\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"4496",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Autism Spectrum Disorder - Recent Advances",title:"Autism Spectrum Disorder",subtitle:"Recent Advances",reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book starts with a new sub category of Autism Criminal Autistic Psychopathy and school shootings. It focuses on a number of interventions, including speech and language pathology, speech and language assessment instruments, occupational therapy, improving functional language development in autism with natural gestures, communication boards etc as well as helping people with autism using the pictorial support, training of concepts of significant others, theory of mind, social concepts and a conceptual model for empowering families of children with autism cross culturally. It also examines the issue of hyperandrogenism and evidence-based treatments of autism. In terms of assessment, it focuses on psychological and biological assessment including neurotransmitters systems, structural and functional brain imaging, coping strategies of parents, examines the intertwining of language impairment, specific language impairment and ASD, as well as implicit and spontaneous Theory of Mind reading in ASD. In terms of aetiology, it focuses on genetic factors, epigenetics, synaptic vesicles, toxicity during neurodevelopment, immune system and sex differences. It also examines the link between social cognitive anatomical and neurophysiologic biomarkers and candidate genes. This book will be relevant to all mental health professionals because autism occurs in all the different areas of psychiatry and professionals who will find it helpful will be psychiatrists, psychologists, social workers, nurses, teachers and all those working with persons with Autism including parents who nowadays are interested in knowing more and more, at a detailed level about their children or adults with autism.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-2037-7",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-4228-7",doi:"10.5772/58507",price:139,priceEur:155,priceUsd:179,slug:"autism-spectrum-disorder-recent-advances",numberOfPages:378,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:1,isInBkci:!0,hash:"554c56c045ceba00b9a03e831e47292c",bookSignature:"Michael Fitzgerald",publishedDate:"April 2nd 2015",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4496.jpg",numberOfDownloads:49692,numberOfWosCitations:53,numberOfCrossrefCitations:48,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:83,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:184,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"April 17th 2014",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 8th 2014",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 4th 2014",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 3rd 2014",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 3rd 2014",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6,8",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"28359",title:"Prof.",name:"Michael",middleName:null,surname:"Fitzgerald",slug:"michael-fitzgerald",fullName:"Michael Fitzgerald",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/28359/images/3879_n.jpg",biography:"First Professor of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry in Ireland, specialising in Autism, Aspergers Syndrome and ADHD. He has a large number of peer reviewed publications and 25 books written, co-written or co-edited. Simon Baron-Cohen described his book ‘Autism and Creativity’ as “is the best book on autism”. He has diagnosed over 3,000 persons with Autism and Aspergers Syndrome. He has a number of foreign language publications in Japanese and Polish. He has lectured extensively throughout the world including The Royal Society in London and China, Korea, Hawaii, New York, Buenos Aires, Tbilisi, Melbourne and many European countries. Recent books include ‘Recent Advances in Autism Spectrum Disorders INTECH Volume I & II. 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The second section of the book will investigate specifically biomedical signals, such as ECG, EEG, and EMG. The third section will demonstrate the current medical imaging techniques, such as MRI, CT, X-Ray, and ultrasound. Multi-Modality fusion is currently one of the hottest discussed issues in the research of medical image processing, and it has a deep impact on cognitive science and clinical treatment. Therefore, the third section of the book will introduce some new biomedical imaging techniques, including multi-modal medical image medical imaging, microwave imaging, electromagnetic induction imaging. The book will aim to illustrate the concepts described above and ensure a complete understanding of the topic. The authors are invited to take great care to clarify ambiguities in some mathematical equations and to further explain and justify the more complex signal and image processing concepts to offer a thorough and understandable approach to complicated concepts.
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Dr. Wang is a member of the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME), Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE), American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS), Physiological Society of New Zealand (PSNZ), and Institution of Professional Engineers New Zealand (IPENZ). Her research interests include medical devices, electromagnetic sensing and imaging, and computational mechanics. Over the past five years, Dr. Wang has authored more than seventy peer-reviewed publications, two ASME books, seven book chapters, and ten issued patents. She is an active reviewer of numerous journals, books, and conferences. She has edited four books and three special issues of international journals. She has received multiple national and international awards from various professional societies and organizations. 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Venkateswarlu",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/371.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"58592",title:"Dr.",name:"Arun",surname:"Shanker",slug:"arun-shanker",fullName:"Arun Shanker"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3092",title:"Anopheles mosquitoes",subtitle:"New insights into malaria vectors",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"c9e622485316d5e296288bf24d2b0d64",slug:"anopheles-mosquitoes-new-insights-into-malaria-vectors",bookSignature:"Sylvie Manguin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3092.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"50017",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvie",surname:"Manguin",slug:"sylvie-manguin",fullName:"Sylvie Manguin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"72",title:"Ionic Liquids",subtitle:"Theory, Properties, New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"d94ffa3cfa10505e3b1d676d46fcd3f5",slug:"ionic-liquids-theory-properties-new-approaches",bookSignature:"Alexander Kokorin",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/72.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"19816",title:"Prof.",name:"Alexander",surname:"Kokorin",slug:"alexander-kokorin",fullName:"Alexander Kokorin"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"2270",title:"Fourier Transform",subtitle:"Materials Analysis",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5e094b066da527193e878e160b4772af",slug:"fourier-transform-materials-analysis",bookSignature:"Salih Mohammed Salih",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/2270.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"111691",title:"Dr.Ing.",name:"Salih",surname:"Salih",slug:"salih-salih",fullName:"Salih Salih"}],productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}}]},chapter:{item:{type:"chapter",id:"43403",title:"Critical Evaluation of the Concept of Autistic Creativity",doi:"10.5772/54465",slug:"critical-evaluation-of-the-concept-of-autistic-creativity",body:'Autism Spectrum Disorders (ASD) are neurodevelopmental conditions that are associated with an astonishing combination of cognitive strengths and weaknesses with a substantial minority of individuals displaying some exceptional creative abilities, reaching genius proportions in some rare cases. Creativity is a multifactorial construct and neuroscience is only beginning to unravel some of the cognitive components involved in the creative process. In this chapter we contrast neuroscientific evidence from creativity research with models attempting to explain talent and creativity in ASD. Although there are no agreed definitions for creativity the formulation put forward by Griffiths [1] “Creativity is a mental journey between ideas or concepts that involves either a novel route or a novel destination” (p.6) seems to fit the picture very well. Various explanations and theories have been put forward to account for creativity ranging from unconscious mechanisms, cognitive processes, special abilities and personal traits to links with genetic processes and psychopathology.
The classical portrait of autism is that of rigid, stereotyped behaviours, a preference for sameness and a resulting lack of imagination. Therefore, the prevalent view is that creativity and imaginative thought are extremely difficult or impossible for individuals with ASD. There is substantial research evidence that almost all forms of imagination are impaired in autism including lack of pretend play, pragmatic language, comprehension and construction of narrative, theory of mind and experimental tests of creativity [2-6]. A significant challenge to this perceived lack of creativity is the enormous achievements that some people with ASD show in creative and scientific fields. Some theorists and clinicians have therefore challenged the view of impoverished creativity in ASD [7-12].
In this review the focus is on a subgroup of individuals on the autistic spectrum who display exceptional creative talents and abilities. The features of ASD that favour creativity include narrow interests, great persistence, ability to see details within a whole, a fascination with facts (rather than people) and having savant type talents. While social imagination is impaired, autistic imagination of the Einsteinian type is amplified.
“Autistic intelligence” as described by Hans Asperger [13] is a sort of intelligence hardly touched by tradition and culture – “unconventional, unorthodox, strangely ‘pure’ and original, akin to the intelligence of pure creativity”. As pointed out by Einstein “To raise new questions, new possibilities, to regard old problems from a new angle, requires imagination and makes real advance in science” [14 p. 40].
Individuals with ASD show great variation in IQ ranging from severe intellectual impairment to superior ability. In addition, intelligence as measured by traditional intelligence tests reveals a different intellectual profile in ASD than in the neurotypical population with peaks on Block Design and troughs in Comprehension that appears to be robust across IQ levels [15]. Individuals with ASD also generally display atypical cognitive processes when performing these tasks. More recent studies [16,17] revealed further evidence for a different nature of autistic intelligence including fast information processing despite poor measured IQ.
The relationship between intelligence and creativity is unclear and ranges from suggestions of totally distinct psychological entities to overlapping constructs to different labels for the same thing [18]. Guilford [19] in his 1950 landmark paper “Creativity” asserted that creative talent could not be understood in terms of “intelligence”. Within the creativity literature, as noted by Lubart [20] “the dominant view is that certain intellectual abilities may be particularly useful in creative work, but no intellectual ability is devoted only to creativity” (p.288). Good general intelligence, domain-specific knowledge and special skills are necessary ingredients for creativity; however, these components alone are not sufficient for explaining creative processes [21].
Gardner’s [22] model of multiple intelligences holds that intelligence is a collection of different intellectual capacities including linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, bodily kinaesthetic, spatial intelligence and two forms of personal intelligence, - one oriented towards the understanding of other persons, the other towards an understanding of self. Autistic intelligence tends to be concentrated in the areas of music and logical-mathematical and spatial abilities. By nature, individuals with autism are extremely logical and analytical, and their thinking is concrete which makes them good mathematicians though lesser poets. The exception may be a minority of gifted individuals with ASD who have special literary talents as suggested by Ilona Roth [23] in her analysis of autism spectrum poets including Donna Williams, Tito Mukhopadhyay and Wendy Lawson. Roth makes the point that “poetry, with its dependence on intensely abstract, symbolic, and free-flowing forms of expression” (p.161) might be particularly suited to the autistic cognitive style.
Many features of Asperger syndrome enhance creativity, but the ability to focus deeply on a topic and to take endless pains is characteristic. Hans Asperger [24] emphasized the intensity with which special interests are pursued already in his first lecture about children with “autistic psychopathology”. It appears that these unique qualities of concentration and also perception as discussed in subsequent paragraphs in individuals with ASD may give rise to extraordinary creative abilities. Exceptionally gifted people like for example the animal scientist and author Temple Grandin [25] declares that her autism, as manifested in her acute visual/spatial mind and in her powers of concentration is what has made her success possible (p.188). People with Asperger syndrome live very much in their intellects, and certain forms of creativity benefit greatly from this [26]. Apart from good concrete intelligence additional characteristics of a gifted person with ASD include, ability to disregard social conventions, unconcern about the opinions of others and a sometimes-childlike naivety and inquisitiveness.
According Nancy Andreasen [27], who made a significant contribution to research on creativity, the personality traits that characterize creative individuals include “openness to experience, adventuresomeness, rebelliousness, individualism, … persistence, curiosity, simplicity, … the ability to see things in a different and novel way, indifference to social conventions, dislike of externally imposed rules, driven by own set of rules derived from within and a childlike manner” (p.30-32). Not surprisingly, the above two descriptions are strikingly similar.
Creativity is a multidimensional construct and cognitive neuroscience is only beginning to understand the many cognitive components involved in creative thinking including the neural substrates underlying these processes [for a review see 28]. Theories of creativity in general suggest that creativity is linked to attentional capacity [29] and associative or divergent thinking processes [30]. Mendelsohn [31] emphasised the specific role of “defocused” attention or a widened attentional ability in highly creative individuals, which is in contrast with the extremely narrow focus of attention ascribed to individuals with autism [e.g. 32]. Likewise, divergent thinking, which involves the production of a variety of responses [33] and assumes to depend on extensively connected neural networks also conflicts with the well reported neural underconnectivity and enhanced local networks found in autism. As pointed out by Nettle [34] “different domains of creativity require different cognitive profiles, with poetry and art associated with divergent thinking, schizophrenia and affective disorder, and mathematics associated with convergent thinking and autism” (p.1). It appears that other concepts of information processing need to be considered when attempting to elucidate the specific and unique mechanisms underlying autistic creativity. In the words of Allan Snyder [35] “The fact that genius might fall within the autistic spectrum challenges our deepest notions of creativity. Are there radically different routes to creativity: normal and autistic?” (p.1403).
The main current interpretation of special gifts and savant skills associated with autism include cognitive and psychological theories as well as various other models.
According to Treffert [36]: “Savant syndrome is a rare, but extraordinary condition in which persons with serious mental disabilities, including autistic disorder, have some ‘island of genius’ which stands in marked, incongruous contrast to overall handicap” (p.1351). Savant skills are found more commonly in ASD than in any other group [37] and are generally attributed to low-functioning autism but can also occur in individuals with normal and very high intelligence.
Theories put forward to explain savant skills strongly suggest a relationship with repetitive, obsessional and restricted behaviour [38]. Savants generally exhibit circumscribed interests usually within their skill area [39], which leads to considerable rehearsal, practice and training. Savant skills are also strongly associated with rote memory [40]. Pring [41] in her analysis of memory characteristics in savants argued against the rote memory explanation and instead proposed the existence of complex long-term memory structures in savants. In general, memory is considered an essential cognitive component of savant skills. In addition, researchers have suggested a role for ‘implicit’ or unintentional, learning in savant skill development [42,43]. Results of neuropsychological examinations of a calendar-calculating savant indicated that good memory, superior mental calculation and knowledge of calendar are the underlying elements for this specific talent [44]. Taken together, the classical portrait of the autistic savant is largely imitative and not very creative and some writers [e.g. 45] argued that true creativity is missing in savants “there are no savant geniuses about…. Their mental limitations disallow and preclude an awareness of innovative developments” (p. 177). In contrast, other theorists [46,47] believe that savants, particularly those with Asperger syndrome with above average intelligence levels [48] can be extremely creative. Mottron et al [49] write that “Savant performance cannot be reduced to uniquely efficient rote memory skills …. and encompasses not only the ability for strict recall, requiring pattern completion, but also the ability to produce creative, new material within the constraints of a previously integrated structure” (p.1388).
Various pathological conditions such as frontotemporal dementia, dominant-hemisphere strokes, head injuries and infections may also result in the emergence of savant like abilities [e.g. 50]. Of particular interest is the fact that individuals with these diverse types of disorders and emerging savant skills also develop cognitive features and behavioural traits, which are characteristic of autism [51].
The development of special gifts and talents in ASD has been associated in general with the ability to process local information. These abilities include detail-focused cognitive style (weak coherence) [52], enhanced perceptual functioning [53], an accentuated capacity for systemizing [54], privileged access to low-level perceptual processes [55] and various other psychological and physiological states.
A different cognitive style, the weak central coherence theory (WCC) proposed by Uta Frith [56] and Frith and Happé [57] has been suggested as an explanation for certain special abilities found in ASD. This exceptional part-based processing style is demonstrated in the superior ability individuals with ASD show on tasks such as block design and embedded figures resulting from deficits in integration processes that serve to draw information together as a meaningful whole [see 58]. According to Frith [59], the WCC particularly addresses the special gifts and talents and acute perceptual abilities in autism (e.g. hypersensitivity, visual and auditory abilities) and can explain the achievements of individuals with ASD syndrome in art, science, music, and many other areas. Local coherence, which is defined by close attention to mechanical or physical patterns, is exemplified in the work of Temple Grandin [60]. Atypical attentional mechanisms and abnormal neural connectivity have been suggested as possible cognitive and neural mechanisms underlying WCC.
Also located at the level of perception is the model proposed by Mottron and Burack [61] and Mottron et al [62] which are based on enhanced perceptual functioning (EPF) suggesting that people with autism have an overdevelopment of low-level perceptual abilities at the expense of high-level processing mechanisms. This theory provides a convincing account of special abilities in ASD such as peaks of ability in visual and auditory modalities and also indicates that a variety of cognitive processes are required for the development of savant abilities. For example, Mottron et al [63] propose that enhanced detection of patterns, including similarity within and among patterns is contributing to creativity evident in savants. As far as neural correlates for their theory is concerned the authors suggest the notion of brain plasticity and an overfunctioning of brain regions involved in perception in autism [64].
EPF and WCC are similar in emphasizing detail focused processing bias and superior local processing. Superiority in local coherence may be specific to autistic creativity and as argued by Mills [65] “produces an imaginative faculty defined by close attention to mechanical or physical patterns not psychological or social rules” (p.126).
This above interpretation appears to be in line with the “systemizing theory” put forward by Baron-Cohen et al. [66] which emphasises the superior ability in recognizing repeating patterns in stimuli (e.g. numerical, spatial, mechanical, auditory systemizing). The “systemizing theory”, in contrast to the WCC model, predicts that individuals with ASD have a strong central coherence as indicated by their excellent skills in integrating information in areas such as astronomy and physics. This ability, however, does not apply to non-systemizable fields such as fiction. Similar to the WCC the systemizing model also posits excellent attention to detail in perception and memory. Baron-Cohen et al [67] further suggest that this excellent attention to detail is a consequence of sensory hypersensitivity found in individuals with ASD. Belmonte et al [68] posited that local overconnectivity in the posterior sensory parts of the cortex is responsible for the sensory ‘magnification’ in ASD.
The work of Synder et al. [69] also provides an understanding of certain forms of creativity. According to Snyder and Mitchell [70] outstanding savant skills might be accomplished by accessing early stages of information processing. Their controversial model predicts the possibility of accessing non-conscious information by artificially disinhibiting the inhibiting networks associated with concept formation, using transcranial magnetic brain stimulation (TMS). By means of this method Snyder et al. [71] propose that this process will open “the door for restoration of perfect pitch, for recalling detail... and even enhancing creativity”. A recent EEG study [72] attributing increased visual detail perception in autism to neural abnormalities related to low-level visual processing potentially supports this theory.
Snyders’s theory [73] furthermore suggests the possibility that savant skills may be latent in everyone, but a “form of cortical disinhibition or atypical hemispheric imbalance” is required in order to access them (p. 1399). In support for his theory Snyder quotes the emergence of savant skills in individuals without any previous history for talents due to a variety of illnesses.
Snyder’s model explains many of the talents and characteristics associated with Asperger geniuses including their childlike view of the world and lack of preconceptions, which is beneficial for developing new and original theories and perspectives. For example, Ludwig Wittgenstein, who had Asperger syndrome did spend little time reading other philosophers and felt most of them were wrong anyhow. He didn’t want to “cloud his mind with false theories” [74].
Theories of creativity [75, 76] also highlight the importance of primary process thought as found in dreaming, free association and psychosis in creative processes. Einstein suggested that creative scientists are the ones with “access to their dreams. Occasionally, a dream will actually provide the solution to a problem”, as cited by Gregory [77] (p.226). Many mathematicians are intuitive thinkers and rely on the unconscious mind to a large extent, like for example the genius mathematician Poincarė [78]. Freudian theory holds that primary processes or primitive thinking which creative persons have more access to are based on their weak defence mechanisms of repression. Individuals with Asperger syndrome have very weak defence mechanisms thus allowing them access to early childhood memories [79].
Low levels of repression or inhibition are associated with creativity and a number of theorists [80, 81] have suggested that creativity is “a disinhibition syndrome”, i.e. highly creative individuals lack cognitive inhibition. Neural correlates of cognitive disinhibition are the frontal lobes and research indicates that creative individuals show less frontal-lobe activity during verbal association tasks [82]. Deficits in inhibition have been documented in autism [83] as well as in Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) [84] a neurodevelopmental disorder that is associated with increased creativity.
Also relevant in this context maybe the concept of “flow” proposed by the psychologist Csíkszentmihályi [85]. The notion of “flow” indicates a familiar state of reduced self-awareness where temporal concerns (time, food, ego-self, etc) are ignored during periods where the individual is fully immersed in a task or process. According to Csíkszentmihályi “flow” is characterised by a feeling of great absorption, engagement and fulfilment and thought to be inherently reinforcing and rewarding [86]. As alerted to in the chapter “Atypical Sense of Self in Autism Spectrum Disorders: A Neuro-cognitive Perspective” (this book) [87] diminished self-awareness which is a characteristic of individuals with ASD and associated with right hemisphere dysfunction might be advantageous in the development of special talents in ASD as quoted by Happé and Vital [88] (p.1373).
To conclude, although no single theory can explain the cognitive mechanisms underlying savant skill development, prodigious memory, atypical perception and excellent attention to detail are fundamentally associated with savant like talents in individual with ASD.
The study of the neural basis of creativity is an area greatly neglected by scientific research and despite methodological difficulties associated with investigating creativity any account of creativity must include explanations about the neural correlates of creativity [89].
Neuroscientific approaches aiming to determine the physiological basis of creative thought, are assuming that creativity is a measurable trait. Creativity can be interpreted as physiological changes that are required for creative problem solving focussing on EEG measures of cortical activation [90]. Theories of creativity in general postulate that low levels of cortical activation contribute to creative inspiration. Imaging data [91] suggest that great creativity not only requires a high level of specialized knowledge (stored in temporal and parietal lobes) and divergent thinking (mediated by the frontal lobes) but also co-activation and communication between areas of the brain that normally do not show strong connections. Highly creative individuals also possess the ability to modulate neurotransmitters [92, 93] such as the norepinephrine system (located in the frontal lobes), indicated by a reduction of cerebral levels of norepinephrine during creative periods. Support for the role of frontal areas in a fluid analogy-making task comes from an fMRI study [94] indicating bilateral neural activations. A study measuring differences in cerebral blood flow between highly creative individuals and controls during a verbal task of creative thinking [95] implicated a neural network consisting of right and left fronto-temporal, parietal, and cerebellar regions in highly creative performances. These areas are involved in cognition, emotion, working memory and response to novelty.
We are not aware of any studies investigating directly the neural basis of creativity in autism apart from studies exploring savant skills in autism. Some of these support the Left Hemisphere (LH) dysfunction/ and Right Hemisphere (RH) compensation theory [e.g. 96] as indicated by hemispheric asymmetry. Research evidence of neuroanatomical abnormalities including atypical minicolumnar organization in ASD [97,98] as well as neural hypotheses about abnormal connectivity [e.g. 99] support this theory.
Cerebral asymmetry refers to the lack of structural symmetry in left and right hemispheres in humans. Atypical cerebral asymmetry, a deviation from the normal pattern of cerebral asymmetry has been associated with special cognitive talents [100] and creativity [101] as cited by Smalley et al. [102]. For example, the capability for making distal or global verbal associations is one factor contributing to creativity and according to Brugger and Graves [103] the basis for this type of verbal creativity is “cerebral laterality in which an individual has a relative weakening of left hemisphere dominance and strengthening of availability of right hemisphere processing” [104] p. 138.
Atypical cerebral asymmetry has been associated with autism, dyslexia and ADHD [105], neurodevelopmental disorders considered to share regions of linkage overlap [106]. In addition, creativity in psychiatric populations is often associated with atypical cerebral asymmetry [107] and a RH “bias” [108].
Research evidence for atypical cerebral asymmetry in autism (e.g. increased size of some RH cortical structures) and reversed lateralization of language has been well documented [e.g. 109]. An imaging study by Herbert et al [110] found a “sizeable right-asymmetry increase” in subjects with autism. Individuals with autism had twice as much right-as left-asymmetrical cortex than the control sample. This finding was interpreted as a consequence of early abnormal brain growth abnormalities. According to the hypothesis put forward by Geschwind and Galaburda [111] the immaturity of the LH in utero makes it more susceptible to damage, which could result in a compensatory overdevelopment of the RH caused by neural migration and thus resulting in an anomalous RH-dominance. As the RH develops earlier than the LH, accelerated early brain development in autism may lead to anomalous lateralization of cognitive functions as suggested by Herbert et al [112].
Savant skills are linked to the RH [113], which is dominant for attention, visuospatial and emotional function. Various authors [114-115] have suggested that autistic savants have atypical LH dysfunction with RH compensation. Based on research evidence including imaging studies Treffert [116] speculated that “one mechanism in some savants, whether congenital or acquired is left brain dysfunction with right brain compensation.” The notion of “paradoxical functional facilitation” as described by Kapur [117] denotes loss of function in one damaged brain area and enhanced function of another area, which as emphasized by Treffert is ”central to explaining savant syndrome” (p.1356).
RH skills can be characterized as non-symbolic, artistic, concrete and directly perceived in contrast to LH skills that are more sequential, logical, and symbolic. For example musical, artistic, visual or spatial abilities (mathematics) are primarily RH skills.
The association between RH and creativity is based on research evidence demonstrating that the RH is more involved in production of mental images than the LH, perception and production of music, e.g. the right inferior frontal gyrus is known to be involved in musical pitch encoding and melodic pitch memory [118]. EEG studies show that highly creative individuals show more right than left-hemisphere activation during experimental studies [119], indicating that during the creative process creative individuals rely more on the RH. Lesion studies as well as unimpaired population studies have demonstrated that the RH is superior to the LH at noticing anomalies in objects [120]. Individuals with autism are well known for detecting even the smallest changes in the environment.
In sum, several lines of evidence suggest that atypical cerebral asymmetry which is a highly heritable trait [121] is associated with autism and linked to certain aspects of creativity. It is also likely that some of the structural brain abnormalities evidenced in autism are related to the special cognitive functioning that encourages great creativity. Neurological brain differences have been reported in the literature on creativity [122].
Converging neuroscientific evidence has suggested that the neuropathology of ASD is widely distributed, involving impaired connectivity throughout the brain. Neuroanatomical abnormalities in autism include increase in cortical thickness [123], and increase in head and brain size [124]. Accelerated growth in brain size in early childhood in autism has been documented by a range of studies [125], which may be consistent with the asymmetric cerebral lateralization in autism as discussed above. The increased brain volumes in autism are believed to be the result of insufficient or abnormal prenatal pruning, which together with genetic factors are most likely to underlie these growth abnormalities [126]. In addition, there is evidence of higher birth weight [127] and faster body growth [128] as well as increased levels of growth hormones [129] in autism. These altered brain growth rates are considered to have a strong influence on patterns of brain connectivity and cerebral lateralization [130, 131] and differential cognitive functioning. For example, the increased hippocampus size in autism [132] may be associated with enhanced visual-spatial, mathematical and mechanistic processing in autism as well as savant abilities such as calculation and memory. Imaging data of a reduced size of corpus callosum in autism [133] is consistent with the reduced interhemispheric brain connectivity reported in autistic individuals [134]. Neural underconnectivity [e.g. 135] provides support for the weak “central coherence theory” which postulates enhanced local and decreased global information processing in autism. Research on patterns of cortical connectivity also indicates that a specific minicolumnar phenotype found in autism may be beneficial for information processing and/or focused attention and may also offer an explanation for the savant abilities autism [136, 137].
To conclude, although neural mechanisms underlying savant skill and development are not well established, associating creativity with hemisphere lateralization and anatomical abnormalities in autism is supported by empirical evidence and also has some explanatory potential. Additional areas to explore are genetic factors and creativity found in other pathological conditions.
Is great creativity a fortunate combination of specific traits, or do “creativity genes” exist? As speculated by Smalley et al [138] “genes that increase one’s risk for certain psychiatric or learning disorders may also be ‘enhancer’ genes for creativity (and intuition)” (p.82). According to Gardner [139] it is extremely unlikely that there is such a thing as a “poetry gene or a music gene” since complex human behaviours typically have a “polygenic basis” (p.175). Without doubt ASD have a polygenic basis and genetic factors not only contribute to specific skills but also to traits such as persistence, the capacity for concentration for extended periods, and curiosity about certain types of stimulation. Lykken et al [140] describe the concept of
The relationship between inherited talent and/or extensive practice is a very contentious aspect of superior ability in specific skills. The view propounded by Howe [141] emphasizing the overwhelming role of practice in the acquirement of special skills, is largely rejected by a majority of theorists who argue for the role of innate talent [142-144]. Special talents are essentially innate in predisposing to cognitive or physical qualities and are the key to understanding geniuses from Einstein to Mozart [145]. For example, research evidence from twin data [146] suggests a genetic basis for detail-focused cognitive style predisposing to talent in ASD. It is configuration of genes and variations in genetic inputs that are critical to the success in persons of great creativity. It is our belief that there are significant genetic underpinnings to creativity of genius proportions, which of course could not be expressed without environmental factors.
The majority of theoretical conceptions of creativity agree that the main component of creativity is its novelty, uniqueness or unusualness that undoubtedly applies to the creativity displayed by gifted individuals with ASD. Novelty or sensation seeking behaviour is also strongly associated with ADHD. A significant degree of comorbidity between autism and ADHD has been documented [e.g. 147] in the literature. Although reported to have poor attention and concentration and being poor academic performers individuals with ADHD have a capacity to hyperfocus, which allows them to produce great works of art. For example the poetry of Lord Byron, who had ADHD [148] is an example for a work of genius in this area. As pointed out above, both autism and ADHD are associated with atypical cerebral asymmetry which is a highly heritable and complex phenotype linked to creativity and sharing regions of linkage overlap [149,150].
There is a very close relationship between creativity (especially in literature and arts) and psychopathology, particularly mood disorder [151, 152]. An association of biochemical factors in psychosis and creativity has been suggested by Folley et al [153] indicating the noradrenergic system. This model also provides possible links between attention, divergent thinking, and arousal based on mechanisms that interact with structural and neurochemical systems of the brain and has the potential to explain the novelty seeking behaviour implicated in ADHD but may have less explanatory power as far as autism is concerned. According to Sternberg and Lubart [154] creativity and novelty must be coupled with appropriateness for something to be considered creative. Although schizotypal thought most likely leads to an increase in novel ideas, they may not always be appropriate.
In contrast, the nature of creativity displayed by individuals with ASD is associated with the distinctiveness of the autistic brain and its unique neural connectivity. In this context Temple Grandin [155] has stated, “it is likely that genius is an abnormality” (p178-179). However, she also believes that autistic intelligence is necessary in order to add diversity and creativity to the world: “It is possible that persons with bits of these traits are more creative, are possibly even geniuses…If science eliminated these genes, maybe the whole world would be taken over by accountants” (p.124).
The results of our evaluation suggest that many features of ASD are advantageous for great creativity. Creativity is an extremely complex and multifaceted construct and no cognitive theory or model of brain function has so far been able to fully account for it. We suggest that the distinctive gifts of perception, attention, memory and information processing combined with personality attributes can give rise to the extraordinary creativity seen in some individuals with ASD. It is our view that progress in elucidating the neural basis of autism may hold promises for a better understanding of autistic creativity and creativity in general. Autism Spectrum Disorders are mainly portrayed as negative phenomena, as a curse, but if they were an integral part of the mindset of highly creative individuals such as Einstein and Darwin who possessed autistic traits they could be regarded in some aspects as a gift [156].
The extinction of plant species resulting from human activities throughout the world has become a major concern [1]. Forest resources diminish as a result of deforestation, which has negative impact on agriculture, medicine and economic enterprises of man [1, 2]. Forest resources provide numerous goods and services to man such as food, medicine, wood, fiber and energy, they were taken for granted in the past because they were available almost everywhere but the situation has changed due to adverse effects of human activities [3, 4]. Food insecurity remains a major challenge in developing countries and insufficient nutrient intake causes severe malnutrition affecting the populace [5].
Worldwide, the problem of food security leads to calorie deficit of more than 700,000,000 underfed people [6]. The valuation of edible fruits and vegetables that are underutilized is one of the ways out of this impasse, a few examples of such extinct fruit and vegetable species with potential to address global undernourishment problems particularly those confronting the developing countries are
In spite of the numerous potentials of these indigenous crops, they have not been cultivated like other tropical plant species in Nigeria as a result of lack of adequate knowledge on their nutritional value, climatic requirement, fertilizer requirement and agronomic practices. Crop yield is to a large extent, associated with its fertilizer requirements, and maintaining the yield and quality of a newly introduced crop involves suitable crop management practices to improve soil productivity [12, 13]. Soil amendment could be done using organic or inorganic fertilizer and may be combined [14]. Therefore, investigating into food, nutritional, medicinal, climatic and fertilizer requirements of these indigenous crops can provide evidence-based information encouraging the cultivation of these wild species in order to remedy food insecurity, improve the diet of the people and prevent the crops from going into extinction. The information will also be useful to the food industries and pharmaceutical companies.
Staked African walnut plants.
African walnut capsules.
The seed and leaf of
The plant thrives on deep, fertile, moist and well-drained loam soils [29]. The African walnut is majorly grown for subsistence consumption in the humid and hot regions of tropical Africa [16]. It does well in rich woodlands, fallow fields, bottomlands and coves [52]. The plant twines round the host plant to settle at the apex to receive more light from the sun, it may join trees to each other and hold a dead tree in position until it decays. Flowering occurs from November to early January and fruiting starts in February till September with the highest yield in July [16]. Walnut seed takes about 4–6 months to reach maturity stage [53].
Prior to the introduction of inorganic compounds, soil fertility has been improved through the breakdown of raw natural materials in the environment. This provided the soil with the needed nutrients for crop growth from only organic matter and this was enough in sustaining life [54]. Rob [54] noted that synthetic fertilizers do not add to the humus content of soil nor substitute it. Growth and dry matter yield of
Staked
Saba has been used in herbal medicine with pronounced native applications. Ethnobotany alludes that the leaves, roots and fruit have the potential of treating certain diseases [74]. The fruits contained active compounds that could play a vital role in preventing and treating metabolic diseases and certain vitamin deficiencies [75]. Green fruits have the ability to fight against galactagogic, sterility and colic [59]. Ripen fruits are antiscorbutic, anorexic, stimulating and tonic [76]. The green fruits are preferred by the Fulani, which are prepared with salt; it is active in diuretic drug [59]. In cases of food poisoning, the leaves can be used to reduce the effect, and mashed leaves can as well be used in treating injuries [60]. When boiled, the vapor released can be inhaled to reduce coughing and headaches [77]. It can also be used in treating tuberculosis and pulmonary diseases; the leaves can prevent chronic headache and vomiting [78]. The whit latex can be used to treat pulmonary diseases and helps in fighting tuberculosis [68]. The powder from the dry root bark is effective in wound healing [64]. The roots of saba are used in treating infertility in females and skin burns. Root maceration, as a drink, is considered to be anti-hemorrhagic [59]. The latex is used as an adhesive in preparing poison for arrows. Saba leaves are made into sauces and spices as an appetizer having salty taste.
The nutritional contents of the pulp are subject to very large variations, which are obviously linked to the differences in climate, nature of the soil and various analytical methods employed [59].
Minerals such as calcium (51 ppm), phosphorus (357.5 ppm), magnesium (47.5 ppm) and potassium (152 ppm) were present in saba fruit pulp [72] but very low sodium content of <5 ppm. Nafan
Sales revenue for
Food security, malnutrition and environmental degradation are being influenced by low soil fertility, inappropriate use and poor nutrient management strategies. Currently, there is dearth of information on the nutritional requirement and domestication of Saba in Nigeria. In maintaining the yield and quality of new crops, soil fertility management is of paramount importance [12]. The low fertility status of most tropical soils results in low crop production as most crops are nutrient demanding. Inorganic fertilizer such as NPK has strong effect on plant growth, development and yield [85]. Excessive use of NPK will result to loss of soil fertility, which has adverse effect on agricultural productivity, soil degradation and even cause water pollution. Conversely, regular use of organic fertilizers can improve organic matter content, water-holding capacity, enhance structure, nutrient cycling, helps in soil conservation, increase cation exchange capacity and encourage the activities of soil living organisms. Olajide
Baobab
Baobab plants at 4 months after transplanting.
Baobab plants pruned after 6 months of transplanting.
Baobab seed extraction.
Baobab is an important tree for the African countries [92]. Traditionally, the plants have been used in many ways by people occupying the areas where they are available. The fruit pulp plays a vital role in contributing to the diets of the local populace, and it serves as seasoning material as well as appetizer [93]. When the pulp is soaked in water, the liquid derived from it can be used in making drinks, it can also serve as sauce for food, it can be fermented and used in local brewing [88, 93]. Recently, the pulp has gained popularity and used as ingredient in making ice and other products in urban centers [94, 95, 96], the pulp is made into juices and jams. The baobab fruit pods can be burnt and the potash-rich salt obtained can be used for making soap [91]. The European Commission has permitted the importation of baobab fruit pulp as new type food for human use [97] which was approved as a food ingredient by the Food and Drug Administration of the United States of America [98].
The seeds can be consumed fresh or dried, it can also be made into powder which can be used to thicken soup, or roasted and made into a paste, or boiled, fermented and then dried for use [87, 99]. The seeds can be pounded for the extraction of vegetable oil used in soup preparation and it can be fermented into seasoning [94]. The oil extracted can also be used as fuel, cosmetic, medicine and for treating muscle spasms, swollen veins, injuries and dandruff [100, 101, 102]. The seed is a potential source of protein, and the roasted seeds are used to substitute coffee in Sudan and North Africa [103].
Baobab leaves are important in traditional diets of the rural people as leafy vegetables are rich in iron and vitamins. Young leaves are harvested, dried, made into powder and used in making soup [87]. Fibers from the bark are used for weaving bags, hats and mats [87]. The wood is light and whitish when dried and used for fuel [104]. The tree provides shelter, clothing and material for hunting and fishing [94]. It is a good source of dye and fuel. The roots, leaves, seeds and pulp are consumed and it serves as a basic source of livelihood. Baobab trees provide shelter and it can store water [94], with capacities of 1000 to 9000 liters per tree [105]. The products were traded centuries ago being popular in Cairo markets in the sixteenth century [87].
Baobab possesses a lot of substances used for treating various diseases in African traditional medicine [106]. In many medicinal uses the stem bark is ground for internal use and it is effective as a result of the presence of soluble and insoluble tannin [107]. The plant parts are used treating diseases and specific uses that were documented includes the treatment of microbial infections, tuberculosis, malaria, anemia, fever, diarrhea, toothache and dysentery [108]. The leaves and fruit pulp are used as febrifuge and boosts the immune system [97, 109]. It is reported that baobab pulp is used externally with buttermilk for relief from diarrhea and dysentery in India, and also the fresh leaves are crushed and used to treat painful bruises [89]. In some West African countries, the seeds, leaves, fruit pulp are major ingredients in beverages, sauces and porridges [97, 107, 110].
Previous studies showed that baobab leaves are good sources of nutrients. Study [23] that evaluated the effect of poultry manure application rates on nutritional qualities of two accessions of baobab grown in Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria revealed that ash ranges between 7.68–8.44%, carbohydrate varied from 51.70–58.50%, fat ranged from 2.90–6.10%, fiber varied from 4.73–5.39%, moisture ranges from 7.40–14.10% and protein ranged from 14.25–18.29%. This author reported that cyanogenic glycosides content obtained was 0.02 mg/100 g while flavonoids ranged from 19.22–25.33 mg/100 g, oxalate varied from 36.70–66.70 mg/100 g, phenol ranges from 50.00–146.00 mg/100 g, phytate ranged from 1.56–2.54 mg/100 g, saponin varied from 0.09–0.10 mg/100 g and tannin ranged from 5.35–5.66 mg/100 g. The concentration of phytate was within the tolerable limit of 5.72–9.22% [111] but oxalate, phenol, saponin and tannin were above the tolerable limits of 5% [112], 2% [113], 0.2% [114] and 3.3% [115], respectively. Since the leaves are not consumed raw, the anti-nutrient contents may be significantly reduced by heat during the cooking process. When plant parts are boiled in water, effects of poisonous anti-nutrients are reduced, hence increasing their palatability [116]. Olajide [23] reported that calcium, iron, iodine and zinc contents ranged from 89.70–98.10, 7.78–8.00, 7.83–8.44 and 0.90–0.93 mg/100 g, respectively. Value for vitamin B12 was 0.04 mg/100 g while vitamin B6 varied from 0.54–2.28 mg/100 g, vitamin E ranged from 8.89–12.33 mg/100 g and carotenoids ranges from 81.10–124.40 mg/100 g. The study also found that poultry manure application rates significantly influenced moisture, iron, iodine, zinc, vitamin B6, carotenoids and phenol contents in Baobab leaves. Baobab leaves contain protein (13.6%), fat (2.71%), ash (4.08%), crude fiber (2.45%), (0.01%), moisture (78.2%) and vitamin C (14.98 mg/100 g) [117]. Osman [118] observed that the seeds possessed high quantities of fat, fiber, crude protein but low carbohydrate contents. Consuming 20 g can provide 15 to 34% recommended daily allowance of protein for children; 60 g can meet 27% of the recommended daily allowance for pregnant women. Also, consuming 100 g can supply about 22% recommended daily intake of the energy for pregnant women and 29.4% recommended daily allowance of energy for children [110]. Previous work of Arowora
Due to the medicinal, nutritional and cosmetic applications of baobab, it has gained popularity and attracted the interest of a lot of pharmaceutical companies and researchers in the past decade. As a result of the high demand for baobab products in European Union and United States of America, the tree ought to be conserved, treasured and domesticated in other parts of the world [126]. The plant is found in hot, semi-arid regions, dry woodland and stony areas with low rainfall of 1500 mm per annum [94], it thrives on marginal soils but does well on well-drained, clays to sandy soils, but not on deep sands, where it will be difficult for the plant to obtain sufficient moisture and support [89]. In Africa, baobab is found at latitude 16° N and 26° S, these areas do not have more than one day of frost in a year. It has slow growth which could be as a result of low rainfall and low soil fertility. Assogbadjo
In order to increase productivity to meet the nutritional requirements of human population and to increase the household income, enhancement of soil health is a critical factor. Soil fertility can be improved using organic or inorganic fertilizers and may be combined [14]. Frequent utilization of inorganic fertilizers solely cannot increase crop yield on poor soils [128]. Therefore, the need for organic soil amendments to increase soil fertility and enhance the physicochemical and biological properties for continuous production of crops. It was noted that amending the soil with organic and inorganic fertilizers support the best crop performance [129, 130]. Olajide [23] who worked on the influence of three rates of PM (0, 15 and 30 t ha−1) on early growth of baobab in Nsukka, Enugu State, Nigeria found that plots amended with poultry manure performed better in terms of the growth attributes measured compared to the control. The higher values of the morphological traits obtained with poultry manure application suggests that baobab plants are highly responsive to manure application. Poultry manure is the richest out of the animal manures, and it is a valuable source of nitrogen and potassium as well as organic matter [12]. Organic manure as soil amendment is highly important in order to sustain crop production systems since it is a reliable source of nitrogen and carbon [131, 132] and it also moderates soil pH [133]. Olajide [23] reported that application of 15 t ha−1 of PM increased all the growth parameters evaluated than other poultry manure rates. Adebayo
Kapok plants at 5 months after transplanting.
Kapok plants at 11 months after transplanting.
Kapok pods.
The succulent leaves of kapok are used in soup preparation, which is comparable to Okra, and it is used for eating starchy balls made from millet, cassava and yam [140, 141]. The leaves are dried and made into powder used to prepare delicious soup known as ‘kuka’ during dry periods [23]. Fresh and dry leaves made into powder are hawked in the villages, which contributes to the rural farmer’s economy. Vegetable oil extracted from the seeds can be used for bio fuel, soap making, paint preparation and can also be used in manufacturing fertilizer [130]. The plant provides fiber and timber. The whitish cotton (floss) can be used for making mattresses, absorbent material, pillows and tinder [141]. The wood is widely used in plywood manufacturing and in making canoes. It is also used for musical instruments, mortars, carvings, lightweight furniture and other items [130]. The foliage can be used in feeding ruminant animals, trunk for plywood and wood pulp for paper. The fiber is used while dressing injuries; applying the oil can treat rheumatism [130].
Leafy vegetables play a vital role in maintaining health of the populations and diseases prevention. Large quantities of micro-minerals are obtained from dark green leafy vegetables which are essential in nutrient metabolism and slow down degenerative diseases [142]. Gropper
Many of the local vegetables are underutilized due to inadequate information on their potentials to nourish the body with nutrients [147]. High utilization and consumption of vegetables is crucial in alleviating universal incidence of nutritional deficiencies [148]. Chemical analysis has shown that the leaves of
Kapok is a tropical plant found at height of 1200 meters, however, productivity declines beyond 460 meters [144]. Optimal growth is achieved in locations with yearly daytime temperatures range of 17–38°C, and kapok can withstand 12–40°C. The plant could die at −1°C or less [72]. Fruit production could be delayed at nocturnal temperature of 20°C. Kapok enjoys a mean rainfall of 1500 to 2500 mm per annum, although it withstands 750 to 5700 mm [72]. It tolerates long dry period range of about 0–6 months [157]. Kapok is the tallest indigenous plant in Africa [158]. It thrives in a fertile, deep, moisture-retentive but well-drained loamy soil is preferred [139, 159]. It does well at a pH range of 5.5–6.5 and it can also tolerate 5–7.5 [74]. Kapok is prone to wind; it prefers wind break for protection against strong winds [139]. The tree may start bearing fruit at 4–5 years, with increased production till 8 years. The economic or production life of kapok tree can last for almost 60 years [74]. Leaf and flower production season are stable in drier regions where the plant is distributed; in wet regions, production of leaf and flower are not regular. Anthesis occurs in the night and ended at midday. The flower releases strong scent and secretes nectar at the flower base, which is large and bisexual. Ripening of fruits occurs at 80–100 days after flowering, the dehiscent types splits with loosely fixed seeds released and dispersed [74]. The light seeds are spread widely and find ideal germination conditions in abandoned agricultural land [74]. A single tree can produce over 300 pods yearly with an output of 20 kg of fiber from 5 years to 50 years [139]. The tree responds positively to coppicing. It has vigorous root system causing damage to buildings and roads [160].
Soil degradation as a result of deforestation, nutrients lost through leaching and erosion has led to depleting fertility and caused decline in soil organic matter levels [161, 162]. Soil amendment using organic manure is vital in increasing crop yield. A fertile soil should possess an organic matter content of more than 3%. Soil amendment could be in form of organic or inorganic or combined [14]. Previous studies confirmed that combined application of organic and synthetic fertilizers supports the best crop performance [129, 130]. Olajide and Baiyeri [163] who worked on the effect of these rates (No fertilizer, 5 t ha−1 PM + 200 kg ha−1 NPK, 10 t ha−1 PM, 20 t ha−1 PM, 450 kg ha−1 NPK and 20 t ha−1 PM + 100 kg ha−1 NPK) on growth of kapok in the field reported that 20 t ha−1 of PM applied solely increased the performance of kapok plants. Olajide and Baiyeri [163] also found that soil amendment using 450 kg ha−1 of NPK and other treatments combined with NPK reduced the growth of kapok when compared with the plants in plots where no fertilizer was applied. Inability of NPK fertilizer in increasing kapok might be associated with acidification of the rhizosphere. It has been established that application of NPK reduces soil pH and boosts soil acidification but addition of organic manure improves soil acidification [164].
It is quite evident from this review that tropical plant species provide a lot of benefits to ensure food security, improve the health and socio-economic status of the populations. These crops have nutritional, economic, medicinal and industrial potential and can ensure healthy food system for the people. They can also play an important role in climate resilience for sustainable environment. Their full potential should be harnessed as it has been established that these crops are highly responsive to fertilizer. They can be brought under regular cultivation culture and the fruits and leaves accessed without the traditional search for them. This information could encourage the domestication of these indigenous plant species and guide the utility of these crops. Empirical studies [23] copiously quoted in this review supports the possibility of adapting these forest species to regular cultivation culture.
Furthermore, in harnessing the potential of these tropical plant species to the fullest, this review outlined some key factors that could unlock their vast potential.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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Ciurean, Dagmar Schröter and Thomas Glade",authors:[{id:"163703",title:"Prof.",name:"Thomas",middleName:null,surname:"Glade",slug:"thomas-glade",fullName:"Thomas Glade"},{id:"164141",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Roxana",middleName:"Liliana",surname:"Ciurean",slug:"roxana-ciurean",fullName:"Roxana Ciurean"},{id:"164142",title:"Dr.",name:"Dagmar",middleName:null,surname:"Schroeter",slug:"dagmar-schroeter",fullName:"Dagmar Schroeter"}]},{id:"58010",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72304",title:"Fourth Industrial Revolution: Current Practices, Challenges, and Opportunities",slug:"fourth-industrial-revolution-current-practices-challenges-and-opportunities",totalDownloads:6445,totalCrossrefCites:44,totalDimensionsCites:70,abstract:"The globalization and the competitiveness are forcing companies to rethink and to innovate their production processes following the so-called Industry 4.0 paradigm. It represents the integration of tools already used in the past (big data, cloud, robot, 3D printing, simulation, etc.) that are now connected into a global network by transmitting digital data. The implementation of this new paradigm represents a huge change for companies, which are faced with big investments. In order to benefit from the opportunities offered by the smart revolution, companies must have the prerequisites needed to withstand changes generated by “smart” system. In addition, new workers who face the world of work 4.0 must have new skills in automation, digitization, and information technology, without forgetting soft skills. This chapter aims to present the main good practices, challenges, and opportunities related to Industry 4.0 paradigm.",book:{id:"6291",slug:"digital-transformation-in-smart-manufacturing",title:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing",fullTitle:"Digital Transformation in Smart Manufacturing"},signatures:"Antonella Petrillo, Fabio De Felice, Raffaele Cioffi and Federico\nZomparelli",authors:[{id:"161682",title:"Prof.",name:"Fabio",middleName:null,surname:"De Felice",slug:"fabio-de-felice",fullName:"Fabio De Felice"},{id:"181603",title:"Dr.",name:"Antonella",middleName:null,surname:"Petrillo",slug:"antonella-petrillo",fullName:"Antonella Petrillo"},{id:"205141",title:"Dr.",name:"Federico",middleName:null,surname:"Zomparelli",slug:"federico-zomparelli",fullName:"Federico Zomparelli"},{id:"208748",title:"Dr.",name:"Raffaele",middleName:null,surname:"Cioffi",slug:"raffaele-cioffi",fullName:"Raffaele Cioffi"}]},{id:"35715",doi:"10.5772/38693",title:"The Role and Importance of Cultural Tourism in Modern Tourism Industry",slug:"the-role-and-importance-of-cultural-tourism-in-modern-tourism-industry",totalDownloads:41085,totalCrossrefCites:31,totalDimensionsCites:62,abstract:null,book:{id:"2298",slug:"strategies-for-tourism-industry-micro-and-macro-perspectives",title:"Strategies for Tourism Industry",fullTitle:"Strategies for Tourism Industry - Micro and Macro Perspectives"},signatures:"Janos Csapo",authors:[{id:"118766",title:"Dr.",name:"János",middleName:null,surname:"Csapó",slug:"janos-csapo",fullName:"János Csapó"}]},{id:"38973",doi:"10.5772/51460",title:"Risk Management in Construction Projects",slug:"risk-management-in-construction-projects",totalDownloads:102568,totalCrossrefCites:36,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:null,book:{id:"2175",slug:"risk-management-current-issues-and-challenges",title:"Risk Management",fullTitle:"Risk Management - Current Issues and Challenges"},signatures:"Nerija Banaitiene and Audrius Banaitis",authors:[{id:"139414",title:"Dr.",name:"Nerija",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitiene",slug:"nerija-banaitiene",fullName:"Nerija Banaitiene"},{id:"149658",title:"Dr.",name:"Audrius",middleName:null,surname:"Banaitis",slug:"audrius-banaitis",fullName:"Audrius Banaitis"}]},{id:"40977",doi:"10.5772/53885",title:"The Emergence of Scientific Reasoning",slug:"the-emergence-of-scientific-reasoning",totalDownloads:4554,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:59,abstract:null,book:{id:"654",slug:"current-topics-in-children-s-learning-and-cognition",title:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition",fullTitle:"Current Topics in Children's Learning and Cognition"},signatures:"Bradley J. Morris, Steve Croker, Amy M. Masnick and Corinne Zimmerman",authors:[{id:"154336",title:"Prof.",name:"Bradley",middleName:null,surname:"Morris",slug:"bradley-morris",fullName:"Bradley Morris"},{id:"154337",title:"Prof.",name:"Steve",middleName:null,surname:"Croker",slug:"steve-croker",fullName:"Steve Croker"},{id:"154338",title:"Prof.",name:"Amy",middleName:null,surname:"Masnick",slug:"amy-masnick",fullName:"Amy Masnick"},{id:"154339",title:"Prof.",name:"Corinne",middleName:null,surname:"Zimmerman",slug:"corinne-zimmerman",fullName:"Corinne Zimmerman"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58890",title:"Philosophy and Paradigm of Scientific Research",slug:"philosophy-and-paradigm-of-scientific-research",totalDownloads:14074,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Before carrying out the empirical analysis of the role of management culture in corporate social responsibility, identification of the philosophical approach and the paradigm on which the research carried out is based is necessary. Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2328,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Prof.",name:"Abílio Afonso",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-afonso-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Afonso Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"58969",title:"Corruption, Causes and Consequences",slug:"corruption-causes-and-consequences",totalDownloads:27687,totalCrossrefCites:13,totalDimensionsCites:15,abstract:"Corruption is a constant in the society and occurs in all civilizations; however, it has only been in the past 20 years that this phenomenon has begun being seriously explored. It has many different shapes as well as many various effects, both on the economy and the society at large. Among the most common causes of corruption are the political and economic environment, professional ethics and morality and, of course, habits, customs, tradition and demography. Its effects on the economy (and also on the wider society) are well researched, yet still not completely. Corruption thus inhibits economic growth and affects business operations, employment and investments. It also reduces tax revenue and the effectiveness of various financial assistance programs. The wider society is influenced by a high degree of corruption in terms of lowering of trust in the law and the rule of law, education and consequently the quality of life (access to infrastructure, health care). There also does not exist an unambiguous answer as to how to deal with corruption. Something that works in one country or in one region will not necessarily be successful in another. This chapter tries to answer at least a few questions about corruption and the causes for it, its consequences and how to deal with it successfully.",book:{id:"6487",slug:"trade-and-global-market",title:"Trade and Global Market",fullTitle:"Trade and Global Market"},signatures:"Štefan Šumah",authors:[{id:"228073",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:null,surname:"Sumah",slug:"stefan-sumah",fullName:"Stefan Sumah"}]},{id:"55499",title:"Human Resources Management in Nonprofit Organizations: A Case Study of Istanbul Foundation for Culture and Arts",slug:"human-resources-management-in-nonprofit-organizations-a-case-study-of-istanbul-foundation-for-cultur",totalDownloads:2399,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"The aim of this study is to investigate the efficiency and importance of human resources management in nonprofit organizations. The understanding was included to the literature as personnel management at the beginning of the twentieth century and it turned into an approach as human resources management in the 1980s. It could be observed that many organizations, which deem the human as the most critical stakeholder, adopt a traditional way of personnel management in operating human resources. The employees play a key role in the success of an organization. For this reason, subjects such as recruitment, training, development, career management, performance appraisal, occupational health, and safety are the fundamental functions of human resources management. The study examines to what extent these roles are evaluated through a case study. The subject matter of the study is the most powerful culture and art foundation in Turkey. Compared to many other nonprofit organizations, the foundation actively performs a variety of services within a year worldwide. The fact that the total number of employees might rise up to 800, including the field personnel, indicates the need of a good functioning human resources management. The human resources practices of the foundation are examined and evaluated within that scope.",book:{id:"5826",slug:"issues-of-human-resource-management",title:"Issues of Human Resource Management",fullTitle:"Issues of Human Resource Management"},signatures:"Beste Gökçe Parsehyan",authors:[{id:"189113",title:"Dr.",name:"Beste",middleName:null,surname:"Gokce Parsehyan",slug:"beste-gokce-parsehyan",fullName:"Beste Gokce Parsehyan"}]},{id:"59152",title:"Marketing Strategies for the Social Good",slug:"marketing-strategies-for-the-social-good",totalDownloads:1669,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:1,abstract:"Social network sites (SNS) have proven to be a good environment to promote and sell goods and services, but marketing is more than creating commercial strategies. Social marketing strategies can also be used to promote behavioral change and help individuals transform their lives, achieve well-being, and adopt prosocial behaviors. In this chapter, we seek to analyze with a netnographic study, how SNS are being employed by nonprofits and nongovernment organizations (NGOs) to enable citizens and consumers to participate in different programs and activities that promote social transformation and well-being. A particular interest is to identify how organizations are using behavioral economic tactics to nudge individuals and motivate them to engage in prosocial actions. By providing an understanding on how SNS can provide an adequate environment for the design of social marketing strategies, we believe our work has practical implications both for academicians and marketers who want to contribute in the transformation of consumer behavior and the achievement of well-being and social change.",book:{id:"6583",slug:"marketing",title:"Marketing",fullTitle:"Marketing"},signatures:"Alicia De La Pena",authors:[{id:"196878",title:"Dr.",name:"Alicia",middleName:null,surname:"De La Pena",slug:"alicia-de-la-pena",fullName:"Alicia De La Pena"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"4",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83075",title:"Practices and Challenges of Community Services at Debre Markos University, Ethiopia: A Case Study",slug:"practices-and-challenges-of-community-services-at-debre-markos-university-ethiopia-a-case-study",totalDownloads:1,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105896",abstract:"Universities are the main actors that deliver community service in Ethiopia. Community service is among the three pillars of the university’s business along with teaching and research tasks. Employing a qualitative case study design, this research inspects the practices of community services against the ascribed principles and identifes the pitfalls of community service in Debre Markos University. Both primary and secondary data were collected. Primary data were collected through key informants interviews, semistructured interviews, and non-participant observation. Thirteen participants, five through key informant interview and eight through a semistructured interview were addressed. Participants were purposively selected from both the university and the nearby community. Lecturers, vice-presidents, and directors have participated in the interview. Articles, books, different reports, newspapers, and magazines were reviewed and used as sources of secondary data. Thematic data analysis technique was employed to analyze the primary data, and document analysis was used to analyze the data gained from secondary sources. The results show that, though community service is rendered since 2006 at Debre Markos University, there are still limitations in adhering to the principles of community service. These include shortage of budget, low level of University-Industry Linkage (UIL), less commitment of the staff, and the low level of monitoring and evaluation.",book:{id:"11602",title:"Corporate Social Responsibility",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11602.jpg"},signatures:"Adane Mengist"},{id:"83053",title:"Apologies in L2 French in Canadian Context",slug:"apologies-in-l2-french-in-canadian-context",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106557",abstract:"This article presents the results of an analysis of apology strategies in native and non-native French in Canadian context. The data used were obtained through a Discourse Completion Task questionnaire that was completed by a group of native French speakers (FL1) and a group of learners of French as a second language (FL2). The goal was to identify and compare pragmatic and linguistic choices made by both groups when apologizing in three different situations. Several differences and similarities emerged between the two groups regarding the use of exclamations to introduce apologies, direct apologies, indirect apologies, and supportive acts. For instance, it was found that the FL1 speakers used “expressions of regret”, “offers of apology” 15 and “requests for forgiveness” to apologize directly, while the FL2 speaking informants used 16 only “expressions of regret” and “offers of apology”. While the respondents of both groups 17 mostly chose “offers of repair” to apologize indirectly, they displayed divergent preferences 18 regarding the use of other indirect apology strategies. Differences were also documented 19 with respect to the use of intensification devices in direct apologies and the use of supportive acts. Implications of the findings for L2 French pedagogy were also discussed.",book:{id:"11480",title:"Second Language Acquisition - Learning Theories and Recent Approaches",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11480.jpg"},signatures:"Bernard Mulo Farenkia"},{id:"83049",title:"An Ethnographic Study on Sense of a Community: The “Awramba” Experience",slug:"an-ethnographic-study-on-sense-of-a-community-the-awramba-experience",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105953",abstract:"The study was conducted on “Awramba” Community who are living in “Amhara” region, south “Gondor” Zone, Ethiopia. The general objective of this study was to capture an understanding of sense of community in “Awramba” community. The study tried to answer the following questions: How the community was established? What are the criteria to be part of the community? What are the shared values of social practice that has survived for the test of time? What is the historical background of the “Awramba” Community? The researcher used realist ethnography method to achieve the above objective and to answer the questions. In-depth interview and observational guide techniques were applied to collect reliable data for the study. The observation and in-depth interview data were analyzed qualitatively. The study showed the following themes: Membership criteria of the community are based on adhering to the community norm. They have a strong sense of community based on shared story, cooperative work, marriage and mourning values, religious view, gender equality, commitment to be honest, and solving their problem by themselves. The emotional connection of the “Awramba” community is strengthened by their common celebration of the yearly anniversary of New Year and scheduled meeting.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Nassir-Maru Yesuf"},{id:"83027",title:"Coping Strategies and Meta-Worry in Adolescents’ Adjustment during COVID-19 Pandemic",slug:"coping-strategies-and-meta-worry-in-adolescents-adjustment-during-covid-19-pandemic",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106258",abstract:"With the beginning of the COVID-19 pandemic, several limitations and stressful changes have been introduced in adolescent’s daily life. Particularly, Italian teenagers were the first among western populations to experience fears of infection, home confinement, and social restrictions due to a long lockdown period (10 weeks). This study explores the role of coping strategies (task-oriented, emotion-oriented, and avoidance coping) and meta-beliefs about worry as vulnerability factors associated with adolescents’ anxiety. A community sample of adolescents (N = 284, aged 16–18 y.o.) answered questionnaires assessing anxiety symptoms (RCMAS-2), meta-cognitive beliefs and processes about worry (MCQ-C), and coping strategies (CISS). Results show that 37% of participants report clinically elevated anxiety. Emotion-centered coping predicted higher anxiety, whereas task-centered coping resulted associated with decreased anxiety. Cognitive monitoring about their own worry contributes, but to a lesser extent, to higher levels of anxiety. The implications for the intervention are discussed, especially the need to enhance the coping skills of adolescents and mitigate the stress of the COVID-19 pandemic, which could last for a long time.",book:{id:"10671",title:"Adolescences",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10671.jpg"},signatures:"Loredana Benedetto, Ilenia Schipilliti and Massimo Ingrassia"},{id:"83023",title:"Gestational Tryptophan Fluctuation Underlying Ontogenetic Origin of Neuropsychiatric Disorders",slug:"gestational-tryptophan-fluctuation-underlying-ontogenetic-origin-of-neuropsychiatric-disorders",totalDownloads:5,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106421",abstract:"Neuropsychiatry underlies personality development and social functioning. Borderline personality disorder exhibits high trait aggression and is associated with tryptophan hydroxylase polymorphisms. The acute tryptophan depletion reduces plasma and cerebrospinal fluid tryptophan availability and brain serotonin concentrations, leading to alterations in personality and trait-related behaviors. Tryptophan is essential for fatal neurodevelopment and immunomodulation in pregnancy. Gestational tryptophan fluctuation induced by maternal metabolic disorders or drug administrations may account for the maternal-fetal transmission determining neurogenesis and microbial development, consequentially shaping the long-standing patterns of thinking and behavior. However, it is not possible to assess the gestational tryptophan exposure effects on fetal brain and gastrointestinal system in humans for ethical reasons. The maternal–fetal microbe transmission in rodents during gestation, vaginal delivery, and breastfeeding is inevitable. Chicken embryo may be an alternative and evidence from the chicken embryo model reveals that gestational tryptophan fluctuation, i.e., exposed to excessive tryptophan or its metabolite, serotonin, attenuates aggressiveness and affects peer sociometric status. This chapter discusses the gestational tryptophan fluctuation as a risk factor of personality disorders in offspring and the prevention of personality disorders by dietary tryptophan control and medication therapy management during pregnancy.",book:{id:"11782",title:"Personality Traits - The Role in Psychopathology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11782.jpg"},signatures:"Xiaohong Huang, Xiaohua Li and Heng-Wei Cheng"},{id:"83014",title:"Culture: A Pillar of Organizational Sustainability",slug:"culture-a-pillar-of-organizational-sustainability",totalDownloads:3,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106523",abstract:"Sustainability is a concern that permeates all levels of society and is premised on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. More recently, policies and research have emerged that guide organizations to align their activities with the broader sustainable development agendas, including cultural issues, not just economic, social, and environmental ones. Culture is the material and immaterial attribute of society. It incorporates social organizations, literature, religion, myths, beliefs, behaviors and entrepreneurial practices of the productive segment, use of technology, and expressive art forms on which future generations depend. Thus, cultural sustainability is a fundamental issue and is configured as the fourth pillar of sustainability, equal to social, economic, and environmental issues, which has to do with the ability to sustain or continue with cultural beliefs and practices, preserve cultural heritage as its entity, and try to answer whether any culture will exist in the future. The importance of cultural sustainability lies in its power to influence people. Their beliefs are in the decisions made by society. Thus, there can be no sustainable development without including culture.",book:{id:"11429",title:"Sustainability, Ecology, and Religions of the World",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11429.jpg"},signatures:"Clea Beatriz Macagnan and Rosane Maria Seibert"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:282},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:140,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:123,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:22,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:11,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"July 5th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:9,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. Papakostas has received a diploma in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 1999 and the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees in Electrical and Computer Engineering in 2002 and 2007, respectively, from the Democritus University of Thrace (DUTH), Greece. Dr. Papakostas serves as a Tenured Full Professor at the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University, Greece. Dr. Papakostas has 10 years of experience in large-scale systems design as a senior software engineer and technical manager, and 20 years of research experience in the field of Artificial Intelligence. Currently, he is the Head of the “Visual Computing” division of HUman-MAchines INteraction Laboratory (HUMAIN-Lab) and the Director of the MPhil program “Advanced Technologies in Informatics and Computers” hosted by the Department of Computer Science, International Hellenic University. He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/27.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"148497",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Emin",surname:"Aydin",slug:"mehmet-aydin",fullName:"Mehmet Aydin",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/148497/images/system/148497.jpg",biography:"Dr. Mehmet Emin Aydin is a Senior Lecturer with the Department of Computer Science and Creative Technology, the University of the West of England, Bristol, UK. His research interests include swarm intelligence, parallel and distributed metaheuristics, machine learning, intelligent agents and multi-agent systems, resource planning, scheduling and optimization, combinatorial optimization. Dr. Aydin is currently a Fellow of Higher Education Academy, UK, a member of EPSRC College, a senior member of IEEE and a senior member of ACM. In addition to being a member of advisory committees of many international conferences, he is an Editorial Board Member of various peer-reviewed international journals. He has served as guest editor for a number of special issues of peer-reviewed international journals.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of the West of England",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null}]},overviewPageOFChapters:{paginationCount:20,paginationItems:[{id:"82526",title:"Deep Multiagent Reinforcement Learning Methods Addressing the Scalability Challenge",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105627",signatures:"Theocharis Kravaris and George A. Vouros",slug:"deep-multiagent-reinforcement-learning-methods-addressing-the-scalability-challenge",totalDownloads:19,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Multi-Agent Technologies and Machine Learning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11445.jpg",subseries:{id:"27",title:"Multi-Agent Systems"}}},{id:"82196",title:"Multi-Features Assisted Age Invariant Face Recognition and Retrieval Using CNN with Scale Invariant Heat Kernel Signature",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104944",signatures:"Kamarajugadda Kishore Kumar and Movva Pavani",slug:"multi-features-assisted-age-invariant-face-recognition-and-retrieval-using-cnn-with-scale-invariant-",totalDownloads:14,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"82063",title:"Evaluating Similarities and Differences between Machine Learning and Traditional Statistical Modeling in Healthcare Analytics",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105116",signatures:"Michele Bennett, Ewa J. Kleczyk, Karin Hayes and Rajesh Mehta",slug:"evaluating-similarities-and-differences-between-machine-learning-and-traditional-statistical-modelin",totalDownloads:7,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining - Annual Volume 2022",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11422.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}},{id:"81791",title:"Self-Supervised Contrastive Representation Learning in Computer Vision",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104785",signatures:"Yalin Bastanlar and Semih Orhan",slug:"self-supervised-contrastive-representation-learning-in-computer-vision",totalDownloads:59,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,authors:null,book:{title:"Pattern Recognition - New Insights",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11442.jpg",subseries:{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining"}}}]},overviewPagePublishedBooks:{paginationCount:9,paginationItems:[{type:"book",id:"7723",title:"Artificial Intelligence",subtitle:"Applications in Medicine and Biology",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7723.jpg",slug:"artificial-intelligence-applications-in-medicine-and-biology",publishedDate:"July 31st 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Marco Antonio Aceves-Fernandez",hash:"a3852659e727f95c98c740ed98146011",volumeInSeries:1,fullTitle:"Artificial Intelligence - Applications in Medicine and Biology",editors:[{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. He obtained both his M.Sc. and Ph.D. from the University of Liverpool, England, in the field of Intelligent Systems. He is a full professor at the Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro, Mexico, and a member of the National System of Researchers (SNI) since 2009. Dr. Aceves Fernandez has published more than 80 research papers as well as a number of book chapters and congress papers. He has contributed in more than 20 funded research projects, both academic and industrial, in the area of artificial intelligence, ranging from environmental, biomedical, automotive, aviation, consumer, and robotics to other applications. He is also a honorary president at the National Association of Embedded Systems (AMESE), a senior member of the IEEE, and a board member of many institutions. His research interests include intelligent and embedded systems.",institutionString:"Universidad Autonoma de Queretaro",institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Queretaro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]},{type:"book",id:"7726",title:"Swarm Intelligence",subtitle:"Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7726.jpg",slug:"swarm-intelligence-recent-advances-new-perspectives-and-applications",publishedDate:"December 4th 2019",editedByType:"Edited by",bookSignature:"Javier Del Ser, Esther Villar and Eneko Osaba",hash:"e7ea7e74ce7a7a8e5359629e07c68d31",volumeInSeries:2,fullTitle:"Swarm Intelligence - Recent Advances, New Perspectives and Applications",editors:[{id:"49813",title:"Dr.",name:"Javier",middleName:null,surname:"Del Ser",slug:"javier-del-ser",fullName:"Javier Del Ser",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/49813/images/system/49813.png",biography:"Prof. Dr. Javier Del Ser received his first PhD in Telecommunication Engineering (Cum Laude) from the University of Navarra, Spain, in 2006, and a second PhD in Computational Intelligence (Summa Cum Laude) from the University of Alcala, Spain, in 2013. He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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