Oil rapeseed cultivars at additional tests
\\n\\n
Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"10134",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Organic Agriculture",title:"Organic Agriculture",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Organic crop production is the science and art of growing field crops, fruits, vegetables, and flowers by adopting the essential principles of organic agriculture in soil building and conservation, pest management, and heirloom variety conservation. This book provides detailed insights into organic farming in agriculture, biological efficacy in the management of plant diseases, organic nutrient management, socio-economic dimensions of adoption of conservation practices, nonchemical weed control, plant growth promoting fungi for phytostimulation, nanotechnological approaches, and finally vermicomposting. The book primarily focuses on research and development based organic agriculture and horticulture production technologies, and has attempted to abridge information on organic crop production of the major food grain crops. The book also contains comprehensive information on the various related dimensions of organic crop production.",isbn:"978-1-78984-669-0",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-668-3",pdfIsbn:"978-1-78984-720-8",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89775",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"organic-agriculture",numberOfPages:168,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a9866f9df52191cc505b27fb2abdc687",bookSignature:"Shaon Kumar Das",publishedDate:"December 2nd 2020",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/10134.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6606,numberOfWosCitations:4,numberOfCrossrefCitations:22,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:42,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:0,hasAltmetrics:0,numberOfTotalCitations:68,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 9th 2019",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"February 12th 2020",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"April 12th 2020",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"July 1st 2020",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"August 30th 2020",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"182210",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaon Kumar",middleName:null,surname:"Das",slug:"shaon-kumar-das",fullName:"Shaon Kumar Das",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/182210/images/system/182210.jpg",biography:"Shaon Kumar Das is working as a Scientist SS (Agricultural Chemistry) at ICAR RC for NEH Region, Sikkim Centre, Tadong, Gangtok under the Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New Delhi. He received his M.Sc. in 2010 from IARI, New Delhi along with a gold medal for his outstanding contribution. He joined the Agricultural Research Service (ARS) in 2011 as a scientist. He completed his Ph.D in 2020 from Visva Bharati University in Soil Science and Agricultural Chemistry and worked on integrated organic nutrient management. He has published 27 national and 40 international research articles, 10 review articles in national and international journals, 30 popular articles, 28 extension folders, 2 books, and 25 book chapters in edited books. He received a DST-INSPIRE fellowship in 2010 from DST, Govt. of India. He has been awarded the best scientist award by the ICAR RC for the NEH Region, Umiam, Meghalaya in 2018. He received six young scientist awards and 3 best oral presentation awards from different reputable societies. He was the Principal Investigator (PI) of different externally funded projects like DST, DBT, NMHS, ICAR etc. He has been involved in the research on carbon sequestration, soil fertility management, soil acidity reclamation, and organic nutrient standardization of major hill crops.",institutionString:"Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"2",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:null}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"307",title:"Agroecology",slug:"agroecology"}],chapters:[{id:"72994",title:"Role of Organic Farming in Agriculture",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93431",slug:"role-of-organic-farming-in-agriculture",totalDownloads:734,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:2,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Organic farming could be an all-encompassing generation administration framework that empowers and improves agroecosystem wellbeing, counting biodiversity, natural cycles, and soil biological activity. It stresses the role of management activities in preference to the use of off-farm data, considering that regional conditions require locally adapted systems. This can be achieved using agronomic, biological, and mechanical methods, in equal share to synthetic materials, to carry out any specific role inside the organization. Organic farming is still only a small industry, which represents only 2% of global food sales. However, it is growing in importance in the world. It is hard to get information due to lack of official statistics and the level of confidentiality of systems of organic produce. Soil practices such as crop rotations, organic fertilizers, symbiotic associations, cover crops, inter-cropping, and minimum tillage are central to organic practices. The static arrangements of soil are achieved by soil fauna and vegetation. Besides, cycling of nutrients and energy is enhanced by increasing the retentive abilities of the soil for nutrients and water.",signatures:"Muthuraman Yuvaraj, Peyandi Paraman Mahendran and Eman Tawfik Hussien",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72994",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72994",authors:[{id:"280193",title:"Dr.",name:"Muthuraman",surname:"Yuvaraj",slug:"muthuraman-yuvaraj",fullName:"Muthuraman Yuvaraj"}],corrections:null},{id:"72269",title:"Nanotechnological Approaches in Sustainable Agriculture and Plant Disease Management",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92463",slug:"nanotechnological-approaches-in-sustainable-agriculture-and-plant-disease-management",totalDownloads:775,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Every year approximately 30–50% of crops suffer with different kinds of biotic stresses. Rapidly growing agrochemical industries and their diverse products make the environment more toxic and simultaneously hazardous for plant heath and soil health. Such types of agrochemicals are toxic, hazardous, carcinogenic, non-eco-friendly. Therefore, this is the ideal time to think about some more effective alternatives against those problems. Nanotechnological approaches bring the alternatives in the form of decreasing toxicity, improving shelf-life, increasing solubility for poorly water-soluble agrochemicals, minimum use with maximum effect, slow leaching efficiency with long-term effect with coupling of eco-friendly naturalistic way. The way of nanoparticle application in agriculture, specifically disease management, is unique, where it can be used singly or by coupling with fungicidal, herbicidal, insecticidal, RNA-interference molecules. Though it has such a positive impact, very few products will be commercially available in our market due to high price of particular products and well-established long field trial efficacy detection among insect, pest-pathogen, and environment. Application of nanomolecules in other progressive fields has been emerging, whereas advancement in agricultural applications needs to be boosted up through skilled knowledge transfer and basic understanding of its fundamental aspect.",signatures:"Siddhartha Das and Sudeepta Pattanayak",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72269",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72269",authors:[{id:"320136",title:"Dr.",name:"Siddhartha",surname:"Das",slug:"siddhartha-das",fullName:"Siddhartha Das"},{id:"320228",title:"Ms.",name:"Sudeepta",surname:"Pattanayak",slug:"sudeepta-pattanayak",fullName:"Sudeepta Pattanayak"}],corrections:null},{id:"71681",title:"Packages of Organic Nutrient Management as Soil Policy for Upgrading Cropping System to Restore Soil Productivity",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91928",slug:"packages-of-organic-nutrient-management-as-soil-policy-for-upgrading-cropping-system-to-restore-soil",totalDownloads:618,totalCrossrefCites:8,totalDimensionsCites:11,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"The indigenous farming systems are, by and large, organically practiced. Organic farming systems facilitate the buildup of soil organic matter, reducing risk of erosion and runoff and enhancing nutrient storehouse in soils for plants. Rapid developments in organic farming promotion necessitated continuous flow of technology to meet day-to-day challenges. Farmyard manure (FYM), compost, and green manure are the most important and widely used bulky organic manures. Manuring with different short-duration legumes is suitable for maintenance of soil quality in terms of adding nitrogen to soil. Sustainable quantity of potassium can be maintained by vegetative mulching with crop residues. The use of balanced dosages of mixed compost at 5–10 t/ha along with 2 t/ha dolomite increases yield of maize, rice, mustard, and soybean. This article briefly describes about the integrated organic nutrient management as soil policy for upgrading cropping system to restore soil productivity.",signatures:"Shaon Kumar Das and Ravikant Avasthe",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71681",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71681",authors:[{id:"182210",title:"Dr.",name:"Shaon Kumar",surname:"Das",slug:"shaon-kumar-das",fullName:"Shaon Kumar Das"}],corrections:null},{id:"71592",title:"Vermicomposting: An Effective Option for Recycling Organic Wastes",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91892",slug:"vermicomposting-an-effective-option-for-recycling-organic-wastes",totalDownloads:1495,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:10,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Urbanization and industrialization resulted in rapid increase in volume of solid waste; its management has become one of the biggest problems today. Solid wastes can be disposed off by methods like land filling, incineration, conversion into biogas, recycling, and composting, but its overproduction has led to inappropriate disposal practices such as their indiscriminate and inappropriately timed application to agricultural fields that ultimately leads to water and soil pollution. However, if handled properly, these organic wastes can be used for vermicomposting; it is an effective recycling technology that improves the quality of the products which is disinfected, detoxified, and highly nutritive. It is a low cost, eco-biotechnological process of waste management in which earthworms are used to cooperate with microorganisms in order to convert biodegradable wastes into organic fertilizer. Earthworms excreta (vermicast) is a nutritive organic fertilizer rich in humus, NPK, micronutrients, beneficial soil microbes; nitrogen-fixing, phosphate solubilizing bacteria, actinomycets, and growth hormones auxins, gibberlins and cytokinins, is a suitable alternative to chemical fertilizers, being an excellent growth promoter and protector for crop plants. Thus, vermiculture not only results in management of soild waste but also produces excellent nutrient enriched vermicompost. Vermicompost is beneficial for sustainable organic agriculture and maintaining balanced ecosystem.",signatures:"Tamanreet Kaur",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71592",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71592",authors:[{id:"317164",title:"Dr.",name:"Tamanreet",surname:"Kaur",slug:"tamanreet-kaur",fullName:"Tamanreet Kaur"}],corrections:null},{id:"72075",title:"Application and Mechanisms of Plant Growth Promoting Fungi (PGPF) for Phytostimulation",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.92338",slug:"application-and-mechanisms-of-plant-growth-promoting-fungi-pgpf-for-phytostimulation",totalDownloads:1372,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:13,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Plant growth-promoting fungi (PGPF) constitute diverse genera of nonpathogenic fungi that provide a variety of benefits to their host plants. PGPF show an effective role in sustainable agriculture. Meeting increasing demand for crop production without damage to the environment is the biggest challenge nowadays. The use of PGPF has been recognized as an environmentally friendly way of increasing crop production. These fungi have proven to increase crop yields by improving germination, seedling vigor, plant growth, root morphogenesis, photosynthesis, and flowering through either a direct or indirect mechanism. The mechanisms of PGPF involve solubilizing and mineralizing nutrients for easy uptake by plants, regulating hormonal balance, producing volatile organic compounds and microbial enzyme, suppressing plant pathogens and ameliorating abiotic stresses. Successful colonization is an intrinsic factor for most PGPF to exert their beneficial effects on plants. A certain level of specificity exists in the interactions between plant species and PGPF for root colonization and growth promoting effects. There is a gap between the number of reported efficacious PGPF and the number of PGPF as biofertilizer. Efforts should be strengthened to improve the efficacy and commercialization of PGPF. Hence, this chapter summarizes valuable information regarding the application and mechanisms of PGPF in sustainable agriculture.",signatures:"Md. Motaher Hossain and Farjana Sultana",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72075",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72075",authors:[{id:"318381",title:"Dr.",name:"Md. Motaher",surname:"Hossain",slug:"md.-motaher-hossain",fullName:"Md. Motaher Hossain"},{id:"318383",title:"Dr.",name:"Farjana",surname:"Sultana",slug:"farjana-sultana",fullName:"Farjana Sultana"}],corrections:null},{id:"71029",title:"Biological Efficacy of Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp. in the Management of Plant Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91043",slug:"biological-efficacy-of-em-trichoderma-em-spp-and-em-bacillus-em-spp-in-the-management-of-plant-disea",totalDownloads:753,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter will cover topics about the microbial antagonists Trichoderma spp. and Bacillus spp. from the perspective of use as potential biological control agents on plant diseases. Results obtained in the laboratory about from their isolation, microbial strain collections for both genera, taxonomic identification, antifungal activity in in vitro tests, obtained evaluation of the antifungal effect of secondary metabolites from microbial antagonists will be shown. Besides, results obtained from bioassays in the greenhouse and field are used as biopesticides in the control of diseases in fruit trees and vegetables and their effects on the promotion of plant growth and increased crop yield.",signatures:"Francisco Daniel Hernández-Castillo, Francisco Castillo-Reyes, Marco Antonio Tucuch-Pérez and Roberto Arredondo-Valdes",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71029",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71029",authors:[{id:"76348",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco Daniel",surname:"Hernandez Castillo",slug:"francisco-daniel-hernandez-castillo",fullName:"Francisco Daniel Hernandez Castillo"},{id:"187441",title:"Dr.",name:"Francisco",surname:"Castillo",slug:"francisco-castillo",fullName:"Francisco Castillo"},{id:"314111",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Marco Antonio",surname:"Tucuch Pérez",slug:"marco-antonio-tucuch-perez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Tucuch Pérez"},{id:"317252",title:"Dr.",name:"Roberto",surname:"Arredondo Valdes",slug:"roberto-arredondo-valdes",fullName:"Roberto Arredondo Valdes"}],corrections:null},{id:"71318",title:"Nonchemical Weed Control in Winter Oilseed Rape Crop in the Organic Farming System",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.91044",slug:"nonchemical-weed-control-in-winter-oilseed-rape-crop-in-the-organic-farming-system",totalDownloads:455,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"A field experiment was conducted during the 2014–2017 period at Aleksandras Stulginskis University (now—Vytautas Magnus University Agriculture Academy) on a Endocalcaric Endogleyic Luvisol (LV-can.gln) according to the WRB 2014. The three nonchemical weed control methods were explored: (1) thermal (using wet water steam), (2) mechanical (interrow loosening), and (3) self-regulation (smothering). In the thermal and mechanical weed control treatments, winter oilseed rape was grown with an interrow spacing of 48.0 cm and in weed smothering (self-regulation) treatment with an interrow spacing of 12.0 cm. Winter oilseed rape was grown in the soil with a regular humus layer (23–25 cm) and with a thickened humus layer (45–50 cm). Annual weeds predominated in the winter oilseed rape crop. In the soil with both humus layers, regular and thickened, the most efficient weed control method was mechanical weed management both during the autumn (efficacy 26.7–75.1%) and spring (efficacy 37.1–76.7%) growing seasons. Thermal and mechanical weed control in combination with the bio-preparations in droughty years significantly reduced the number of weed seedlings. Dry matter mass of weeds most markedly decreased through the application of the mechanical weed management method.",signatures:"Aušra Marcinkevičienė, Marina Keidan, Rita Pupalienė, Rimantas Velička, Zita Kriaučiūnienė, Lina Marija Butkevičienė and Robertas Kosteckas",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/71318",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/71318",authors:[{id:"313789",title:"Dr.",name:"Rita",surname:"Pupalienė",slug:"rita-pupaliene",fullName:"Rita Pupalienė"}],corrections:null},{id:"72832",title:"Socio-Economic Dimensions of Adoption of Conservation Practices: What Is Needed to Be Done?",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.93198",slug:"socio-economic-dimensions-of-adoption-of-conservation-practices-what-is-needed-to-be-done-",totalDownloads:413,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Promoting sustainable agricultural production requires farmers to adopt new technologies such as organic farming to increase the agricultural productivity, while conserving the environment. Adoption and diffusion of new technologies need a long process, as experienced in the past. There are social and economic factors, identified in the literature, and those could cause delays in farmers’ use of new technologies. Hence, technology adoption and diffusion are important policy issues in agriculture. For that reason, this paper provides a literature review including factors influencing the adoption and diffusion of technology in agriculture and aims to contribute to the future studies and policies, especially focusing on the social capital or the social aspects, which are proven not to be analyzed by the previous studies comprehensively. The results show that interaction with neighbors and relatives, and membership in a group or organization, which represent the social aspects, has a positive influence on adoption and diffusion of new technologies. Hence, policy-makers should incorporate the social aspects when designing the policies, such as cost sharing programmes, to promote adoption and diffusion of new technologies.",signatures:"Nisa Sansel Tandogan and Haluk Gedikoglu",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/72832",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/72832",authors:[{id:"318014",title:"Associate Prof.",name:"Haluk",surname:"Gedikoglu",slug:"haluk-gedikoglu",fullName:"Haluk Gedikoglu"},{id:"323357",title:"Ph.D. Student",name:"Nisa Sansel",surname:"Tandogan",slug:"nisa-sansel-tandogan",fullName:"Nisa Sansel Tandogan"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9345",title:"Sustainable Crop Production",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5135c48a58f18229b288f2c690257bcb",slug:"sustainable-crop-production",bookSignature:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman, Marcelo Carvalho Minhoto Teixeira Filho, Masayuki Fujita and Thiago Assis Rodrigues Nogueira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9345.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"76477",title:"Prof.",name:"Mirza",surname:"Hasanuzzaman",slug:"mirza-hasanuzzaman",fullName:"Mirza Hasanuzzaman"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"4566",title:"Agroecology",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"9e35a4ff7bee4ab82eab2c6b3f441789",slug:"agroecology",bookSignature:"Vytautas Pilipavičius",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/4566.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"169359",title:"Dr.",name:"Vytautas",surname:"Pilipavicius",slug:"vytautas-pilipavicius",fullName:"Vytautas Pilipavicius"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6952",title:"Irrigation in Agroecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"1afe3f365612ea9b4f35942c69792f63",slug:"irrigation-in-agroecosystems",bookSignature:"Gabrijel Ondrašek",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6952.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"46939",title:"Prof.",name:"Gabrijel",surname:"Ondrasek",slug:"gabrijel-ondrasek",fullName:"Gabrijel Ondrasek"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6485",title:"Sustainability of Agroecosystems",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"4ed7b8c6bce44bfaddb83c0365793742",slug:"sustainability-of-agroecosystems",bookSignature:"Alexandre Bosco de Oliveira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6485.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"77880",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandre",surname:"De Oliveira",slug:"alexandre-de-oliveira",fullName:"Alexandre De Oliveira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"6301",title:"Vegetation",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"5c1b7f22f2f926f8d59ea56f2fe84c6f",slug:"vegetation",bookSignature:"Allan Sebata",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/6301.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"143409",title:"Dr.",name:"Allan",surname:"Sebata",slug:"allan-sebata",fullName:"Allan Sebata"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"10499",title:"Next-Generation Greenhouses for Food Security",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"456f82c97eafad5734cd36c48e167781",slug:"next-generation-greenhouses-for-food-security",bookSignature:"Redmond R. 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The biodiversity of some of these ecosystems is very rich and abundant offering unique opportunities for high-yield production of proteinaceous material, being a source of high-quality foods. Biodiversity is fundamental to sustaining marine ecosystem services, such as food, maintenance of water quality, and recovery from perturbations, being threatened worldwide. The main threats to marine biodiversity are habitat loss, eutrophication, overexploitation, pollution by hazardous substances, the introduction of non-native species, and other human activities. Efforts to reduce these pressures are essential for coastal water quality, recovery of ecosystem services, global food security, and ecosystem stability. Bioindicators to assess the presence of stressors are important tools to be used as early warning signals to early detect their presence, monitor and management of these ecosystems, and thus promote ecosystem health.
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\r\n\tThe protection of biodiversity is a major target of the European Union Marine Strategy Framework Directive, requiring an assessment of the status of biodiversity on the level of species, habitats, and ecosystems including genetic diversity and the role of biodiversity in food web structure and functioning. The restoration of marine ecosystems can support the productivity and reliability of goods and services that the ocean provides to humankind, to maintain ecosystem integrity and stability. Some of the goods produced by the marine ecosystem services are fish harvests, wild plant and animal resources, water, some of the services provided recreation, tourism, breeding and nursery habitats, water transport, carbon sequestration, erosion control, and habitat provision.
The effect of plant integrity and of aboveground/belowground defense signaling on plant resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses is a basic and very important subject of contemporary scientific research.
Profitable, stable crop varieties demonstrate superior traits for all types of observed characteristics in all environmental conditions (seeds, roots, shoots). Good varieties in ecologically different conditions usually have superior features for all types of analyzed traits. It is possible to state on the basis of whole plant metabolism, that plants create integrated system units, which are responsible for resistance to adverse environmental conditions on the basis of evaluation of characteristics of their aboveground parts and their roots. This "unit" (root and shoot) has an influence on the formation of seeds, which, by their quality, may affect the subsequent growth and development of the filial generation, and thus is also resistant to external conditions.
The earliest information about “physiological manifestations of plant integrity” was found in ancient Rome, in the era of Gaius Julius Caesar. Plant integrity, regarding the “functionally coordinated whole plant body”, was first defined on the basis of scientific knowledge in the Czech Republic by Rudolf Dostál (1885–1973). Properties of the roots significantly affect (especially during drought conditions) growth, development in the aboveground part of the plant, and plant seed growth and development. From the opposite viewpoint, it is known that seed traits affect, in the filial generation, root morphology at the beginning of the vegetation period: especially length, surface, depth of root penetration, and also root weight.
The first description of seeds was presented by the Greek scholar Theophrastus (372–282 B.C.). The main development of seed science began in the 19th century [1]. Seed traits are factors, with different levels of importance, which are given by soil and weather conditions during the sowing and time of emergence. The processes and traits of germination and field emergence of a plant are very important for subsequent growth and development. Genotypes with good seed germination under unfavorable conditions develop, in the filial generation, larger root systems in field conditions. However, the most physiological experiments with green parts of plants do not take into account the fact that "half" of the metabolic processes in plants take place in the roots. This part of the plant has an important influence on the shoot traits and seed production.
Darwin expressed that “roots are as brain of plants", i.e. roots can be taken as a similar body to the brain. Currently, it is known that for transmission signals (changes of potential) between roots and the aboveground parts of the plant, plasmodesma are needed. The root system provides transmission information to other parts of the plant (shoots and seeds under development). Information about pathogen attack or physical stress can be transmitted to the other parts of the plant in order to begin as soon as possible the organisms defense – thanks again to plasmodesma. If the stress is repeated again, the reaction of the plant is more rapid, based upon “plant memory”.
In the biology of the seed, especially in seed productions we need to pay attention to plant integrity and adaptability over variable environmental conditions. Adaptability (plasticity) is a feature that allows the plant to return to its original previous physiological state, i.e. to basic metabolic functions, after unusual environmental conditions. Adaptability is fixed on all chromosomes and can be identified in the early stages of growth. Adaptability in a broader sense includes seed quality, especially the quality of sprouting plants, root system adaptability, and issues relating postharvest physiological processes, including the physiological processes during storage. On the basis of entire plant physiology, it is possible to use more than 100 plant characteristics to improve adaptability under variable environmental conditions.
Sampling the root biomass for the evaluation of the relation between above and below ground parts of a plant.
Plant roots in the interior of Kateřinská Cave (Moravian Karst, Czech Republic).
Abiotic stress is a main cause of reduced yield in the case of healthy plants. In this context, many scientific research projects have dealt with the impact of weather and climate change on agricultural crops. They were primarily focused on the impact of stress evaluation – especially drought and air and soil temperature extremes. The main current problems are lack of soil water or soil drought as well as high air temperatures. It has also been proved that there has been a prolongation of the growing season – 15 to 25 days – in central Europe in the last 20 years. This is accompanied also by an increasing probability of risk of vegetation frost. Concrete adaptation measures that would eliminate the impacts of climate change are still not a reality.
Monitoring of meteorological elements is crucial for the precise description of microclimatic conditions and their influence on plant physiological processes. The outcomes of microclimate monitoring provide valuable data for growth, plant protection, yield, and irrigation models as well as a wide range of other applications. Monitoring of air temperature and humidity as well as temperature and soil moisture and solar radiation should be an integral part of all growing trials – pot or field based. It is difficult to find any kind of cultivation experiment where the soil moisture and air temperature do not play important roles.
Globally, agriculture accounts for 80–90% of the freshwater used by humans. In many crop production systems such a water use is unsustainable. An interdisciplinary approach involving agronomical opportunities and plant breeding in order to deliver “more crop per drop” is needed [2]. In the field, the upper limit of water productivity for well-managed, disease-free, water-limited cereal crops is typically 20 kg ha-1 mm-1 (grain yield per water used). Climate development in Europe since 1990 has been unfavorable for cereal yields because of heat stress during grain filling and drought during stem elongation. Drought during the generative phase decreases the number of based spikelets and grains. Another critical period is also flowering, when water shortage impact is worse than during other stages of development. During the stage of seed filling water stress disrupts the process of synthesis and storage of starch and storage proteins. It has been confirmed [3] that early drought reduces the number of offshoots and number of grains per ear. Late drought at the time of the development of leaves and grain filling causes leaves to age and their photosynthetically active surface decreases faster than in irrigated plants. Late drought negatively affects grain size.
Spring cereal yields decreased by 45–75 kg ha-1 due to decreased precipitation of 10 mm [4]. The highest values of water requirement in plants were observed in the stages from shooting to heading, during an intensive increase of biomass. During this period, the plants utilized up to 5 mm of water per day. Seasonal deficits of precipitation during the growing season in central Poland were -145 and -169 mm for barley and wheat, respectively. In the growing season they utilized from 293 to 314 mm of the soil water [5].
Moisture certainty analyses in the Czech Republic (central Europe) proved there was an increase in the driest areas and that drought event probability increased in during the 1961–2010 period [6]. An increase in air temperature above normal months and the loss of normal precipitation months were identified. An increase in temperature and precipitation extremes in the future, across climatic conditions and types of landscapes in the Czech Republic, was found [7]. The occurrence of meteorological drought, as well as the occurrence of hydrological, agronomic, physiological, socio-economic, and other kinds of drought is an important feature of the Czech climate. Lack of soil moisture is expected in the main growing season (approximately 200 days) when the rainfall does not exceed 340 mm. In connection with the stress effects on yield and quality the most important indication for growers is the presence of agronomic drought. This is defined as a state where the amount of moisture in the soil is less than that required by a particular plant. Literature often defines agronomic drought as a decline in soil moisture below the permanent wilting point (i.e., approximately -1.5 MPa) which stops water uptake and, subsequently, plants growing. It has been claimed [8] that the proportion of usable water – not reducing yields – varies according to crop type and stage of development between 45% and 75% of the available water holding capacity (AWHC). [9] use soil moisture in the root zone at 65% AWHC as a limiting value for barley before transpiration is reduced.
The availability of soil water, together with global radiation belong to the main agrometeorological elements which determine the transpiration performance of plants. Global radiation has a primary effect on the transpiration of plants, however, in the case of drought stress occurrence, one may expect a major influence to be played by soil moisture on the course of transpiration. A crop’s reaction to a decrease in soil water capacity is different for different crop species. The high evapotranspiration requirements of the environment may cause a loss of soil water through excessive transpiration in non-sensitive plants.
Water shortage–induced stress often goes hand in hand with temperature stress. Transpiration is the main mechanism a plant has to protect itself against overheating. Leaf temperature increases with increase in air temperature. Effective use of water implies maximal soil moisture capture for transpiration, which also involves reduced non-stomatal transpiration and minimal water loss by soil evapotranspiration.
The dependence of maize transpiration on air temperature, air humidity, solar radiation, soil moisture, wind speed, and leaf temperature were quantified [10]. Significant relationships between transpiration, global radiation, and air temperature were found. Conclusive dependence of transpiration on leaf surface temperature and wind speed was found (Fig. 3–6). Transpiration in maize plants was significantly influenced by soil moisture under moderate and severe drought stress. The dependence of transpiration on meteorological elements decreased with increasing deficiency of water. A correlation between transpiration and plant dry matter weight, plant height, and weight of corn cob was found. These results will be utilized in an effort to make the calculations of evapotranspiration in computing models more accurate.
Breeding for maximal soil moisture capture for transpiration is therefore the most important target for yield improvement under drought stress. Conclusions have been made [11] that differences in the effective use of water expressed as different yields under the same conditions can be partly attributed to different root system sizes (RSS) (probably due to deeper rooting) and can be improved by breeding. A value of 55% AWHC [12] has been suggested as a qualitative and not stressful value for all growth phases except at the beginning of flowering (45%) and plant maturation.
Course of sap flow (red line; kg h-1) and its dependence on air temperature change (black line; °C).
Course of sap flow (red line; kg h-1) and its dependence on leaf surface temperature changes (black line; °C).
Course of sap flow (red line; kg h-1) its dependence on global solar radiation intensity (black line; W m-2).
Course of sap flow (red line; kg h-1) and its dependence on wind speed (black line; m s-1).
The amount of usable soil water was calculated using the agrometeorological model AVISO at 21 experimental sites for the period 1975–2007 (% AWHC) [13]. A decrease in usable soil water (% AWHC decrease up to 24%) in a growing season was observed at 20 localities in the long-term trend. Statistically significant relationships were found between grain yield of spring barley and level of AWHC (% AWHC). The optimum range for the amount of usable soil water for the production of spring barley (65%–75% AWHC) was defined by long-term calculations of soil water in combination with a series of yield trials (Fig. 7).
Relationship between the soil water supply (% AWHC) and yield of spring barley grain.
Decreasing winter precipitation, increasing winter air temperatures, and increasing levels of CO2 in atmosphere were forecast as global climate changes for central Europe. The negative effects of water stress were partially compensated for by elevated CO2 concentration. Warmer winters could lead to northward expansion of the areas suitable for cropping. However, for crops with a determinate growth habit (e.g. cereals) acceleration of development under warmer conditions could reduce the time available for growth before maturity thereby tending to reduce grain yield. Combining these effects with the fertilizing effect of increasing atmospheric CO2 concentration, yield of wheat could be 30%–55% higher if there is enough water [14]. For non-determinate crops (e.g. root crops) the warmer climate would extend the growing season. However, there is the possibility that the more frequent, damagingly high summer temperature events could reduce yields of both cereal and root crops. Water can be limiting not only due to global warming but also due to higher yields caused by new varieties and by higher levels of agronomic inputs. Breeding for greater RSS could be therefore one of the strategies for avoiding the impact of water stress. For example, the grain yield of winter wheat varieties in dry years is generally positively correlated with RSS. In a dry year, the varieties that showed the greatest difference in RSS were found to exhibit a yield difference of 860 kg ha-1, approximately translating to an additional use of 15 mm of subsoil water [11].
Seedling establishment is critical for production especially in stressed environments. The methods for the evaluation of seed germination are designed to have high levels of reproducibility and reliability; but worse than optimal conditions are often encountered in the field. For example, the germination percentage of barley (
Seed quality is of increasing importance as a result of climate development. Thus, seed vigor with regard to tolerance to drought and low temperatures as another potentially selectable trait which can be evaluated. The significance of this trait was documented by [17], who reported that an increase in the mean germination time due to poor seed vigor resulted in a significant loss in grain yield. The largest effect was found for winter wheat in which an increase in the mean germination time from 2.1 days to 3.6 days resulted in a relative loss in grain yield of 16%. It is possible to conclude, that increasing the sowing rates of low-vigor seed lots did not secure an optimal grain yield.
High seed quality may be particularly important in low-input agriculture because poor early performance is not as readily compensated for later on by mineral fertilisers and pesticides as it is in conventional agriculture. Furthermore, quality and seed vigor are important factors for competitiveness against weeds: the seeds of low vigor resulted in a perceptible increase in weed biomass and decrease in crop yield.
Various seed germination tests, under the suboptimal conditions of temperature, oxygenation, and water potential of the medium, or undergoing accelerated ageing and controlled deterioration allows for the sensitive differentiation between seed lots. Germination and vigor also depends on multiple biochemical and molecular variables, and its characterization is expected to provide new markers of seed quality that can be used in breeding programmes.
Significant correlations between field emergence and laboratory tests of vigor have been published [18, 19, 20]. Higher precipitation shortly before the harvest decreased the seed vigor of spring barley significantly [21, 22]. Higher air temperatures during this period and during the period April–July increased vigor significantly. Seed germination and vigor were related to the parameters that are important for malting. The germination capacity of all lines was higher than their vigor and germination energy: 2.9% higher than vigor and 4.6% higher than the germination energy on average. This finding has confirmed the opinions of many authors who have reported that seed performance under optimal conditions is often higher in comparison to the seed performance in vigor experiments under stress and field conditions. Moreover, it has been confirmed that samples of the same germination capacity may have different vigor and storage potential.
The influence of late-terminal drought stress during grain filling on the germination and vigor of barley seeds has been studied [23]. Stress during the grain-filling stage had no effect on the standard germination test, but it obviously decreased the vigor of the seeds. The results indicate the positive influence of high air temperature during ripening and negative influence of high precipitation on the seed vigor.
The seed vigor of soybean, as evaluated as the mean percentage accelerated ageing rate, can be improved by breeding, whereas high yields were maintained because of the predominance of the general combined effects of both the seed vigor and yield [24]. The seed vigor, as evaluated by the cold test, showed estimates of the genetic response to selection in flax [25]. The three key traits of seed vigor in
Our previous results [21] indicate the possibility of successful selection for higher seed vigor as an important factor of agronomic and malting quality, even in good years (vigor 93–95%), for the traits given above. However, in the years with generally much lower vigor (61–86%), the success could be more responsive because the effect of the variety prevailed over the effect of the environment for bad years. The vigor of 12 combinations from two locations was compared with vigor of their parents. Significant correlation was found between the vigor of the mothers and their progenies (
A lower seed vigor was correlated with a high occurrence of fungi (as indicated by ergosterol assays) and to a lower percentage of field emergence [27]. Vigor was also related to bread quality [28]. Grain samples with 80–90% vigor produced the greatest bread volume. Grain with vigor below or above this range produced less voluminous loafs of bread. High-quality varieties had a higher content of total polyphenols than did varieties of lower quality and the polyphenol content was correlated to vigor.
Cultivars of wheat with enhanced early vigor are still not commercially available.
Contemporary knowledge confirms the possibility of selection for the root system and stress root tolerance on the basis of seedling stress tolerance, i.e. at time of the sprouting. It is possible also to evaluate characteristics of seeds and seedlings, i.e. provide selection, after plant hybridization of the plants on the basis of the seed and seedling traits, for seed quality an also classic selection in plant breeding.
Plants have developed different root system size (=RSS) during evolution and breeding. In dry and low levels of nutrients in the soil environments a greater RSS is found enabling plants to be more efficient with their use of water and nutrients from lower soil layers. Varieties of cereals with greater RSS better use soil water and nutrients in dry environments than varieties with smaller RSS. Relations between RSS and yield level, variation, and quality should be studied in a broader range of environments in central Europe for agricultural crops. However, yield is a polygenic trait and its level cannot be therefore explained by variation in only one factor (e.g. RSS). The level is limited primarily by the factor in minimum as described by Justus von Liebig. During vegetation, further limits occur either at different or similar times.
The use of natural resources of agricultural and forest ecosystems is much dependent on the functioning of plant roots. These provide several goods and services to society in the forms of, e.g., yield production, carbon sequestration, avoidance of nutrient release from the soil, alleviation of floods, and energy production. The functioning of plant roots is much less well known than that of the shoots, mostly due to methodological reasons. Only special new technology allows us to address the whole root systems quantitatively. Roots are exposed to several stresses (e.g. water stress by drought, soil frost, hypoxia, water shortage by competition) during their lifetime which may decline their capability to provide goods and services. This is especially the case for trees whose lifespan ranges from tens to hundreds of years. Soil conditions will change with climate warming in many locations, linked to a change in precipitation in summer and winter seasons. Therefore, knowledge of the limits for stress tolerance of the roots of herbaceous and woody plants is demanded for future projections.
The “Green Revolution” created dwarf varieties capable of responding to higher fertilizer inputs without lodging, but failed to reach resource-poor farmers. Crossing early green-revolution wheat, with an
The effect of water and nutrient application on yield has led to the overuse of these practices in the last decades. This misuse of irrigation and fertilizers is no longer sustainable, given the economic and environmental costs. Transpiration stream largely determines the availability of the mineral N in the rhizosphere. This makes our poor estimate of root densities a major obstacle to any precise assessment of nitrogen availability in fertilized crops. A larger investment by the crop in fine roots at depth in the soil, and less proliferation of roots in surface layers, would improve yields by accessing extra resources. The economic return on investment in roots for water capture was twice the investment for nitrogen capture. An early and more extensive horizontal growth of wheat roots in the 0.2–0.7-m layer of the soil profile in glasshouses was found to improve substantially the uptake of N by vigorous lines [31]. There has been a long-standing interest in varietal differences in the uptake of nutrients, especially of N and P, but progress has been slow in translating this into information that can be used in breeding. Root systems limit plant breeding [32].
Breeding for RSS as a strategy for improving yield stability and crop productivity under dry conditions however is still largely ignored in the breeding process, when it is not the breeding aim as such, e.g. for root crops like sugar beet. The main reason for this shortcoming in breeding for drought tolerance is the lack of a suitable method for evaluation of RSS. An improvement in water use is relevant when soil water remains available at maturity or when deep-rooted genotypes access water in the soil profile that is normally unavailable. At moderate drought, productivity of cereals can be improved by a more effective use of available water, i.e. by increasing the plants access to a higher soil volume by a deeper root system and eventually an increased rooting density in deeper soil. Varieties with a deep root system (Fig. 8) should have more opened stomata to cool the plants by transpiration, and therefore improve their tolerance to high temperatures [33].
Vertical distribution of root length density (RLD) in spring barley varieties within the soil profile (Hrubčice, Czech Republic, 2012).
Better use of nutrients, including water, due to greater RSS, means:
lower the contamination of the environment by them, i.e. lowering the content of nitrates, phosphates, etc. in groundwater, rivers, and seas;
a higher adaptability to some stresses during plant growth and development, e.g. limited water, heat, and nutrients;
avoidance of water shortage caused by a lowering of the water table in the soil;
a better recovery after damage by the limited stresses and after disease and pest attack;
higher yields when other growing conditions are not limiting. However, when growing conditions are limiting and water and nutrients are not available, a greater RSS could be a disadvantage;
suitability for ecological and/or low-input farming; and
lower costs for crop production.
Serious environmental impacts were associated with an enrichment of surface water and groundwater by nitrogen and phosphorus. Increased intensity of livestock rearing depends in Europe in particular on large amounts of imports of nutrients – rich feedstuff from countries outside Europe. In specific areas this has led to nutrient surpluses, which have contributed to problems such as eutrophication.
There are a number of works that assess interspecies or intervariety differences in the aboveground biomass production of crops. Only a small number of authors deal with quantitative and qualitative assessment of underground biomass in relation to the dynamics of nitrogen in soil. An appropriate measure for the use of nitrate nitrogen from the soil in the autumn is the inclusion of cover crops into crop rotation. Field trials [34, 35] were executed to evaluate RSS in eight varieties of white mustard and five varieties of
The effect of drought stress on the monitored traits of the root system and aboveground biomass of spring barley (
RSS was one of the selection criteria in the breeding for dinitrogen fixation. Breeding of varieties with greater RSS (alfalfa Zuzana), and greater RSS and higher dinitrogen fixation (alfalfa Nitro, white clover Nivel) has been successful [37].
In cereals, root densities of 1.0–1.5 cm cm-3 are needed to extract plant available water from the soil, e.g. [38, 39]. Maize plants rarely achieve this below 70 cm, but values of 3–5 cm cm-3 or more are common in the top 30 cm of soil. For better exploitation of available water, a better distribution of roots in the soil profile is preferable to partitioning more dry matter to roots [40]. A field trial with selected varieties of spring barley has been realized [36]. For five varieties RSS, its vertical distribution in the soil profile layers up to a 60-cm depth, and grain yield were evaluated. The impact of locality, year, and variety on root system attributes was quantified. Highest values of root length density (RLD) were determined in the layer between 0 cm and 10 cm (Figure 8). A tendency to increase RLD in both research localities and in most varieties in the layer between 40cm and to 60 cm was detected. A significant dependency of grain yield on RLD was only determined in the middle layers of the soil profile. In wet years a significant negative correlation was determined.
The RSS has been found to be a genetic trait, and some specific genes have been observed to control this property. In wild barley, the gene Hsdr4, involved in water-stress tolerance, was located on chromosome 3H near sdw1. This was identified as a marker of QTL for great RSS [41]. Therefore, the RSS and drought tolerance per se maybe linked.
The isolation of intact living root systems from soil in the field has not yet been published and seems impossible. This difficulty is evidenced in many observations. Biomass estimates from minirhizotrons indicate that the <0.25 mm diameter roots (Fig. 9) account for nearly 95% of the total root length [42]. Root separation using a sieve with a 0.5-mm mesh screen led to a marked underestimation of root length density and root biomass. Values up to three times higher were observed when using a 0.2-mm mesh screen in comparison to a 0.5-mm screen [43]. Ex situ methods are expensive and connected with relatively high experimental error. More progressive are in situ methods, in particular use of electric capacitance. Comparison of this method with the ex situ soil-core method found a good correlation. The electric capacitance can be therefore recommended as a quick and cheap method, which enables repeated evaluation of vegetation and retains the evaluated plants until harvest.
The capability “to see” the roots in the soil plays a key role in the evaluation of the potential of herbaceous and woody plants to produce goods and services for society and in the detection of the stress thresholds of roots. From a functional point of view, fine roots (Fig. 9) are the most important for plants. Thus, a method that gives a measure of the root surface area for absorbing water and nutrients would be valuable and it would offer wide applications for users of the natural resources of plant/forest ecosystems.
Measurement of the finest structures of a root system is possible using the method of electrical capacitance.
Wheat (
Regression relationship of the wheat grain yield on RSS as averaged from three locations (published in [
The study [45] introduces the evaluation of RSS for the breeding of spring barley, in particular for drought tolerance. The aim of this study was to present the method of RSS evaluation and show it in practical use, in particular in relation to drought tolerance. The varieties of spring barley were evaluated for RSS by its electrical capacity. The RSS was compared with the grain yield and grain quality of the varieties at 7–19 stations each year. Varieties with a greater RSS had a significantly higher yield in the dry part of the year. Varieties with a greater RSS had significantly higher contents of starch, saccharide extracts, and malt extracts, as well as higher yields of protein and starch in dry environments. It can be concluded that a small RSS is related to a low grain yield and malt quality in dry environments, even in genetically diverse varieties.
The root is the most sensitive organ of the plant. On the left: tree sample
The relevance and response to selection for greater RSS of spring barley in field conditions has been studied [46]. The effect of selection in 12 barley populations developed by mutual crossing of 4 parents in the F3 generation as a response to the selection in the preceding generation F2, for great and small RSS was evaluated. The selection was effective. The average difference in the parental segregating generation was +40 and -43%, and in progeny +4 and -2%, respectively. Grain yield responded two times more to the selection (plants with a root size greater by 3.9% had higher yield of 8.1%). Root size was found to be related to grain yield. Some varieties donated greater, some smaller roots into progeny. It was shown that the selection for RSS was effective and responsive (more for greater than for smaller roots) in a similar way as for grain yield and can be therefore used in practical breeding.
Plant integrity looks like as a “very easy and expanded topic,” but the reality is very different. “Thanks” to the rigid specialization of scientists, we are losing a holistic view of plants. It is necessary to sense a plant in its entire complexity – both roots and shoots, as well as across their life cycles. Complex research, i.e. the connection of biology, plant nutrition, ecology, and other disciplines, is hardly observable in most scientific work. Only such an integrated approach can allow us to reach the correct interpretations for experimental results [47–54]. For example, when interaction of three or more stressors exists, there can be a lower or higher effect of stressors (compensated through the course of metabolism, etc.). The reason is the influence of individual factors on metabolism and their possible antagonistic influences. Stressors always have pleiotropic effects on a plant, and influence on many genes. Therefore, it is very important to test the adaptability of new breeding materials by utilizing extreme conditions in more locations, such as in ICARDA (The International Center for Agriculture Research in the Dry Areas) and CIMMYT (International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center) in Mexico [54, 55].
Currently, research is booming for the use of model, standard plants (
There is also other problem. The differences between biological and agricultural research has increased in many cases. This phenomenon can also be observed in the relationship between contemporary agricultural research and its practical applications. Narrow research specialization predominates strongly, and the differences between biological and agricultural research has increased in many research areas. There is a relatively significant lack of new methods for the analysis of this problem. To be honest, lot of different types of internal plant signals, i.e., the transport of information in plant metabolism and their interconnection, memory of plants, and importance of plant neurobiology is also neglected [56].
Productive genotypes have a more efficient metabolic activity throughout all vegetation, with faster spring root growth and better plant cover affecting their subsequent growth and development. In our experiments, the influence of provenance was greater than that of variety (this is not a rule, it may be the opposite due to differences between varieties and locations at each experiment). Provenance has a very significant influence on the physiological characteristics of seeds, an even greater influence than seed weight and germination. The results confirm the importance of quality seeds to the cultivation of field crops and especially highlights the importance of plant integrity [57–62]. For example, analysis of the effect of variety and provenance of oilseed rape seeds (
There are several ways to improve the resistance and tolerance (adaptability) of plants to the variable environmental stress conditions with regard to the basis of the whole plant physiology.
The last physiological studies on the rape plant integrity and plasticity have shown, that the crop “responds” to stressors by more than 100 of currently known and measured physiological traits (as mentioned in the previous section of this chapter).There is possibility to use this phenomenon in plant breeding. Selected basic traits of seeds as a vigor, germination percentage, emergence, and stress tolerance of germinated seeds to high and low temperatures has significant influence on the yield of winter oilseed rape varieties [57–63], see below. These problems require more detailed analysis (64–67). Adaptable varieties have a wider possibility for growth and development in field conditions. Unfortunately, the current system of approving new varieties in many European countries is not heading in the direction of adaptable varieties, but rather in the direction of morphological homogeneity of the genetic material.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Californium | \n\t\t\tFrance | \n\t\t\tMonsanto SAS | \n\t\t
Viking | \n\t\t\tGermany | \n\t\t\tNPZ (Norddeutsche Pflanzenzucht) | \n\t\t
Navajo | \n\t\t\tGreat Britain | \n\t\t\tCPB Twyford Ltd | \n\t\t
OP 4947/07 | \n\t\t\tCzech Republic | \n\t\t\tOseva PRO, s.r.o. | \n\t\t
Cadeli | \n\t\t\tFrance | \n\t\t\tMonsanto SAS | \n\t\t
Grizzly | \n\t\t\tFrance | \n\t\t\tSociété RAGT 2n | \n\t\t
ČŽL 20 | \n\t\t\tChina | \n\t\t\tBreeding material | \n\t\t
Labrador | \n\t\t\tFrance | \n\t\t\tSCA Adrien Momont et Fils | \n\t\t
Oil rapeseed cultivars at additional tests
On the basis of laboratory additional tests with the selected cultivars (Tab. 1) the following results supporting the importance of the integrity of plants were obtained:
It is possible to eliminate, at the seed level, genotypes (initial breeding materials and cultivars) which do not tolerate extreme temperature and temperature changes during germination, have low water use efficiency, and are intolerant to abiotic stresses.
It was confirmed that these genotypes also have poor field emergence and initial growth of roots with implications for a further vegetation period, mainly for overwintering and spring regeneration which has influence on the yield.
This test method represents a tool for the screening of genetic resources with resistance to abiotic stress and this technology process is acceptable also for other crops.
Presented results were confirmed in the other rapeseed varieties (36 cultivars). Important obtained relationships are given in Tab. 2.
Seed germination after exposure to cold temperatures for three days after the saturation of seeds by water – simulating the impact of early frosts (20°C/12 hr a day, and -3ºC/12 hr a night) | \n\t\t\t+0.56** | \n\t\t
Seed germination after exposure to high temperatures for three days after the saturation of seeds by water – simulating the impact of high temperature (30°C/12 hr a day, and 20ºC/12 hr a night) | \n\t\t\t+0.47* | \n\t\t
Influence of the locality (provenance) | \n\t\t\t+0.78** | \n\t\t
Influence of the cultivar | \n\t\t\t+0.68** | \n\t\t
Efficiency of water utilization (water content required for germination) at standard conditions during sprouting | \n\t\t\t+0.35* | \n\t\t
Efficiency of water utilization at high-temperature conditions during sprouting | \n\t\t\t+0.88** | \n\t\t
Efficiency of water utilization at low-temperature conditions during sprouting | \n\t\t\t+0.25 | \n\t\t
Correlation coefficients: seed physiological traits and the yield.
Note: Stress tolerant seeds at time of sprouting are one of the lot of guarantors of the of quality crops establishment during growth and development and for winter survival.
**Statistical significance at 1%; *Statistical significance at 5%
However, one very important problem in plant experiments remains. There is the possibility to select pairs of cultivars with different traits and for simplification from the same latitude it is possible to obtain many conclusions. In this case there is a random drift of results. If we use large groups of cultivars it is possible to obtain, for different physiological types, common and repeatable conclusions.
The cultivars used for scientific experiments are not often appropriate for the analysed target. Shortly: There is in lot of “physiological experiments“ with comparison of only two contrasting genotypes (varieties). It is very little number for finding general dependencies. (Then there plays the role random drift as mentioned). This type of scientific work has both physiological and genetic aspects, logical reasoning during the writing of scientific articles, and is at a high level; we can read a productive scientific article, but the practical application of the results for plant production and breeding then becomes impossible. It is not possible to draw general conclusions based on the analysis of two genotypes especially if whole plant physiology is important to the solution of the problem.
It is possible to provide selection for cultivar resistance to stress already at the seed germination stage and on the quality of plant root systems. Quality of the embryonic roots is important for the following growth and root development. Why does this possibility exists? The answer is because in the juvenile phase and in later stages, the same genotype is still active.
The effect of plant integrity and of aboveground–belowground defense signaling on plant resistance against abiotic stresses (and also pathogens) is important and a relatively new subject of scientific research. Biochemical analysis has unequivocally proven that plant defense responses to stress and pathogen infection differ between whole intact plants and detached plant parts (leaves, roots, stems, etc.). Therefore, the question arises – which type of scientific work will reflect reality more realistically? It is possible to conclude that it is research on the basis of plant integrity.
This work was supported by the project National Agency for Agricultural Research (NAZV) no. QJ1510098 “New breeding lines of winter wheat for a more efficient use of inputs and with higher stress resistance” and by project of Ministry of Agriculture of the Czech Republic no. MZe RO0414.
Hysterectomy is one of the most commonly performed surgeries in the United States. In fact, Merrill et al. reported a 45% lifetime risk of hysterectomy [1] with an overall rate of 5.4 per 1000 women per year. The majority of hysterectomies are performed for benign gynecologic conditions—that is, the presence of fibroids. Other indications include abnormal uterine bleeding, uterovaginal prolapse, and pelvic pain. Hysterectomy can be performed via multiple routes—abdominally, laparoscopically (including robotic approach), or vaginally. Vaginal and laparoscopic procedures are considered minimally invasive surgical approaches based on the ability to avoid a large abdominal incision. These routes of hysterectomy are associated with shortened hospitalization and postoperative recovery when compared to the abdominal approach. As a result, analysis of U.S. surgical data demonstrates evolving practice patterns with an increase in minimally invasive hysterectomies and a decrease in abdominal hysterectomies [2, 3].
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention defines surgical site infection (SSI) as an infection that occurs after surgery near the surgical site within 30 days following surgery or 90 days where an implant is involved. They can range from superficial infections involving skin, or more serious infections involving tissues underneath the skin, organs, or implanted materials. As such, SSI is classified as superficial, deep, or organ/space. The CDC monitors SSI via the National Healthcare Safety Network with reported SSI rates of 1.7% and 0.9% after abdominal and vaginal hysterectomy respectively [4].
In a retrospective cohort study of 23,366 patients undergoing laparoscopic and abdominal hysterectomy between the years 2005 and 2011, 783 (3%) developed a surgical site infection. The majority of these were wound infections with approximately ¼ of cases being infections of the organ space which represents 0.7% of the entire cohort [5]. A more recent large cohort study examining patients between the years 2012 and 2015 demonstrated a 2% incidence of postoperative infection after hysterectomy [6]. When stratified between abdominal versus minimally invasive approaches, the incidence of SSI in the abdominal hysterectomy group exceeded 1%, while the incidences in the other groups were 0.2–0.3% [7, 8, 9].
It is well known that postoperative infections are associated with increased patient morbidity and mortality, and may result in additional costs, extended hospital stays, and prolonged antibiotic use. On average, patients who had an SSI following hysterectomy incur twice the cost of care of their counterparts who did not have an SSI. In a study examining the clinical and economic burden of surgical site infection following hysterectomy, the highest cost owing to SSI ($19,203; 95% CI 17,260–21,365) was for abdominal hysterectomy. In addition, those who had SSI had a mean length of stay (LOS) that was between three and fivefold the LOS of those who did not have an SSI irrespective of surgical approach [10]. SSI following index surgery is also associated with a significantly greater percentage of hospital readmissions. Surgical site infections after hysterectomy have serious implications on patient care and healthcare as a whole. This chapter will review the current literature on surgical site infection (SSI) after hysterectomy for benign indications and address various methods of prevention and treatment.
There are a variety of factors that influence the route of hysterectomy including informed patient preference, accessibility of the uterus, extent of extrauterine disease, size and shape of the vagina and uterus, concurrent procedures, available hospital technology and support, the nature of the case
Evidence supports that the vaginal approach is associated with better outcomes when compared with other approaches to hysterectomy. A Cochrane review analyzing 47 randomized control trials with a total of 5,102 women determined that vaginal hysterectomy resulted in quicker return to normal activity when compared to abdominal hysterectomy. There was no difference in satisfaction, quality of life, and surgical complications. Similarly, laparoscopic hysterectomy also resulted in more rapid recovery, fewer febrile episodes, and lower incidence of SSI when compared to the abdominal approach [12]. In this systematic review, there were no advantages of laparoscopic over vaginal hysterectomy. In addition, the laparoscopic approach was associated with longer operating times and increased rates of urinary tract injuries [13]. As a result, a vaginal approach continues to be the preferred route of hysterectomy.
When it is not feasible to perform a vaginal hysterectomy, a surgeon must choose between a laparoscopic or an open abdominal approach. A Cochrane review demonstrated faster return to normal activity, shorter hospital stay, fewer infections, and improved quality of life in patients undergoing laparoscopic versus abdominal hysterectomy. However, operating times were longer with higher rates of lower urinary tract (bladder and ureter) injuries in the laparoscopy group [13].
When stratified by the type of hysterectomy
When stratified into various forms of laparoscopic hysterectomy including robotic hysterectomy, laparoscopic-assisted vaginal hysterectomy, and single-port hysterectomy, the authors concluded that more research was needed to determine if there is in fact, a benefit over conventional laparoscopic approaches. The largest study available on single port laparoscopy in gynecology was a retrospective study from Cleveland Clinic reviewing a total of 908 cases. The authors concluded that single port access was safe and feasible in gynecologic surgery inclusive of both malignant and premalignant conditions with a low rate of adverse outcomes. Perhaps the most prevalent adverse outcome is an increased risk of incisional hernia with a rate of 5.5% [15, 16]. Well-designed studies that compare outcomes of alternative hysterectomy routes (robotic, laparoscopic assisted vaginal, and single-port) are needed to determine if patients may benefit from these other approaches.
Although minimally invasive routes to hysterectomy remain the preferred approach, open abdominal hysterectomy is still an important surgical option for some patients. Open abdominal hysterectomy may become necessary in a variety of clinical scenarios including failure of to maintain a minimally invasive approach.
Preoperative medical optimization is critically important in risk reduction for SSI prior to hysterectomy. Eliminating particular risk factors for SSI contributes vastly to perioperative care. This includes taking an in-depth medical history, performing a comprehensive physical exam, and addressing the patient’s medical comorbidities. Patients should be counseled on modifiable and nonmodifiable risk factors such as smoking status, diabetes stabilization, anatomic anomalies, renal comorbidities, hydrosalpinx, endometrioma, prior laparotomy, and untreated pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) or bacterial vaginosis [17, 18, 19, 20]. Optimal diabetes control is critical in preventing postoperative SSI with both spot glucose levels ≤200 mg/dl and hemoglobin A1C levels below 8.5–9.0% [21, 22].
Preoperative screening for genital tract infections is generally not necessary; however, certain types of infections are clinically important prior to hysterectomy. It has been well established that bacterial vaginosis (BV) is associated with an increased risk of postoperative cuff cellulitis and subsequent pelvic abscess formation after hysterectomy [23]. Treatment of BV prior to scheduled hysterectomy will decrease this risk.
Practicing safe, high-quality, evidence-based operating room care begins first with accurate identification of the patient, surgical site, and procedure.
In an AAGL white paper, “Enhanced Recovery and Surgical Optimization Protocol for Minimally Invasive Gynecologic Surgery”, infection prophylaxis can be achieved via the implementation of SSI prevention bundles [24]. Quality or safety bundles provide a framework for the implementation of evidence-based practices. They have been validated across multiple disciplines to actually decrease SSI [25, 26, 27, 28]. The ACOG Council on Patient Safety in Women’s Health Care has published a consensus bundle on prevention of SSI prior to gynecologic surgery. This provides a framework for hospitals to develop, implement, and practice evidence-based prevention of SSIs [29].
An example of a hysterectomy bundle is as follows:
The degree of contamination at the time of surgery is classified using the National Healthcare Safety Network (NHSN) wound class. Hysterectomy is a clean-contaminated procedure and as a result, is unavoidably associated with a relatively higher risk of infection as the procedure breaches the genital tract. Common sites of infection after hysterectomy include the abdominal wall, the vaginal cuff, bladder, and pelvic floor. Related complications include pelvic abscess or infected hematoma and sepsis. A patient’s individual susceptibility to infection depends on a variety of factors including bacterial virulence, extent of surgery-related tissue trauma and fluid collection, the effectiveness of the patient’s immune system, age, nutritional status, presence of diabetes, smoking, coexistent infection or colonization with microorganisms. Perhaps the most important factors in SSI prevention in hysterectomy are timely administration of appropriate preoperative antibiotics and meticulous surgical technique. Use of β-lactam alternatives in patients who do not report an anaphylactic reaction can lead to increased antimicrobial resistance. In fact, a retrospective cohort study involving over 21,000 women undergoing hysterectomy demonstrated that the use of standard β-lactam antibiotics had a lower risk of SSI compared to those who received an alternative regimen [23]. Thus, we advise judicious use of β-lactam alternatives for patients with a history of IgE-mediated penicillin hypersensitivity. The most common organisms isolated from vaginal cuff infections are anaerobes. In a large retrospective cohort study with over 18,000 patients undergoing hysterectomy of any type, those receiving cefazolin or a second-generation cephalosporin have more than double the SSI risk compared with those receiving combined treatment with cefazolin and metronidazole [25]. This is likely related to enhanced anaerobic coverage with the addition of metronidazole. We recommend that all patients undergoing hysterectomy receive metronidazole in addition to the standard intraoperative antibiotics.
The CDC also advises that the entire body be cleansed with either soap or antiseptic the night prior to the procedure. Intraoperatively, alcohol-based chlorhexidine is more effective for skin preparation when compared to iodine solutions [30, 31]. With regards to vaginal preparation, either povidone-iodine or chlorhexidine gluconate (4%) with a low concentration of isopropyl alcohol is acceptable, as both significantly reduce rates of postoperative infectious morbidity [32].
In general, our practice will have patients return for short-term postoperative evaluation within 2 weeks following their hysterectomy. Patients are counseled to maintain pelvic rest for a minimum of 8 weeks. Postoperative blood and other secretions from the vaginal cuff may raise the vaginal pH and as a result, increase the risk of bacterial vaginosis. Many patients with vaginal cuff infections present more than 2 weeks following hysterectomy, which suggests a late ascending spread of vaginal microorganisms. As a result, our patients return for a second postoperative appointment and vaginal cuff check approximately 4–6 weeks after their hysterectomy.
Gynecological surgical site infections are polymicrobial with a mix of both anaerobic and aerobic infections. Common pathogens contain gram-negative bacilli, enterococci, streptococci, and anaerobes
Wound exploration and debridement are pillars in the management of superficial and deep-incisional SSIs. This includes not only opening the wound, debridement of necrotic and devitalized tissue, but also involves the culture of the wound to allow for speciation of potential pathogens to assist in antibiotic therapy.
The mortality and morbidity of organ/space SSI tend to be higher than superficial or deep SSI. The primary objective in management is to achieve source control. Computed tomography and ultrasound are employed to guide placement of closed suction percutaneous drains into abscess collections when feasible. The initial approach in treatment of post-hysterectomy pelvic abscess depends on three factors: (1) hemodynamic stability, (2) abscess size, and (3) abscess location. Hemodynamically unstable patients require prompt surgical intervention and intensive care monitoring.
Patients who are hemodynamically stable with a post-hysterectomy pelvic abscess should be treated empirically with parenteral broad-spectrum antibiotics. Initial antimicrobial regimens can be tailored to subsequent culture and sensitivity results. If the patient does not respond within 48–72 hours, percutaneous drainage or infectious disease consultation may be warranted. An argument can be made for earlier percutaneous drainage. In fact, a systematic review comparing the success rates of 3 modalities of minimally invasive management of tubo-ovarian abscesses—laparoscopy, ultrasound-guided drainage and computed tomography-guided drainage
Treatment failure is defined as persistent fever, leukocytosis, pain or lack of abscess resolution. Risk factors include residual fluid collection after drainage and increasing patient age. Surgical management is recommended at this time.
The most common reason for unplanned readmission after surgery is surgical site infection. SSIs are associated with increased morbidity, mortality, transfer to an intensive care setting, prolonged hospitalization, hospital readmission, and increased healthcare costs. In addition, the development of SSI negatively impacts patient experience.
The majority of postoperative issues can be anticipated and prevented preoperatively. Systematically addressing these issues at the preoperative evaluation may result in greater patient satisfaction and fewer complications. Thus, prevention of SSI after hysterectomy begins with a calculation of perioperative risk followed by addressing those risk factors prior to the procedure. Intraoperative measures aimed at SSI prevention include the implementation of evidence-based SSI prevention bundles, proper administration of intraoperative antibiotic prophylaxis, and proper skin/vaginal preparation. Postoperatively, hysterectomy patients should be followed closely.
Thanks to the faculty, residents, fellows, and medical students of the Zucker School of Medicine.
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\\n\\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\\n\\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\\n\\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\\n\\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\\n\\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\\n\\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\\n\\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\\n\\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\\n\\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\\n\\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\\n\\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\\n\\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\\n\\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'A significant number of working papers, early drafts, and similar work in progress are openly shared online between members of the scientific community. It has become common to announce one’s own research on a personal website or a blog to gather comments and suggestions from other researchers. Such works and online postings are, indeed, published in the sense that they are made publicly available. However, this does not mean that if submitted for publication by IntechOpen they are not original works. We differentiate between reviewed and non-reviewed works when determining whether a work is original and has been published in a scholarly sense or not.
\n\nThe significance of Peer Review cannot be overstated when it comes to defining, in our terms, what constitutes a published scientific work. Peer Review is widely considered to be the cornerstone of modern publishing processes and the key value-adding contribution to a scholarly manuscript that a publisher can make.
\n\nOther than the issue of originality, research misconduct is another major issue that all publishers have to address. IntechOpen’s Retraction & Correction Policy and various publication ethics guidelines identify both redundant publication and (self)plagiarism to fall within the definition of research misconduct, thus constituting grounds for rejection or the issue of a Retraction if the work has already been published.
\n\nIn order to facilitate the tracking of a manuscript’s publishing history and its development from its earliest draft to the manuscript submitted, we encourage Authors to disclose any instances of a manuscript’s prior publication, whether it be through a conference presentation, a newspaper article, a working paper publicly available in a repository or a blog post.
\n\nA note to the Academic Editor containing detailed information about a submitted manuscript’s previous public availability is the preferred means of reporting prior publication. This helps us determine if there are any earlier versions of a manuscript that should be disclosed to our readers or if any of those earlier versions should be cited and listed in a manuscript’s references.
\n\nSome basic information about the editorial treatment of different varieties of prior publication is laid out below:
\n\n1. CONFERENCE PAPERS & PRESENTATIONS
\n\nGiven that conference papers and presentations generally pass through some sort of peer or editorial review, we consider them to be published in the accepted scholarly sense, particularly if they are published as a part of conference proceedings.
\n\nAll submitted manuscripts originating from a previously published conference paper must contain at least 50% of new original content to be accepted for review and considered for publication.
\n\nAuthors are required to report any links their manuscript might have with their earlier conference papers and presentations in a note to the Academic Editor, as well as in the manuscript itself. Additionally, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the publisher of their conference paper if copyright transfer occurred during the publishing process. Failure to do so may prevent Us from publishing an otherwise worthy work.
\n\n2. NEWSPAPER & MAGAZINE ARTICLES
\n\nNewspaper and magazine articles usually do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense. Articles appearing in newspapers and magazines rarely possess the depth and structure characteristic of scholarly articles.
\n\nSubmitted manuscripts stemming from a previous newspaper or magazine article will be accepted for review and considered for publication. However, Authors are strongly advised to report any such publication in an accompanying note to the External Editor.
\n\nAs with the conference papers and presentations, Authors should obtain any necessary permissions from the newspaper or magazine that published the work, and indicate that they have done so in a note to the External Editor.
\n\n3. GREY LITERATURE
\n\nWhite papers, working papers, technical reports and all other forms of papers which fall within the scope of the ‘Luxembourg definition’ of grey literature do not pass through any extensive peer or editorial review and we do not consider them to be published in the scholarly sense.
\n\nAlthough such papers are regularly made publicly available via personal websites and institutional repositories, their general purpose is to gather comments and feedback from Authors’ colleagues in order to further improve a manuscript intended for future publication.
\n\nWhen submitting their work, Authors are required to disclose the existence of any publicly available earlier drafts in a note to the Academic Editor. In cases where earlier drafts of the submitted version of the manuscript are publicly available, any overlap between the versions will generally not be considered an instance of self-plagiarism.
\n\n4. SOCIAL MEDIA, BLOG & MESSAGE BOARD POSTINGS
\n\nWe feel that social media, blogs and message boards are generally used with the same intention as grey literature, to formulate ideas for a manuscript and gather early feedback from like-minded researchers in order to improve a particular piece of work before submitting it for publication. Therefore, we do not consider such internet postings to be publication in the scholarly sense.
\n\nNevertheless, Authors are encouraged to disclose the existence of any internet postings in which they outline and describe their research or posted passages of their manuscripts in a note to the Academic Editor. Please note that we will not strictly enforce this request in the same way that we would instructions we consider to be part of our conditions of acceptance for publication. We understand that it may be difficult to keep track of all one’s internet postings in which the researcher´s current work might be mentioned.
\n\nIn cases where there is any overlap between the Author´s submitted manuscript and related internet postings, we will generally not consider it to be an instance of self-plagiarism. This also holds true for any co-Author as well.
\n\nFor more information on this policy please contact permissions@intechopen.com.
\n\nPolicy last updated: 2017-03-20
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On September, 29th 2006 he has won a post PhD fellowship from the university of Bologna (from October 2006 to October 2008), at the competitive examination he was ranked first in the industrial engineering area. He extensively served as referee for several international journals. He is author/coauthor of more than 100 research papers. He has been involved in some projects supported by MURST and European Community. 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Delac received his B.Sc.E.E. degree in 2003 and is currentlypursuing a Ph.D. degree at the University of Zagreb, Faculty of Electrical Engineering andComputing. His current research interests are digital image analysis, pattern recognition andbiometrics.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Zagreb",country:{name:"Croatia"}}},{id:"557",title:"Dr.",name:"Andon",middleName:"Venelinov",surname:"Topalov",slug:"andon-topalov",fullName:"Andon Topalov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/557/images/1927_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. Andon V. Topalov received the MSc degree in Control Engineering from the Faculty of Information Systems, Technologies, and Automation at Moscow State University of Civil Engineering (MGGU) in 1979. He then received his PhD degree in Control Engineering from the Department of Automation and Remote Control at Moscow State Mining University (MGSU), Moscow, in 1984. From 1985 to 1986, he was a Research Fellow in the Research Institute for Electronic Equipment, ZZU AD, Plovdiv, Bulgaria. In 1986, he joined the Department of Control Systems, Technical University of Sofia at the Plovdiv campus, where he is presently a Full Professor. He has held long-term visiting Professor/Scholar positions at various institutions in South Korea, Turkey, Mexico, Greece, Belgium, UK, and Germany. And he has coauthored one book and authored or coauthored more than 80 research papers in conference proceedings and journals. 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After finishing his P. hD degree in 1992, he served in the Industry as a Scientific Officer and continued his academic career as a visiting scholar for a number of educational institutions. In 1996 he joined National University of Science & Technology Pakistan (NUST) as an Associate Professor; NUST is one of the top few universities in Pakistan. In 1999 he joined an International Company Lineo Inc, Canada as Manager Compiler Group, where he headed the group for developing Compiler Tool Chain and Porting of Operating Systems for the BLACKfin processor. The processor development was a joint venture by Intel and Analog Devices. In 2002 Lineo Inc., was taken over by another company, so he joined Aalborg University Denmark as an Assistant Professor.\nProfessor Akbar has truly a multi-disciplined career and he continued his legacy and making progress in many areas of his interests both in teaching and research. 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