – like eating on time, pursuing their hobbies etc.
The positive traits of parents seem to shield them from negativity. Parents often experience strong feelings for their child immediately after receiving the news of the disabling condition as discussed earlier. These include shock, anxiety, disbelief and disappointment as reported in narrations. Mothers often share that they wept for days together and few stopped interacting with others. However, after the initial phase of negativity, narrations had either positive or negative emotions taking over. The theme that emerges from these parental voices is Trait Positive Affect. Trait refers to a dispositional tendency that remains stable over time. Positive Affect is defined as the “level of pleasurable engagement with the environment” [13]. Parents who are initially negative turn positive, because they are inherently dominated by positive affect. Thus some narrations have mothers expressing positive affect, which are expressed as happiness in child rearing experiences. These narrations have shared optimism while enumerating the success stories of children. They were able to celebrate even the slightest improvement and also felt good about the effort put in by the child, themselves and family.
The role of positive emotions was illustrated by Folkman and Moskowitz [14]. When negative emotions are experienced due to a stressful event, positive emotions may provide a psychological break or respite, which support coping efforts and restock resources that stress has taken away. Thus, positive affect might help parents in strengthening psychological and physical resources during stress and protect them from depression. According to Lazarus and Folkman [15], “positive emotions reload resources that have been depleted by the stress by providing a psychological break or breather which supports coping.”
Most of the narrators who share experiencing positive emotions also share effective emotional regulation. They undergo negative emotions at times, which they are able to channelize instead of feeling burdened. They channelize their fears and anxieties by talking to the partner, family members or counselors. Parents also channelize their emotions by participating in routine exercises like yoga and engage in spiritual activities (visiting churches and temples, praying), thus distracting themselves from negative cogitation.
Not all narrations are positive. The narrations with dominant negative feelings are filled with feelings of pessimism, anger, shame, denial, guilt, grief, depression, and self-blame. Parents who sound depressed and unhappy are very pessimistic in their approach. They either blame themselves, the family members, or the system. Guilt and depression affect the social lives of parents. A lot of anger towards self, significant others and at times towards their child was sensed. Some parents shared health hazards faced by them. They fail to take support, thereby failing to support their child like other parents.
Parent’s Voice
“I know my daughter is dependent on me for many things including self-care. I will be there and I want to be there … I am constantly vigilant and learn/invent options to support her. Recently, I realized it has started showing on me. Lack of exercise, disrupted sleep and no time for self … I am irritable and anxious most often and I am getting tired easily. Our marriage seems to be in doldrums too.”
Disability of a child can restrain the normal expression of emotions and thoughts of parents, as they believe that the child must be their priority. Parents share in their narrations that a negative affect results in accumulated anger resulting in outbursts, sadness and health concerns, which are often psychosomatic.
Early understanding of the diagnosis and awareness about the child’s condition result in positive affect. Having adequate skills to handle the child and cognitive adaptations like finding hope and optimism facilitate positive feelings. Working with negative emotions is an important part of counseling parents. Accepting and normalizing these emotions is crucial in dealing with negative emotions. Parents are made to realize that it is not the child or the partner that is the cause of these emotions, but rather it is the condition or the disability. This helps them in handling emotions better.
Managing a special child necessitates the ability to handle countless issues. The quotes “I can cope” and self-efficacy are shared by parents, in multiple narrations. Parents who have handled previous stresses successfully, parents who are positive about handling a special child and get acquainted with other parents of special children are more confident about their current situation. Parents’ narrations were similar to “mastery experiences” and “vicarious experiences from social models” as detailed by Bandura [16]. Observing other parents and listening to them enhance the belief that they can also help their own children effectively.
Parent’s Voices
“I lost my parents during my 10th grade. It became my responsibility to bring up my younger siblings. I managed well; both my brothers are educated and settled. I too managed a good degree in commerce and am employed in a bank. I can handle stress well. God had thought of it and has given me my child. I only can bring him up and in the process I can help others like him as well.”
“I was lost when I heard about the diagnosis from the doctor during routine checkups. He doubted the chance of me having a child with delayed milestones and lower IQ. My husband felt we should abort this child, I was reluctant. I met parents who had children with similar difficulties, I spoke to professionals. I realized that if they can manage, I too can.”
Assertiveness seems to be a major factor in parents while taking decisions for themselves and their child. Their ability to say ‘no’ and the ability to “stand for the child,” while handling comments and criticism from family and society is very crucial. “Being assertive also helps me handle negative emotions,” says a parent. Assertion is important when it comes to spending for the child and choosing the right school and professionals to work with one’s child. Often, parents need to speak up for the child too. Parents share instances, where they may have to deal assertively with immediate family members to raise money for the child. Parents say they have to be assertive with family members, who refuse to give space to the special child in the family. Passive parents often become negative and develop guilt and anger.
Decision-making skills are important according to the narrations shared. The ability to assess the available options and the ability to envisage consequences of different actions along with knowing and protecting the rights of the child are shared as essential.
Parent’s Voices
“My son also would have done NIOS and I knew he can if I push him … but he was not interested. I knew he needs to learn self-help skills and activities for daily living than a SSC certificate. If I prioritize exams, he would not be doing what he enjoys, nor would he be independent as he is now. He enjoys cooking and is now part of the finest hotels in the city”.
“It was a difficult decision to relocate to Mumbai, especially leaving my husband who just had an attack, but I knew it’s important for my daughter. My in-laws are there to take care of my husband, I decided. My family did not completely agree to my decision. I knew I have to manage both kids and their education and support expenses for my special child. I took it up and joined as a helper in special school and eventually completed a special education course. Now I am part of my daughter’s school as a special educator. That decision to relocate to Mumbai helped our family to handle the crisis.”
Positive evaluations of situations, perseverance, assertive skills, decision-making skills and self-efficacy beliefs are all crucial for effective coping in parents. All these personal variables stem from cognitive reappraisals of parents, which lead to parents accepting the child’s condition.
Parents showing the above-mentioned traits are able to come to terms faster with the child’s condition compared to those parents who lack the above traits. These parents are motivated to seek information and approach professionals who could guide them to handle and nurture their child. Some of them prepare themselves by taking personal counseling.
An important factor that leads to positive adaptation in these parents is social support. Supports come from different levels and are seen as crucial for adaptation. Support systems for family can function at various levels. Support from the partner, children and other family members can alleviate stress and boost emotional support.
Parent’s Voices
“As parents, we work in shifts. My son is mentally challenged and also not very mobile. It’s important that we both work, so that we can provide the best for our son. We can’t afford a caretaker. My husband will be with the son after I leave for work at 8 am in the morning. My daughter who is 8 years old will reach home from school and take over the responsibility of my son. My husband will feed him and put him to sleep and leave for his night shift at 3 pm. She will take care of him till I come home from work. My daughter is our support. She is very patient with her elder brother. She is the one who taught him to sing and read alphabets. We as a family support each other.”
“My husband without any complaints works double shifts so that I could leave my work and take care of children. There are days he comes home very tired but has a smile in his face. That smile gives me the energy to carry my child and walk to his special school and later to therapy. Now my son can walk with support. Thanks to my family and the support from my partner.”
“As a family, we share all responsibilities. All the chores of the family are shared by me, my in-laws, husband and my children. This helps us to give that extra time to my daughter who needs special care. My mother-in-law sees to it that I get adequate rest and I eat on time. There are days she gives me a break with my husband and manages my kids. My family is my biggest support. I am cheerful and so is my child.”
6. Professionals as an important support
Professionals working with special children can support parents for all the factors discussed above. Interactions with professionals highlight that it is important to assess the needs of the family, available resources and support systems and make a tailor-made plan for each family. This will aid in identifying additional support and services crucial to improve the family’s capacity to meet the developmental needs of the child and maintain family equilibrium. Research demonstrates that clients, along with what they bring to the session, are responsible for the success of counseling. So, understanding parents and their situations become important. Reflections from parent-counselor interactions as well as personal experiences of parents serve as a resource for developing, at times, unconventional styles of coping, based on ‘practice-based evidence’ as suggested by Egan and Reese [17].
Special schools with trained and sensitive professionals can ease the emotional strain of parents. Some schools take help from parents to speak about their experiences. These parents are trained to support other parents, who feel dejected with their child’s diagnosis/disability.
Parent’s Voice
“My child’s school introduced me to a positive child, who is smiling despite his immobility and dependency on people around. He is dependent even to meet his basic needs. I was made to hear through his mother and how she is cheerful herself and could bring smile in all children in the special school. Here I learned to give space to every child and accept them as they are. Now I am not only able to accept my son with his diagnosis, but also give space to my daughter who is a normal child. My son taught me parenting and that helped me to nurture my daughter better. Parents usually decide what is good for the child, get good marks, do this do that … my daughter is beyond all these. She is never worried for exams/marks, yet does so well in school. As a family, we are very cheerful. Thanks to the school and ‘that’ parent.”
There are professional helpers to assist parents, who want to come to grips with problems in living with a special child. Every child is unique and so the requirements of parents are also unique. Parents need help in understanding the child’s needs and managing them effectively, which can be achieved through counseling, family education and skilled training. Previous research also confirms that early intervention and psychosocial assistance are crucial protective factors [18]. Counseling parents soon after the diagnosis is made can work positively on the family’s belief systems. The ability to clarify and give meaning to a crisis is crucial for coping and family resilience. Counseling can strengthen family bonding and improve adaptability and flexibility in members, which will equip them to manage change. Family therapy can also aim at effective communication between family members and conflict resolution.
Often, parents require practical, informational, and educational support as soon as the diagnosis is given. Parents benefit from factual information about the causes of disability and ways of accessing resources to manage their child. Information support and services to locate professional services, including what can be expected from these services, are mandatory information parents need access to. Every state administration needs to have educational training platforms, which can be made available for all parents coming with concerns. With current technology, online programs, which are self-paced, can be made available to disseminate this information. Information regarding special schools in the locality, respite care services for parents who need a breather, and daycare programs for grown-up children can be made available. Services for children with disabilities are strongly influenced by government legislation. Professionals who work with special children need to keep themselves updated with the current government norms.
Proficiency in handling special children comes with skilled training, which introduces behavior management strategies. Parents and professionals need to work in unison.
Parent’s Voice
“I learned from my therapist that whatever I do with my son like helping him to manage routine or feeding, I need to do it with love and care. Also not to think of it as a task that takes 40 minutes, one hour and it is over. It should not be a monotonous therapy. My son needs repetition and I need to do it without feeling the tension that I have to do this … Always I see to it that I am happy doing that. My child takes more than an hour to eat. As guided by my therapist, I eat first before feeding him. so I am not hungry while feeding”.
Professional support is mandatory to deal with emotions. Parent programs can help parents in dealing with stress, grief, guilt, fears and anxiety. Coping skills can be easily discussed once the emotional pain is handled. Changes in the emotional state affect the quality of parenting. Parents getting professional training, like cognitive-behavioral therapy and behavior management skills, help them cope with negative thoughts and non-productive behavior. Importance of parental programs has always been recommended in previous research [19]. Stress management interventions are found to effectively reduce the reported stress [20, 21]. Interventions of longer durations and addressing parental concerns and parenting skills have a greater impact. It can be confirmed that working with parents is a fundamental part of intervention for special children compared to letting parents working with the child alone.
Group counseling can be an excellent platform that enables parents to realize that they are not alone. Topics addressing the needs of both the child and parents are beneficial. These meetings can give parents the opportunity to develop a personal support network. Trained moderators are required to help parents handle their emotional well-being. Parents need space to vent out their anger and frustration. Group work, with a skilled professional, can address and alleviate emotional pain.
Some special schools have initiated parent support groups. As the child passes through various stages, parents need a platform to share and learn from other parents. Parents report that these support groups are seen as a place to share their fears and find alternative solutions to their current concerns. It is a platform for parents to share feelings and ideas, where they can do physical exercises, yoga and pursue their hobbies with their children. It is a place where everyone can come together to pray to handle negativity. Some of these parent groups have started programs to make their children financially independent. Pickle making, painting, printing, making handmade artifacts are some of the extension activities done by these support groups. Some cities in India have eat-out joints started by special children with the support of dedicated parents and Non-Government Organizations working for a social cause.
Professional assistance is required to address the special educational needs of the child. Special programs are required to address these needs, through the involvement of parents and professionals.
Parent’s Voice
“For others my daughter is dependent, but for me she is in the process of being independent. She started eating on her own! She has learned to button her shirt, she can signal me now if she wants to use the toilet! When she eats alone, I don’t see how much she spilled, I see how much she could eat without getting tired. She started enjoying music, can sway her head with the rhythm, started smiling more often and responds when called … my daughter is showing great improvement. I won’t be talking to you this way if I had not met my daughter’s special teacher. She is teaching her to be independent so patiently and also helping me identify her progress. This professional is amazing!”
Special kids, who cannot handle sexual feelings, may require a psycho-educational approach to help them handle these feelings. Other emotional concerns like depression may require cognitive or behavioral interventions. Role play and psychodrama are used for kids who need to own up or take responsibility for their actions and eventually be more independent.
Parent’s Voice
“She is differently abled; her comprehension about worldly matters is poor. Her behavior bothers me, at times. She is hyper, stubborn … she is 15 now. I recently realized that she is attracted to the opposite sex, something which happened in the school bus (parents shared the incident). I was upset, too emotional to handle but the therapist handled it well. She spoke to her like a 15-year-old; she educated her … , explained to her without accusing and accepting her completely. Therapy to handle developmental changes is important. I am lucky to have the best one in the city to work with my daughter. I feel relieved.”
Professional’s Voice
“When I joined as a special educator in a regular school, I was asked to work with this girl with cerebral palsy. She was 7yrs old and got admission in this school with the class of 40 children – The so called ‘normal’ students. All her class mates were less than 5yrs old. With the support of class teacher, I made her pair up with one student in class each day. This friend assisted her to carry her bag, supported her with worksheet, played with her in class while others went to ground. This friend ate with her in class and sat next to her the whole day. Not only my special girl felt happy and confident, the whole class was proud and confident in assisting her. Currently she has cleared her 1oth grade in flying colors. Her class mates were together in this journey. This class is known to be the most sensitive student group according to teachers. These students not only cared for their classmate but also were sensitive to all those needed support”.
This beautiful example highlights the role of professionals in not only supporting children with disability but also sensitizing the community. The point to be noted here is the trust placed on inclusion. Inclusion need to address infrastructural needs, curriculum development, suitable evaluation system and teacher training. Special educators have a major role to play in providing instruction tailored to meet the needs of the students. Diversity is a fact and inclusion is an art to support special children. Right for education is for all and cannot be denied due to any reason. Decisions about who can be educated or rehabilitated should not depend on classification systems. The classification systems will not provide the necessary information or guidance to understand child’s learning pace.
There is hope with new education policy. The primary emphasis of education policy in India is to improve the quality of education for all. The Mental health care act, 2017 [22] and The Rights of Persons with Disabilities Act, 2016 [22] ensures every person have a right to live life with dignity and should not being discriminated. The New Education Policy [23] had come with more hope to children with special needs. The policy asserts that children with disabilities will have opportunities for equal participation across the educational system. Special schools will be known as alternate schools which will be equipped with trained staff to address children’s educational and emotional needs. The need for humanizing education, encouraging self confidence and motivation in children with special needs is the need of the hour. This has come as a respite for parents and educators who were voicing the concerns since two decades.
Rehabilitation counseling, a specialty in the counseling profession, is particularly focused on serving individuals with disabilities [24]. These specialized counselors are not only aware of medical terminology related to a child’s condition and its impact, but are also trained in skills to help the child and parents. They play a decisive role in the rehabilitation of these children towards independent living and employment, wherever possible. They are trained to do personal counseling to assist children in making social and emotional adjustments to their environment. They assist parents with educational and training resources. The recent polices bring hope to the system and the role professionals have in execution of this policies is incredible.
7. Conclusion
Indian culture emphasizes the crucial role of family in the child’s development. This is more pronounced in the case of family with special children, who require constant guidance and support. Parents can go through phases of denial, self-blame and stigma that prevent them from taking support for effective guidance of their child. Unrealistic expectations and anxiety about the future adds to the burden. Research suggests that adaptation by the family is based on the interaction between the stress experienced and the available coping resources.
It is the role of the professionals who work with these children to support parents and families to adapt and come out resilient. Families who emerge as resilient can be used as role models in the helping process. It is important for professionals to work on the family belief systems and nullify negative evaluations. The ability to clarify and give meaning to a crisis is crucial for resilience. Strengthening family bonding and identifying support systems outside the family can be another area professionals can work on.
Acknowledgments
The author sincerely thanks the parents, professionals and school authorities, who have shared their time and experience for the purpose of this project.
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Defining resilience, as the ability of individuals to navigate their way to psychological, social, cultural, and physical resources in a culturally meaningful way to sustain their wellbeing, will be more meaningful in the Indian context. Factors leading to parental resilience are explored in the context of Indian society, with specific reference to Mumbai city, where the research has been done. 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Resilient parenting and factors that support coping",level:"1"},{id:"sec_6",title:"6. Professionals as an important support",level:"1"},{id:"sec_7",title:"7. Conclusion",level:"1"},{id:"sec_8",title:"Acknowledgments",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Hitlin, S., and Elder, G. H. (2007). Time, self, and the curiously abstract concept of agency*. Sociological Theory, 25(2), 170-191. DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9558.2007.00303.x'},{id:"B2",body:'Luthar, S. S. (2006). Resilience in development: A synthesis of research across five decades. In D. Cicchetti and D. J. Cohen (Eds.), Developmental psychopathology: Vol. 3. Theory and method (2nd ed., pp. 739-795). New York: Wiley'},{id:"B3",body:'Seltzer, M. M., Greenberg, J. S., Flovd, F. I., Pettee, Y., and Hong, J. (2001). Life course impacts of parenting a child with a disability. American Journal on Mental Retardation, 106(3), 265-286. DOI:10.1352/0895-8017(2001)106<0265percent3ALCIOPA>2.0.COpercent3B2'},{id:"B4",body:'Baker, B. 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Primary and secondary effects of parenting and stress management interventions for parents of children with developmental disabilities: A meta-analysis. Mental Retardation and Developmental Disabilities Research Reviews, 13(4), 357-369'},{id:"B20",body:'Lindo, E. J., Kliemann, K. R., Combes, B. H., and Frank, J. (2016). Managing stress levels of parents of children with developmental disabilities: A meta-analytic review of interventions. Family Relations, 65(1), 207-224'},{id:"B21",body:'Benn, R., Akiva, T., Arel, S., and Roeser, R. W. (2012). Mindfulness training effects for parents and educators of children with special needs. Developmental psychology, 48(5), 1476-1487 DOI:10.1037/a0027537'},{id:"B22",body:'The Gazette of India (2017). 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1. Introduction
Instrumentation and control system (I&C) plays a vital role in the field of the nuclear industry. Nowadays I&C systems are embedded into the nuclear power plant (NPP) operation and reliability. Each component of NPP, such as transformers, valves, circuit breakers, heat exchangers. is equipped with digital I&C system whose reliability plays a vital role to avoid any accidents. Because these components are safety-critical systems (SCS) whose failure may cause huge losses in the form of economic loss, human resource damage, and environmental loss. As instrumentation and control systems are the important and first layer of safety, reliability, and stability in the NPP [1] that is the reason, it is essential to ensure the reliability of such a safety system. With, the introduction of digital control systems in the last few decades where the reliability of digital I&C must not be degraded. Therefore, researchers are rigorously working to address the dependability of the system. The dependability includes reliability, safety analysis, performance, and availability attributes that are ultimately related to security. The model checking may be used to various issues, which can lead to spurious actuation of the I&C system [2]. The transformation from analog to digital I&C safety systems added new challenges for researchers as well as software developers to deliver correct software reliability [3]. Based on this software experts could take essential steps early in the design phase of software by avoiding failures in I&C of NPP. The cyberattack occurred in the I&C system in the Iranian Bushehr nuclear power plant, where configure was destroyed by malicious code [4]. Therefore, it is essential to I&C systems required having secure and reliable to avoid any kind of attacks causing major accidents. Many researchers have put efforts to address the reliability analysis on such systems using various techniques, such as fault tree analysis (FTA), reliability block diagram (RBD), Bayesian network, etc.
This work proposes the reliability analysis of instrumentation and control system (I&C) of NPP using stochastic Petri net (SPN).
The organization of this paper is as follows. In Section 2, our focus is on the related work of the proposed work. In Section 3, we discuss the background and mathematical fundamentals. In Section 4, proposes the framework of the proposed method. In Section 5, the case study of the proposed work. In Section 6, reliability analysis of the proposed work. In Section 7, the validation part is covered. In Section 8, the conclusion is made with future work.
2. Related work
Zeller et al. [5] proposed a combined approach of Markov chain and component fault tree to analyze the complex software-controlled system in the automotive domain. The authors have addressed safety and reliability in modular form. However, authors have missed to validate the result and failed to express reliability accuracy in percentage.
Nidhin et al. [6] presented a survey for understanding radiation effects in SRAM-based FPGAs for implementing I&C of NPP. Authors have found that for implementing NPP with I&C in SRAM-based FPGAs, the effect of radiation issue is a major concern. To reduce radiation-related issues some components, which have SRAM-based FPGAs, must keep outside of reactor containment building (RCB). However, the authors have failed to discuss the case study.
Jia et al. [7] proposed an approach for the identification of vulnerabilities present in elements that affect the reliability of digital instrumentation and control system (DI&C) software life cycle using Bayesian network. A reliability demonstration of safety-critical software (RDSS) integrates the claim-argument-evidence (CAE) and sensitivity to estimate the reliability of the system. However, there is a limitation with BN that has no time constraints and dynamic property. Authors have missed addressing the reliability with validation from the real-time dataset.
Rejzek and Hilbes [8] proposed system-theoretic process analysis (STPA) for design verification and risk analysis of digital I&C of NPP. This method is considered as a prominent approach for analysis of the I&C system theoretically as the authors claim. However, the authors are not very much sure, that method correct result.
Torkey et al. [9] proposed a reliability improvement framework of the digital reactor protection system by transforming reliability block diagram to Bayesian belief network (BBN). The proposed method gives the highest availability as a result and found some modules are riskier than others of I&C. However, authors claim that it gives the highest availability but missed to validate the result with real-time data.
Kumar et al. [3] proposed a framework for predicting the reliability of the safety-critical and control system using the Bayesian update methodology. The authors have validated the result with real-time data of 12 safety-critical control systems of NPP. However, the result obtained is purely based on the failure data, if failure data is unavailable then it is difficult to predict the reliability.
Mamdikar et al. [10] devise a framework for reliability analysis, performance analysis that maps unified modified language (UML) to Petri net. The proposed framework is validated with 32 safety-critical systems of NPP. However, Petri net has a state space explosion problem as a system grows gradually, so it is not a generalized approach.
Nayak et al. [11] proposed a methodology called assessment of passive system reliability (APSRA) is used to estimate the reliability of the passive isolation condenser system of the Indian advanced heavy water reactor (AHWR). In this methodology, reliability is estimated through PSA treatment using generic data of the component. A classical fault tree analysis is used to find the root cause of the critical parameter, which leads to failure. However, the authors have failed to validate the result.
Kumar et al. [12] proposed a safety analysis framework that maps UML into the state-space model as Petri net of the safety-critical system of NPP. In this methodology, the result is validated on 29 different safety-critical systems of NPP. However, the authors have used Petri net that has a state space explosion problem.
Tripathi et al. [13] proposed a noble methodology dynamic reliability analysis of the passive decay heat removal system of NPP using Petri net. The authors have validated the estimated reliability based on the data available using fault tree analysis. Most of the system does not have such type data, and then it is difficult to validate the result with missing failure data. Therefore, this methodology may not applicable for every safety-critical system of NPP.
Buzhinsky and Pakonen [14] proposed an automated symmetry breaking approach for checking failure tolerance of I&C system. With this method a fewer failure combination has to be checked. The complex structure paired with various specifications has to be checked under failure assumptions, which is the limitation of this work.
Singh et al. [15] proposed a system modeling strategy for design verification of I&C of nuclear power plant using Petri net and converting PN into Markov chain. In this approach, verification is validated on real-time data. However, Petri net has a state-space explosion problem, in such circumstances, it is difficult to handle complex systems, which is the limitation of the work.
Xi et al. [16] proposed a test strategy based on the random selection of logic path by which provides reliability estimation and is used for control system testing in digital control software systems in the NPP. However, the authors have not been addressed and validated the reliability evaluation.
Bao et al. [17] proposed hazard analysis for identifying common cause failure of digital I&C using redundancy guided system in NPP. To conduct using redundancy guided systems, theoretic hazard analysis a modularized approach was applied. This method is helpful to remove casual effects of potential single points of failure that exist in I&C. However, authors have missed addressing the reliability analysis using this methodology in NPP.
Gupta et al. [1] proposed a method for stability analysis and steady-state analysis of the safety system of NPP using Petri net. The stability and steady-state were estimated and validated, however, authors have missed estimating reliability. The authors have to correlate stability with reliability. Further, this methodology is applicable only for discrete-time systems.
3. Background and mathematical fundamentals
This section consists of background and mathematical fundamentals to carry out reliability analysis of instrumentation and control system: a case study of nuclear power plant.
3.1 Petri net
A Petri net (PN) is mathematically defined 5-tuple PN=PTFWM0 where P the finite is set places, T is a finite set of transitions, F is a finite set of arcs also referred to as flow relation, i.e., F⊆P×T∪T×P, W:F⟶123…. is the weight function, and M0 is the initial marking M0:P⟶0123….. P∩T=∅ and P∩T≠∅. If the Petri net does not have an initial marking, it is denoted as N=PTFW with an initial marking denoted by NM0. A simple example of the PN is shown in Figure 1.
The marking changes in the Petri net as per the transition firing are as follows:
A transition in the enable mode when each input place of p of t is marked with at least wpt tokens.
An enabled transition is not necessarily fired.
A firing of enabled transition removes tokens from the input place and deposited in the output place.
3.2 Stochastic Petri net
A stochastic Petri net (SPN) is the extension of Petri net. In SPN, each transition is associated with a time delay that is an exponentially distributed random variable that expresses delay denoted bySPN=PTFWM0.
3.3 Reachability
Reachability is the fundamental study of the dynamic property of the system. A marking Mn is said to be reachable from another marking M1 if there exists a firing sequence that transforms Mn to M1 such that∂=M1t0M2t1M3….tnMn.
3.4 Reachability graph and Markov chain (MC)
A marking M is reachable from the initial marking M0 if there exists a firing ∂ that brings back from the initial state of PN to a state that corresponds to M0.
The Markov chain (MC) is the Markov process with discrete state space. The MC is obtained from the reachability graph of the SPN. Let SPN be the reversible, i.e., M0∈RMi for every Mi in RM0, then the SPN generates an ergodic continuous time Markov chain (CTMC) and it is possible to compute the steady-state probability distribution ∏ by solving the following (Eq. (1)) and (Eq. (2)).
∑∏Q=1E1
∑i=1sπi=1E2
Where, πi is the probability being in the state Mi and ∏=π1π2…πs.
4. Framework of the proposed method
The proposed framework has six steps shown in Figure 2. Step 1—based on the system requirement we model the stochastic Petri net.
Figure 1.
Simple Petri net.
In step 2—by executing the PN model, we generate possible tangible states. Based on the tangible states, we construct the reachability graph in step 3. In step 4—obtained Markov chain form reachability, the graph of SPN. In step 5, we estimate the reliability of the ISO system. In step 6, we validate the result with real-time operation data of NPP.
5. Case study: Isolation condenser system (ISO)
The isolation condenser system simply referred to as ISO is a standby high-pressure system that removes residual and decay heat from the reactor vessel in the event of a scram signal in which the reactor becomes isolated from the main condenser, or if any other high-pressure condition exists. The schematic diagram is shown in Figure 3. The ISO system transfers residual and decays heat from the reactor coolant to the water in the shell side of the isolation condenser resulting in steam generation (SG). The steam generated in the shell side of the isolation condenser is then vented to the outside atmosphere. During the normal operation, the ISO system is in standby mode. During the standby mode, the steam isolation valves (VS1 and VS2) are open because the condenser tube bundles are at the reactor pressure. The condensate is built in the condenser and condensate by returning pipe. The condensate is stopped from a return back to the reactor by closing the condensate return valve (VC2). The condensate valve (VC1) is open at the stand-by condition and vent valves (VV) at main steam lines normally open to vent noncondensable gases from ISO. The makeup water must be provided to prevent uncovering the condenser tubes that are the combination of firewater and condensate using makeup water valve (VW) normally closed at standby mode. The water inventory on the shell side of the condenser will provide heat removal for between 20 and 90 minutes depending on the plant design, at which time makeup water must be provided to prevent uncovering the condenser tubes. On the shell side of the condenser, the water inventory will be provided for the heat removal between 20 to 90 minutes. At which time water makeup has to be provided to prevent uncovering the condenser system tubes (Figure 3).
Figure 2.
Proposed framework of the system.
Figure 3.
Schematic diagram of isolation condenser system.
The ISO system may be initiated manually, or automatically initiated on high reactor pressure or low reactor pressure. On the initiation of ISO, one of the condensate return valves (VC2) opens and the vent valve (VV) gets closed. The steam flows from the reactor vessel to steam isolation valves (VS1 and VS2). The steam gets condensed in condenser tube bundles and condensed steam returns to the reactor vessel (VC2 and VC2) with help of a recirculation pump. The boiled-off water is replaced by the condensate transfer system or the firewater system. The ISO system is designed in such a way that, the system automatically gets isolated from the reactor pressure vessel in the event of a system pipe break. All the valves are closed automatically (VS1, VS2, VC2, VC2, and VV) in the event of low differential pressure exceeds three times the normal flow value. This isolation will mitigate the loss of water inventory. The ISO system instrumentation and control consists of initiation and containment isolation circuitry [18]. These circuits provide different functions, both of which are important to system reliability. The entire system is operating in a closed-loop manner.
6. Proposed framework of approach
To estimate the reliability by our approach of the ISO which consist of six steps as shown in Figure 2 as described step by step as follows:
6.1 PN model generation
In this phase, we construct the PN model of ISO system based on system requirements and specifications. As several researchers have proposed methods [19], based on that we generated a PN model. Based on functional requirements, the activity involves the PN generation to identify the places and transitions of the case study: ISO system. The identified places and transitions as illustrated in Table 1.
Places
Description
Transitions
Description
P0
Sensors detect trip
T0
Sensors detects initial condition
P1
Initial signal generated
T1
Triggers VV valve close and VV valve close
P2
Initial condition holds
T2
IC loop triggers
P3
Initial condition forwards
T3
Triggers VV valve open and VV valve close
P4
IC loop activated
T4
Triggers Vs1 valve and Vs2 valve open
P5
Vc2 valve close
T5
Send signal to Vw valve open
P6
Vc1 valve open
T6
Triggers Vw valve open
P7
VV valve close
T7
Reset
P8
Vs1 valve open
T8
Reset of AC loss
P9
Vs2 valve open
T9
Reset of restoration
P10
Level measure makeup
P11
Vw valve open
P12
Reset
Table 1.
ISO places and transitions based on function specification.
Thereafter, we use the TimeNet4.5 [20] tool for SPN creation. Then we assign the transition delay to the transition based on the system requirement. To get throughput values of transition stationary analysis was performed in the TimeNet tool as shown in Table 2.
Transition
Rate
Symbol
Throughput value
T0
1 ms
λ0
0.26966908
T1
1 ms
λ1
0.10385724
T2
1 ms
λ2
0.28610826
T3
1 ms
λ3
0.1771261
T4
1 ms
λ4
0.08883328
T5
1 ms
λ5
0.09000000
T6
1 ms
λ6
0.03244971
T7
1 ms
λ7
0.06681974
T8
1 ms
λ8
0.03152016
T9
1 ms
λ9
0.03244971
Table 2.
ISO throughput values.
The PN model was generated using TimeNet tools shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4.
PN model of ISO.
6.2 Tangible states and reachability graph creation
Tangible states are those for timed transitions [21], since we used SPN so there are e tangible states with markings as shown in Table 3.
States
Marking
Tangible
M0
1,000,000,000,000
Yes
M1
0100000000000
Yes
M2
0000010011100
Yes
M3
0000010000011
Yes
M4
0000001000000
Yes
M5
0000000100000
Yes
M6
0000100000000
Yes
M7
0010000000000
Yes
M8
0001000000000
Yes
Table 3.
ISO tangible states with markings of PN.
Based on the tangible states of the PN a reachability graph of the PN (Figure 4) can be obtained as shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5.
Reachability graph.
6.3 Markov chain model creation
The MC model shown in Figure 6 is obtained from the reachability graph of the PN shown in Figure 4.
Figure 6.
Markov chain.
With the help of Q which is transition probability matrix, the transition probability Pij of MC can be computed from SPN. For the transition matrix Q, transitionrate qij is the transition of one state to another states unit/per time, therefore we take the ratio of the transition qij and the transition rate of the states sum must be zero. The diagonal elements can be defined as:
qii=−∑j≠iqijE3
It is clear that the system is no ergodic, therefore, Pij will be zero and defined as:
Pij=qij∑k≠iqik,ifk≠i0,otherwiseE4
P=I−dQ−1Q, where dQ=diaQdiagonal matrix ofQ.
The transition matrix is given in Eq. (5) as follows:
Now we solve Eq. (5) to get the design metrics and it seriousness of the NPP as defined in Eq. (6). We solve the Eq. (6) then we get the following linear equations.
Let pit be the probability which component in state at time t is i. When components execute for t→∞ then probability leads to the stationary distribution. Then probability is defined as:
pM0pM1pM2pM3pM4pM5pM6pM7pM8p→E18
∑iϵMpi=1E19
ReliISOest=1−∑iϵ6MiE20
There is only one failure state M6 in MC. Now we solve the linear equation Eqs. (7)-(16) and Eq. (17) using the standard method, we get steady-state probability of each state as follows:
In section, we compute the rate of failure to ensure the result experimentally of the proposed framework and follow the six steps for reliability estimation [10, 22]. We divide the entire input class into several subclass and for estimating reliability following equation required as:
Rt=∑i=16hiniPeiE22
Pei is the probability specified from input operation data. ni is the number of trials from each comparable class. hi is a number of trial cases that are failed.
To estimate the actual reliability Table 4 data will be used.
Hence, the accuracy of proposed reliability computed of proposed framework is 100−error%=98.4201% that indicates the validation of our work.
8. Conclusion
The proposed method is centered technique for computing reliability of instrumentation and control system of the safety-critical system of NPP. We have validated the result with operational and found accuracy with 98.4201%. With this method, software designers take necessary preventive measures early design phase to avoid any kind of failure.
\n',keywords:"reliability, control system, nuclear power plant, isolation condenser system",chapterPDFUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/79512.pdf",chapterXML:"https://mts.intechopen.com/source/xml/79512.xml",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/79512",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/79512",totalDownloads:86,totalViews:0,totalCrossrefCites:0,dateSubmitted:"September 2nd 2021",dateReviewed:"October 6th 2021",datePrePublished:"November 30th 2021",datePublished:null,dateFinished:"November 30th 2021",readingETA:"0",abstract:"Instrumentation and control system (I&Cs) plays a key role in nuclear power plants (NPP) whose failure may cause the major issue in a form of accidents, hazardous radiations, and environmental loss. That is why importantly ensure the reliability of such system in NPP. In this proposed method, we effectively analyze the reliability of the instrumentation and control system. An isolation condenser system of nuclear power plant is taken as a case study to show the analysis. The methodology includes the dynamic behavior of the system using Petri net. The proposed method is validated on operation data of NPP.",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",bibtexUrl:"/chapter/bibtex/79512",risUrl:"/chapter/ris/79512",signatures:"Mohan Rao Mamdikar, Vinay Kumar and Pooja Singh",book:{id:"10982",type:"book",title:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",subtitle:null,fullTitle:"Nuclear Reactors - Spacecraft Propulsion, Research Reactors, and Reactor Analysis Topics",slug:null,publishedDate:null,bookSignature:"Prof. Chad L. Pope",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10982.jpg",licenceType:"CC BY 3.0",editedByType:null,isbn:"978-1-83969-940-5",printIsbn:"978-1-83969-939-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83969-941-2",isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,editors:[{id:"324562",title:"Prof.",name:"Chad L.",middleName:null,surname:"Pope",slug:"chad-l.-pope",fullName:"Chad L. Pope"}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},authors:null,sections:[{id:"sec_1",title:"1. Introduction",level:"1"},{id:"sec_2",title:"2. Related work",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3",title:"3. Background and mathematical fundamentals",level:"1"},{id:"sec_3_2",title:"3.1 Petri net",level:"2"},{id:"sec_4_2",title:"3.2 Stochastic Petri net",level:"2"},{id:"sec_5_2",title:"3.3 Reachability",level:"2"},{id:"sec_6_2",title:"3.4 Reachability graph and Markov chain (MC)",level:"2"},{id:"sec_8",title:"4. Framework of the proposed method",level:"1"},{id:"sec_9",title:"5. Case study: Isolation condenser system (ISO)",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10",title:"6. Proposed framework of approach",level:"1"},{id:"sec_10_2",title:"6.1 PN model generation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_11_2",title:"6.2 Tangible states and reachability graph creation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_12_2",title:"6.3 Markov chain model creation",level:"2"},{id:"sec_13_2",title:"6.4 Reliability analysis of proposed framework",level:"2"},{id:"sec_15",title:"7. Validation of proposed framework",level:"1"},{id:"sec_16",title:"8. Conclusion",level:"1"}],chapterReferences:[{id:"B1",body:'Gupta B, Singh P, Singh L. Stability and steady state analysis of control and safety systems of nuclear power plants. Annals of Nuclear Energy. 2020;147:107676'},{id:"B2",body:'Pakonen A, Buzhinsky I, Björkman K. Model checking reveals design issues leading to spurious actuation of nuclear instrumentation and control systems. Reliability Engineering and System Safety. 2021;205:107237'},{id:"B3",body:'Kumar P, Singh LK, Kumar C. Software reliability analysis for safety-critical and control systems. Quality and Reliability Engineering International. 2020;36(1):340-353'},{id:"B4",body:'Chung M, Ahn W, Min B, Seo J, Moon J. An analytical method for developing appropriate protection profiles of instrumentation & control system for nuclear power plants. The Journal of Supercomputing. 2018;74(5):1-16'},{id:"B5",body:'Zeller M, Montrone F. Combination of component fault trees and Markov chains to analyze complex, software-controlled systems. In: 2018 3rd International Conference on System Reliability and Safety (ICSRS). 23-25 November 2018; 2019. pp. 13-20'},{id:"B6",body:'Nidhin TS, Bhattacharyya A, Behera RP, Jayanthi T, Velusamy K. Understanding radiation effects in SRAM-based FPGAs for implementing instrumentation and control systems of nuclear power plants. Nuclear Engineering and Technology. 2017;49:1589-1599'},{id:"B7",body:'Jia G, Ming Y, Bowen Z, Yuxin Z, Jun Y, Xinyu D. Annals of nuclear energy nuclear safety-critical digital instrumentation and control system software: Reliability demonstration. Annals of Nuclear Energy. 2018;120:516-527'},{id:"B8",body:'Rejzek M, Hilbes C. Use of STPA as a diverse analysis method for optimization and design verification of digital instrumentation and control systems in nuclear power plants. Nuclear Engineering and Design. 2018;331:125-135'},{id:"B9",body:'Torkey H, Saber AS, Shaat MK, El-Sayed A, Shouman MA. Bayesian belief-based model for reliability improvement of the digital reactor protection system. Nuclear Science and Techniques. 2020;31(10):1-19'},{id:"B10",body:'Mamdikar MR, Kumar V, Singh P, Singh L. Reliability and performance analysis of safety-critical system using transformation of UML into state space models. Annals of Nuclear Energy. 2020;146:107628'},{id:"B11",body:'Nayak AK et al. Reliability assessment of passive isolation condenser system of AHWR using APSRA methodology. Reliability Engineering & System Safety. 2009;94:1064-1075'},{id:"B12",body:'Kumar V, Singh LK, Singh P, Singh KV, Maurya AK, Tripathi AK. Parameter estimation for quantitative dependability analysis of safety-critical and control systems of NPP. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science. 2018;65(5):1080-1090'},{id:"B13",body:'Tripathi AM, Singh BLK, Singh CS. Dynamic reliability analysis framework for passive safety systems of nuclear power plant. Annals of Nuclear Energy. 2020;140:107139'},{id:"B14",body:'Buzhinsky I, Pakonen A. Symmetry breaking in model checking of fault-tolerant nuclear instrumentation and control systems. IEEE Access. 2020;8:197684-197694'},{id:"B15",body:'Singh LK, Vinod G, Tripathi AK. Design verification of instrumentation and control systems of nuclear power plants. IEEE Transactions on Nuclear Science. 2014;61(2):921-930'},{id:"B16",body:'Xi W, Liu W, Bai T, Ye W, Shi J. An automation test strategy based on real platform for digital control system software in nuclear power plant. Energy Reports. 2020;6:580-587'},{id:"B17",body:'Bao H, Shorthill T, Zhang H. Hazard analysis for identifying common cause failures of digital safety systems using a redundancy-guided systems-theoretic approach. Annals of Nuclear Energy. 2020;148:107686'},{id:"B18",body:'Kvarfordt KJ, Schroeder JA, Wierman TE. System study: Isolation condenser 1998–2018. December 2019'},{id:"B19",body:'Murata T. Petri nets: Properties, analysis and applications. Proceedings of the IEEE. 2015;77(4):541-580'},{id:"B20",body:'Zimmermann A, German R. Petri Net Modelling and Performability Evaluation with TimeNET 3.0. 2000. pp. 188-202'},{id:"B21",body:'Akharware N, Miee M, editors. PIPE2: Platform Independent Petri Net Editor. 2005'},{id:"B22",body:'Brown JR, Lipow M. Testing for software reliability. ACM SIGPLAN Notices. 1975;10(6):518-527'}],footnotes:[],contributors:[{corresp:null,contributorFullName:"Mohan Rao Mamdikar",address:null,affiliation:'
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The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"59212",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73864",title:"Insect Conservation for the Twenty-First Century",slug:"insect-conservation-for-the-twenty-first-century",totalDownloads:1968,totalCrossrefCites:7,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Insects have been immensely successful as an animal group. They dominate compositional diversity of all but the saltiest and coldest parts of the planet. Yet today insects are declining at a precipitous rate. This is of great concern in terms of impoverishment of Earth, and is also dire for us. Insects contribute to the maintenance of terrestrial and freshwater systems, their service delivery and their resilience. The meteoric impact of humans is challenging this dominance, yet so few people realize that the very fabric of life on which they depend is being unraveled at an alarming rate. Action is required, as are new perspectives, if we are to maintain insect diversity and services through the twenty-first century. Here, we review how we should view and act to have more effective insect diversity conservation based on six themes: (1) philosophy (establishing the ethical foundation), (2) research (the finding out), (3) policy (the framework for action), (4) psychology (understanding how to engage humans in insect conservation action), (5) practice (implementation of action), and (6) validation (establishing how well we are doing at conserving insects). We then overview some emergent challenges and solutions at both the species and landscape operational levels in agricultural, forestry, and urban environments.",book:{id:"6619",slug:"insect-science-diversity-conservation-and-nutrition",title:"Insect Science",fullTitle:"Insect Science-Diversity, Conservation and Nutrition"},signatures:"Michael J. Samways",authors:[{id:"233323",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Samways",slug:"michael-samways",fullName:"Michael Samways"}]},{id:"79121",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100416",title:"Botanical Insecticides Are a Non-Toxic Alternative to Conventional Pesticides in the Control of Insects and Pests",slug:"botanical-insecticides-are-a-non-toxic-alternative-to-conventional-pesticides-in-the-control-of-inse",totalDownloads:270,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:11,abstract:"Insect control for crops is one of the most critical global concerns. Pest management is an economic and ecological problem worldwide due to the human and environmental risks raised by most synthetic pesticide products. Botanical insecticides have resurfaced in popularity due to their low cost and low environmental impact, rather than their negative effects on human health. Botanical insecticides destroy only the insects they are meant to kill, leaving no residue on food or in the environment. Botanicals have long been used to combat pests. The compounds have many environmental advantages. However, as opposed to other bio-control pests and pathogens, their use was minimal during the twentieth century. In developing countries, botanical insecticides are well adapted for use in organic food production. Nonetheless, they may play a far bigger role in developed countries’ food production and post-harvest food protection. Consequently, the current chapter briefly addresses botanicals with active ingredients with insecticidal, antifeedant, or repellent properties.",book:{id:"10739",slug:"global-decline-of-insects",title:"Global Decline of Insects",fullTitle:"Global Decline of Insects"},signatures:"Nazeer Ahmed, Mukhtar Alam, Muhammad Saeed, Hidayat Ullah, Toheed Iqbal, Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi, Kiran Shahjeer, Rafi Ullah, Saeed Ahmed, Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed, Hanem Fathy Khater and Muhammad Salman",authors:[{id:"97300",title:"Prof.",name:"Khalid Awadh",middleName:"Al-Mutairi",surname:"Al-Mutairi",slug:"khalid-awadh-al-mutairi",fullName:"Khalid Awadh Al-Mutairi"},{id:"191884",title:"Dr.",name:"Toheed",middleName:null,surname:"Iqbal",slug:"toheed-iqbal",fullName:"Toheed Iqbal"},{id:"263876",title:"Dr.",name:"Hidayat",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"hidayat-ullah",fullName:"Hidayat Ullah"},{id:"263877",title:"Dr.",name:"Mukhtar",middleName:null,surname:"Alam",slug:"mukhtar-alam",fullName:"Mukhtar Alam"},{id:"355528",title:"Dr.",name:"Nazeer",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"nazeer-ahmed",fullName:"Nazeer Ahmed"},{id:"420069",title:"Mrs.",name:"Kiran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahjeer",slug:"kiran-shahjeer",fullName:"Kiran Shahjeer"},{id:"420070",title:"Mr.",name:"Saeed",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"saeed-ahmed",fullName:"Saeed Ahmed"},{id:"420221",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Saeed",slug:"muhammad-saeed",fullName:"Muhammad Saeed"},{id:"420222",title:"Dr.",name:"Rafi",middleName:null,surname:"Ullah",slug:"rafi-ullah",fullName:"Rafi Ullah"},{id:"436507",title:"Dr.",name:"Nibal Abd Aleem",middleName:null,surname:"Hassan Ahmed",slug:"nibal-abd-aleem-hassan-ahmed",fullName:"Nibal Abd Aleem Hassan Ahmed"},{id:"436596",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:null,surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater"},{id:"485113",title:"Dr.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Salman",slug:"muhammad-salman",fullName:"Muhammad Salman"}]},{id:"50307",doi:"10.5772/62654",title:"From Extraction to Meliponiculture: A Case Study of the Management of Stingless Bees in the West-Central Region of Mexico",slug:"from-extraction-to-meliponiculture-a-case-study-of-the-management-of-stingless-bees-in-the-west-cent",totalDownloads:2745,totalCrossrefCites:5,totalDimensionsCites:9,abstract:"Currently, stingless bees' populations are declining due to environmental degradation. In this context, the authors have developed a research project in the central-western region of Mexico with the goal to generate strategies for conservation and sustainable management of stingless bees. The chapter aims to present the process of this investigation and its main results in terms of a) local knowledge and management strategies of stingless bees, and b) the social process of technological appropriation of meliponiculture by beekeepers. We recognized specific knowledge on the biology and ecology of stingless bees that result in a system for identifying species and management strategies of wild populations of these bees based on the extraction of nests. The implementation of an innovative productive activity based on the principles of meliponiculture and current techniques has been well received by producers, which has led to the formation of the Meliponicultores Michoacanos del Balsas Association, which grows five species of stingless bees. The research suggests that conservation associated with the use of bees (integral meliponiculture) can be enhanced in the region. Faced with the loss of biodiversity and environmental crisis, it is essential to maintain and enhance local knowledge of stingless bees and management practices. This represents an alternative to develop management schemes that allow the raising and breeding of these bees, while its products are obtained.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Alejandro Reyes-González, Andrés Camou-Guerrero and Salvador\nGómez-Arreola",authors:[{id:"179951",title:"Dr.",name:"Andres",middleName:null,surname:"Camou-Guerrero",slug:"andres-camou-guerrero",fullName:"Andres Camou-Guerrero"},{id:"185413",title:"MSc.",name:"Alejandro",middleName:null,surname:"Reyes-González",slug:"alejandro-reyes-gonzalez",fullName:"Alejandro Reyes-González"},{id:"192049",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvador",middleName:null,surname:"Gómez-Arreola",slug:"salvador-gomez-arreola",fullName:"Salvador Gómez-Arreola"}]},{id:"50683",doi:"10.5772/63145",title:"Advances in Pharmacological Activities and Chemical Composition of Propolis Produced in Americas",slug:"advances-in-pharmacological-activities-and-chemical-composition-of-propolis-produced-in-americas",totalDownloads:2583,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Propolis is a resinous material produced by bees from the selective collection of plant exudates that are subsequently mixed with beeswax and salivary bee secretions. Propolis has been used in folk medicine, and certainly, several studies have validated its biological properties. The chemical composition and pharmacological activities of propolis collected through North (including Central America and Caribbean) and South America have been studied in the last years, and several papers have reported differences and similarities among the analysed geographical samples. Propolis has been classified according to its aspect and plant source; however, the ecological diversity present along the Americas provides a plethora of botanical resins. Herein, we summarize and discuss most of the studies performed at present on this profitable product for apiculture, attempting to compare the bioactivity, phytochemical diversity and botanical sources of honeybee propolis produced in Americas.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Efrain Alday, Moisés Navarro-Navarro, Adriana Garibay-Escobar,\nRamón Robles-Zepeda, Javier Hernandez and Carlos Velazquez",authors:[{id:"96966",title:"MSc.",name:"Moises",middleName:null,surname:"Navarro-Navarro",slug:"moises-navarro-navarro",fullName:"Moises Navarro-Navarro"},{id:"180409",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Velazquez",slug:"carlos-velazquez",fullName:"Carlos Velazquez"},{id:"186351",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramón",middleName:null,surname:"Robles-Zepeda",slug:"ramon-robles-zepeda",fullName:"Ramón Robles-Zepeda"},{id:"186352",title:"MSc.",name:"Efrain",middleName:null,surname:"Alday",slug:"efrain-alday",fullName:"Efrain Alday"},{id:"186353",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Hernandez",slug:"javier-hernandez",fullName:"Javier Hernandez"},{id:"189161",title:"Dr.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"Garibay-Escobar",slug:"adriana-garibay-escobar",fullName:"Adriana Garibay-Escobar"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"50170",title:"A Comprehensive Characterization of the Honeybees in Siberia (Russia)",slug:"a-comprehensive-characterization-of-the-honeybees-in-siberia-russia-",totalDownloads:2302,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"A comprehensive study of some populations of honeybee (332 colonies) in Siberia (Tomsk region, Krasnoyarsk Krai (Yenisei population), Altai) using morphometric and molecular genetic methods was conducted. Infestation of bees (132 colonies) by Nosema has also been studied. Three variants of the COI-COII mtDNA locus were registered: PQQ, PQQQ (typical for Apis m. mellifera), and Q (specific for southern races). It was established that 64% of bee colonies from the Tomsk region and all colonies studied from the Krasnoyarsk and the Altai territories originate from Apis m. mellifera on the maternal line. According to the morphometric study, the majority of bee colonies of the Tomsk region are hybrids; in some colonies the mismatch of morphometric and mtDNA data was observed. Moreover, the majority of bee colonies infected by Nosema were hybrids. Yenisei population may be considered as a unique Apis m. mellifera population. Microsatellite analysis (loci А008, Ap049, AC117, AC216, Ap243, H110, A024, A113) showed the specific distribution of genotypes and alleles for some loci in the bees, which differ by geographical location. Loci A024 and Ap049 are of considerable interest for further study as candidate markers for differentiation of subspecies; locus A008 can be considered informative for determining of different ecotypes of Apis m. mellifera.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Nadezhda V. Ostroverkhova, Olga L. Konusova, Aksana N. Kucher\nand Igor V. Sharakhov",authors:[{id:"180112",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Nadezhda",middleName:null,surname:"Ostroverkhova",slug:"nadezhda-ostroverkhova",fullName:"Nadezhda Ostroverkhova"},{id:"180249",title:"Ms.",name:"Olga",middleName:null,surname:"Konusova",slug:"olga-konusova",fullName:"Olga Konusova"},{id:"180342",title:"Prof.",name:"Aksana",middleName:null,surname:"Kucher",slug:"aksana-kucher",fullName:"Aksana Kucher"},{id:"180343",title:"Prof.",name:"Igor",middleName:null,surname:"Sharakhov",slug:"igor-sharakhov",fullName:"Igor Sharakhov"}]},{id:"70501",title:"Southeast Asian Meliponiculture for Sustainable Livelihood",slug:"southeast-asian-meliponiculture-for-sustainable-livelihood",totalDownloads:1262,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,abstract:"Stingless bees (Apidae: Meliponini) are one of the most important pollinators of native plants and economic crops in tropical and subtropical parts of the world. They not only establish large perennial colonies with complex social organization but also have a diverse nesting biology. The economic utilization of a total of 60 stingless bee species in Asia has been reported. The current status of meliponiculture in Southeast Asia is mainly focused on pollination utilization and honey and propolis production. This chapter shows that small-scale beekeeping of stingless bees, which is suitable for the flowering pattern in the tropics, is one of the best potential alternative opportunities. The cost-effectiveness analysis based on production yield, investment cost, and profit-return rate is reviewed. Finally, a sustainable utilization of stingless bees is considered to be an enhancer of pollination services both in an agricultural crop and natural ecosystem.",book:{id:"8929",slug:"modern-beekeeping-bases-for-sustainable-production",title:"Modern Beekeeping",fullTitle:"Modern Beekeeping - Bases for Sustainable Production"},signatures:"Atsalek Rattanawannee and Orawan Duangphakdee",authors:[{id:"283087",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Atsalek",middleName:null,surname:"Rattanawannee",slug:"atsalek-rattanawannee",fullName:"Atsalek Rattanawannee"},{id:"306411",title:"Dr.",name:"Orawan",middleName:null,surname:"Duangphakdee",slug:"orawan-duangphakdee",fullName:"Orawan Duangphakdee"}]},{id:"50073",title:"Impacts of Pesticides on Honey Bees",slug:"impacts-of-pesticides-on-honey-bees",totalDownloads:3419,totalCrossrefCites:20,totalDimensionsCites:41,abstract:"This chapter focuses on the detrimental effects that pesticides have on managed honey bee colonies and their productivity. We examine first the routes of exposure of bees to agrochemicals used for crop protection and their application to crops, fate and contamination of water and plants around the fields. Most of the time, the exposure of bees to pesticides is through ingestion of residues found in the pollen and nectar of plants and in water. Honey bees are also exposed to pesticides used for the treatment of Varroa and other parasites. The basic concepts about the toxicity of the different kinds of pesticides are explained next. Various degrees of toxicity are found among agrochemicals, and emphasis is given to the classic tenet of toxicology, “the dose makes the poison,” and its modern version “the dose and the time of exposure makes the poison.” These two factors, dose and time, help us understand the severity of the impacts that pesticides may have on bees and their risk, which are analysed in the third section. Sublethal effects are also considered. The final section is devoted to some practical advice for avoiding adverse impacts of pesticides in beekeeping.",book:{id:"5163",slug:"beekeeping-and-bee-conservation-advances-in-research",title:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation",fullTitle:"Beekeeping and Bee Conservation - Advances in Research"},signatures:"Francisco Sanchez-Bayo and Koichi Goka",authors:[{id:"74970",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",middleName:null,surname:"Sánchez-Bayo",slug:"francisco-sanchez-bayo",fullName:"Francisco Sánchez-Bayo"},{id:"192045",title:"Dr.",name:"Koichi",middleName:null,surname:"Goka",slug:"koichi-goka",fullName:"Koichi Goka"}]},{id:"74836",title:"Chironomidae: Biology, Ecology and Systematics",slug:"chironomidae-biology-ecology-and-systematics",totalDownloads:474,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The family of Chironomidae is a group of Diptera insects belonging to the suborder of Nematocera, commonly called “non-biting midges” in the adult stage and “bloodworms” in the larval stage. The Chironomidae are often the most abundant group of macroinvertebrates, in number of species and individuals, encountered in all aquatic environments of freshwater, brackish, terrestrial and even the sea. Likewise, Chironomidae occur in all the continents. The Chironomidae family is divided into 11 sub-families that have diffrent ecological statues. Despite the wealth of data on Chironomidae in the Holarctic region, other parts of the world are poorly studied and few guides to identifying Chironomidae have been produced. This chapter includes a theoretical synthesis on the Chironomidae, it deals with the Biology (life cycle and description of different stages), description of all subfamilies and the ecology of this important family of Diptera.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Zerguine Karima",authors:[{id:"334825",title:"Dr.",name:"Karima",middleName:null,surname:"Zerguine",slug:"karima-zerguine",fullName:"Karima Zerguine"}]},{id:"75438",title:"Characteristics of Dipteran Insects",slug:"characteristics-of-dipteran-insects",totalDownloads:510,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Diptera means two wings (Di: two, pteron: wing). They have complete metamorphosis and they are holometabolous insects which means there are 4 stages (egg, larvae, pupae and adult). The name of larval stage is “maggot”. Some of the dipteran insects cause damage in agricultural production. Some are harmful for humans. Dipteran insects have two wings. Hind wings are reduced and they are called “halteres”. Function of halteres is balancing when the insects fly. Except mosquitoes, dipteran insects have sponging-sucking mouthparts. Important examples for dipteran insects are Olive fruit fly and Medfly which cause damages in agricultural production. OFF is the most destructive pest in olive growing areas and Mediterranean fruit fly cause damages in fruit production.",book:{id:"10423",slug:"the-wonders-of-diptera-characteristics-diversity-and-significance-for-the-world-s-ecosystems",title:"The Wonders of Diptera",fullTitle:"The Wonders of Diptera - Characteristics, Diversity, and Significance for the World's Ecosystems"},signatures:"Murat Helvacı",authors:[{id:"301984",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Murat",middleName:null,surname:"Helvaci",slug:"murat-helvaci",fullName:"Murat Helvaci"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"35",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:0},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}},{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",issn:"2753-6580",scope:"
\r\n\tTransforming our World: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development endorsed by United Nations and 193 Member States, came into effect on Jan 1, 2016, to guide decision making and actions to the year 2030 and beyond. Central to this Agenda are 17 Goals, 169 associated targets and over 230 indicators that are reviewed annually. The vision envisaged in the implementation of the SDGs is centered on the five Ps: People, Planet, Prosperity, Peace and Partnership. This call for renewed focused efforts ensure we have a safe and healthy planet for current and future generations.
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\r\n\tThis Series focuses on covering research and applied research involving the five Ps through the following topics:
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\r\n\t1. Sustainable Economy and Fair Society that relates to SDG 1 on No Poverty, SDG 2 on Zero Hunger, SDG 8 on Decent Work and Economic Growth, SDG 10 on Reduced Inequalities, SDG 12 on Responsible Consumption and Production, and SDG 17 Partnership for the Goals
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\r\n\t2. Health and Wellbeing focusing on SDG 3 on Good Health and Wellbeing and SDG 6 on Clean Water and Sanitation
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\r\n\t3. Inclusivity and Social Equality involving SDG 4 on Quality Education, SDG 5 on Gender Equality, and SDG 16 on Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions
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\r\n\t4. Climate Change and Environmental Sustainability comprising SDG 13 on Climate Action, SDG 14 on Life Below Water, and SDG 15 on Life on Land
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\r\n\t5. Urban Planning and Environmental Management embracing SDG 7 on Affordable Clean Energy, SDG 9 on Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure, and SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities.
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\r\n\tThe series also seeks to support the use of cross cutting SDGs, as many of the goals listed above, targets and indicators are all interconnected to impact our lives and the decisions we make on a daily basis, making them impossible to tie to a single topic.
",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/24.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 2nd, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:1,editor:{id:"262440",title:"Prof.",name:"Usha",middleName:null,surname:"Iyer-Raniga",slug:"usha-iyer-raniga",fullName:"Usha Iyer-Raniga",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRYSXQA4/Profile_Picture_2022-02-28T13:55:36.jpeg",biography:"Usha Iyer-Raniga is a professor in the School of Property and Construction Management at RMIT University. Usha co-leads the One Planet Network’s Sustainable Buildings and Construction Programme (SBC), a United Nations 10 Year Framework of Programmes on Sustainable Consumption and Production (UN 10FYP SCP) aligned with Sustainable Development Goal 12. The work also directly impacts SDG 11 on Sustainable Cities and Communities. She completed her undergraduate degree as an architect before obtaining her Masters degree from Canada and her Doctorate in Australia. Usha has been a keynote speaker as well as an invited speaker at national and international conferences, seminars and workshops. Her teaching experience includes teaching in Asian countries. She has advised Austrade, APEC, national, state and local governments. She serves as a reviewer and a member of the scientific committee for national and international refereed journals and refereed conferences. She is on the editorial board for refereed journals and has worked on Special Issues. Usha has served and continues to serve on the Boards of several not-for-profit organisations and she has also served as panel judge for a number of awards including the Premiers Sustainability Award in Victoria and the International Green Gown Awards. Usha has published over 100 publications, including research and consulting reports. Her publications cover a wide range of scientific and technical research publications that include edited books, book chapters, refereed journals, refereed conference papers and reports for local, state and federal government clients. She has also produced podcasts for various organisations and participated in media interviews. She has received state, national and international funding worth over USD $25 million. Usha has been awarded the Quarterly Franklin Membership by London Journals Press (UK). Her biography has been included in the Marquis Who's Who in the World® 2018, 2016 (33rd Edition), along with approximately 55,000 of the most accomplished men and women from around the world, including luminaries as U.N. Secretary-General Ban Ki-moon. 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Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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