Common elections for
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"},{slug:"intechopen-s-chapter-awarded-the-guenther-von-pannewitz-preis-2020-20200715",title:"IntechOpen's Chapter Awarded the Günther-von-Pannewitz-Preis 2020"},{slug:"suf-and-intechopen-announce-collaboration-20200331",title:"SUF and IntechOpen Announce Collaboration"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6164",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Metagenomics for Gut Microbes",title:"Metagenomics for Gut Microbes",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"This book focuses on metagenomics for gut microbiomes. 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The Hardy-based radial-based functions (RBF) methodology [1] arises from the need to apply multivariate interpolation to cartography problems, with randomly dispersed data (also known as collocation nodes). Micchelli [2], Powell et al. [3] gave it a great boost by proving non-singularity theorems. Later, Kansa [4, 5] proposed to consider the analytical derivatives of the FBR to develop numerical schemes that deal with partial differential equations (PDE).
Regarding PDE over spaces of dimension greater than one, we generally opt for finite element (FE) type discretizations on meshes, structured or not; also pseudo spectral (PS) methods through base functions such as Fourier or Chebyshev. The high degree of computational efficiency in the procedure raises the cost in the regularity constraints on the form of the computational domain.
The FE methods involve decomposition of the domain; for example, in two dimensions rectangles are constructed with curvilinear mappings that allow the refinement of the mesh in critical areas. However, this type of implementation is complex and very close nodes are needed, mainly at the domain boundaries, which impairs stability conditions in time.
For this reason, we look for numerical techniques that do not depend to a great extent on data distribution. RBF collocation methods belong to the “meshfree” methods; that is, they only require scattered collocation nodes on the domain and the boundary. They are also an alternative for dealing with problems in larger dimensions and irregular domains. Hence, in recent decades, such methods have attracted the attention of researchers in order to solve partial differential equations. See for example: Chen et al. [6].
This type of technique approximates the solution by means of a linear combination of radial basis functions, which are globally defined and of exponential convergence, but they produce dense and badly conditioned interpolation matrices. On the other hand, some RBFs contain a shape parameter, a number that influences the precision of the numerical results [7, 8].
There are algorithms that also produce better conditioned interpolants, even when the shape parameter tends to zero, with a double precision arithmetic. Some of them are: Contour-Padé [9] and RBF-QR [10]. Related to the latter is the recent RBF-GA [11].
The RBF-QR method provides a numerically more stable alternative for converting basis that are very similar to each other, or almost linearly dependent on a set of scattered nodes, to a very well conditioned base that generates exactly the same space. This method was originally implemented for nodes on the surface of a sphere in Fornberg and Piret [10]. And recently for an arbitrary set of nodes in one, two, and three dimensions [12, 13].
The growing interest in fractional calculus has been motivated by applications of fractional equations in different fields of research.
One of the applications considered in this work is that of convection-diffusion equations, which appear not only in many applications of models in Physics and Chemistry [14–17], in problems of flow or heat transfer, but also in other fields such as financial [18, 19]. The solution of a convection-diffusion problem can be interpreted as a probability distribution of one or more underlying stochastic processes [18]. The classical diffusion equation (or heat equation) and its Gaussian solution existed long before Einstein established a connection with random walks.
The anomalous diffusion equations, on the other hand, were originally developed from stochastic walks models [20]. The parameters of these equations are uniquely determined by the fractal dimension of the underlying object [21].
Recent applications of these anomalous diffusion-convection models—those related to oil extraction and hydrological models for aquifers, food production and water distribution in large cities, are quite important [22]. Determining the behavior of the fluid inside the reservoir and the loss of permeability of the medium assists in the investigation of the mechanisms of oil migration. In this context, the geometric and physical interpretation of fractional derivatives in these differential equations is a “ultra slow” or “ultra fast” diffusion.
The relationship between fractal geometry and fractional calculus is given from the consideration that a particle moves in a porous medium with fractal structure [23]. Thus, when considering the derivative over that variable, a fractional derivative is obtained.
Fuentes et al. [24, 25] proposed a model that represents anomalous diffusion of petroleum (very fast or very slow) in three types of medium with different porosities: fractures, vugs and matrix. This model has a dimensionless form, which is seen as
This model must be solved for p’s (pressure) at time t in the matrix of the medium pm, the fractured medium pf, and the vugular medium pv .
If time orders α’s are less than one we say that the process is subdiffusive and if it is greater than one it is called superdiffusive. Spatial orders β’s result from generalizing the classic Darcy law, which corresponds to β = 1.
The above equations, like the flow equation that considers the medium as a whole, are modified Bessel’s equations.
Different porosities imply different fractal dimensions and therefore, fractional derivatives with different orders.
In Fractional Calculus there is not a single definition of derivative and between these definitions, in general, not equivalent to each other. Definitions such as Riemann-Liouville, Riesz, Caputo, Weyl or Grünwald-Letnikov are the most used to model anomalous diffusion, from a porous medium with fractal dimension.
But, fractional equations present serious numerical and mathematical difficulties in the context of diffusion equations. From the computational point of view, the challenge to overcome is to attenuate the numerical cost of the matrices that result in discretizing the problem. The proposal is to consider radial basis interpolators [26], taking into account that the domain geometry does not determine the efficiency of the algorithm and sounds like an immediate alternative for generalizing larger dimensions.
The objective in this work is to deal with fractional differential operators, using radial basis functions (RBF) and optimizing discretization processes of such fractional operators, through QR matrix decomposition and to attenuate the bad condition due to the shape parameter. With RBF-QR, a very high precision and convergence are obtained without the need to increase a polynomial term to the interpolator [13]. As the computational cost increases, so does the range of problems to which such a technique can be applied.
Definition 1. Let s be a positive integer, a function ϕ:Rs→R is called radial whenever there is a function in one variable ϕ:[0,∞)→R such that
and ||⋅|| is a norm in Rs (usually the Euclidean standard norm). Table (1) shows some examples, about the more used real functions ϕ(r).
RBF name | RBF |
---|---|
Piecewiese smooth, global | |
Polyharmonic spline | |
Compact support (’Wendland’) | |
Smooth, global | |
Gaussian (GA) | |
Multiquadric (MQ) | |
Inverse quadric (IQ) | |
Inverse multiquadric (IMQ) | |
Bessel (BE) ( |
Common elections for
A standard interpolator in terms of radial basis functions, given the data
where
Note 1. The radial basis function (FBR) we will take for the approach and examples is the Gaussian function:
Because it is globally smooth and for which the RBF method can be applied together with QR matrix decomposition [26].
Notation 1. Considering one dimensional case, we abbreviate ϕk(x):=ϕ(ε||x−xk||). Now the interpolator (5) is written as
The unknown coefficients
producing the linear equations system
which can be described in matrix form
Thus
Suppose we want to apply a differential operator
where
Assuming that
which in the matrix form is
where
The coefficient matrix
Thus, the matrix BA−1 is that matrix D which is mentioned in Eq. (9) and that approximates the values of the differential operator applied to the function.
The definitions shown in this section are based on the texts of Podlubny [27] and Samko [28].
Generalizing the formula of Cauchy, we obtain
Definition 2. The left-sided Riemann-Liouville fractional integral of order α of function f(x) is defined as
Definition 3. The right-sided Riemann-Liouville fractional integral of order α of function f(x) is defined as
Based on the definition of fractional integral, the following fractional derivatives are constructed, which we will use in the numerical examples
Definition 4. The left-sided Riemann-Liouville fractional derivative of order α of function f(x) is defined as
where
Definition 5. The right-sided Riemann-Liouville fractional derivative of order α of function f(x) is defined as
where
Definition 6. [28–30] The Riesz fractional operator for α on a finite interval 0≤x≤L is defined as
where
where
Definition 7. The left-sided Caputo fractional derivative of order α of function f(x) is defined as
and
The fact that the derivative of integer order appears within the integral in Definition 7, makes Caputo derivative the most suitable for dealing with initial conditions of the FPDEs.
Definition 8. The right-sided Caputo fractional derivative of order α of function f(x) is defined as
and
The equation that we take in this part is the advection-diffusion equation (see [30, 6]).
where u can be, for example, the concentration of a dissolute substance, Kα the dispersion coefficient and the fractional derivative of Riesz is given with fractional order
Taking advantage of the fact that for RBFs we can consider non-equispaced collocation nodes, we divide the interval
Chebyshev nodes distribution over [0,π] interval.
The FPDE is solved by the method of lines based on the spatial trial spaces spanned by the Lagrange basis associated to RBFs. The Lagrange basis
where
and the Gram matrix
If
Because of Lagrange’s standard conditions, the zero boundary conditions in
with unknown vector
Evaluating the interpolator at the PDE in each node xi, we obtain
and initial conditions
From the latter two equations we obtain the following system of ordinary differential equations
where
According to the equation data in articles [30, 6], the problem (23) is taken with parameters
RBF approximation to solution, for Eq. (23), with α=1.8, ε=0.8 and Kα=0.25.
In this part we consider the problem introduced by Sousa [31] and taken up in Ref. [26] by Cécile and Hanert, the fractional diffusion equation in one dimension
with
Initial conditions are considered
and Dirichlet boundary conditions
The exact solution to Eq. (27) is
We apply RBF and the method of lines with Lagrange polynomials, in a similar way as it was applied in Section 6.1. With
The results obtained by Sousa [31] were obtained by applying implicit Crank-Nicholson schemes for time. The discretization of the fractional derivative was done using splines, with second-order precision. The results of both Sousa and RBF are shown in Tables 2 and 3, taking into account the error
Global ℓ∞ error (30) of time converged solution for three mesh resolutions at t=1 for α=1.2, α=1.4 and Δt=Δx. | ||||
Rate | Rate | |||
1/15 | ||||
1/20 | 1.8 | 1.8 | ||
1/25 | 1.8 | 1.9 | ||
1/30 | 1.9 | 1.9 | ||
Global | ||||
Rate | Rate | |||
1/15 | ||||
1/20 | 1.9 | 1.9 | ||
1/25 | 1.9 | 1.9 | ||
1/30 | 1.9 | 2.0 |
Comparison of results for FPDE (27): Sousa results [31].
Global ℓ∞ error (30) of time converged solutions at t=1 for α=1.2,1.4,1.5,1.8 and shape parameters ε=0.6,1.2. | ||
(r)1-2 Order | Maximal error | |
Comparison of results for FPDE (27): RBF results.
where
In this part we consider examples of fractional partial differential equations (see [32]) of the type
where
Putting
Using initial condition
Dirichlet boundary conditions
The exact solution (see [33]) is
This problem is solved using the method described in section 6.1 along with QR decomposition for spatial part and an implicit scheme for time, on domain
Numerical solution for Eq. (32) with α=0.5.
In Figure 4 we compare errors that result when choosing uniform collocation nodes (with a fixed step size) and Chebyshev, on definition interval
Comparison between results for Eq. (32) with α=0.5 and t=0.5, due to election of nodes. (a) 41 uniform collocation nodes and 100 evaluation nodes, maximal error for t=0.5, α=0.5, ε=3.6 is 0.83595×10−4. (b) 41 Chebyshev collocation nodes and 100 evaluation nodes, maximal error for t=0.5, α=0.5, ε=3.6 is 0.14385×10−4.
[41 uniform collocation nodes and 100 evaluation nodes, maximal error for
Putting
Initial condition
Next function is the exact solution (see [33]), which is used to set boundary conditions.
The problem is solved by Lagrange (like Section 6.1) and RBF-QR, for
Unstability due to node election, for Eq. (36). (a) 121 uniform collocation nodes and 101 evaluation nodes, maximal error for t=2, α=0.6, ε=1.5 is 0.10558×1019. (b) 121 Chebyshev collocation nodes and 101 evaluation nodes, maximal error for t=2, α=0.6, ε=0.2 is 0.71054×10−15.
Putting
using initial condition
boundary conditions
The exact solution of this problem is not known, but is shown as an example of subdiffusive phenomenon which was discussed in the introduction. The problem is solved using the method described in section 6.1 along with QR decomposition for spatial part and an implicit scheme for time, on domain
Numerical solution for equation (39), order α=0.5 (superdiffusive phenomenon).
Numerical solution for Eq. (39), order α=0.7 (subdiffusive phenomenon).
Numerical solution for Eq. (39), order α=1.2 (superdiffusive phenomenon).
The idea was to show that radial basis schemes are efficient and are on par with schemes like Finite Differences. They are an option to deal with multidimensional and irregular domain problems. The challenge is to adapt them to deal with diffusive problems, particularly with multidimensional systems of equations that consider that the medium does not have a single characteristic.
Fuentes et al. show in the work “The fractal models of saturated and unsaturated flows (capillary, diffusion and matrix) at micro, macro and mega scales”, for the PEMEX oil company, how to model the pressure which the oil must leave in a wellbore, from a system of triple porosity and permeability of the fractured medium.
By converting the model into a dimensionless system, in terms of radial distances, non-mesh schemes such as RBFs sound like a viable option and it is a work that is still being addressed.
The use of social media is growing at a rapid pace and the twenty-first century could be described as the “boom” period for social networking. According to reports provided by Smart Insights, as at February 2019 there were over 3.484 billion social media users. The Smart Insight report indicates that the number of social media users is growing by 9% annually and this trend is estimated to continue. Presently the number of social media users represents 45% of the global population [1]. The heaviest users of social media are “digital natives”; the group of persons who were born or who have grown up in the digital era and are intimate with the various technologies and systems, and the “Millennial Generation”; those who became adults at the turn of the twenty-first century. These groups of users utilize social media platforms for just about anything ranging from marketing, news acquisition, teaching, health care, civic engagement, and politicking to social engagement.
\nThe unethical use of social media has resulted in the breach of individual privacy and impacts both physical and information security. Reports in 2019 [1], reveal that persons between the ages 8 and 11 years spend an average 13.5 hours weekly online and 18% of this age group are actively engaged on social media. Those between ages 12 and 15 spend on average 20.5 hours online and 69% of this group are active social media users. While children and teenagers represent the largest Internet user groups, for the most part they do not know how to protect their personal information on the Web and are the most vulnerable to cyber-crimes related to breaches of information privacy [2, 3].
\nIn today’s IT-configured society data is one of, if not the most, valuable asset for most businesses/organizations. Organizations and governments collect information via several means including invisible data gathering, marketing platforms and search engines such as Google [4]. Information can be attained from several sources, which can be fused using technology to develop complete profiles of individuals. The information on social media is very accessible and can be of great value to individuals and organizations for reasons such as marketing, etc.; hence, data is retained by most companies for future use.
\nPrivacy or the right to enjoy freedom from unauthorized intrusion is the negative right of all human beings. Privacy is defined as the right to be left alone, to be free from secret surveillance, or unwanted disclosure of personal data or information by government, corporation, or individual (
Privacy, or even the thought that one has this right, leads to peace of mind and can provide an environment of solitude. This solitude can allow people to breathe freely in a space that is free from interference and intrusion. According to Richards and Solove [6], Legal scholar William Prosser argued that privacy cases can be classified into four related “torts,” namely:
Intrusion—this can be viewed as encroachment (physical or otherwise) on ones liberties/solitude in a highly offensive way.
Privacy facts—making public, private information about someone that is of no “legitimate concern” to anyone.
False light—making public false and “highly offensive” information about others.
Appropriation—stealing someone’s identity (name, likeness) to gain advantage without the permission of the individual.
Technology, the digital age, the Internet and social media have redefined privacy however as surveillance is no longer limited to a certain pre-defined space and location. An understanding of the problems and dangers of privacy in the digital space is therefore the first step to privacy control. While there can be clear distinctions between informational privacy and physical privacy, as pointed out earlier, intrusion can be both physical and otherwise.
\nThis chapter will focus on informational privacy which is the ability to control access to personal information. We examine privacy issues in the social media context focusing primarily on personal information and the ability to control external influences. We suggest that breach of informational privacy can impact: solitude (the right to be left alone), intimacy (the right not to be monitored), and anonymity (the right to have no public personal identity and by extension physical privacy impacted). The right to control access to facts or personal information in our view is a natural, inalienable right and everyone should have control over who see their personal information and how it is disseminated.
\nIn May 2019 the General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) clearly outlined that it is unlawful to process personal data without the consent of the individual (subject). It is a legal requirement under the GDPR that privacy notices be given to individuals that outline how their personal data will be processed and the conditions that must be met that make the consent valid. These are:
“Freely given—an individual must be given a genuine choice when providing consent and it should generally be unbundled from other terms and conditions (e.g., access to a service should not be conditional upon consent being given).”
“Specific and informed—this means that data subjects should be provided with information as to the identity of the controller(s), the specific purposes, types of processing, as well as being informed of their right to withdraw consent at any time.”
“Explicit and unambiguous—the data subject must clearly express their consent (e.g., by actively ticking a box which confirms they are giving consent—pre-ticked boxes are insufficient).”
“Under 13s—children under the age of 13 cannot provide consent and it is therefore necessary to obtain consent from their parents.”
Arguments can be made that privacy is a cultural, universal necessity for harmonious relationships among human beings and creates the boundaries for engagement and disengagement. Privacy can also be viewed as instrumental good because it is a requirement for the development of certain kinds of human relationships, intimacy and trust [7]. However, achieving privacy is much more difficult in light of constant surveillance and the inability to determine the levels of interaction with various publics [7]. Some critics argue that privacy provides protection against anti-social behaviors such as trickery, disinformation and fraud, and is thought to be a universal right [5]. However, privacy can also be viewed as relative as privacy rules may differ based on several factors such as “climate, religion, technological advancement and political arrangements” [8, 9]. The need for privacy is an objective reality though it can be viewed as “culturally rational” where the need for personal privacy is viewed as relative based on culture. One example is the push by the government, businesses and Singaporeans to make Singapore a smart nation. According to GovTech 2018 reports there is a push by the government in Singapore to harness the data “new gold” to develop systems that can make life easier for its people. The [10] report points out that Singapore is using sensors robots Smart Water Assessment Network (SWAN) to monitor water quality in its reservoirs, seeking to build smart health system and to build a smart transportation system to name a few. In this example privacy can be describe as “culturally rational” and the rules in general could differ based on technological advancement and political arrangements.
\nIn today’s networked society it is naïve and ill-conceived to think that privacy is over-rated and there is no need to be concerned about privacy if you have done nothing wrong [5]. The effects of information flow can be complex and may not be simply about protection for people who have something to hide. Inaccurate information flow can have adverse long-term implications for individuals and companies. Consider a scenario where someone’s computer or tablet is stolen. The perpetrator uses identification information stored on the device to access their social media page which could lead to access to their contacts, friends and friends of their “friends” then participate in illegal activities and engage in anti-social activities such as hacking, spreading viruses, fraud and identity theft. The victim is now in danger of being accused of criminal intentions, or worse. These kinds of situations are possible because of technology and networked systems. Users of social media need to be aware of the risks that are associated with participation.
\nThe concept of social networking pre-dates the Internet and mass communication as people are said to be social creatures who when working in groups can achieve results in a value greater than the sun of its parts [11]. The explosive growth in the use of social media over the past decade has made it one of the most popular Internet services in the world, providing new avenues to “see and be seen” [12, 13]. The use of social media has changed the communication landscape resulting in changes in ethical norms and behavior. The unprecedented level of growth in usage has resulted in the reduction in the use of other media and changes in areas including civic and political engagement, privacy and safety [14]. Alexa, a company that keeps track of traffic on the Web, indicates that as of August, 2019 YouTube, Facebook and Twitter are among the top four (4) most visited sites with only Google, being the most popular search engine, surpassing these social media sites.
\nSocial media sites can be described as online services that allow users to create profiles which are “public, semi-public” or both. Users may create individual profiles and/or become a part of a group of people with whom they may be acquainted offline [15]. They also provide avenues to create virtual friendships. Through these virtual friendships, people may access details about their contacts ranging from personal background information and interests to location. Social networking sites provide various tools to facilitate communication. These include chat rooms, blogs, private messages, public comments, ways of uploading content external to the site and sharing videos and photographs. Social media is therefore drastically changing the way people communicate and form relationships.
\nToday social media has proven to be one of the most, if not the most effective medium for the dissemination of information to various audiences. The power of this medium is phenomenal and ranges from its ability to overturn governments (e.g., Moldova), to mobilize protests, assist with getting support for humanitarian aid, organize political campaigns, organize groups to delay the passing of legislation (as in the case with the copyright bill in Canada) to making social media billionaires and millionaires [16, 17]. The enabling nature and the structure of the media that social networking offers provide a wide range of opportunities that were nonexistent before technology. Facebook and YouTube marketers and trainers provide two examples. Today people can interact with and learn from people millions of miles away. The global reach of this medium has removed all former pre-defined boundaries including geographical, social and any other that existed previously. Technological advancements such as Web 2.0 and Web 4.0 which provide the framework for collaboration, have given new meaning to life from various perspectives: political, institutional and social.
\nSocial medial and the information/digital era have “redefined” privacy. In today’s Information Technology—configured societies, where there is continuous monitoring, privacy has taken on a new meaning. Technologies such as closed-circuit cameras (CCTV) are prevalent in public spaces or in some private spaces including our work and home [7, 18]. Personal computers and devices such as our smart phones enabled with Global Positioning System (GPS), Geo locations and Geo maps connected to these devices make privacy as we know it, a thing of the past. Recent reports indicate that some of the largest companies such as Amazon, Microsoft and Facebook as well as various government agencies are collecting information without consent and storing it in databases for future use. It is almost impossible to say privacy exists in this digital world (@nowthisnews).
\nThe open nature of the social networking sites and the avenues they provide for sharing information in a “public or semi-public” space create privacy concerns by their very construct. Information that is inappropriate for some audiences are many times inadvertently made visible to groups other than those intended and can sometimes result in future negative outcomes. One such example is a well-known case recorded in an article entitled “The Web Means the End of Forgetting” that involved a young woman who was denied her college license because of backlash from photographs posted on social media in her private engagement.
\nTechnology has reduced the gap between professional and personal spaces and often results in information exposure to the wrong audience [19]. The reduction in the separation of professional and personal spaces can affect image management especially in a professional setting resulting in the erosion of traditional professional image and impression management. Determining the secondary use of personal information and those who have access to this information should be the prerogative of the individual or group to whom the information belongs. However, engaging in social media activities has removed this control.
\nPrivacy on social networking sites (SNSs) is heavily dependent on the users of these networks because sharing information is the primary way of participating in social communities. Privacy in SNSs is “multifaceted.” Users of these platforms are responsible for protecting their information from third-party data collection and managing their personal profiles. However, participants are usually more willing to give personal and more private information in SNSs than anywhere else on the Internet. This can be attributed to the feeling of community, comfort and family that these media provide for the most part. Privacy controls are not the priority of social networking site designers and only a small number of the young adolescent users change the default privacy settings of their accounts [20, 21]. This opens the door for breaches especially among the most vulnerable user groups, namely young children, teenagers and the elderly. The nature of social networking sites such as Facebook and Twitter and other social media platforms cause users to re-evaluate and often change their personal privacy standards in order to participate in these social networked communities [13].
\nWhile there are tremendous benefits that can be derived from the effective use of social media there are some unavoidable risks that are involved in its use. Much attention should therefore be given to what is shared in these forums. Social platforms such as Facebook, Twitter and YouTube are said to be the most effective media to communicate to Generation Y’s (Gen Y’s), as teens and young adults are the largest user groups on these platforms [22]. However, according to Bolton et al. [22] Gen Y’s use of social media, if left unabated and unmonitored will have long-term implications for privacy and engagement in civic activities as this continuous use is resulting in changes in behavior and social norms as well as increased levels of cyber-crime.
\nToday social networks are becoming the platform of choice for hackers and other perpetrators of antisocial behavior. These media offer large volumes of data/information ranging from an individual’s date of birth, place of residence, place of work/business, to information about family and other personal activities. In many cases users unintentionally disclose information that can be both dangerous and inappropriate. Information regarding activities on social media can have far reaching negative implications for one’s future. A few examples of situations which can, and have been affected are employment, visa acquisition, and college acceptance. Indiscriminate participation has also resulted in situations such identity theft and bank fraud just to list a few. Protecting privacy in today’s networked society can be a great challenge. The digital revolution has indeed distorted our views of privacy, however, there should be clear distinctions between what should be seen by the general public and what should be limited to a selected group. One school of thought is that the only way to have privacy today is not to share information in these networked communities. However, achieving privacy and control over information flows and disclosure in networked communities is an ongoing process in an environment where contexts change quickly and are sometimes blurred. This requires intentional construction of systems that are designed to mitigate privacy issues [13].
\nEthics can be loosely defined as “the right thing to do” or it can be described as the moral philosophy of an individual or group and usually reflects what the individual or group views as good or bad. It is how they classify particular situations by categorizing them as right or wrong. Ethics can also be used to refer to any classification or philosophy of moral values or principles that guides the actions of an individual or group [23]. Ethical values are intended to be guiding principles that if followed, could yield harmonious results and relationships. They seek to give answers to questions such as “How should I be living? How do I achieve the things that are deemed important such as knowledge and happiness or the acquisition of attractive things?” If one chooses happiness, the next question that needs to be answered is “Whose happiness should it be; my own happiness or the happiness of others?” In the domain of social media, some of the ethical questions that must be contemplated and ultimately answered are [24]:
Can this post be regarded as oversharing?
Has the information in this post been distorted in anyway?
What impact will this post have on others?
As previously mentioned, users within the ages 8–15 represent one of the largest social media user groups. These young persons within the 8–15 age range are still learning how to interact with the people around them and are deciding on the moral values that they will embrace. These moral values will help to dictate how they will interact with the world around them. The ethical values that guide our interactions are usually formulated from some moral principle taught to us by someone or a group of individuals including parents, guardians, religious groups, and teachers just to name a few. Many of the Gen Y’s/“Digital Babies” are “newbies” yet are required to determine for themselves the level of responsibility they will display when using the varying social media platforms. This includes considering the impact a post will have on their lives and/or the lives of other persons. They must also understand that when they join a social media network, they are joining a community in which certain behavior must be exhibited. Such responsibility requires a much greater level of maturity than can be expected from them at that age.
\nIt is not uncommon for individuals to post even the smallest details of their lives from the moment they wake up to when they go to bed. They will openly share their location, what they eat at every meal or details about activities typically considered private and personal. They will also share likes and dislikes, thoughts and emotional states and for the most part this has become an accepted norm. Often times however, these shares do not only contain information about the person sharing but information about others as well. Many times, these details are shared on several social media platforms as individuals attempt to ensure that all persons within their social circle are kept updated on their activities. With this openness of sharing risks and challenges arise that are often not considered but can have serious impacts. The speed and scale with which social media creates information and makes it available—almost instantaneously—on a global scale, added to the fact that once something is posted there is really no way of truly removing it, should prompt individuals to think of the possible impact a post can have. Unfortunately, more often than not, posts are made without any thought of the far-reaching impact they can have on the lives of the person posting or others that may be implicated by the post.
\nAccording to Berger and Milkman [25] there are five (5) main reasons why users are compelled to share content online, whether it is every detail or what they deem as highlights of their lives. These are:
cause related
personal connection to content
to feel more involved in the world
to define who they are
to inform and entertain
People generally share because they believe that what they are sharing is important. It is hoped that the shared content will be deemed important to others which will ultimately result in more shares, likes and followers.
\n\nFigure 1 below sums up the findings of Berger and Milkman [25] which shows that the main reason people feel the need to share content on the varying social media platform is that the content relates to what is deemed as worthy cause. 84% of respondents highlighted this as the primary motivation for sharing. Seventy-eight percent said that they share because they feel a personal connection to the content while 69 and 68%, respectively said the content either made them feel more involved with the world or helped them to define who they were. Forty-nine percent share because of the entertainment or information value of the content. A more in depth look at each reason for sharing follows.
\nWhy people share source: Global Social Media Research. \nthesocialmediahat.com\n [26].
Social media has provided a platform for people to share their thoughts and express concerns with others for what they regard as a worthy cause. Cause related posts are dependent on the interest of the individual. Some persons might share posts related to causes and issues happening in society. In one example, the parents of a baby with an aggressive form of leukemia, who having been told that their child had only 3 months to live unless a suitable donor for a blood stem cell transplant could be found, made an appeal on social media. The appeal was quickly shared and a suitable donor was soon found. While that was for a good cause, many view social media merely as platforms for freedom of speech because anyone can post any content one creates. People think the expression of their thoughts on social media regarding any topic is permissible. The problem with this is that the content may not be accepted by law or it could violate the rights of someone thus giving rise to ethical questions.
\nWhen social media users feel a personal connection to their content, they are more inclined to share the content within their social circles. This is true of information regarding family and personal activities. Content created by users also invokes a deep feeling of connection as it allows the users to tell their stories and it is natural to want the world or at least friends to know of the achievement. This natural need to share content is not new as humans have been doing this in some form or the other, starting with oral history to the media of the day; social media. Sharing the self-created content gives the user the opportunity of satisfying some fundamental needs of humans to be heard, to matter, to be understood and emancipated. The problem with this however is that in an effort to gratify the fundamental needs, borders are crossed because the content may not be sharable (can this content be shared within the share network?), it may not be share-worthy (who is the audience that would appreciate this content?) or it may be out of context (does the content fit the situation?).
\nOne of the driving factors that pushes users to share content is the need to feel more in tune with the world around them. This desire is many times fueled by jealousy. Many social media users are jealous when their friends’ content gets more attention than their own and so there is a lot of pressure to maintain one’s persona in social circles, even when the information is unrealistic, as long as it gets as much attention as possible. Everything has to be perfect. In the case of a photo, for example, there is lighting, camera angle and background to consider. This need for perfection puts a tremendous amount of pressure on individuals to ensure that posted content is “liked” by friends. They often give very little thought to the amount of their friend’s work that may have gone on behind the scenes to achieve that perfect social post.
\nSocial media platforms have provided everyone with a forum to express views, but, as a whole, conversations are more polarized, tribal and hostile. With Facebook for instance, there has been a huge uptick in fake news, altered images, dangerous health claims and cures, and the proliferation of anti-science information. This is very distressing and disturbing because people are too willing to share and to believe without doing their due diligence and fact-checking first.
\nEstablishing one’s individuality in society can be challenging for some persons because not everyone wants to fit in. Some individuals will do all they can to stand out and be noticed. Social media provides the avenue for exposure and many individuals will seek to leverage the media to stand out of the crowd and not just be a fish in the school. Today many young people are currently being brought up in a culture that defines people by their presence on social media where in previous generations, persons were taught to define themselves by their career choices. These lessons would start from childhood by asking children what they wanted to be when they grew up and then rewarding them based on the answers they give [27]. In today’s digital era, however, social media postings and the number of “likes” or “dislikes” they attract, signal what is appealing to others. Therefore, post that are similar to those that receive a large number of likes but which are largely unrealistic are usually made for self-gratification.
\nThe acquisition of knowledge and skills is a vital part of human survival and social media has made this process much easier. It is not uncommon to hear persons realizing that they need a particular knowledge set that they do not possess say “I need to lean to do this. I’ll just YouTube it.” Learning and adapting to change in as short as possible time is vital in today’s society and social media coupled with the Internet put it all at the finger tips. Entertainment has the ability to bring people together and is a good way for people to bond. It provides a diversion from the demands of life and fills leisure time with amusement. Social media is an outlet for fun, pleasurable and enjoyable activities that are so vital to human survival [28]. It is now common place to see persons watching a video, viewing images and reading text that is amusing on any of the available social media platforms. Quite often these videos, images and texts can be both informative and entertaining, but there can be problems however as at times they can cross ethical lines that can lead to conflict.
\nThe use of modern-day technology has brought several benefits. Social media is no different and chief amongst its benefit is the ability to stay connected easily and quickly as well as build relationships with people with similar interests. As with all technology, there are several challenges that can make the use of social media off putting and unpleasant. Some of these challenges appear to be minor but they can have far reaching effects into the lives of the users of social media and it is therefore advised that care be taken to minimize the challenges associated with the use of social media [29].
\nA major challenge with the use of social media is oversharing because when persons share on social media, they tend to share as much as is possible which is often times too much [24]. When persons are out and about doing exciting things, it is natural to want to share this with the world as many users will post a few times a day when they head to lunch, visit a museum, go out to dinner or other places of interest [30]. While this all seems relatively harmless, by using location-based services which pinpoint users with surprising accuracy and in real time, users place themselves in danger of laying out a pattern of movement that can be easily traced. While this seems more like a security or privacy issue it stems from an ethical dilemma—“Am I sharing too much?” Oversharing can also lead to damage of user’s reputation especially if the intent is to leverage the platform for business [24]. Photos of drunken behavior, drug use, partying or other inappropriate content can change how you are viewed by others.
\nAnother ethical challenge users of social media often encounter is that they have no way of authenticating content before sharing, which becomes problematic when the content paints people or establishments negatively. Often times content is shared with them by friends, family and colleagues. The unauthenticated content is then reshared without any thought but sometimes this content may have been maliciously altered so the user unknowingly participates in maligning others. Even if the content is not altered the fact that the content paints someone or something in a bad light should send off warning bells as to whether or not it is right to share the content which is the underlying principle of ethical behavior.
\nSome of the challenges experienced by social media posts are a result of a lack of understanding and sometimes a lack of respect for the varying ethical and moral standpoints of the people involved. We have established that it is typical for persons to post to social media sites without any thought as to how it can affect other persons, but many times these posts are a cause of conflict because of a difference of opinion that may exist and the effect the post may have. Each individual will have his or her own ethical values and if they differ then this can result in conflict [31]. When an executive of a British company made an Instagram post with some racial connotations before boarding a plane to South Africa it started a frenzy that resulted in the executive’s immediate dismissal. Although the executive said it was a joke and there was no prejudice intended, this difference in views as to the implications of the post, resulted in an out of work executive and a company scrambling to maintain its public image.
\nIn this age of sharing, many young persons spend a vast amount of time on social media checking the activities of their “friends” as well as posting on their own activities so their “friends” are aware of what they are up to. Apart from interfering with their academic progress, time spent on these posts at can have long term repercussions. An example is provided by a student of a prominent university who posted pictures of herself having a good time at parties while in school. She was denied employment because of some of her social media posts. While the ethical challenge here is the question of the employee’s right to privacy and whether the individual’s social media profile should affect their ability to fulfill their responsibilities as an employee, the impact on the individual’s long term personal growth is clear.
\nIn today’s information age, one’s digital footprint can make or break someone; it can be the deciding factor on whether or not one achieves one’s life-long ambitions. Unethical behavior and interactions on social media can have far reaching implications both professionally and socially. Posting on the Internet means the “end of forgetting,” therefore, responsible use of this medium is critical. The unethical use of social media has implications for privacy and can result in security breaches both physically and virtually. The use of social media can also result in the loss of privacy as many users are required to provide information that they would not divulge otherwise. Social media use can reveal information that can result in privacy breaches if not managed properly by users. Therefore, educating users of the risks and dangers of the exposure of sensitive information in this space, and encouraging vigilance in the protection of individual privacy on these platforms is paramount. This could result in the reduction of unethical and irresponsible use of these media and facilitate a more secure social environment. The use of social media should be governed by moral and ethical principles that can be applied universally and result in harmonious relationships regardless of race, culture, religious persuasion and social status.
\nAnalysis of the literature and the findings of this research suggest achieving acceptable levels of privacy is very difficult in a networked system and will require much effort on the part of individuals. The largest user groups of social media are unaware of the processes that are required to reduce the level of vulnerability of their personal data. Therefore, educating users of the risk of participating in social media is the social responsibility of these social network platforms. Adapting universally ethical behaviors can mitigate the rise in the number of privacy breaches in the social networking space. This recommendation coincides with philosopher Immanuel Kant’s assertion that, the Biblical principle which states “Do unto others as you have them do unto you” can be applied universally and should guide human interactions [5]. This principle, if adhered to by users of social media and owners of these platforms could raise the awareness of unsuspecting users, reduce unethical interactions and undesirable incidents that could negatively affect privacy, and by extension security in this domain.
\nGeneral requirements for Open Access to Horizon 2020 research project outputs are found within Guidelines on Open Access to Scientific Publication and Research Data in Horizon 2020. The guidelines, in their simplest form, state that if you are a Horizon 2020 recipient, you must ensure open access to your scientific publications by enabling them to be downloaded, printed and read online. Additionally, said publications must be peer reviewed.
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