Basel Committee documents on bank risk management.
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"3424",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Food Industry",title:"Food Industry",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Due to the increase in world population (more than seven billion inhabitants) the global food industry has the largest number of demanding and knowledgeable consumers. This population requires food products that fulfill the high quality standards established by the food industry organizations. Food shortages threaten human health, and also the disastrous extreme climatic events make food shortages even worse. This collection of articles is a timely contribution to issues relating to the food industry. The objective of this book is to provide knowledge appropriate for students, university researchers, and in general, for anyone wishing to obtain knowledge of food processing and to improve the food product quality.",isbn:null,printIsbn:"978-953-51-0911-2",pdfIsbn:"978-953-51-5345-0",doi:"10.5772/55834",price:159,priceEur:175,priceUsd:205,slug:"food-industry",numberOfPages:760,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"26d230385a4b7a517b44d60bf75e83de",bookSignature:"Innocenzo Muzzalupo",publishedDate:"January 16th 2013",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3424.jpg",numberOfDownloads:140464,numberOfWosCitations:225,numberOfCrossrefCitations:170,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:439,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:834,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"May 9th 2012",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"May 30th 2012",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"August 26th 2012",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"September 25th 2012",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"December 4th 2012",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"93139",title:"Dr.",name:"Innocenzo",middleName:null,surname:"Muzzalupo",slug:"innocenzo-muzzalupo",fullName:"Innocenzo Muzzalupo",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93139/images/system/93139.png",biography:"Doctor Innocenzo Muzzalupo has received degree in “Biology” from the University of Calabria in 1993 and received his Ph.D. degree (1997) in “Chemistry” from the University of “La Sapienza” Rome. Currently, he is working as a member of Council for Agricultural Research and Economics, Research Centre for Olive, Citrus and Tree Fruit in Italy. After receiving his Ph.D. degree, he was appointed as post-doctoral researcher (1999) in “Food Science” at the University of Calabria. Between 1999 and 2008 he had a contract as professor of “Botany” at the University of Calabria. Following eight years of extensive research on olive characterization and on olive oil quality. His research areas include olive germplasm characterization, olive genes characterization, and analytical methods for olive oil traceability, olive oil quality. 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It is also a concern of regulators to maintain the safety and soundness of the financial system. Over the past decades, banking business has developed with the introduction of advanced trading technologies and sophisticated financial products. While these advancements enhance bank’s intermediation role, promote profitability, and better diversify bank risk, they raise significant challenges to bank risk management. The risk management of banks has been considered to be weak compared to the rapid changes in the financial markets [1]. In the light of the recent global financial crisis, bank risk management has become the major concern of banking regulators and policy makers.
Basel Committee for Banking Supervision (hereafter, the Basel Committee), which was established in 1974 by the central bank governors of G-10 countries1, acts as the primary global standard setter for banking prudential regulation. The Committee sets international standards and guidelines for national regulators to assess and supervise their banking system. Its landmark publication—the Basel Accord—largely affects the way banks manage their capital and risk as well as the way they are monitored and supervised by the regulators.
This chapter approaches bank risk management under the regulators’ perspective with an emphasis on the risk-based capital regulation. Section 2 provides a brief overview about bank risk and risk management. Since the regulation practice in most countries is pretty much based on the guidelines of the Basel Committee, this section primarily follows the Committee’s documents. Section 3 introduces the Basel Accords (i.e., Basel I, II, and III), which set the international standards for bank capital regulation, and clearly states how and what types of bank risk are covered by the Accords. Although the Accords, and the capital regulation in general, are expected to discipline the risk-taking behavior of banks, such effect is still under debate. Sections 4 and 5, respectively, present theoretical arguments and global evidences about whether the capital regulation reduces bank risk-taking. For the purpose of the chapter, only risk-based capital regulation is concerned. Section 6 provides a summary of the chapter.
Bank risk is usually referred as the potential loss to a bank due to the occurrence of particular events. Key risks in banking include credit risk, interest rate risk, market risk, liquidity risk, and operational risk.
Risk management is important for banks to ensure their profitability and soundness. It is the process established by bank managers to ensure that all risks associated with the bank’s activities are identified, measured, limited, controlled, mitigated, and reported on a timely and comprehensive basis [7]. A sound risk management system is necessary to support the regulators in assessing bank’s soundness and to reinforce the market participants’ confidence in the banking system. The Basel Committee [1] suggests that a sound risk management system should have: (i) active board and senior management oversight; (ii) appropriate policies, procedures, and limits; (iii) comprehensive and timely identification, measurement, mitigation, controlling, monitoring, and reporting of risks; (iv) appropriate management information systems at the business and firm-wide level; and (iv) comprehensive internal controls.
The Basel Committee sets out a number of standards and guidelines for bank risk management. Table 1 summarizes main documents related to regulation of bank risk management by the Basel Committee.
Types | Documents | First issued | Last revised |
---|---|---|---|
Standards | Core principles for effective banking supervision | Sep 1997 | Sep 2012 |
Guidelines | Corporate governance principles for banks | Sep 1999 | Jul 2015 |
Guidelines | Principles for sound stress testing practices and supervision | May 2009 | None |
Standards | Basel III: A global regulatory framework for more resilient banks and banking systems | Dec 2010 | Jun 2011 |
Standards | Basel III: The liquidity coverage ratio and liquidity risk monitoring tools | Dec 2010 | Jan 2013 |
Standards | Basel III: The net stable funding ratio | Dec 2010 | Oct 2014 |
Standards | Basel III: Finalizing post-crisis reforms | Dec 2017 | None |
Standards | Basel II: International Convergence of Capital Measurement and Capital Standards: A Revised Framework—Comprehensive Version | Jun 2004 | Jun 2006 |
Guidelines | Principles for the Management of Credit Risk | Sep 2000 | None |
Guidelines | Best Practices for Credit Risk Disclosure | Sep 2000 | None |
Guidelines | Principles for Sound Liquidity Risk Management and Supervision | Feb 2000 | Sep 2008 |
Guidelines | Principles for the Sound Management of Operational Risk | Feb 2003 | Jun 2011 |
Standards | Interest rate risk in the banking book | Sep 1997 | Apr 2016 |
Basel Committee documents on bank risk management.
Source: Authors’ compilation from Basel Committee’s publications (available at https://www.bis.org/bcbs/publications.htm?m=5%7C28%7C427).
Bank risk management and capital management are inseparately related to each other. As specified under Principle 15 in Core Principles for Effective Banking Supervision by the Basel Committee [8], the bank’s risk management process should be able to assess the adequacy of their capital in relation to their risk profile as well as market and macroeconomic conditions. In a similar way, Principle 16 requires that the capital adequacy requirements should reflect all risks taken and presented by a bank given the markets and macroeconomic conditions that it operates. In such manner, the Basel Accords specify capital requirements to adequately cover bank risks. The following provides details of how and what types of risks are regulated under Basel Accords.
The risk-based capital adequacy standards were introduced by the Basel Committee in 1988 and commonly known as Basel I Accord. The Accord not only sets standards for capital adequacy but also affects the bank’s risk management. Initially, only credit risk is addressed since it is the major risk of banks. Under Basel I, banks are required to hold an adequate amount of capital to cover their credit risks related to different categories of on- and off-balance sheet assets. For on-balance sheet assets, the Accord assigns a risk weight ranging from 0, 10, 20, and 50 to 100% on different asset categories. For off-balance sheet exposures, credit conversion factors are applied to different types of off-balance-sheet instruments or transactions based on their estimated size, the likely occurrence of the credit exposure, and the relative degree of credit risk. These credit conversion factors are then multiplied by the weights applicable to the category of the counterparty for an on-balance-sheet transaction to determine the amount of risk-weighted assets [9].
Efforts to address other risks other than credit risk have been made continuously. As a result, Basel I was refined in January 1996 to comprise requirements for market risk which arose from exposures to foreign exchange, traded debt securities, equities, commodities, and options. In measuring market risk, banks are allowed to choose between standardized approach and internal models approach, subject to the approval of the national authorities. By incorporating market risks into the risk framework, Basel Committee clarifies that credit risk requirements exclude debt and equity securities in the trading book and all positions in commodities but include the credit counterparty risk on all over-the-counter derivatives whether in the trading or the banking books [10].
The framework was revised in June 2004, commonly referred as Basel II, with the introduction of operational risk in addition to the existing credit risk and market risk. Under the Basel framework, operational risk includes legal risk but excludes strategic and reputational risk. Basel II provides three available methods to calculate capital charges for operational risk, including basic indicator approach, standardized approach, and advanced measurement approach. The use of standardized approach and advanced measurement approach is subject to supervisory approval [11].
The revised framework also provides more flexibility in calculating capital requirements for credit risk. Accordingly, banks are allowed to choose between standardized approach and internal rating-based approach, depending on which approach is more appropriate for their operations and financial market infrastructure. The credit risk measurement is also more risk sensitive than in Basel I. Specifically, standardized approach is supported by external credit assessments, and the risk weights have a wider range from 0 up to 350% (for the case of securitization tranches that are rated between BB+ and BB−). There is also consideration for past due loans more than 90 days, treatments of credit risk mitigation, and securitization exposures [11].
Despite attempting to capture most risks in the minimum capital requirements, Basel Committee acknowledges that it is impossible to cover all risks. For such reason, they introduce Pillar 2 for Supervisory Review and Pillar 3 for Market Discipline to complement the minimum capital requirement, which is regarded as Pillar 1.
The Pillar 2 aims to treat risks that are not fully included or considered in Pillar 1 such as credit concentration risk, interest rate risk in the banking book, business and strategic risk, and factors external to the bank such as business cycle effects. In addition to ensure that banks have adequate capital to support their risks, Pillar 2 encourages banks to develop and use better risk management techniques. Therefore, banks are required to have an overall capital adequacy assessment process according to their risk profile and a capital maintaining strategy. This involves the board and senior management oversight, a sound capital assessment, a comprehensive assessment of risks, monitoring and reporting, and an internal control review. Bank’s self-assessment will be then reviewed and evaluated by supervisors [11].
The Pillar 3 complements the other two pillars by requiring banks to disclose information about their scope of application, capital, risk exposures, risk assessment processes, and the capital adequacy. The disclosure is expected to inform the market about the bank’s risk exposures and provide a consistent and understandable framework that enhances the comparability among banks [11].
The 2004 Basel framework focuses primarily on the banking book. More attention to trading book as well as exposures to the
The massive failure of the banking system during the global financial crisis 2007–2009 forced the revision of Basel II. Consequently, Basel III was issued in mid-December 2010 and consequently revised in June 2011. The new framework enhances the risk coverage in three Pillars, particularly credit risk and market risk by raising capital requirements for the trading book and complex securitization exposures, introducing a stressed value-at-risk (VaR) capital requirement based on a continuous 12-month period of significant financial stress, requiring higher capital charges for so-called resecuritizations in both the banking and the trading books and strengthening the capital requirements for counterparty credit exposures arising from banks’ derivatives, repo, and securities financing activities [13].
Basel III also introduces liquidity requirements to address bank’s liquidity risk, which was considered as not properly managed during the early phase of the financial crisis in 2007. Two minimum standards for funding, namely, liquidity coverage ratio (LCR) and the net stable funding ratio (NSFR), are proposed. These two standards are designed to promote both short-term and long-term resilience of a bank’s liquidity risk profile. Specifically, the LCR ensures that the bank has sufficient high-quality liquid resources to survive an acute stress scenario lasting for 1 month. And the NSFR creates additional incentives for a bank to fund its activities with more stable sources of funding on an ongoing structural basis (1 year). In supporting supervisors to monitor banks’ liquidity risk profiles, Basel Committee develops a set of common metrics to be considered as the minimum types of information for supervisors. These include contractual maturity mismatch, concentration of funding, available unencumbered assets, LCR by currency, and market-related monitoring tools [13]. The regulation on liquidity risk was revised in January 2013 for the liquidity coverage ratio and liquidity risk monitoring tools and in October 2014 for the net stable funding ratio [14, 15].
In December 2017, the Basel Committee completed its Basel III post-crisis reforms. Accordingly, the revised framework enhances the robustness and risk sensitivity of the standardized approaches for credit risk and reduces the reliance of its external credit ratings. The use of internally modeled approaches is more constrained. For operational risk, the framework replaces the advanced measurement approaches and the existing three standardized approaches with a single risk-sensitive standardized approach. The new standardized approach is determined based on bank’s income and bank’s historical losses [16].
The risk-based capital requirements aim at creating a discipline for bank risk behavior, through which they help ensure the global financial stability. However, there are controversies whether they shape bank risk. Since the introduction of Basel Accord in 1988, continuing efforts have been concentrated on showing how these risk-based capital requirements affect bank risk. Studies fall into four theories, which focus on different factors to explain bank risk behavior. These factors include moral hazard, franchise value, capital buffer, and agency problem.
Given the limited capital and the existence of information asymmetry, banks are induced to take excessive risk. This is often regarded as the moral hazard problem, whereby one party to a transaction engages in activities detrimental to the other party [17]. The problem is exacerbated with the existence of the deposit insurance. In order to improve the depositors’ confidence in the banking system and stabilize the financial system, the government usually provides banks with the deposit insurance (either implicitly or explicitly). Under the protection of deposit insurance, the depositors incur no risk of depositing into the bank. Thus, they lose incentives to monitor bank operations. Consequently, banks have incentives to take greater risks. Therefore, researchers examining the effect of risk-based capital requirements on bank risk-taking in a context of the moral hazard focus on the limited liability of banks and the existence of the deposit insurance. However, using different models and assumptions, these studies arrive at different conclusions. Negative effect of capital requirements on bank risk-taking is suggested by Kim and Santomero, Flannery, Furlong and Keeley, Gjerde and Semmen, and Zweifel, Pfaff, and Kühn [18, 19, 20, 21, 22]. However, Gennotte and Pyle and Rochet suggest a positive effect [23, 24]. Mixed result is proposed by Calem and Rob, Blum, and Silva [25, 26, 27].
Kim and Santomero [18] adopt a single-period mean-variance model, which assumes that banks are single-period risk-averse expected utility maximizers. The bank’s objective function is to maximize the utility, which depends on the mean and standard deviation of return on equity. The capital requirements will set a bound on the bank’s expected return on equity and alter its choices of risk and return. Consequently, bank hesitates to extend credit to assets with high-risk weights and shuffles the asset portfolio toward more safe assets and less risky assets.
Flannery [19] explains the effect of risk-based capital requirements on bank risks by unifying the above utility function with an option price function. The option price function regards deposit insurance as a put option, which the bank can maximize by selecting the riskiest available asset portfolio. The model assumes that bank asset decision is two periods and bank chooses a loan portfolio that maximizes its expected return on equity. This return is affected by the value of the deposit insurance option, which depends on the permissible leverage. The capital requirements penalize higher risk with more capital, which imply a negative relationship between risk and leverage. In such way, the capital requirements lower banks’ preferred loan risk while they pursue high portfolio risk to maximize the deposit insurance’s put option value.2
Furlong and Keeley [20] employ both state-preference model and option model. In the state-preference model, the authors consider an insured bank that aims to maximize its current value of equity through two possible future states. With a given initial capital, the bank that seeks to maximize the current value of its equity will try to maximize the value of the deposit insurance option. This is equivalent to the option model, in which the bank’s objective is to maximize the value of the deposit insurance. This can be done by maintaining the highest degree of leverage (i.e., the lower capital ratio) allowed by the regulation and increasing asset portfolio risk. The gain from increasing asset risk depends on the asset size rather than the leverage. However, the change in leverage directly affects the asset size. Therefore, the marginal gain from increasing asset risk is positively correlated to the leverage change. This means that lower leverage caused by the capital requirements will reduce the bank’s marginal gain from increase in asset risk and, thus, reduce bank’s incentive to increase asset risk. In addition, for a given level of leverage, the insurance subsidy’s value is positively correlated with asset volumes. This suggests that bank prefers to increase capital rather than shrinking assets and retiring deposits to reduce the leverage. In such way, they can maximize their asset volume and, thus, the value of the insurance subsidy.
Using the same two-period state-preference model, Gjerde and Semmen [21] extend Furlong and Keeley’s study [20] by examining both risk-based capital requirements and leverage restriction. They show that under the leverage restriction, bank managers maximize both the leverage up to the regulator’s restriction and the asset risk to exploit the most benefit of the deposit insurance. However, the total value of the bank is a negative function of the risk-based equity ratio. The higher risk-based equity ratio reduces the possible investment in riskiest asset and, thus, lowers the value of deposit insurance. Therefore, with a constrained amount of equity, banks will minimize the leverage to be able to invest in high-risk assets. When the amount of equity is not constrained, bank managers will increase the equity until all funds are invested into the riskiest assets. The authors add that either minimum leverage ratio or risk-based capital ratio is efficient in regulating bank risk if the risk weights are optimal. However, if there is suboptimal risk weights (which is very likely in practice), a combination of both requirements is necessary to control bank portfolio risk.
Nevertheless, the reducing-risk effect of capital requirements is not always supported. Gennotte and Pyle [23] depart significantly from previous research by relaxing the assumption about bank assets as zero net present-value projects and show that under certain circumstances, increased risk-based capital requirements lead to higher asset risk. Arguing that evaluating and monitoring loans are costly, the authors assume that bank assets are nonzero net present-value investments. The bank determines its optimal asset portfolio based on the tradeoff between the portfolio’s net present value and subsidy value. Bank’s response to the increase in capital requirements depends on the sign of the net present value of the asset portfolio, which is a function of the asset risk and the level of investment. Although the market value of bank equity decreases with an increase in asset risk under tightened capital requirements, if the net present value of the asset portfolio is sufficiently negative and large, bank can offset this decrease by increasing the risk and reducing the level of investment simultaneously. Thus, bank asset portfolio comprises both relatively safe assets and risky assets with higher fraction of riskier assets.
Taking into consideration the limited liability of banks, Rochet [24] claims that the constraint in capital ratio can induce banks to choose very “extreme” asset portfolios with specialization on some assets. This negative effect eventually dominates the risk aversion characteristic, and even correct risk weights cannot prevent banks from inefficiently asset allocations.
Arguing that static framework, as in aforementioned studies, might neglect the intertemporal consequences of risk-taking behaviors of banks and preclude cross-sectional predictions of banks with different capital positions, Calem and Rob [25] develop a dynamic model which allows for the variation of bank’s capital position over time and across banks to predict bank risk-taking behavior under the capital regulation. In this model, banks are considered to operate in a multi-period setting and aim to maximize the discounted value of their profits. In each period, based on a specific capital position, the bank will determine its portfolio by choosing between its safe and risky assets. From this portfolio choice, the bank’s returns are realized. This realization of returns together with the preexisting capital position would then determine the next period’s capital position. The process is carried out in such a way that the bank faces the same portfolio choice with different capital positions in each period and equivalently for different banks with different capital positions. Calibrating the model using empirical data on the US banks in 1984–1993, the authors show that under increasingly stringent capital requirements, the level of bank’s risk-taking depends on the bank’s current capital position with a roughly U-shaped relationship, and bank risk-taking is restrained only if the risk-based capital standard is stringent enough.
In terms of the dynamic of capital regulation, Blum [26] analyzes the effect of capital regulation on bank risk-taking in a multi-period framework. The author shows that if the bank faces capital requirement only in the first period, it would decrease the risk due to the increase in equity. However, tightening capital ratio in the second period generates two possible effects. First, it lowers the expected profit of the banks. Bank managers are induced to take more risk with the perception that they have less to lose in the case of bankruptcy. Second, the binding regulation increases the marginal return on risk and reinforces the first effect. Consequently, the overall risk of regulated banks goes up. Silva [27] completes Blum’s model by providing the computed values of the threshold requirements for which the risk chosen by the bank converges to the zero bankruptcy cost and social optimum. These values, in turn, depend critically on the initial equity of the bank. The author confirms that constant capital requirements could efficiently reduce bank’s risk-taking and thus achieve the zero bankruptcy cost as well as socially efficient level of risk. However, this effect requires a very high level of capital requirement, which might not be practicable.
Recently, Zweifel et al. [22] consider bank’s objective as maximizing the risk-adjusted return on capital (RAROC). The model assumes that bank’s optimal capital level is determined through a three-stage process. In the first stage, the bank faces exogenous shocks on expected return and volatility, which affects its solvency-level adjustment in the second stage in a way of maximizing the RAROC. In the third stage, the bank rebalances its assets in response to changes in the solvency level by choosing new values for expected returns and risk. An internal efficiency frontier is formed with its slope depending on the capital regulation such as Basel I and Basel II. Against the expectation that these regulations can reduce the slope of the efficient frontier (i.e., banks choose lower expected return and volatility), the study shows that both Basel I and Basel II may lead banks to choose higher-risk positions than it would otherwise. The risk is likely to increase even in the case of Basel III regulation.
The capital requirements are expected to reduce bank’s excessive risk-taking. However, analysis under the moral hazard theory does not always support this argument. A substantial part of researchers has relied on the franchise value to explain the effect of risk-based capital requirements on bank risk-taking. Franchise value is the accumulated present value of a bank’s expected future profits if it operates continuously and represents an opportunity cost if the bank goes bankrupt [28]. The higher the franchise value, the more the bank stands to lose by becoming insolvent. In contrast, with no franchise value, the bank has nothing to protect and no worry about bankruptcy. Two main sources of bank’s franchise value are
With the notion that competition contributes to the erosion of bank’s franchise value and reduces its motivation to take less risk, Hellmann [30] investigates the effect of capital standards in the environment of competition. They argue that capital requirements reduce bank’s moral hazard by putting their equity at risk, which they regard as the capital-at-risk effect. However, they can have adverse effect by harming bank’s franchise value due to lower per-period future profits and thus induce them to take more risk. The latter consequence is known as franchise-value effect. Liberalization will intensify the competition among banks and encourage them to offer inefficient deposit rates to steal shares from their competitors. In such event, bank can only increase their franchise value by gambling. Therefore, capital requirements in a competitive deposit environment cannot make banks pursue a prudent investment strategy. The authors then suggest that a combination of deposit rate ceiling and capital requirement will help address the problem.
This effect is reexamined by Repullo [31] but in an explicit model of imperfect competition. The author discovers that the Hellmann’s conclusion [30] is only true in the case of a very competitive deposit market where intermediaries can earn low return margins. In markets where banks can earn an intermediate margins, they can invest in both risky and safe assets. In the extreme case of monopolistic markets, only prudent investments exist. Moreover, if the cost of capital due to the increase in capital requirements exceeds the returns of the safe asset, capital requirements are always effective in preventing banks from taking excessive risks. This is because banks can fully transfer all the cost of higher capital requirements to the depositors. This makes the equilibrium expected margins unchanged and so does the franchise values. In such case, the increased capital reduces the equilibrium deposit rate in a way that the bank’s franchise value does not vary and, thus, reduce bank’s incentive to take very risky assets.
Following Repullo’s approach [31], Zhang et al. [32] show that bank franchise value decreases with an increase in the capital ratio. With the enforcement of capital requirements, the bank holds a capital ratio as near the minimum capital requirement as possible to maximize its franchise value. In maximizing the franchise value, bank invests less in risky assets with an increase in the capital ratio. Consequently, capital requirements are effective in changing bank risk preference and reducing bank’s incentive to take risk.
Behr [33] also examines how stricter capital requirement affects bank’s risk-taking in different market structures. The results bear a slight resemblance to Repullo [31] except for the case when the bank operates in a moderate competitive environment. The difference may be in the assumption of the objective functions of the bank. Behr [33] shows that in low concentrated markets, banks have low franchise values. The bank’s objective in such an environment is to maximize the short-term profits and, thus, have great incentives to take risks to increase the franchise values. Therefore, capital requirements will play the discipline role to reduce bank’s risk-taking. On the other hand, in highly concentrated markets, the banks do not have to compete severely with each other, and their franchise values are higher. The bank’s objective now is not only to maximize the short-term profits but also the expected future profits, which are the franchise values. Bank, therefore, will be less induced to engage in high-risk assets as they would threaten its high franchise values. The role of capital regulation in this case becomes less clear.
Extending from the franchise value literature, emerging studies have focused on the dynamic of bank’s franchise value, which forms a new theory of bank behavior under capital regulation—capital buffer theory. Accordingly, there are costs in changing the level of capital and falling below the required capital level. These costs can be implicit or explicit. Implicit costs can arise from the regulatory intervention to limit the likelihood of a deposit insurance, whereas explicit costs refer to the regulators’ restrictions or penalties due to noncompliance with the minimum capital requirement or even liquidation [34]. In order to avoid these costs, banks have incentives to hold a buffer above the minimum capital requirement.
Taking into account this incentive effect of capital regulation, Milne and Whalley [35] show that bank’s attitude toward risk depends on its capital buffer and that in the long run, the capital regulation has no impact on bank risk behavior. However, this is true only when deposit is not remunerated. When allowing for deposit repayment, an increase in capital requirements increases bank’s franchise value3 and affects the desired capital buffer. The risk-taking incentive is thus reduced. But if the bank has adequate earnings, capital requirements exert little impact on bank risk-taking. In the short run, the bank risk behavior is similar to the prediction of franchise value theory. Specifically, fully capitalized banks, which have successfully built up the desired level of capital, are insured against the cost of recapitalization and liquidation, so they aim to minimize the cash flow uncertainty and be risk-averse. However, if those banks suffer from severe deterioration of cash flow but not so much to destroy the value of shareholder, they will take greater risk to avoid costly equity issuance. Whereas, banks with less than minimum required capital (normally when regulatory audit is random) are under the threat of regulation intervention and thus, become risk lovers to maximize the cash-flow uncertainty.
Milne [36] examines this incentive effect of capital requirements on bank’s portfolio choice. The author shows that in the short run, banks struggling to meet the regulatory capital requirements will reduce the holding of highly risky assets, while well-capitalized banks face little pressure from regulatory in allocating their portfolio. An exceptional case is failing banks which consider the capital regulation breaches as unavoidable and choose their portfolio without regarding the effect of the regulation. However, to the extent that the value of bank assets can be realized (e.g., through loan trading or securitization), the risk-based capital requirements have no impact on bank’s portfolio choice. In the medium term, banks raise capital until the marginal expected cost of breaching the regulatory requirement equals the marginal financing cost of equity and debt. The effect of capital requirements on bank’s asset portfolio, thus, depends on the marginal costs of debt and equity finance.
While higher capital level can help reduce the conflicts between the bank’s shareholders and debt holders, in this case the depositors, it may reinforce the conflicts between the shareholders and the managers [37]. In banking, the shareholders normally delegate the operations of the bank to the managers. Both parties aim to maximize their benefits, and it would be difficult for the shareholders to ensure that the managers are acting in the best interests of the shareholders. The agency problem refers to the divergence in the interest of managers and shareholders when managers indulged to maximize their own utility rather than the bank value [38].
Besanko and Kanatas [39] argue that the underpriced deposit insurance adds to the bank’s surplus from lending. This motivates bank’s managers to manage the loans efficiently in order to realize the surplus (i.e., when loans are repaid). However, increasing capital requirements lead to higher cost of fund which reduces the managers’ surplus. Together with the issuance of new equity to satisfy the higher capital standards, the insiders’ ownership is diluted sufficiently to reduce their incentives to make effort in monitoring the loans. This negative effect of enforced capital requirements can be greater than the benefit of asset substitution by requiring the shareholders to have more capital. The net effect is a rise in the overall riskiness of bank assets.
Taking the effect of general equilibrium into concern, Gale [40] also suggests that increasing capital requirements may have adverse effect on bank risk-taking. Given the nature that the manager’s private benefit can be damaged if the bank goes bankruptcy, the managers have incentives to be risk-averse. They will aim to maximize the probability of the success state of the investment subject to the bank’s capital constraints. Hence, they will choose the asset with the lowest return but larger than the case without capital constraint. Given the high-risk, high return assumption, the bank risk will increase.
Incorporating the difference in manager’s incentives with those of the shareholders and deposit insurers in a model with four distinct characteristics on the risk-return asset profiles, Jeitschko and Jeung [41] show that under capital regulation, the bank risk varies with the relative forces of these agents. If the shareholder’s objective dominates, the bank risk might decrease with higher capital requirement. In contrast, a manager-driven bank is inclined to undertake more risk under tightened capital requirements because in such case, the manager’s private benefit is larger with the increase in asset risk.
Reviews of theoretical models that explain the effect of capital requirements on bank risk behaviors show that the prediction of these models highly depends on model assumptions. This makes the results vary when certain assumptions are relaxed. Thus, a substantial effort has relied on empirical evidences to investigate the effect of the risk-based capital regulation on bank risk-taking. Most researches are carried out in the USA and the European countries, which are members of the Basel Committee. The results, however, differ across countries and time period (see Table 2).
Country | Time period | Authors | Risk proxy | Capital regulation proxy | Effect of capital regulation on risk |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
The USA | 1990–1991 | Jacques and Nigro [42] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Gap approach | + No effect for undercapitalized banks + Negative effect for well-capitalized banks |
The USA | 1990–1997 | Aggarwal and Jacques [43] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Dummy approach | + Positive and no effect before 1993 + Negative effect during 1993–1996 |
The USA | 2000–2005 | Teply and Matejasák [44] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Gap and Probabilistic approach | + Negative effect for undercapitalized banks + No effect for well-capitalized banks |
The USA | 2003–2006 | Abreu and Gulamhussen [45] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Dummy and gap approach | Positive effect |
Switzerland | 1989–1995 | Rime [46] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Dummy and probabilistic approach | No effect |
Germany | 1994–2002 | Heid et al. [47] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Probabilistic and rolling-window approach | + Negative effect for banks with low capital buffer + Positive effect for banks with high capital buffer |
The USA, Canada, France, Italy, the UK, Japan | 1988–1995 | Van Roy [48] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Probabilistic approach | No effect |
Italy | 1994–2003 | Cannata and Quagliariello [49] | + Risk-weighted asset ratio + Bad debt ratio | Dummy approach | + Positive effect for risk-weighted asset ratio + No effect for default risk |
EU 15 | 2000–2005 | Teply and Matejasák [44] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Gap and Probabilistic approach | No effect |
17 EU countries | 1992–2006 | Camara et al. [50] | + Risk-weighted asset ratio + Nonperforming loan ratio + Default risk + Z-score | Dummy approach | + Positive effect for highly capitalized and undercapitalized banks + Negative effect for adequately and strongly undercapitalized banks |
G-10 Countries | 1995–2005 | Saadaoui [51] | Nonperforming loan ratio | Gap approach | No effect |
India | 1997–1998 | Nachane and Saibal [52] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Gap approach | No effect |
China | 2004–2006 | Zhang et al. [32] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Gap approach | No effect |
Indonesia | 2000–2005 | Parinduri and Riyanto [53] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Dummy and Probabilistic approach | Negative effect |
42 Asian countries | 1994–2008 | Lee and Hsieh [54] | + Variance of ROE + Loan loss reserve ratio | Capital regulatory index | + Positive effect for variance of ROE + Negative effect for loan loss reserve ratio |
Tunisia | 1992–2005 | Bouri [55] | + Risk-weighted asset ratio + Loan loss provision ratio | Gap approach | + Positive for risk-weighted asset ratio + No effect for loan loss provision ratio |
Tunisia | 2000–2013 | Bouheni and Rachdi [56] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Probabilistic approach | No effect |
Brazil | 2001–2009 | Pereira and Saito [57] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Dummy approach | Negative effect |
Emerging markets | 1996–2001 | Godlewski [58] | Nonperforming loan ratio | Dummy and gap approach | + No effect for dummy approach and for well-capitalized banks under gap approach + Negative effect for undercapitalized banks under gap approach |
Emerging markets | 1995–2005 | Saadaoui [51] | Nonperforming loan ratio | Gap approach | Positive effect |
Developing countries | 1994–2002 | Hussain and Hassan [59] | Risk-weighted asset ratio | Gap approach | Negative effect |
The US and non-US developed and developing countries | 2003–2009 | Lin et al. [60] | Nonperforming loan ratio | Probabilistic approach | Negative effect |
GCC countries | 1996–2011 | Ghosh [61] | Z-score | Dummy approach | No effect |
MENA countries | 2004–2012 | Bougatef and Mgadmi [62] | Loan loss provision ratio | Dummy approach | No effect |
11 Dual banking countries | 2006–2010 | Alam [63] | Loan loss reserves ratio | Capital regulatory index | Negative effect |
107 Countries | 1999 | Barth et al. [64] | Nonperforming loan ratio | Capital regulatory index | Negative effect |
Global evidences about the effect of capital regulation on bank risk.
Notes: + Gap approach measures capital regulation as the distance of bank capital ratio from certain threshold, usually the minimum capital requirement.
+ Dummy approach assigns value 1 for banks whose capital ratios are less than certain threshold and 0 otherwise.
+ Probabilistic approach assigns value 1 for banks which are probably to be under regulatory pressure and 0 otherwise.
Efficient risk management is crucial for banks to ensure their profitability and maximize the shareholder’s value. Over the past decades, the risk management practice has changed dramatically under the forces of the business environment and technology development. An important factor contributes to the way banks manage their risk is the regulation. This chapter shows how the regulators regulate bank risk with an emphasis on the risk-based capital regulation. It also reviews theoretical studies on how the risk-based capital regulation affects bank risk-taking. These studies explain the effect of capital regulation on bank risk considering different factors such as moral hazard, franchise value, capital buffer, and agency problem. The prediction of these studies is restricted by and depends on model assumptions. The chapter also provides empirical evidences from countries worldwide and shows that the effect of capital regulation on bank risk is not homogenous among countries.
Precambrian mafic magmatism and its role in the evolution of Earth’s crust has received particular attention of the geoscientists during the last three decades because it has not only been influenced by progressive secular compositional variation and mantle sources/reservoirs but also by onset of plate tectonics. Study of dykes is useful for recognition of Large Igneous Provinces (LIP) and rebuilding of different continents which may have displaced through geological time [1]. All protocontinents of India such as Aravalli-Bundelkhand, Dharwar, Bastar and Singhbhum retain dykes of varied orientations, therefore, these dykes or dyke swarms represent a main thermal episode during the Proterozoic or Precambrain times [2]. Geochemical and isotope studies of these dykes offer an opportunity in understanding the geochemical evolution of mantle through space and time [3, 4].
Singhbhum Craton is a book that records complex geological and tectonic processes from Paleoarchean to Neoproterozoic [5, 6]. Several dykes of mafic to acidic compositions are intruding the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex, which are collectively referred to as the Newer dolerites dykes (NDD) in the geological literature [7, 8]. Being the latest magmatic episode of the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex, Newer dolerite dykes provide the path in understanding the Proterozoic geodynamic evolution of the Singhbhum Craton [9]. The present work contributes in understanding the mantle source characteristics and tectonic setting of the NDD.
Mahanadi Graben and Sukinda thrust borders the Eastern Indian shield in the west and granulite terrain of Eastern Ghats along with recent alluvium surrounds this shield in the south, whereas, Gangetic alluvium and Quaternary sediments of Bengal basin exist in north and east of this shield (Figure 1). The major divisions of this shield includes: Chotanagpur Granite Gneiss Complex, Singhbhum Mobile Belt and Singhbhum Craton. The general geological features of each of the above geological provinces are briefly discussed in the following sections.
Simplified geological map of eastern Indian shield illustrating the three geological provinces viz. Chotanagpur granite gneiss complex (CGGC), Singhbhum Mobile Belt (SMB) and Singhbhum craton (SC). SSZ – Singhbhum shear zone [
Chotanagpur Granite Gneiss Complex (CGCC) exists in West Bengal and Jharkhand states of India and covers an area of about 80,000 km2 (Latitudes 23°00′N to 25°00′N; Longitudes 83°45′E to 87°45′E). It is mostly made of granites, granite-gneisses, migmatites, dolerite dykes and pegmatite, aplite and quartz veins From the structural patterns, worked out in different parts of the CGGC, it is clear that the region has undergone polyphase deformation producing distinctive folds and related linear fabrics [8].
The formations occurring in between the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex (SGC) and CGGC are collectively recognized either as the Singhbhum Mobile Belt (SMB) or Singhbhum Group. The SMB (Figure 2), has been divided into five litho-stratigraphic domains from north to south [11, 12] like (a) volcano-sedimentary belt, (b) Dalma metavolcanic belt, (c) Chaibasa and Dhalbhum Formations, (d) the rocks occurring in the SSZ and (e) Dhanjori and/or the Ongarbira metavolcanic rocks.
Simplified geological map of the Singhbhum craton [
The Singhbhum Craton (SC) records a long history of crustal evolution from Mesoarchaean to Mesoproterozoic. It is an extensive terrain of granite and gneissic complex with subordinate metabasic and minor metasedimentary rocks (Figure 2). Some important geological units are briefed below:
Older Metamorphic Group (OMG) occurs near Champua (Latitudes 22°04′N: Longitudes 85°40′E) and as enclaves in the SGC. This group had experienced amphibolite facies metamorphism and is made of pelitic schists, garnetiferous quartzite, calc-magnesian metasediments and sill like mafic rocks [5]. Goswami et al. [13] and Mishra [14], have dated detrital zircons and recognized an older limit of 3.5Ga age for these supra-crustals. On the bases of Pb/Pb whole rock dating, Moorbath and Taylor [15] has established 3378 ± 98 Ma age for these supra-crustals. This age matches with Sm/Nd (TDM model) ages of 3.41, 3.39 and 3.35 Ga [15]. Sharma et al. [16], however, pointed out that protoliths of OMG amphibolites are 3305 ± 60 Ma old and therefore OMTG which intrude OMG cannot be older than 3300 Ma. The younger 3.40, 3.35 and 3.20 Ga ages have been interpreted as metamorphic events [17, 18].
It has been suggested that SGC (Latitudes 21°00′ and 22°45′ N: Longitudes 85°30′ and 86°30′E) is composed of 12 distinct units that were emplaced in three successive magmatic phases [5]. The K-poor, granodiorite trondhjemite early (phase I) has been dated as 3.25 ± 0.05 Ga [19]. The II and III phases are made of granodiorite that grade to monzogranite and granite and these phases are dated as 3.06 Ga (Pb/Pb whole rock) and 2.9 Ga (Rb/Sr. whole rock) respectively [5]. The other granitic bodies that occur in SC show ages similar to that of SGC, for example, Bonai granites (3369 ± 57 Ma) [20] and Katipada tonalite (3275 ± 81 Ma) [21]. Recent U–Pb zircon studies have revealed that rocks of the SG batholith were emplaced between ~3.45 Ga and ~ 3.32 Ga [22].
BIF is considered to have been deposited in three interconnected basins [5]. These basins are: (i) Noamundi (Latitudes 22°09′N: Longitudes 85°31′E) – Koira (Latitudes 21°54′N: Longitudes 85°15′E) basin of west Singhbhum district and Keonjhar, (ii) Gorumahisani (Latitudes 22°18′30′N: Longitudes 86°17′E) – Badampahar (Latitudes 22°04′N: Longitudes 86°07′E) basin along the eastern border of the Singhbhum Granitoid Complex and (iii) Daitari-Tomka basin in the southern parts of the Singhbhum Craton. In the Noamundi– Koira BIF, rocks are made up of shale, phyllite, the middle formation of banded hematite jasper and an upper formation of magniferous shale, chert, manganese formation and shale. A granite body intruding BIF near Sulaipat has been dated as 3.12 ± 0.01 Ga [23]. Some mafic and ultramafic rocks referred to as Gorumahisani Greenstones are associated with this Gorumahisani-Badampahar BIF sequence [24].
Bonai volcanics show sub-aerial and sub-marine features in the west and east parts of its extension respectively [24, 25]. These volcanics are made of mafic rocks, tuffs and subordinate silica volcanic clastic interbeds. It has been inferred that these volcanics show island arc basalt characteristics [24].
These volcanics are exposed around Noamundi upto Jagannathpur and are younger than BIF of Noamundi-Koira belt [24]. Significantly, NDD are not cutting across the Jagannathpur Suite. It, therefore, appears that it is either equivalent in age or younger than the NDD. Alvi and Raza [26] found these to be calc-alkaline basalts and suggested that these lava flows represent an early arc volcanism. The Jagannathpur lavas have been dated around 1629 ± 30 Ma by K/Ar method [5] and 2250 ± 81 Ma by Pb/Pb whole rock isochron method [27].
It is associated with Gorumahisani-Badampahar BIF along the eastern border of SBGC. The rocks of this volcanic suite are intruded by Kumhardubi (Latitude 22° 17′N: Longitude 86°19′30″) - Dublarbera (Latitude 22°29′30″ N: Longitude 86°17′E) gabbro- anorthosite, Rangamatia (Latitude 22°29′15″N: Longitude 86°17′30″E) Leucotonalite, Katupith (Latitude 22°18′N: Longitude 86°17′30′′E) Leucogranite and NDD swarm.
Recently Kar et al. [28] suggested that the circular shape of Simlipal complex is only a topography controlled rather than an existence of alternate bands of mafic volcanic and quartzites. Further, they suggested that the Simlipal complex overlies the weakly metamorphosed basement heterolith unit (Lulung Formation) which is overlain by Barehipani Formation and Jurunda Formation. Paleoproterozoic age for this complex has been given by Saha [5]. Further, Iyengar et al. [29] suggested 2084 ± 70 Ma age for Similipal complex by following the Rb-Sr whole rock method.
This group exists on the western margin of the SBC and its length is around 100 km with a width of about 12 km. Saha [5] correlated Chaniakpur-Keonjhargarh, Mankarchua and Sarpalli-Kamakhyanagar formations with Kolhan Group. The Singhbhum granite Basement, Dongoaposi (Jagannathpur) lavas and the Iron Group surround Kolhan basin on the NE, S-SE and west respectively [30]. The Kolhan shales north of Hat Gamaria are intruded by three parallel sills of the NDD. South west of Jagannathpur, flat lying Kolhan shales overlie the Jagannathpur lava.
NDD have experienced low grade regional metamorphism in the vicinity of Singhbhum Shear Zone, however they are fresh to least effected in the western and central parts of the Singhbhum Granitiod Complex. NNE–SSW trending ultramafic-mafic dyke exposed near Keshargaria is medium to coarse grained rock with green to dark green color. The ultramafic dykes which consist of olivine (25–52%) and pyroxenes (45–65%) are present. Mafic dykes are mainly massive, sometimes coarse grained and their color varies from black to greenish gray. The essential constituents of dolerite type of dykes includes pyroxenes, plagioclases and quartz with little amphiboles. Clinopyroxene is mainly augite in the form of euhedral to subhedral prismatic phenocrysts and also as granular aggregates in the groundmass. Rarely, clinopyroxene shows alteration to pale-green amphibole and/or biotite around the grain boundaries. Quartz (0.5 to 3%) is present as subhedral to anhedral crystals. Accessory minerals are opaques, apatite, and rutile. Opaque minerals (0.5 to 5%) include magnetite and Cr-Spinel. Norite samples consist dominantly orthopyroxene (hypersthene) and plagioclase (labradorite) together with subordinate diopsidic augite and small amounts of quartz. In Quartz dolerites relatively greater proportion of anhedral quartz is noticed. The major constituents in quartz dolerite are calcic plagioclase, clinopyroxene (diopside-augite) and subordinate amount of orthopyroxene (hypersthene, enstatite). Coarse grained gabbroic variety of the NDD is mostly coarse grained dark colored. Under microscope, they show overall hypidiomorphic texture with local development of subophitic texture. They show subhedral laths of labradorite plagioclase and augite. Orthopyroxene is rarely found within this petrographic variant.
While observing geochemical characteristics, NDD have been classified as (i) ultramafic dykes {having MgO >30.0 wt. %, SiO2 < 45.0 wt. %, Al2O3 < 5.0 wt. % and alkalies <1.0 wt. %; (ii) Group I dykes {having MgO 12–22 wt. %, SiO2 45–53 wt. %, Al2O3 < 11.0% and total alkalies <3.0%; (iii) Group II dykes {having MgO 7.0–19.0 wt.%, SiO2 51–60 wt. %, Al2O3 10–12 wt. % and alkalies 1.0–3.50 wt. %; (iv) Group III {having MgO 6.0–12 wt. %, SiO2 51.0–70.0 wt. %, Al2O3 10.0–12.5 wt. % and total alkalies 2.0–4.5 wt. %. Group I dykes contain lower MgO and MnO and higher SiO2, TiO2, Al2O3, P2O5 and alkalies as compared to Ultramafic dykes. Group II contains high TiO2, Fe2O3, MgO and P2O5 contents and lower SiO2 and Alkalies relative to group III dykes. In Total Alkali-Silica relationships the NDD show chemical variation from ultramafic to dacite through basalt and basaltic andesite (Figure not shown). Some samples show chemical features like MgO > 8%, SiO2 > 52%, TiO2 ≤ 0.5% and CaO/Al2O3 < 1 similar to that found in boninitic rocks [31, 32, 33, 34].
In under investigated samples Mg# (Mg # = molar 100 Mg/Mg + Fetotal) show variation like 89–85, 79–64, 80–43 and 74–49 in ultramafic dykes, group I, II and III dykes respectively. Such a change in Mg# is consistent with the fractional crystallization of ferromagnesian minerals [35]. The presence of normative quartz content in studied dolerite samples (excluding ultramafic samples) having Mg# >70 may indicate their derivation from multiple parental magmas. Mir and Alvi, [36] have suggested more investigation in terms of isotope geochemistry and radiometric data of ultramafic dykes from Keshergarya village, Singhbhum craton. They suspect their relationship with the mafic members of the NDD. Tholeiite and calc-alkaline trends are commonly based on AFM ternary plot (A = Na2O + K2O, FeO* = total iron as FeO, and M = MgO) [37]. In AFM diagram the NDD show tholeiitic trend. Ultramafic dykes concentrate towards MgO corner of AFM diagram (Figure 3).
K2O + Na2O-Fe2O3t-MgO (AFM) diagram showing theoleiitic trend of NDD. Field lines are after Kuno [
During the partial melting or fractional crystallization the transitional elements like Nickel (Ni) and Cobalt (Co) are compatible with olivine whereas Scandium (Sc), Chromium (Cr) and Vanadium (V) are compatible with clinopyroxene [39], hence these elements are important in petrogenetic studies of basic rocks. These elements are useful to demarcate the primary nature of magma as it has been noted that primary mid ocean ridge basalt (MORB) magmas retain high concentration of Ni (> 250–400 ppm), Cr (> 600 ppm) and Mg # > 70 [35]. Mg#, Ni & Cr varies like {(85–89, 150–304 & 560–2458), (64–79, 45–145 & 255–733), (43–80, 9–73 & 31–524), (49–74, 17–43 & 42–226)} respectively in concern ultramafic dykes, group I, II and III mafic dykes. Such geochemical observations infer that the samples with low Mg #, Cr and Ni values may have evolved through fractional crystallization of olivine and pyroxene [35]. Further, it has been suggested that some dyke samples having similar Mg# with distinct Ni and Cr contents and some samples having distinct Mg# with similar Ni and Cr contents indicates that either the diverse extents of partial melting of the same source or heterogeneous mantle sources are responsible for the generation of different phases of the Newer dolerite dykes. Ti/V values ranging from 20 to 50 indicates the low oxygen fugacity (
Mafic intrusions in subduction environments are important for deciphering interaction between subduction slabs and mantle. Such interactions usually result in the mantle wedge being enriched in LILE by introduction of fluids and /melts from the converging lithosphere [41]. Both fluids and melts can be introduced at different depths above a subduction zone [41]. Thus, mafic rocks across subduction zone environments may record variable degrees of mantle source modification by slab derived components [41].
The studied NDD have low K/Rb ratios up to 320 perhaps suggesting the source region of the Newer Dolerites experienced fluid modification [41, 42]. The ratios of elements such as Barium (Ba), Thorium (Th), Zirconium (Zr) and Niobium (Nb) are useful to know about the subduction zone related metasomatism of mantle, hence the values of Ba/Th, Ba/Zr & Ba/Nb in ultramafic dykes, group I, II and III dykes range like {(59–197, 3–6 & 38–119), (35–365; 1–5 & 18–195), (34–231, 1–6 & 10–76) and (37–228, 2–14 & 20–106)} respectively. Such values are higher than that of the average values of the continental crust which in turn points towards the subduction zone related metasomatism of mantle source of these rocks [42]. Two alternative processes could explain the negative Nb anomaly (Figure 4) observed in the NDD: (i) metasomatic enrichment of lithospheric mantle [44] and (ii) chemical interaction between lithospheric mantle and asthenosphere-derived magma having incompatible elements but little Nb [45]. However, high La/Nb and La/Ta of Newer dolerite dykes supports the metasomatic enrichment of lithospheric mantle as a reason for Nb anomalies. Hence, the negative anomalies of Nb and Ti on primitive mantle normalized patterns (Figure 4) [42], abundance of light rare earth elements (LREE) (Figure not shown), nearly flat sub-parallel pattern of heavy rare earth elements (HREE) (Figure not shown), chondrite normalized ratio of Lanthanum to Ytterbium (La/YbN < 12.0) and chondrite normalized ratio of Lanthanum to Samarium (La/SmN < 4.0) of concern NDD supports their affiliation with arc or subduction zone setting [46].
Primitive mantle normalized multi-element spider diagram of NDD. Normalized values are after Sun and McDonald [
The petrogenesis of mantle derived magmatic rocks can commonly be traced by their geochemical and isotopic data. The mafic magmatic activity in the form of dykes at intervals throughout the Proterozoic provides a useful window to monitor mantle evolution [47, 48].
From the mentioned geochemical characteristics, it may be inferred that the NDD having Mg# <60 are evolved members that have been formed through fractional crystallization of Mg-rich minerals like olivine and/or pyroxene [49]. On TiO2 vs. Al2O3/TiO2 (Figure 5a) and CaO/TiO2 diagrams (Figure 5b) NDD plot in MORB, low TiO2 boninite & high-Mg andesite fields which suggests the compatibility of Ti and retention of Al and Ca in residual phases like pyroxenes, garnet, plagioclase and spinel [50]. Further, these relationships indicate that low TiO2 samples were derived from relatively more hydrously fractionated magmas and high TiO2 samples were derived from least hydrously fractionated magmas [51].
(a) TiO2 vs. Al2O3/TiO2 and (b) TiO2 vs. CaO/TiO2 binary diagrams for NDD. HMA-high Mg Andesites and MORB-Mid Ocean ridge basalts.
Fractional crystallization associated with crustal contamination (AFC) is an important process during magma evolution that may modify both elemental and isotopic compositions [52]. As we know that the concentration of Rubidium (Rb), Barium (Ba), Potassium (K), Sodium (Na) etc. is rich in crustal materials whereas P2O5 and TiO2 is poor in these materials. Hence, any crustal contamination of mafic magma changes the primary geochemistry of magma accordingly [41]. However, in concern samples the low content and range of K2O and NaO2 are indications of least crustal contamination in these rocks. In addition to this, the ratio of Cerium to Lead (Ce/Pb) and Niobium to Uranium (Nb/U) are not changed due to partial melting, hence, these ratios can be applied to know about the effects of alteration or crustal contamination of mafic rocks. In concern samples these ratios are higher than that of upper continental crust (Ce/Pb = 3.2) and (Nb/U = 9) [53]. Therefore, it is suggested that the investigated NDD have least or no contamination of crustal materials.
Trace element ratios, such as La/Yb, Th/Yb, Ba/La and La/Nb are widely used to identify the metasomatic agents and estimate the flux from the subducted slab [54]. All these ratios in case of NDD imply varying inputs of sediment and fluid components from the subducting slab in their formation.
The high (La/Yb)N and (Gd/Yb)N in combination with relatively low HREE abundance of the NDD suggest that they may have formed by low degrees of partial melting of a garnet bearing source. Asthenospheric or deep or plume and lithospheric or shallow or non-plume derived mafic melts or basalts can be differentiated or evaluated by geochemical ratios like Lanthanum (La) /Tantalum (Ta) and La/Nb. Thompson and Morrison [55] suggested that values of La/Ta =10–12 and La/Ta >30 indicates that basaltic rocks may have been derived from asthenospheric mantle and lithospheric mantle respectively. Further, Wang et al. [56] used La/Nb ratio to discriminate asthenospheric mantle and lithospheric mantle sources. They suggested La/Nb <1.5 for asthenospheric mantle derived mafic rocks and La/Nb >1.5 for lithospheric mantle derived mafic rocks. In majority of NDD it has been seen that La/Ta is greater than 30 and La/Nb is greater than 1.5 that reveals their derivation may be from lithospheric mantle source. Moreover, on primitive mantle-normalized multi-element diagram (Figure 4), NDD show patterns differed from that of normal mid ocean ridge basalts, enriched mid ocean ridge basalts, ocean island basalts and continental lithospheric mantle and show depletion of Ba, Nb, Sr., P, Ti and richness of Zr. Such geochemical characteristics are similar to that found in arc or back-arc extension basalts [57, 58].
Keeping in view the importance of dykes or dyke swarms in identification of large igneous provinces, reconstruction of continents, continental rifting and continental-continental collision events [59], the geochemical studies on NDD may have potential in understanding the geodynamic evolution of Singhbhum craton in Precambrian times. The association of mafic dykes with the initiation of sedimentary basins and their geochemistry retaining long term memories of subduction processes in the lithosphere mantle are too well known [60]. Origin of NDD has been either related to arc/back-arc tectonic setting i.e. non-plume source [42, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65, 66] or plume source [5, 67]. In addition, Boss [68] suggested both depleted and enriched mantle source for Newer dolerite dykes. However, mantle plume model faces some issues in evaluation of origin of the NDD due to following reasons (i) age of NDD varying from 2800 to 1000 Ma [5, 69, 70] suggests that it is hard to tap a uniform magma source for such a long time interval, (ii) absence of large scale mafic lavas in Singhbhum craton having intraplate setting/geochemistry and (iii) further, the occurrence of voluminous hydrous lithospheric mantle across the cratons developed during the Archaean (~3 Ga) and its role in the Proterozoic magmas [48].
Reported age of newer dolerite dykes vary from 900 Ma to 2800 Ma and traverse a number of rock types in some regular sets like NNE–SSW and NW-SE trends. Variations in major elements, particularly SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, TiO2 contents, and CaO/TiO2 and Al2O3/TiO2 ratios in these dykes indicates that their Ca and Al are held in the residual mantle phases such as clinopyroxene, plagioclase, spinal and garnet. The overall low Mg #, Cr and Ni values in studied NDD indicate their evolution through fractional crystallization of olivine and pyroxene. A few dyke samples having similar Mg# with distinct Ni and Cr contents and some samples having distinct Mg# with similar Ni and Cr contents indicates that either the diverse extents of partial melting of the same source or heterogeneous mantle sources are responsible for the generation of different phases of the Newer dolerite dykes. In studied NDD low content and narrow range of K2O and NaO2 in addition to higher values of Ce/Pb and Nb/U than that of upper continental crust are indications of least crustal contamination in these rocks.
Values of Ba/Th, Ba/Zr & Ba/Nb in NDD are higher than that of the average values of the continental crust which in turn points towards the subduction zone related metasomatism of mantle source of these rocks. Further, the enriched LREE and flat sub-parallel pattern of HREE along with La/YbN <12.0 and La/SmN <4.0 of concern NDD supports their affiliation with arc or subduction zone setting. Moreover, their primitive mantle-normalized multi-element patterns differed from that of normal mid ocean ridge basalts, enriched mid ocean ridge basalts, ocean island basalts and continental lithospheric mantle and show depletion of Ba, Nb, Sr., P, Ti and richness of Zr. Such geochemical characteristics are similar to that found in arc or back-arc extension basalts.
Author is sincerely thankful to the Director, Leh Campus Taru, University of Ladakh for providing facilities in preparation of this book chapter. Author pays thanks to Dr. Malik Zubair A. and Dr. Farooq A. Dar for their valuable suggestions during write up of this book chapter. Constructive comments and valuable suggestions from anonymous reviewers are duly acknowledged.
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His studies in robotics lead him not only to a PhD degree but also inspired him to co-found and build the International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems - world's first Open Access journal in the field of robotics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"TU Wien",country:{name:"Austria"}}},{id:"441",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Jaekyu",middleName:null,surname:"Park",slug:"jaekyu-park",fullName:"Jaekyu Park",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/441/images/1881_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"LG Corporation (South Korea)",country:{name:"Korea, South"}}},{id:"465",title:"Dr.",name:"Christian",middleName:null,surname:"Martens",slug:"christian-martens",fullName:"Christian Martens",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Rheinmetall (Germany)",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"479",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Colla",slug:"valentina-colla",fullName:"Valentina Colla",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/479/images/358_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sant'Anna School of Advanced Studies",country:{name:"Italy"}}},{id:"494",title:"PhD",name:"Loris",middleName:null,surname:"Nanni",slug:"loris-nanni",fullName:"Loris Nanni",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/494/images/system/494.jpg",biography:"Loris Nanni received his Master Degree cum laude on June-2002 from the University of Bologna, and the April 26th 2006 he received his Ph.D. in Computer Engineering at DEIS, University of Bologna. On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. His research interests include pattern recognition, bioinformatics, and biometric systems (fingerprint classification and recognition, signature verification, face recognition).",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"496",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Leon",slug:"carlos-leon",fullName:"Carlos Leon",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Seville",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"512",title:"Dr.",name:"Dayang",middleName:null,surname:"Jawawi",slug:"dayang-jawawi",fullName:"Dayang Jawawi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Technology Malaysia",country:{name:"Malaysia"}}},{id:"528",title:"Dr.",name:"Kresimir",middleName:null,surname:"Delac",slug:"kresimir-delac",fullName:"Kresimir Delac",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/528/images/system/528.jpg",biography:"K. 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From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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Aalborg University has Two Satellite Campuses, one in Copenhagen (Aalborg University Copenhagen) and the other in Esbjerg (Aalborg University Esbjerg).\n· He is a member of prestigious IEEE (Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers), and IAENG (International Association of Engineers) organizations. \n· He is the chief Editor of the Journal of Software Engineering.\n· He is the member of the Editorial Board of International Journal of Computer Science and Software Technology (IJCSST) and International Journal of Computer Engineering and Information Technology. \n· He is also the Editor of Communication in Computer and Information Science CCIS-20 by Springer.\n· Reviewer For Many Conferences\nHe is the lead person in making collaboration agreements between Aalborg University and many universities of Pakistan, for which the MOU’s (Memorandum of Understanding) have been signed.\nProfessor Akbar is working in Academia since 1990, he started his career as a Lab demonstrator/TA at the University of Sussex. After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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The task-focused leadership style is explored under the headings of transactional and autocratic leadership, laissez-faire leadership, and instrumental leadership.",book:{id:"9047",slug:"nursing-new-perspectives",title:"Nursing",fullTitle:"Nursing - New Perspectives"},signatures:"Serpil Çelik Durmuş and Kamile Kırca",authors:null},{id:"58916",title:"Factors Affecting the Attitudes of Women toward Family Planning",slug:"factors-affecting-the-attitudes-of-women-toward-family-planning",totalDownloads:8548,totalCrossrefCites:9,totalDimensionsCites:18,abstract:"Everyone has the right to decide on the number and timing of children without discrimination, violence and oppression, to have the necessary information and facilities for it, to access sexual and reproductive health services at the highest standard. Deficient or incorrect family planning methods, wrong attitudes and behaviors toward the methods and consequent unplanned pregnancies, increased maternal and infant mortality rates are the main health problems in most countries. Individuals’ learning modern family planning methods and having positive attitude for these methods may increase the usage of these methods and contributes the formation of healthy communities. It is considered important to examine the current attitudes and determinants in order to spread the choice of effective method.",book:{id:"6142",slug:"family-planning",title:"Family Planning",fullTitle:"Family Planning"},signatures:"Nazli Sensoy, Yasemin Korkut, Selcuk Akturan, Mehmet Yilmaz,\nCanan Tuz and Bilge Tuncel",authors:[{id:"216377",title:"Prof.",name:"Nazli",middleName:null,surname:"Sensoy",slug:"nazli-sensoy",fullName:"Nazli Sensoy"},{id:"216589",title:"Dr.",name:"Yasemin",middleName:null,surname:"Korkut",slug:"yasemin-korkut",fullName:"Yasemin Korkut"},{id:"216595",title:"Dr.",name:"Selcuk",middleName:null,surname:"Akturan",slug:"selcuk-akturan",fullName:"Selcuk Akturan"},{id:"216596",title:"Dr.",name:"Canan",middleName:null,surname:"Tuz",slug:"canan-tuz",fullName:"Canan Tuz"},{id:"216598",title:"Dr.",name:"Bilge",middleName:null,surname:"Tuncel",slug:"bilge-tuncel",fullName:"Bilge Tuncel"},{id:"216599",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"mehmet-yilmaz",fullName:"Mehmet Yilmaz"}]},{id:"69631",title:"Cultural Practices and Health Consequences: Health or Habits, the Choice Is Ours",slug:"cultural-practices-and-health-consequences-health-or-habits-the-choice-is-ours",totalDownloads:902,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,abstract:"Human beings are social animals with an innate desire to conform to socially accepted norms and values. Over periods of time, some of these norms become standards that all members of the community are expected to adhere to. Deviance from these standards is seen as absurd, wrong, or frankly abnormal. However, many of these cultural mores have no scientific basis and, some of them actually promote behaviors with negative health consequences. This chapter examines the cultural practices of some communities in Africa and their health consequences and, explores ways to address the challenges.",book:{id:"9138",slug:"public-health-in-developing-countries-challenges-and-opportunities",title:"Public Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"Public Health in Developing Countries - Challenges and Opportunities"},signatures:"Radiance Ogundipe",authors:[{id:"302308",title:"Dr.",name:"Radiance",middleName:null,surname:"Ogundipe",slug:"radiance-ogundipe",fullName:"Radiance Ogundipe"}]},{id:"55808",title:"The Role of Legumes in Human Nutrition",slug:"the-role-of-legumes-in-human-nutrition",totalDownloads:5433,totalCrossrefCites:63,totalDimensionsCites:109,abstract:"Legumes are valued worldwide as a sustainable and inexpensive meat alternative and are considered the second most important food source after cereals. Legumes are nutritionally valuable, providing proteins (20–45%) with essential amino acids, complex carbohydrates (±60%) and dietary fibre (5–37%). Legumes also have no cholesterol and are generally low in fat, with ±5% energy from fat, with the exception of peanuts (±45%), chickpeas (±15%) and soybeans (±47%) and provide essential minerals and vitamins. In addition to their nutritional superiority, legumes have also been ascribed economical, cultural, physiological and medicinal roles owing to their possession of beneficial bioactive compounds. Research has shown that most of the bioactive compounds in legumes possess antioxidant properties, which play a role in the prevention of some cancers, heart diseases, osteoporosis and other degenerative diseases. Because of their composition, legumes are attractive to health conscious consumers, celiac and diabetic patients as well as consumers concerned with weight management. The incorporation of legumes in diets, especially in developing countries, could play a major role in eradicating protein-energy malnutrition especially in developing Afro-Asian countries. Legumes could be a base for the development of many functional foods to promote human health.",book:{id:"5963",slug:"functional-food-improve-health-through-adequate-food",title:"Functional Food",fullTitle:"Functional Food - Improve Health through Adequate Food"},signatures:"Yvonne Maphosa and Victoria A. Jideani",authors:[{id:"201151",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Yvonne",middleName:null,surname:"Maphosa",slug:"yvonne-maphosa",fullName:"Yvonne Maphosa"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"200",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"82616",title:"The Quantum Theory of Reproduction. How Unique is an Individual?",slug:"the-quantum-theory-of-reproduction-how-unique-is-an-individual",totalDownloads:12,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105769",abstract:"Our understanding of nature’s way is founded on quantum mechanics. In its existence of over 80 years, quantum theory has been describing the physical world. The attraction of studying quantum mechanics is the perception of the conceptual structure of nature. This is aided by the mathematical structure that exposes the internal logic of the subject by inventing a notation that embeds the philosophy of the question. To describe how unique each individual is. A calculation method was applied. The uniqueness of an individual is one in two nonillion, octillion, septillion, sextillion, quintillion, quadrillion, trillion, billion, million and thousand. Individuals are indefinitely unique.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Zouhair O. Amarin"},{id:"81930",title:"Smoking and Its Consequences on Male and Female Reproductive Health",slug:"smoking-and-its-consequences-on-male-and-female-reproductive-health",totalDownloads:14,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104941",abstract:"Smoking contributes to the death of around one in 10 adults worldwide. Specifically, cigarettes are known to contain around 4000 toxins and chemicals that are hazardous in nature. The negative effects of smoking on human health and interest in smoking-related diseases have a long history. Among these concerns are the harmful effects of smoking on reproductive health. Thirteen percent of female infertility is due to smoking. Female smoking can lead to gamete mutagenesis, early loss of reproductive function, and thus advance the time to menopause. It has been also associated with ectopic pregnancy and spontaneous abortion. Even when it comes to assisted reproductive technologies cycles, smokers require more cycles, almost double the number of cycles needed to conceive as non-smokers. Male smoking is shown to be correlated with poorer semen parameters and sperm DNA fragmentation. Not only active smokers but also passive smokers, when excessively exposed to smoking, can have reproductive problems comparable to those seen in smokers. In this book chapter, we will approach the effect of tobacco, especially tobacco smoking, on male and female reproductive health. This aims to take a preventive approach to infertility by discouraging smoking and helping to eliminate exposure to tobacco smoke in both women and men.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Amor Houda, Jankowski Peter Michael, Micu Romeo and Hammadeh Mohamad Eid"},{id:"81468",title:"The Knowledge and Use of Intra-Uterine Device by Women Attending Ante-Natal Clinic at Enugu State Teaching Hospital, Parklane",slug:"the-knowledge-and-use-of-intra-uterine-device-by-women-attending-ante-natal-clinic-at-enugu-state-te",totalDownloads:24,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.104097",abstract:"Intrauterine contraception has been recognized globally as one of the modern long-term reversible contraceptive methods suitable for women of all reproductive ages. It represents the most cost-effective method for preventing unwanted pregnancies, scientifically proven for its safety, efficacy and cost-effectiveness and is known to last longer in preventing pregnancy than other methods. This study assessed the knowledge of mothers attending ESUT teaching hospital, Parklane on intrauterine contraceptive device, the use as well as the common side effects experienced by the users. A descriptive survey research design was used to sample 175 mothers. A structured researcher developed questionnaire was used for data collection. The findings revealed that more than half of the respondents have good knowledge of intrauterine device but only 23 (14%) respondents make use of it. The commonly experienced side effects identified were irregular bleeding (75%) and vaginal discharge (62.5%). Although, the respondents had good knowledge of intrauterine device, their uptake of the method was poor. Therefore, there is a need to improve contraceptive counseling to ensure that women understand the relative effectiveness of IUDS. The study also recommended the need for better education for both clients and providers to improve the accessibility and acceptability of intrauterine device.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Chukwuasokam Caleb Aniechi and Uloma Cynthia Ezuma"},{id:"81003",title:"Perspective Chapter: Modern Birth Control Methods",slug:"perspective-chapter-modern-birth-control-methods",totalDownloads:38,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103858",abstract:"This chapter focuses on various modern birth control methods, including combined oral contraceptives, progestogen-only pills, progestogen-only injectables, progestogen-only implants, intrauterine devices, barrier contraceptives, and emergency contraceptive pills. Each contraceptive method is covered in detail, including mechanism of action, effectiveness, health benefits, advantages, disadvantages, risks, and side-effects.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Rahma Al Kindi, Asma Al Salmani, Rahma Al Hadhrami, Sanaa Al Sumri and Hana Al Sumri"},{id:"80084",title:"Contraceptive Implants",slug:"contraceptive-implants",totalDownloads:174,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.101999",abstract:"Contraceptive implants or implantable contraceptive are five subdermal implants, rods the size of pencil lead that are embedded just under the skin on the inside of the upper arm. The rods contain etonogestrel, the metabolite of desogestrel, an equivalent progestin. Implants are often used during breastfeeding without an impact on milk production. It was identified that age does not affect the use of contraceptive implants but educational status is significant to its usage; there is an association between the age at first birth and the use of contraceptive implants; the number of liveborn children has a significant impact or influence on the use of implants; etc. This chapter focuses on types of contraceptive implants and its mechanism of action; global statistics on contraceptive implants; side effects; health benefits and positive characteristics of contraceptive implants; those who can and cannot use contraceptive implants; reasons women are not interested in contraceptive implants and factors influencing its usage.",book:{id:"11284",title:"Studies in Family Planning",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11284.jpg"},signatures:"Paul Hassan Ilegbusi"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:5},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:90,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:107,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:330,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:9,numberOfPublishedChapters:139,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:122,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:112,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:21,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:10,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. 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My method of translating this into day to day in clinical practice is non-exhaustible and my habit of exchanging knowledge and expertise with others in those fields is the code and secret of success.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Majmaah University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"313277",title:"Dr.",name:"Bartłomiej",middleName:null,surname:"Płaczek",slug:"bartlomiej-placzek",fullName:"Bartłomiej Płaczek",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/313277/images/system/313277.jpg",biography:"Bartłomiej Płaczek, MSc (2002), Ph.D. (2005), Habilitation (2016), is a professor at the University of Silesia, Institute of Computer Science, Poland, and an expert from the National Centre for Research and Development. His research interests include sensor networks, smart sensors, intelligent systems, and image processing with applications in healthcare and medicine. 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Several international research projects has been performed with European partners from France, Netherlands, Norway and the UK. He is currently Professor of Communications Systems at the Harz University of Applied Sciences, Germany.\n\nPublications and Publishing\nHe has edited one book, a special interest book about ‘Optoelectronic Packaging’ (VDE, Berlin, Germany), and has published over 100 papers and is owner of several international patents for WDM over POF key elements.\n\nKey Research and Consulting Interests\nUlrich’s research activity has always been related to Spectroscopy and Optical Communications Technology. Specific current interests include the validation of complex instruments, and the application of VR technology to the development and testing of measurement systems. He has been reviewer for several publications of the Optical Society of America\\'s including Photonics Technology Letters and Applied Optics.\n\nPersonal Interests\nThese include motor cycling in a very relaxed manner and performing martial arts.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Charité",country:{name:"Germany"}}},{id:"341622",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Rojas Alvarez",slug:"eduardo-rojas-alvarez",fullName:"Eduardo Rojas Alvarez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/341622/images/15892_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Cuenca",country:{name:"Ecuador"}}},{id:"215610",title:"Prof.",name:"Muhammad",middleName:null,surname:"Sarfraz",slug:"muhammad-sarfraz",fullName:"Muhammad Sarfraz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/215610/images/system/215610.jpeg",biography:"Muhammad Sarfraz is a professor in the Department of Information Science, Kuwait University. His research interests include computer graphics, computer vision, image processing, machine learning, pattern recognition, soft computing, data science, intelligent systems, information technology, and information systems. Prof. Sarfraz has been a keynote/invited speaker on various platforms around the globe. He has advised various students for their MSc and Ph.D. theses. He has published more than 400 publications as books, journal articles, and conference papers. He is a member of various professional societies and a chair and member of the International Advisory Committees and Organizing Committees of various international conferences. Prof. Sarfraz is also an editor-in-chief and editor of various international journals.",institutionString:"Kuwait University",institution:{name:"Kuwait University",country:{name:"Kuwait"}}},{id:"32650",title:"Prof.",name:"Lukas",middleName:"Willem",surname:"Snyman",slug:"lukas-snyman",fullName:"Lukas Snyman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/32650/images/4136_n.jpg",biography:"Lukas Willem Snyman received his basic education at primary and high schools in South Africa, Eastern Cape. He enrolled at today's Nelson Metropolitan University and graduated from this university with a BSc in Physics and Mathematics, B.Sc Honors in Physics, MSc in Semiconductor Physics, and a Ph.D. in Semiconductor Physics in 1987. After his studies, he chose an academic career and devoted his energy to the teaching of physics to first, second, and third-year students. After positions as a lecturer at the University of Port Elizabeth, he accepted a position as Associate Professor at the University of Pretoria, South Africa.\r\n\r\nIn 1992, he motivates the concept of 'television and computer-based education” as means to reach large student numbers with only the best of teaching expertise and publishes an article on the concept in the SA Journal of Higher Education of 1993 (and later in 2003). The University of Pretoria subsequently approved a series of test projects on the concept with outreach to Mamelodi and Eerste Rust in 1993. In 1994, the University established a 'Unit for Telematic Education ' as a support section for multiple faculties at the University of Pretoria. In subsequent years, the concept of 'telematic education” subsequently becomes well established in academic circles in South Africa, grew in popularity, and is adopted by many universities and colleges throughout South Africa as a medium of enhancing education and training, as a method to reaching out to far out communities, and as a means to enhance study from the home environment.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman in subsequent years pursued research in semiconductor physics, semiconductor devices, microelectronics, and optoelectronics.\r\n\r\nIn 2000 he joined the TUT as a full professor. Here served for a period as head of the Department of Electronic Engineering. Here he makes contributions to solar energy development, microwave and optoelectronic device development, silicon photonics, as well as contributions to new mobile telecommunication systems and network planning in SA.\r\n\r\nCurrently, he teaches electronics and telecommunications at the TUT to audiences ranging from first-year students to Ph.D. level.\r\n\r\nFor his research in the field of 'Silicon Photonics” since 1990, he has published (as author and co-author) about thirty internationally reviewed articles in scientific journals, contributed to more than forty international conferences, about 25 South African provisional patents (as inventor and co-inventor), 8 PCT international patent applications until now. Of these, two USA patents applications, two European Patents, two Korean patents, and ten SA patents have been granted. A further 4 USA patents, 5 European patents, 3 Korean patents, 3 Chinese patents, and 3 Japanese patents are currently under consideration.\r\n\r\nRecently he has also published an extensive scholarly chapter in an internet open access book on 'Integrating Microphotonic Systems and MOEMS into standard Silicon CMOS Integrated circuitry”.\r\n\r\nFurthermore, Professor Snyman recently steered a new initiative at the TUT by introducing a 'Laboratory for Innovative Electronic Systems ' at the Department of Electrical Engineering. The model of this laboratory or center is to primarily combine outputs as achieved by high-level research with lower-level system development and entrepreneurship in a technical university environment. Students are allocated to projects at different levels with PhDs and Master students allocated to the generation of new knowledge and new technologies, while students at the diploma and Baccalaureus level are allocated to electronic systems development with a direct and a near application for application in industry or the commercial and public sectors in South Africa.\r\n\r\nProfessor Snyman received the WIRSAM Award of 1983 and the WIRSAM Award in 1985 in South Africa for best research papers by a young scientist at two international conferences on electron microscopy in South Africa. He subsequently received the SA Microelectronics Award for the best dissertation emanating from studies executed at a South African university in the field of Physics and Microelectronics in South Africa in 1987. In October of 2011, Professor Snyman received the prestigious Institutional Award for 'Innovator of the Year” for 2010 at the Tshwane University of Technology, South Africa. This award was based on the number of patents recognized and granted by local and international institutions as well as for his contributions concerning innovation at the TUT.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of South Africa",country:{name:"South Africa"}}},{id:"317279",title:"Mr.",name:"Ali",middleName:"Usama",surname:"Syed",slug:"ali-syed",fullName:"Ali Syed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/317279/images/16024_n.png",biography:"A creative, talented, and innovative young professional who is dedicated, well organized, and capable research fellow with two years of experience in graduate-level research, published in engineering journals and book, with related expertise in Bio-robotics, equally passionate about the aesthetics of the mechanical and electronic system, obtained expertise in the use of MS Office, MATLAB, SolidWorks, LabVIEW, Proteus, Fusion 360, having a grasp on python, C++ and assembly language, possess proven ability in acquiring research grants, previous appointments with social and educational societies with experience in administration, current affiliations with IEEE and Web of Science, a confident presenter at conferences and teacher in classrooms, able to explain complex information to audiences of all levels.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Air University",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"75526",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Zihni Onur",middleName:null,surname:"Uygun",slug:"zihni-onur-uygun",fullName:"Zihni Onur Uygun",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/75526/images/12_n.jpg",biography:"My undergraduate education and my Master of Science educations at Ege University and at Çanakkale Onsekiz Mart University have given me a firm foundation in Biochemistry, Analytical Chemistry, Biosensors, Bioelectronics, Physical Chemistry and Medicine. After obtaining my degree as a MSc in analytical chemistry, I started working as a research assistant in Ege University Medical Faculty in 2014. In parallel, I enrolled to the MSc program at the Department of Medical Biochemistry at Ege University to gain deeper knowledge on medical and biochemical sciences as well as clinical chemistry in 2014. In my PhD I deeply researched on biosensors and bioelectronics and finished in 2020. Now I have eleven SCI-Expanded Index published papers, 6 international book chapters, referee assignments for different SCIE journals, one international patent pending, several international awards, projects and bursaries. In parallel to my research assistant position at Ege University Medical Faculty, Department of Medical Biochemistry, in April 2016, I also founded a Start-Up Company (Denosens Biotechnology LTD) by the support of The Scientific and Technological Research Council of Turkey. Currently, I am also working as a CEO in Denosens Biotechnology. The main purposes of the company, which carries out R&D as a research center, are to develop new generation biosensors and sensors for both point-of-care diagnostics; such as glucose, lactate, cholesterol and cancer biomarker detections. My specific experimental and instrumental skills are Biochemistry, Biosensor, Analytical Chemistry, Electrochemistry, Mobile phone based point-of-care diagnostic device, POCTs and Patient interface designs, HPLC, Tandem Mass Spectrometry, Spectrophotometry, ELISA.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Ege University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"267434",title:"Dr.",name:"Rohit",middleName:null,surname:"Raja",slug:"rohit-raja",fullName:"Rohit Raja",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/267434/images/system/267434.jpg",biography:"Dr. Rohit Raja received Ph.D. in Computer Science and Engineering from Dr. CVRAMAN University in 2016. His main research interest includes Face recognition and Identification, Digital Image Processing, Signal Processing, and Networking. Presently he is working as Associate Professor in IT Department, Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya (A Central University), Bilaspur (CG), India. He has authored several Journal and Conference Papers. He has good Academics & Research experience in various areas of CSE and IT. He has filed and successfully published 27 Patents. He has received many time invitations to be a Guest at IEEE Conferences. He has published 100 research papers in various International/National Journals (including IEEE, Springer, etc.) and Proceedings of the reputed International/ National Conferences (including Springer and IEEE). He has been nominated to the board of editors/reviewers of many peer-reviewed and refereed Journals (including IEEE, Springer).",institutionString:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",institution:{name:"Guru Ghasidas Vishwavidyalaya",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"246502",title:"Dr.",name:"Jaya T.",middleName:"T",surname:"Varkey",slug:"jaya-t.-varkey",fullName:"Jaya T. Varkey",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246502/images/11160_n.jpg",biography:"Jaya T. Varkey, PhD, graduated with a degree in Chemistry from Cochin University of Science and Technology, Kerala, India. She obtained a PhD in Chemistry from the School of Chemical Sciences, Mahatma Gandhi University, Kerala, India, and completed a post-doctoral fellowship at the University of Minnesota, USA. She is a research guide at Mahatma Gandhi University and Associate Professor in Chemistry, St. Teresa’s College, Kochi, Kerala, India.\nDr. Varkey received a National Young Scientist award from the Indian Science Congress (1995), a UGC Research award (2016–2018), an Indian National Science Academy (INSA) Visiting Scientist award (2018–2019), and a Best Innovative Faculty award from the All India Association for Christian Higher Education (AIACHE) (2019). She Hashas received the Sr. Mary Cecil prize for best research paper three times. She was also awarded a start-up to develop a tea bag water filter. \nDr. Varkey has published two international books and twenty-seven international journal publications. She is an editorial board member for five international journals.",institutionString:"St. Teresa’s College",institution:null},{id:"250668",title:"Dr.",name:"Ali",middleName:null,surname:"Nabipour Chakoli",slug:"ali-nabipour-chakoli",fullName:"Ali Nabipour Chakoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/250668/images/system/250668.jpg",biography:"Academic Qualification:\r\n•\tPhD in Materials Physics and Chemistry, From: Sep. 2006, to: Sep. 2010, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Harbin Institute of Technology, Thesis: Structure and Shape Memory Effect of Functionalized MWCNTs/poly (L-lactide-co-ε-caprolactone) Nanocomposites. Supervisor: Prof. Wei Cai,\r\n•\tM.Sc in Applied Physics, From: 1996, to: 1998, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Determination of Boron in Micro alloy Steels with solid state nuclear track detectors by neutron induced auto radiography, Supervisors: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi and Dr. A. Hosseini.\r\n•\tB.Sc. in Applied Physics, From: 1991, to: 1996, Faculty of Physics & Nuclear Science, Amirkabir Uni. of Technology, Tehran, Iran, Thesis: Design of shielding for Am-Be neutron sources for In Vivo neutron activation analysis, Supervisor: Dr. M. Hosseini Ashrafi.\r\n\r\nResearch Experiences:\r\n1.\tNanomaterials, Carbon Nanotubes, Graphene: Synthesis, Functionalization and Characterization,\r\n2.\tMWCNTs/Polymer Composites: Fabrication and Characterization, \r\n3.\tShape Memory Polymers, Biodegradable Polymers, ORC, Collagen,\r\n4.\tMaterials Analysis and Characterizations: TEM, SEM, XPS, FT-IR, Raman, DSC, DMA, TGA, XRD, GPC, Fluoroscopy, \r\n5.\tInteraction of Radiation with Mater, Nuclear Safety and Security, NDT(RT),\r\n6.\tRadiation Detectors, Calibration (SSDL),\r\n7.\tCompleted IAEA e-learning Courses:\r\nNuclear Security (15 Modules),\r\nNuclear Safety:\r\nTSA 2: Regulatory Protection in Occupational Exposure,\r\nTips & Tricks: Radiation Protection in Radiography,\r\nSafety and Quality in Radiotherapy,\r\nCourse on Sealed Radioactive Sources,\r\nCourse on Fundamentals of Environmental Remediation,\r\nCourse on Planning for Environmental Remediation,\r\nKnowledge Management Orientation Course,\r\nFood Irradiation - Technology, Applications and Good Practices,\r\nEmployment:\r\nFrom 2010 to now: Academic staff, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Kargar Shomali, Tehran, Iran, P.O. Box: 14395-836.\r\nFrom 1997 to 2006: Expert of Materials Analysis and Characterization. Research Center of Agriculture and Medicine. Rajaeeshahr, Karaj, Iran, P. O. Box: 31585-498.",institutionString:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",institution:{name:"Atomic Energy Organization of Iran",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"248279",title:"Dr.",name:"Monika",middleName:"Elzbieta",surname:"Machoy",slug:"monika-machoy",fullName:"Monika Machoy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/248279/images/system/248279.jpeg",biography:"Monika Elżbieta Machoy, MD, graduated with distinction from the Faculty of Medicine and Dentistry at the Pomeranian Medical University in 2009, defended her PhD thesis with summa cum laude in 2016 and is currently employed as a researcher at the Department of Orthodontics of the Pomeranian Medical University. She expanded her professional knowledge during a one-year scholarship program at the Ernst Moritz Arndt University in Greifswald, Germany and during a three-year internship at the Technical University in Dresden, Germany. She has been a speaker at numerous orthodontic conferences, among others, American Association of Orthodontics, European Orthodontic Symposium and numerous conferences of the Polish Orthodontic Society. She conducts research focusing on the effect of orthodontic treatment on dental and periodontal tissues and the causes of pain in orthodontic patients.",institutionString:"Pomeranian Medical University",institution:{name:"Pomeranian Medical University",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"252743",title:"Prof.",name:"Aswini",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kar",slug:"aswini-kar",fullName:"Aswini Kar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252743/images/10381_n.jpg",biography:"uploaded in cv",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"KIIT University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"204256",title:"Dr.",name:"Anil",middleName:"Kumar",surname:"Kumar Sahu",slug:"anil-kumar-sahu",fullName:"Anil Kumar Sahu",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/204256/images/14201_n.jpg",biography:"I have nearly 11 years of research and teaching experience. I have done my master degree from University Institute of Pharmacy, Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla University, Raipur, Chhattisgarh India. I have published 16 review and research articles in international and national journals and published 4 chapters in IntechOpen, the world’s leading publisher of Open access books. I have presented many papers at national and international conferences. I have received research award from Indian Drug Manufacturers Association in year 2015. My research interest extends from novel lymphatic drug delivery systems, oral delivery system for herbal bioactive to formulation optimization.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Chhattisgarh Swami Vivekanand Technical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"253468",title:"Dr.",name:"Mariusz",middleName:null,surname:"Marzec",slug:"mariusz-marzec",fullName:"Mariusz Marzec",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/253468/images/system/253468.png",biography:"An assistant professor at Department of Biomedical Computer Systems, at Institute of Computer Science, Silesian University in Katowice. Scientific interests: computer analysis and processing of images, biomedical images, databases and programming languages. He is an author and co-author of scientific publications covering analysis and processing of biomedical images and development of database systems.",institutionString:"University of Silesia",institution:{name:"University of Silesia",country:{name:"Poland"}}},{id:"212432",title:"Prof.",name:"Hadi",middleName:null,surname:"Mohammadi",slug:"hadi-mohammadi",fullName:"Hadi Mohammadi",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/212432/images/system/212432.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Hadi Mohammadi is a biomedical engineer with hands-on experience in the design and development of many engineering structures and medical devices through various projects that he has been involved in over the past twenty years. Dr. Mohammadi received his BSc. and MSc. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from Sharif University of Technology, Tehran, Iran, and his PhD. degree in Biomedical Engineering (biomaterials) from the University of Western Ontario. He was a postdoctoral trainee for almost four years at University of Calgary and Harvard Medical School. He is an industry innovator having created the technology to produce lifelike synthetic platforms that can be used for the simulation of almost all cardiovascular reconstructive surgeries. He’s been heavily involved in the design and development of cardiovascular devices and technology for the past 10 years. He is currently an Assistant Professor with the University of British Colombia, Canada.",institutionString:"University of British Columbia",institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"254463",title:"Prof.",name:"Haisheng",middleName:null,surname:"Yang",slug:"haisheng-yang",fullName:"Haisheng Yang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/254463/images/system/254463.jpeg",biography:"Haisheng Yang, Ph.D., Professor and Director of the Department of Biomedical Engineering, College of Life Science and Bioengineering, Beijing University of Technology. He received his Ph.D. degree in Mechanics/Biomechanics from Harbin Institute of Technology (jointly with University of California, Berkeley). Afterwards, he worked as a Postdoctoral Research Associate in the Purdue Musculoskeletal Biology and Mechanics Lab at the Department of Basic Medical Sciences, Purdue University, USA. He also conducted research in the Research Centre of Shriners Hospitals for Children-Canada at McGill University, Canada. Dr. Yang has over 10 years research experience in orthopaedic biomechanics and mechanobiology of bone adaptation and regeneration. He earned an award from Beijing Overseas Talents Aggregation program in 2017 and serves as Beijing Distinguished Professor.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Beijing University of Technology",country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"89721",title:"Dr.",name:"Mehmet",middleName:"Cuneyt",surname:"Ozmen",slug:"mehmet-ozmen",fullName:"Mehmet Ozmen",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/89721/images/7289_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gazi University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"265335",title:"Mr.",name:"Stefan",middleName:"Radnev",surname:"Stefanov",slug:"stefan-stefanov",fullName:"Stefan Stefanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/265335/images/7562_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University Plovdiv",country:{name:"Bulgaria"}}},{id:"242893",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Joaquim",middleName:null,surname:"De Moura",slug:"joaquim-de-moura",fullName:"Joaquim De Moura",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/242893/images/7133_n.jpg",biography:"Joaquim de Moura received his degree in Computer Engineering in 2014 from the University of A Coruña (Spain). In 2016, he received his M.Sc degree in Computer Engineering from the same university. He is currently pursuing his Ph.D degree in Computer Science in a collaborative project between ophthalmology centers in Galicia and the University of A Coruña. His research interests include computer vision, machine learning algorithms and analysis and medical imaging processing of various kinds.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of A Coruña",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"294334",title:"B.Sc.",name:"Marc",middleName:null,surname:"Bruggeman",slug:"marc-bruggeman",fullName:"Marc Bruggeman",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/294334/images/8242_n.jpg",biography:"Chemical engineer graduate, with a passion for material science and specific interest in polymers - their near infinite applications intrigue me. \n\nI plan to continue my scientific career in the field of polymeric biomaterials as I am fascinated by intelligent, bioactive and biomimetic materials for use in both consumer and medical applications.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"255757",title:"Dr.",name:"Igor",middleName:"Victorovich",surname:"Lakhno",slug:"igor-lakhno",fullName:"Igor Lakhno",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255757/images/system/255757.jpg",biography:"Igor Victorovich Lakhno was born in 1971 in Kharkiv (Ukraine). \nMD – 1994, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nOb&Gyn; – 1997, master courses in Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education.\nPh.D. – 1999, Kharkiv National Medical Univesity.\nDSC – 2019, PL Shupik National Academy of Postgraduate Education \nProfessor – 2021, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology of VN Karazin Kharkiv National University\nHead of Department – 2021, Department of Perinatology, Obstetrics and gynecology of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education\nIgor Lakhno has been graduated from international training courses on reproductive medicine and family planning held at Debrecen University (Hungary) in 1997. Since 1998 Lakhno Igor has worked as an associate professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and an associate professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department of Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education. Since June 2019 he’s been a professor in the department of obstetrics and gynecology of VN Karazin National University and a professor of the perinatology, obstetrics, and gynecology department. He’s affiliated with Kharkiv Medical Academy of Postgraduate Education as a Head of Department from November 2021. Igor Lakhno has participated in several international projects on fetal non-invasive electrocardiography (with Dr. J. A. Behar (Technion), Prof. D. Hoyer (Jena University), and José Alejandro Díaz Méndez (National Institute of Astrophysics, Optics, and Electronics, Mexico). He’s an author of about 200 printed works and there are 31 of them in Scopus or Web of Science databases. Igor Lakhno is a member of the Editorial Board of Reproductive Health of Woman, Emergency Medicine, and Technology Transfer Innovative Solutions in Medicine (Estonia). He is a medical Editor of “Z turbotoyu pro zhinku”. Igor Lakhno is a reviewer of the Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology (Taylor and Francis), British Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology (Wiley), Informatics in Medicine Unlocked (Elsevier), The Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology Research (Wiley), Endocrine, Metabolic & Immune Disorders-Drug Targets (Bentham Open), The Open Biomedical Engineering Journal (Bentham Open), etc. He’s defended a dissertation for a DSc degree “Pre-eclampsia: prediction, prevention, and treatment”. Three years ago Igor Lakhno has participated in a training course on innovative technologies in medical education at Lublin Medical University (Poland). Lakhno Igor has participated as a speaker in several international conferences and congresses (International Conference on Biological Oscillations April 10th-14th 2016, Lancaster, UK, The 9th conference of the European Study Group on Cardiovascular Oscillations). His main scientific interests: are obstetrics, women’s health, fetal medicine, and cardiovascular medicine. \nIgor Lakhno is a consultant at Kharkiv municipal perinatal center. He’s graduated from training courses on endoscopy in gynecology. He has 28 years of practical experience in the field.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"244950",title:"Dr.",name:"Salvatore",middleName:null,surname:"Di Lauro",slug:"salvatore-di-lauro",fullName:"Salvatore Di Lauro",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://intech-files.s3.amazonaws.com/0030O00002bSF1HQAW/ProfilePicture%202021-12-20%2014%3A54%3A14.482",biography:"Name:\n\tSALVATORE DI LAURO\nAddress:\n\tHospital Clínico Universitario Valladolid\nAvda Ramón y Cajal 3\n47005, Valladolid\nSpain\nPhone number: \nFax\nE-mail:\n\t+34 983420000 ext 292\n+34 983420084\nsadilauro@live.it\nDate and place of Birth:\nID Number\nMedical Licence \nLanguages\t09-05-1985. Villaricca (Italy)\n\nY1281863H\n474707061\nItalian (native language)\nSpanish (read, written, spoken)\nEnglish (read, written, spoken)\nPortuguese (read, spoken)\nFrench (read)\n\t\t\nCurrent position (title and company)\tDate (Year)\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. Private practise.\t2017-today\n\n2019-today\n\t\n\t\nEducation (High school, university and postgraduate training > 3 months)\tDate (Year)\nDegree in Medicine and Surgery. University of Neaples 'Federico II”\nResident in Opthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid\nMaster in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nFellow of the European Board of Ophthalmology. Paris\nMaster in Research in Ophthalmology. University of Valladolid\t2003-2009\n2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2016\n2012-2013\n\t\nEmployments (company and positions)\tDate (Year)\nResident in Ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl.\nFellow in Vitreo-Retina. IOBA. University of Valladolid\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Hospital Clinico Universitario Valladolid. Sacyl. National Health System.\nVitreo-Retinal consultant in ophthalmology. Instituto Oftalmologico Recoletas. Red Hospitalaria Recoletas. \n\t2012-2016\n2016-2017\n2017-today\n\n2019-Today\n\n\n\t\nClinical Research Experience (tasks and role)\tDate (Year)\nAssociated investigator\n\n' FIS PI20/00740: DESARROLLO DE UNA CALCULADORA DE RIESGO DE\nAPARICION DE RETINOPATIA DIABETICA BASADA EN TECNICAS DE IMAGEN MULTIMODAL EN PACIENTES DIABETICOS TIPO 1. Grant by: Ministerio de Ciencia e Innovacion \n\n' (BIO/VA23/14) Estudio clínico multicéntrico y prospectivo para validar dos\nbiomarcadores ubicados en los genes p53 y MDM2 en la predicción de los resultados funcionales de la cirugía del desprendimiento de retina regmatógeno. Grant by: Gerencia Regional de Salud de la Junta de Castilla y León.\n' Estudio multicéntrico, aleatorizado, con enmascaramiento doble, en 2 grupos\nparalelos y de 52 semanas de duración para comparar la eficacia, seguridad e inmunogenicidad de SOK583A1 respecto a Eylea® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad' (CSOK583A12301; N.EUDRA: 2019-004838-41; FASE III). Grant by Hexal AG\n\n' Estudio de fase III, aleatorizado, doble ciego, con grupos paralelos, multicéntrico para comparar la eficacia y la seguridad de QL1205 frente a Lucentis® en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. (EUDRACT: 2018-004486-13). Grant by Qilu Pharmaceutical Co\n\n' Estudio NEUTON: Ensayo clinico en fase IV para evaluar la eficacia de aflibercept en pacientes Naive con Edema MacUlar secundario a Oclusion de Vena CenTral de la Retina (OVCR) en regimen de tratamientO iNdividualizado Treat and Extend (TAE)”, (2014-000975-21). Grant by Fundacion Retinaplus\n\n' Evaluación de la seguridad y bioactividad de anillos de tensión capsular en conejo. Proyecto Procusens. Grant by AJL, S.A.\n\n'Estudio epidemiológico, prospectivo, multicéntrico y abierto\\npara valorar la frecuencia de la conjuntivitis adenovírica diagnosticada mediante el test AdenoPlus®\\nTest en pacientes enfermos de conjuntivitis aguda”\\n. National, multicenter study. Grant by: NICOX.\n\nEuropean multicentric trial: 'Evaluation of clinical outcomes following the use of Systane Hydration in patients with dry eye”. Study Phase 4. Grant by: Alcon Labs'\n\nVLPs Injection and Activation in a Rabbit Model of Uveal Melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nUpdating and characterization of a rabbit model of uveal melanoma. Grant by Aura Bioscience\n\nEnsayo clínico en fase IV para evaluar las variantes genéticas de la vía del VEGF como biomarcadores de eficacia del tratamiento con aflibercept en pacientes con degeneración macular asociada a la edad (DMAE) neovascular. Estudio BIOIMAGE. IMO-AFLI-2013-01\n\nEstudio In-Eye:Ensayo clínico en fase IV, abierto, aleatorizado, de 2 brazos,\nmulticçentrico y de 12 meses de duración, para evaluar la eficacia y seguridad de un régimen de PRN flexible individualizado de 'esperar y extender' versus un régimen PRN según criterios de estabilización mediante evaluaciones mensuales de inyecciones intravítreas de ranibizumab 0,5 mg en pacientes naive con neovascularización coriodea secunaria a la degeneración macular relacionada con la edad. CP: CRFB002AES03T\n\nTREND: Estudio Fase IIIb multicéntrico, randomizado, de 12 meses de\nseguimiento con evaluador de la agudeza visual enmascarado, para evaluar la eficacia y la seguridad de ranibizumab 0.5mg en un régimen de tratar y extender comparado con un régimen mensual, en pacientes con degeneración macular neovascular asociada a la edad. CP: CRFB002A2411 Código Eudra CT:\n2013-002626-23\n\n\n\nPublications\t\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n\n2021\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2015-16\n\n\n\n2015\n\n\n2014\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2014\n\nJose Carlos Pastor; Jimena Rojas; Salvador Pastor-Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Lucia Gonzalez-Buendia; Santiago Delgado-Tirado. Proliferative vitreoretinopathy: A new concept of disease pathogenesis and practical\nconsequences. Progress in Retinal and Eye Research. 51, pp. 125 - 155. 03/2016. DOI: 10.1016/j.preteyeres.2015.07.005\n\n\nLabrador-Velandia S; Alonso-Alonso ML; Di Lauro S; García-Gutierrez MT; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Mesenchymal stem cells provide paracrine neuroprotective resources that delay degeneration of co-cultured organotypic neuroretinal cultures.Experimental Eye Research. 185, 17/05/2019. DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2019.05.011\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Maria Teresa Garcia Gutierrez; Ivan Fernandez Bueno. Quantification of pigment epithelium-derived factor (PEDF) in an ex vivo coculture of retinal pigment epithelium cells and neuroretina.\nJournal of Allbiosolution. 2019. ISSN 2605-3535\n\nSonia Labrador Velandia; Salvatore Di Lauro; Alonso-Alonso ML; Tabera Bartolomé S; Srivastava GK; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I. Biocompatibility of intravitreal injection of human mesenchymal stem cells in immunocompetent rabbits. Graefe's archive for clinical and experimental ophthalmology. 256 - 1, pp. 125 - 134. 01/2018. DOI: 10.1007/s00417-017-3842-3\n\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro, David Rodriguez-Crespo, Manuel J Gayoso, Maria T Garcia-Gutierrez, J Carlos Pastor, Girish K Srivastava, Ivan Fernandez-Bueno. A novel coculture model of porcine central neuroretina explants and retinal pigment epithelium cells. Molecular Vision. 2016 - 22, pp. 243 - 253. 01/2016.\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro. Classifications for Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy ({PVR}): An Analysis of Their Use in Publications over the Last 15 Years. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2016, pp. 1 - 6. 01/2016. DOI: 10.1155/2016/7807596\n\nSalvatore Di Lauro; Rosa Maria Coco; Rosa Maria Sanabria; Enrique Rodriguez de la Rua; Jose Carlos Pastor. Loss of Visual Acuity after Successful Surgery for Macula-On Rhegmatogenous Retinal Detachment in a Prospective Multicentre Study. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:821864, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/821864\n\nIvan Fernandez-Bueno; Salvatore Di Lauro; Ivan Alvarez; Jose Carlos Lopez; Maria Teresa Garcia-Gutierrez; Itziar Fernandez; Eva Larra; Jose Carlos Pastor. Safety and Biocompatibility of a New High-Density Polyethylene-Based\nSpherical Integrated Porous Orbital Implant: An Experimental Study in Rabbits. Journal of Ophthalmology. 2015:904096, 2015. DOI: 10.1155/2015/904096\n\nPastor JC; Pastor-Idoate S; Rodríguez-Hernandez I; Rojas J; Fernandez I; Gonzalez-Buendia L; Di Lauro S; Gonzalez-Sarmiento R. Genetics of PVR and RD. Ophthalmologica. 232 - Suppl 1, pp. 28 - 29. 2014\n\nRodriguez-Crespo D; Di Lauro S; Singh AK; Garcia-Gutierrez MT; Garrosa M; Pastor JC; Fernandez-Bueno I; Srivastava GK. Triple-layered mixed co-culture model of RPE cells with neuroretina for evaluating the neuroprotective effects of adipose-MSCs. Cell Tissue Res. 358 - 3, pp. 705 - 716. 2014.\nDOI: 10.1007/s00441-014-1987-5\n\nCarlo De Werra; Salvatore Condurro; Salvatore Tramontano; Mario Perone; Ivana Donzelli; Salvatore Di Lauro; Massimo Di Giuseppe; Rosa Di Micco; Annalisa Pascariello; Antonio Pastore; Giorgio Diamantis; Giuseppe Galloro. Hydatid disease of the liver: thirty years of surgical experience.Chirurgia italiana. 59 - 5, pp. 611 - 636.\n(Italia): 2007. ISSN 0009-4773\n\nChapters in books\n\t\n' Salvador Pastor Idoate; Salvatore Di Lauro; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. PVR: Pathogenesis, Histopathology and Classification. Proliferative Vitreoretinopathy with Small Gauge Vitrectomy. Springer, 2018. ISBN 978-3-319-78445-8\nDOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-78446-5_2. \n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Maria Isabel Lopez Galvez. Quistes vítreos en una mujer joven. Problemas diagnósticos en patología retinocoroidea. Sociedad Española de Retina-Vitreo. 2018.\n\n' Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor Jimeno. iOCT in PVR management. OCT Applications in Opthalmology. pp. 1 - 8. INTECH, 2018. DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.78774.\n\n' Rosa Coco Martin; Salvatore Di Lauro; Salvador Pastor Idoate; Jose Carlos Pastor. amponadores, manipuladores y tinciones en la cirugía del traumatismo ocular.Trauma Ocular. Ponencia de la SEO 2018..\n\n' LOPEZ GALVEZ; DI LAURO; CRESPO. OCT angiografia y complicaciones retinianas de la diabetes. PONENCIA SEO 2021, CAPITULO 20. (España): 2021.\n\n' Múltiples desprendimientos neurosensoriales bilaterales en paciente joven. Enfermedades Degenerativas De Retina Y Coroides. SERV 04/2016. \n' González-Buendía L; Di Lauro S; Pastor-Idoate S; Pastor Jimeno JC. Vitreorretinopatía proliferante (VRP) e inflamación: LA INFLAMACIÓN in «INMUNOMODULADORES Y ANTIINFLAMATORIOS: MÁS ALLÁ DE LOS CORTICOIDES. RELACION DE PONENCIAS DE LA SOCIEDAD ESPAÑOLA DE OFTALMOLOGIA. 10/2014.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"243698",title:"Dr.",name:"Xiaogang",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"xiaogang-wang",fullName:"Xiaogang Wang",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/243698/images/system/243698.png",biography:"Dr. Xiaogang Wang, a faculty member of Shanxi Eye Hospital specializing in the treatment of cataract and retinal disease and a tutor for postgraduate students of Shanxi Medical University, worked in the COOL Lab as an international visiting scholar under the supervision of Dr. David Huang and Yali Jia from October 2012 through November 2013. Dr. Wang earned an MD from Shanxi Medical University and a Ph.D. from Shanghai Jiao Tong University. 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The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. 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Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",annualVolume:11403,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. Gharieb",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/225387/images/system/225387.jpg",institutionString:"Assiut University",institution:{name:"Assiut University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Egypt"}}}]},{id:"8",title:"Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics",keywords:"Bioinspired Systems, Biomechanics, Assistive Technology, Rehabilitation",scope:'Bioinspired technologies take advantage of understanding the actual biological system to provide solutions to problems in several areas. Recently, bioinspired systems have been successfully employing biomechanics to develop and improve assistive technology and rehabilitation devices. The research topic "Bioinspired Technology and Biomechanics" welcomes studies reporting recent advances in bioinspired technologies that contribute to individuals\' health, inclusion, and rehabilitation. Possible contributions can address (but are not limited to) the following research topics: Bioinspired design and control of exoskeletons, orthoses, and prostheses; Experimental evaluation of the effect of assistive devices (e.g., influence on gait, balance, and neuromuscular system); Bioinspired technologies for rehabilitation, including clinical studies reporting evaluations; Application of neuromuscular and biomechanical models to the development of bioinspired technology.',annualVolume:11404,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/8.jpg",editor:{id:"144937",title:"Prof.",name:"Adriano",middleName:"De Oliveira",surname:"Andrade",fullName:"Adriano Andrade",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRC8QQAW/Profile_Picture_1625219101815",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Federal University of Uberlândia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"49517",title:"Prof.",name:"Hitoshi",middleName:null,surname:"Tsunashima",fullName:"Hitoshi Tsunashima",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYTP4QAO/Profile_Picture_1625819726528",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nihon University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"425354",title:"Dr.",name:"Marcus",middleName:"Fraga",surname:"Vieira",fullName:"Marcus Vieira",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y00003BJSgIQAX/Profile_Picture_1627904687309",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Federal de Goiás",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"196746",title:"Dr.",name:"Ramana",middleName:null,surname:"Vinjamuri",fullName:"Ramana Vinjamuri",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/196746/images/system/196746.jpeg",institutionString:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institution:{name:"University of Maryland, Baltimore County",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"United States of America"}}}]},{id:"9",title:"Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering",keywords:"Biotechnology, Biosensors, Biomaterials, Tissue Engineering",scope:"The Biotechnology - Biosensors, Biomaterials and Tissue Engineering topic within the Biomedical Engineering Series aims to rapidly publish contributions on all aspects of biotechnology, biosensors, biomaterial and tissue engineering. We encourage the submission of manuscripts that provide novel and mechanistic insights that report significant advances in the fields. Topics can include but are not limited to: Biotechnology such as biotechnological products and process engineering; Biotechnologically relevant enzymes and proteins; Bioenergy and biofuels; Applied genetics and molecular biotechnology; Genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics; Applied microbial and cell physiology; Environmental biotechnology; Methods and protocols. Moreover, topics in biosensor technology, like sensors that incorporate enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, whole cells, tissues and organelles, and other biological or biologically inspired components will be considered, and topics exploring transducers, including those based on electrochemical and optical piezoelectric, thermal, magnetic, and micromechanical elements. Chapters exploring biomaterial approaches such as polymer synthesis and characterization, drug and gene vector design, biocompatibility, immunology and toxicology, and self-assembly at the nanoscale, are welcome. Finally, the tissue engineering subcategory will support topics such as the fundamentals of stem cells and progenitor cells and their proliferation, differentiation, bioreactors for three-dimensional culture and studies of phenotypic changes, stem and progenitor cells, both short and long term, ex vivo and in vivo implantation both in preclinical models and also in clinical trials.",annualVolume:11405,isOpenForSubmission:!0,coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/9.jpg",editor:{id:"126286",title:"Dr.",name:"Luis",middleName:"Jesús",surname:"Villarreal-Gómez",fullName:"Luis Villarreal-Gómez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/126286/images/system/126286.jpg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Autonomous University of Baja California",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Mexico"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,editorialBoard:[{id:"35539",title:"Dr.",name:"Cecilia",middleName:null,surname:"Cristea",fullName:"Cecilia Cristea",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYQ65QAG/Profile_Picture_1621007741527",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Iuliu Hațieganu University of Medicine and Pharmacy",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Romania"}}},{id:"40735",title:"Dr.",name:"Gil",middleName:"Alberto Batista",surname:"Gonçalves",fullName:"Gil Gonçalves",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002aYRLGQA4/Profile_Picture_1628492612759",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Aveiro",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Portugal"}}},{id:"211725",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Johann F.",middleName:null,surname:"Osma",fullName:"Johann F. 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