Marpol annex VI fuel sulphur limits [4].
\\n\\n
More than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\\n\\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\\n\\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\\n\\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\\n\\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\\n\\n\\n\\n
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:null},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'
Simba Information has released its Open Access Book Publishing 2020 - 2024 report and has again identified IntechOpen as the world’s largest Open Access book publisher by title count.
\n\nSimba Information is a leading provider for market intelligence and forecasts in the media and publishing industry. The report, published every year, provides an overview and financial outlook for the global professional e-book publishing market.
\n\nIntechOpen, De Gruyter, and Frontiers are the largest OA book publishers by title count, with IntechOpen coming in at first place with 5,101 OA books published, a good 1,782 titles ahead of the nearest competitor.
\n\nSince the first Open Access Book Publishing report published in 2016, IntechOpen has held the top stop each year.
\n\n\n\nMore than half of the publishers listed alongside IntechOpen (18 out of 30) are Social Science and Humanities publishers. IntechOpen is an exception to this as a leader in not only Open Access content but Open Access content across all scientific disciplines, including Physical Sciences, Engineering and Technology, Health Sciences, Life Science, and Social Sciences and Humanities.
\n\nOur breakdown of titles published demonstrates this with 47% PET, 31% HS, 18% LS, and 4% SSH books published.
\n\n“Even though ItechOpen has shown the potential of sci-tech books using an OA approach,” other publishers “have shown little interest in OA books.”
\n\nAdditionally, each book published by IntechOpen contains original content and research findings.
\n\nWe are honored to be among such prestigious publishers and we hope to continue to spearhead that growth in our quest to promote Open Access as a true pioneer in OA book publishing.
\n\n\n\n
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"stanford-university-identifies-top-2-scientists-over-1-000-are-intechopen-authors-and-editors-20210122",title:"Stanford University Identifies Top 2% Scientists, Over 1,000 are IntechOpen Authors and Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-authors-included-in-the-highly-cited-researchers-list-for-2020-20210121",title:"IntechOpen Authors Included in the Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020"},{slug:"intechopen-maintains-position-as-the-world-s-largest-oa-book-publisher-20201218",title:"IntechOpen Maintains Position as the World’s Largest OA Book Publisher"},{slug:"all-intechopen-books-available-on-perlego-20201215",title:"All IntechOpen Books Available on Perlego"},{slug:"oiv-awards-recognizes-intechopen-s-editors-20201127",title:"OIV Awards Recognizes IntechOpen's Editors"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-crossref-s-initiative-for-open-abstracts-i4oa-to-boost-the-discovery-of-research-20201005",title:"IntechOpen joins Crossref's Initiative for Open Abstracts (I4OA) to Boost the Discovery of Research"},{slug:"intechopen-hits-milestone-5-000-open-access-books-published-20200908",title:"IntechOpen hits milestone: 5,000 Open Access books published!"},{slug:"intechopen-books-hosted-on-the-mathworks-book-program-20200819",title:"IntechOpen Books Hosted on the MathWorks Book Program"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"6103",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Highway Engineering",title:"Highway Engineering",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"Highway engineering is an engineering discipline branching from civil engineering that involves the planning, design, construction, operation, and maintenance of roads, bridges, and tunnels to ensure safe and effective transportation of people and goods. 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\r\n\tAmnesia is a condition with high incidence and low prevalence. In amnesia the person loses his memory of recent events, including his whereabouts and communications, and may not be able to carry out the tasks that are told to him. The person will not have any recollection of the events during the amnesia episode, which usually lasts for a few minutes to hours.
\r\n\tUsually, no definite cause can be found for these symptoms. However, it can be secondary to a migraine, ischemic stroke or seizures. It is also commonly seen after minor head injuries, especially amongst athletes. Brain structures responsible for amnesia are temporal lobe regions, especially hippocampal formations. Blood flow studies or cerebral metabolism studies using imaging tests such as positron emission tomography (PET) scan might show hypometabolism in mesial temporal structures. Treatment for amnesia is mainly to prevent recurrence. Finding and managing the cause is the best approach to prevent the relapse of amnesia. We are expecting a range of experts such as psychologist, psychiatrist, neurobiologist, neurologist, and neurosurgeons to submit their chapters in this book.
\r\n\tThis book will not only meant for medical professionals but for the general public who are interested in this topic.
Marine engines are generally compression ignited two- and four-stroke diesel engines. From the environmental and economic point of view, the Specific Fuel Oil Consumption (SFOC, measures unit in gram fuel oil/kWh) of engine is one of the important factors that contribute to the energy efficiency of ships [1]. On the other hand, the other important factors are the emissions of other gases such as NOx, SOx and PM (particulate matter). Some factors depend on the quality of fuel oil and some on the combustion process in the combustion chamber of the engines [2].
\nThe sulphur content of heavy fuel oil is determined through the content of SOx into the exhaust gas from diesel engine combustion process. In the combustion chamber, the sulphur content of heavy fuel oil is being oxidised into the primary SO2. A much smaller portion, some 3–5% is further oxidised into SO3. SO2 and SO3 together are called SOx. The lubrication oil cylinder contains substances to neutralise the sulphur thus preventing the damage caused by sulphuric acid in the engine. Only a very small portion of SOx is neutralised into calcium sulphate and is considered insignificant.
\nThe exhaust gas emissions are often directly related to the impurities contained in fuels that are being used. The high level of sulphur oxides SOx and nitrogen oxides NOx is an inevitable result of using heavy fuel oil (HFO). Maximum emissions of these oxides are regulated by IMO (International Maritime Organization). The requirements for reducing SOx emissions in certain areas of navigation have resulted in using low sulphur fuel oils in diesel engine operation. The use of HFO with high sulphur contents become unacceptable after adopting the regulations brought by Annex VI of International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL 73/78) at some sensitive areas (emission control areas—ECAs), and after introducing the monitoring of emissions from ships in ECAs. The maximum sulphur content in fuel oil is regulated in European ECAs that amounts to 0.10% for ships in ports and all inland waterways across the European Union.
\nFollowing the new requirements relate to sulphur content emissions that forced into all ships when sailing in emission control areas (ECAs) on January 2015, namely that ships trading have to use the heavy fuel oil and marine diesel oil with a low sulphur content of no more than 0.10%, do not, strictly speaking, alter the regulatory environment.
\nHowever, using low sulphur content fuel oil will cause some troubles for technical engine condition.
\nAt the request of California Air Resources Board, following a series of problems that occurred on ship due to fuel switching after the introduction of regulations on using low sulphur fuel oils within 24 miles of the California coastline, a research was conducted from 2009 to 2010; according to the research findings indicated, the fuel switching causes [3]:
Loss of propulsion and operation instability as the engine reduces speed to come to dead slow or slow astern, resulting in revolution per minute (rpm) fluctuations or stopping the engine, whereas the engine operation was stable at high rpm.
Failures to start events, including difficulties in starting the engine or inability to start the engine due to low pressures in fuel systems, low viscosity of fuel, problems related to high-pressure fuel pump operation, fuel injection, leakage of oil in the fuel systems, and leakage of sealing rings.
Inability to reach maximum speed, inability to reserve the engine Ahead/Astern, most commonly due to pressure of fuel injection.
This chapter is based on the effects of using low sulphur fuel oil to engine operation. It is significant to give the method to restrict the negative forces to the engine technique condition when operation.
\nThe diesel engine is an internal combustion engine in which the fuel ignition has been conducted into the combustion chamber at high temperature. The ignition process of diesel engine takes place in the combustion chamber. The operational principle of diesel engines is carried out throughout 4 cycles: suction—compression—ignition—exhaust.
\nThe compression-ignition engine has the highest thermal efficiency (engine efficiency) of any practical internal or external combustion engine due to its high expansion ratio and inherent lean burn which enables heat dissipation by the excess air. The low-speed compression-ignition engines (as used in ships and other applications, where overall engine weight is relatively unimportant) can have a thermal efficiency that exceeds 50%.
\nThe compression-ignition engines are manufactured in two-stroke and four-stroke versions. They were originally used as more efficient replacement for stationary steam engines. Since the 1910s, they have been used in submarines and ships. The use of locomotives, trucks, heavy equipment and electricity generation plants followed later. The structure of marine diesel engine is described in Figure 1. The main marine diesel engine is a two-stroke diesel engine type with large size, slow speed, high power engine that installed on large size ship.
\nThe structure of diesel engine.
In the true diesel engine, only air is initially introduced into the combustion chamber. The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15:1 and 23:1. The high compression causes the temperature of the air to rise. At about the top of the compression stroke, fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in the combustion chamber. This may be into a (typically toroidal) void in the top of the piston or a pre-chamber depending upon the design of the engine. The fuel injector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuel is distributed evenly. The heat of the compressed air vaporises fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited by the heat from the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the droplets continue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel in the droplets has been burnt. Combustion occurs at a substantially constant pressure during the initial part of the power stroke. The start of vaporisation causes a delay before ignition and the characteristics diesel knocking sound as the vapour reaches ignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston (not shown on the P-V indicator diagram).
\nWhen the combustion process is complete, the combustion gases expand as the piston descends further, the high pressure in the cylinder drives the piston downward, supplying power to the crankshaft. The working cycle of two-stroke diesel engine has been described on P-V (pressure-volume) diagram in Figure 2.
\nP-V diagram of 2-stroke diesel engine.
As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a separate ignition system, a high compression ratio greatly increases the engine’s efficiency. Increasing the compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinders is limited by the need to prevent damaging pre-ignition. Since only air is compressed in a diesel engine and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before top dead center (TDC), premature detonation is not a problem and compression ratios are much higher.
\nThe International Maritime Organization (IMO) member states acknowledged the low quality of heavy fuel oil in the field of connection with the high sulphur content of fuel on boards. Since the low quality of fuel oil will bring to producing exhaust gas fumes such as SOx that leads to acid rain phenomenon. So, it is main reason that the most straightway form of reducing acid rain effects is to life creatures due to change-over high sulphur content fuel oil to low sulphur content fuel oil at present.
\nMARPOL 73/78, Annex VI entered into force on May 19, 2005. Regulations 14 and 18 define the method of controlling sulphur oxide (SOx) emissions on a global basis and in defined protected areas called sulphur emission control areas (SECAs or ECAs).
\nThe aim of the legislation is to reduce SOx emissions from ships to reduce the acidification of the atmosphere and the resulting acid rain. This is to be achieved by setting a limit on the sulphur content in marine fuels.
\nMarpol Annex VI, Regulation 14 requires the following:
A limit on the sulphur content on any fuel used onboard ship, this must not exceed 4.5% m/m until January 1, 2012 (currently 3.5% max sulphur).
The sulphur content on any fuel used onboard a ship operating in a SECA must not exceed 1.5% m/m.
Alternatively, an exhaust gas cleaning system or other approved technological method of reducing total SOx emissions from main and auxiliary engines and boilers to a maximum of 6.0 g SOx/kWh when operating in a SECA. Controls are also set on effluent discharges from such cleaning systems.
Details of the change-over operation from high sulphur fuel to low sulphur fuel when entering a SECA are to be recorded in a log book and also when changing over to high sulphur fuel when leaving a SECA for an uncontrolled area. The procedure is to ensure that all fuels exceeding the 1.5% sulphur limit are flushed out of the fuel system prior to entering a SECA.
Marpol Annex VI, Regulation 18 establishes requirements for the quality, sampling and delivery of fuel oil and the keeping of bunker deliver note records.
\nOn the other hand, Annex VI regulations include caps on sulphur content of fuel oil when ships sail on ECAs with the SOx emissions and indirectly, PM emissions. Special fuel quality provisions exist for SOx emission control areas (SOx ECA or SECA). The sulphur limits and implementation dates are listed in Table 1 and illustrated in Figure 3.
\nDate | \nSulphur limit in fuel (% m/m) | \n|
---|---|---|
SOx ECA (%) | \nGlobal (%) | \n|
2000 | \n1.5 | \n4.5 | \n
2010.07 | \n1.0 | \n|
2012 | \n3.5 | \n|
2015 | \n0.1 | \n|
2020 | \n0.5 | \n
Marpol annex VI fuel sulphur limits [4].
Marpol annex VI sulphur content limit [4].
Heavy fuel oil (HFO) is used popularly but this fuel needs to meet the requirements of MARPOL 83/78 when sailing on ECAs. In addition, the alternative measures are also allowed (in the SOx ECAs and global) to reduce sulphur emissions, such as through the use of scrubbers.
\nEspecially, the Marine Environment Protection Committee, session 69th (MEPC 69) on April 18–22, 2016 has adopted the limit of low sulphur content fuel oil used for marine engines through Table 1 and Figure 3. The MEPC 69 has supplied some contents such as mandatory system for collecting ships’ fuel consumption data, reduction of Greenhouse Gas (GHG) emissions from ships, the establishment of effective dates for the Baltic Sea Special Area, the implementation of the BWM (Ballast Water Management) Convention, the energy efficiency of international shipping, etc. [5]. In where, the fuel oil quality was concerned more since the cost of ship operation will be increased due to the requirement of high quality fuel oil. The low sulphur content fuel oil will be regulated detail in MEPC 69. Following that, to 2020 global sulphur cap implementation date decided in aims with sea environmental protection and human health. Due to, January 1st 2020 was confirmed as the implementation data for a significant reduction in the sulphur content fuel oil used on ships. In addition, the decision about limit of a global sulphur cap of 0.50% m/m (mass/mass) in 2020 will be applied to all ships. Following discussion, the Committee encouraged the fuel oil supply industry to develop the draft best practice for fuel oil providers and submit this best practice to the Committee for consideration at a future session.
\nThe date of 2020 was agreed in amendments adopted in 2008. In then, those amendments were adopted. If it was also agreed that a review should be carried out by 2018 in order to assess whether the sufficient compliant fuel oil would be available to meet the 2020. On the other hand, the review completed in 2016 and submitted to the Marine Environment Protection Committee, session 70th (MEPC 70) organised in London. So, the new global limit about sulphur content in fuel oil of no more than 0.50% m/m in 2020. It is contrasting the current limit of 3.50% applied from January 1, 2012 [6].
\nThe following IMO’s regulations about the International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships, 1974 as modified by the Protocol of 1978 (MARPOL 73/78) is one of the most important international marine environmental conventions. This convention was developed by the International Maritime Organization (IMO) with a lot of delegates from different country where the diversity of ships and nation’s border lies on the sea.
\nSOx and particular matter (PM) emission controls are applied to all fuel oil, combustion equipment and devices due to both of main engine and auxiliary engine together generate the harmful gas emission in where contain a lot of other elements not only above ones but also carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxide, etc.
\nAmong the SOx controls, the level of sulphur content must be controlled in fuel oil varies for designated emission control area (ECA). The existing controls are in Table 2.
\nEffective date | \nArea other than designated emission control area | \nDesignated emission control area | \n
---|---|---|
Before 1 July 2010 | \n4.50% | \n1.50% | \n
On and after 1 July 2010 | \n↓ | \n1.00% | \n
On and after 1 January 2012 | \n3.50% | \n↓ | \n
On and after 1 January 2015 | \n↓ | \n0.10% | \n
On and after 1 January 2020 | \n0.50% | \n↓ | \n
Controls on the concentration of sulphur content in fuel oil.
Under the provisions of MARPOL 73/78, Annex VI, Regulation 14, the availability of fuel oil to meet the global 0.50% sulphur content in fuel oil used. It is determined by the Committee in 2018. Moreover, a Steering Committee (regionally represented by Member States) began reviewing of the availability of 0.50% sulphur fuel oil under terms of reference agreed at MEPC 68 with a report submitted to MEPC 70 held in October 2016 [7].
\nDuring the period of session time of MEPC 60 has been held from March 22 to 26, 2010, a lot of views were given out by delegates, a proposal has been adopted to amend the MARPOL Convention by designating the areas within 200 nautical miles from the coasts of North America and Canada (excluding a part of the areas such as the West Coast of Alaska) as the North American Emission Control Area for controlling the emissions of NOx, SOx and PM (particulate matter) from August 1, 2012 (see Figure 4).
\nThe emission control area (ECA).
Besides that, IMO (International Maritime Organization) also has given out the latest emission control regulations about the limit of SOx content exhaust gas emission next time. Annex VI, MARPOL 73/78, Regulations for the Prevention of Air Pollution from Ships, has been applied since May 2005.
\nThe emission control areas (ECAs) are the Baltic Sea, North Sea and English Channel, possibly Mediterranean in August 2007, 200 nautical mile zone at the US coast; Californian Air Resources Board (CARB), it is 24 nautical miles of the Californian baseline.
\nThus, the sulphur oxides (SOx) limit applies to all vessels in the category of ships with an engine power output of more than 130 kW. In the regulation 13 of Annex VI, MARPOL 73/78 has indicated that NOx emission control requirements for all ships installed 130 kW engine. So, the SOx emission control must be complied.
\nThe international general limit on sulphur is reduced from 5% to 4.5% through the ISO 8217 fuel standard. International Maritime Organization has specified that in the future, this limitation will be imposed on SOx as well as the other components into exhaust gas.
\nToday, ECAs comprise the Baltic Sea, the English Channel and the North Sea, however, more areas will be added to these in the future.
\nCalifornia Air Resources Board (CARB) has introduced limits on the use of sulphur for distillates [8].
\nPorts in the European Union Area (European Union—EU) includes EU member states, Norway, the Faroe Islands and Iceland applied the regulations about using the low sulphur content in shipping transportation industries.
\nIn addition, Ports in Turkey include Istanbul & Marmara, Aegean, Mediterranean and Black Sea Regions also admit the limit of sulphur content fuel oil in the emission control areas (ECAs).
\nThe sulphur content of marine fuel depends on the crude oil fuel and the refining process. In the combustion process of the engine, sulphur contains into the fuel, mixed with oxide after that converted into the sulphur oxides. These oxides are corrosive to engine piston liner and must be neutralised by the cylinder lubricant. If the correct lubricant is used, the sulphur content of marine fuels is technically not important, but sulphur oxides do have environmental implications. Fuel is the specification of ISO 8217:2010 that is not necessary for compliance with the regulations in force at the vessel’s location. IMO sets the limitation regarding the sulphur content of any fuel oil used on board ships. However, the low sulphur content fuel oil may have a negative impact on different fuel properties depending on the fuel type. Table 3 shows the relation between fuel properties and fuel types.
\nFuel properties | \nFuel types | \n
---|---|
Low viscosity | \nMDO | \n
Lubricity | \nMGO/MDO | \n
Acidity | \nMGO/MDO/HFO | \n
Flash point | \nHGO/MDO/HFO | \n
Ignition and combustion quality | \nHFO | \n
Increased catalytic fines | \nHFO | \n
Relation between the fuel properties and fuel types.
The types of marine fuel are being used on vessels in order to meet the requirements of MARPOL 73/78 Annex VI about low sulphur content fuel oil limit including marine gas oil (MGO) and marine diesel oil (MDO). In where, the MGO includes DMA, DMX, and DMZ grade. The MDO has DMB grade according to ISO 8217. Especially, the ultralow sulphur fuel oil (ULSFO) is a new fuel type with sulphur content of no more 0.10% (m/m). It is not traditional distillates, but blended products are from refinery streams that have not previously been utilised extensively in marine fuel oils [9]. These main properties of fuels above are introduced in Table 4.
\nGrade | \nMGO | \nMDO | \nULSFO | \n||
---|---|---|---|---|---|
DMX | \nDMA | \nDMZ | \nDMB | \n||
Sulphur content % (m/m) | \nmax. 1.00 | \nmax. 1.50 | \nmax. 1.50 | \nmax. 2.00 | \nmax. 0.10 | \n
Viscosity at 40°C (cSt) | \nmin. 1.40 max. 5.50 | \nmin. 1.50 max. 6.00 | \nmin. 3.00 max. 6.00 | \nmax. 11.0 | \nmin. 40 max. 75 | \n
Flash point (°C) | \nmin. 43 | \nmin. 60 | \nmin. 60 | \nmin. 60 | \nmin.70 | \n
Main properties of fuel oil defined in ISO 8217 (2010) [10].
The characteristics of ultralow sulphur fuel oil (ULSFO) differ completely compared with types of fuel MGO and MDO [11]. There are some other characteristics of fuel oil but in Table 4 only uses the main characteristics include the sulphur content, viscosity at 40°C, and flash point of fuel oil. In reality, the ultralow sulphur fuel oil is suitable to use low sulphur fuel oil for vessels with advantageous characteristics.
\nEmission control areas (ECAs) are designed at sea in order to follow the MARPOL 73/78 regulations about reducing of SOx and NOx emissions. In this researching, the article is referred to SOx emission into the environment by ships due to using the high sulphur content of heavy fuel oil for equipment.
\nSome local laws regarding air pollution are more stringent than those laid down by the IMO. For example, in Europe while the ship is at the port, all the running of machinery consumes the type of fuel oil must be less than 0.10% sulphur content.
\nAs the SOx emission is purely dependent on the quality and sulphur content of the fuel, while entering emission control areas. It is required to change-over for a low sulphur content fuel oil including flushing of fuel from the system with sulphur content more than 1.0% sulphur before entering the emission control areas (ECAs).
\nFor the changing-over to low sulphur fuel oil for main engine is carried out under supervising of Chief Engineer. To consider that most of the ships today run at high sulphur fuel oil, changing over of fuel at the appropriate time is very important. Moreover, looking at today’s economic condition of the industry, it s imperative to change over the fuel from high to low sulphur at the correct time as an early change-over will lead to loss of low sulphur oil, which is quite expensive, whereas a delay in the changeover procedure will lead to violation of MARPOL Annex VI. This is to be done along with using other technologies to reduce SOx and NOx from ships.
\nAlmost all ships are usually installed one service tank and more setting tanks. The changing-over of fuel is conducted between tanks each other on ships. So, the mixture of two different grades of fuel oils will be happened in order to decrease the low sulphur content of fuel oil on ships nowadays [12].
\nOn the other hand, it is provided with changing-over to low sulphur fuel oil calculator which tells the correct changing-over time at a certain case that before entering an emission control areas (ECAs). This system requires some important factors [3]:
The sulphur content of high sulphur fuel currently in the system;
The sulphur content of low sulphur fuel;
The fuel capacities of the main engine system including setting tank, service tank, main engine piping and transfer piping from service tank to main engine;
The capacity of transfer equipment—fuel oil transfers pump and fuel oil separators.
Once the change-over time is computed which also accounts for the time of intermixing of two different sulphur grades oil (let us suppose 48 h) following action are to be taken 48 h prior.
Ensure that no transfer of high sulphur fuel is carried out any further to settling tank;
Ensure that the low sulphur bunker tank steam is open for transfer and purification of fuel should not have any problem;
If two separate settling tanks are present, once can be dedicated to low sulphur oil which will reduce the changeover period;
Keep running the separator till the settling tank level reaches minimum;
If filling of service tank with HSFO increases the calculated time period of changeover then stop the separator and drain the settling tank;
Settling tank can be first drained into fuel oil overflow tank, and then the oil drained can be transferred to bunkers tanks containing same grade of oil;
Once the settling tank is drained from heavy sulphur oil, fill the settling tank with low sulphur fuel oil via transfer pump;
As the separator are stopped, service tank oil will be consumed by main engine system;
Remember not to lower the level of service tank below which the fuel pumps cannot take suction;
Start separators from settling to service tank which be now filling low sulphur fuel oil;
Fill the low sulphur fuel oil into settling tank and service tank as per quantity required to cross the ECA calculated by the Chief Engineer as per the voyage plan.
Firstly, to understand the effects of using low sulphur fuel oil to piston-cylinder liner component, need to regime of high sulphur content of fuel oil on ship operations [9].
\nThe greatest environmental problem of maritime transport is heavy fuel oil (HFO) with high value of sulphur content and used popularly for diesel engine. Merchant vessels consume the heavy fuel for the marine engines and auxiliary engines in order to generate the energy for ship propulsion and electricity, respectively, on board. On the other hand, the unwanted properties elements like as incombustible transition metals, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons and sulphur also exist in heavy fuel oil which are residual oil from petroleum refining process to produce the marine diesel oil (MDO), marine gas oil (MGO) and other distillate oil.
\nThe unwanted properties make HFO price cheaper than distillate fuel oil. Intermediate Fuel Oil (IFO) 380 is the most commonly used for ocean-going vessels. Nowadays, some ships usually carry out bunkering oil in Singapore, China, Netherland, etc. In reality, the price of fuel oil at some places is different. For example, the price of IFO 380 is $311.50/tonne in then the price of DO is $487.00/tonne in port of Singapore in the year 2017. Port of Rotterdam, the price of IFO 380 is $282.00/tonne, DO is $460.00/tonne in the year 2017 [13]. The cheaper price of HFO is an advantage for ship operators to lower fuel costs considering incremental fuel costs if the engine consumes distilled products. It is the main reason why HFO is used by most ocean going ships. In fact, fuel costs are a dominant proportion of voyage costs accounting for 47%, while voyage costs contribute roughly 40% of the total operational costs [14]. Consequently, the fuel costs is the most important factor in the voyage costs which should be maintained as low as possible, otherwise it will bring negative effects on the total operational costs.
\nNevertheless, HFO entails several drawbacks in shipping operation. For example, the heavy fuel oil must be heated before injected into the engine combustion chamber with the temperature approximately 140°C because of its viscous. Besides that it is necessary to equip the sludge tanks to accommodate the sludge of HFO which cannot be burnt during combustion process of engine and it must be moved on shore. The methods which are treated include as burning into an incinerator on ship or transferred to the reception facilities. So, the exhaust fumes are released from the combustion process using HFO in diesel engines which is vastly more harmful to human health and life environment.
\nUntil now, marine low speed engines and their lubricants have been optimised for operation on heavy fuel oil (HFO) with a high sulphur S content. During the combustion process is happening, the sulphur S is converted to the sulphur trioxide (SO3). In combination with water from the combustion and the scavenge air, SO3 forms sulphuric acid (H2SO4) is be generated.
\nWhen the liner temperature drops below the dew point of sulphuric acid and water, a corrosive on the liner wall. The high alkaline lubricants (high-BN oils) neutralise the acid and prevent corrosion of piston rings and cylinder liner surfaces.
\nSecondly, when operating on fuels with less than 0.10% S, such as distillates, ultra-low sulphur fuel oil (ULSFO) with less than 0.10% S, LNG, methanol, ethane and LPG, only small amounts of sulphuric acid are formed in the combustion chamber. The cylinder lube oil additives are then not used for the designed purpose and they tend to build up as deposits. These deposits may disturb the lube oil film and obstruct the piston ring movement, which could lead to micro-seizures on the piston rings and liner and increase the risk of scuffing. Deposit formation and the total lack of corrosion increase the risk of bore-polishing, which could also lead to increased wear and scuffing. For engines operating continuously on fuels with less than 0.10% S.
\nEmission control area (ECA) has been adopted by IMO members, the countries need follow the IMO’s regulations about using low sulphur content fuel oil from now until 2020.
\nThe availability of low sulphur fuel oil is a major issue in ECA implementation. For this purpose, EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) confirms LSFO under 1% available within the US ECA [15]. Therefore, Canada should also be able to provide adequate LSFO in the ports in its territorial waters. Since the scheme requires more stringent control of sulphur content in fuel to 0.10% from 2015, due to the fuel consumption is the greatest problem for all ships and ship owners under pressure of high fuel price nowadays (Figure 5). Table 5 describes the cost of SOx and NOx emission regulation.
\nType of cost | \nCompliance strategy | \nCost in 2020 (billions USD) | \n
---|---|---|
Operating costs (apply to all ships) | \nFuel switching | \n$ 1.9 | \n
Urea consumption (for SCR-equipped engines) | \n$ 0.17 | \n|
Hardware costs (apply to ships built in 2020) | \nFuel switching | \n$ 0.03 | \n
SCR | \n$ 1.1 | \n|
Total costs | \n$ 3.2 | \n
The total of compliant SOx and NOx emission regulation.
The diagram of sulphur content limit in ECAs.
Table 5 shows that operating costs will attribute to the total costs to comply with ECA standard. For the existing ships, the changeable prices will be varied around $2.07 billions in 2020. In then, the new building ships will spend at least $3.2 billions to install appropriate hardware and to use distillate fuel and urea in 2020.
\nLubricity is the ability to generate a hydrodynamic lubrication film (oil wedge). To ensure that a given low sulphur marine gas oil, the significant value of the lubrication oil needs to provide enough. Following the fuel is tested under the ISO 12156-1 (EN 590) High Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR) protocol. This standard is required at a maximum wear scare rate if 460 μm. However, the refineries add a lubricity additive in case of EN 590 requirements are not completed. The higher value of HFRR is showed in Figure 6.
\nHFRR test.
The reduction of the lubricity in low sulphur fuel oil will be risked to the marine fuel oil pump system. Its result will be caused the excessive wear and premature failure. So, the special lubrication oil must be used to add lubricity and prevent carbon deposition that is called lacquering. On the other hand, the largest contribution to diesel engine lubricity system comes from the trace amounts of surface-active polar compounds forming a protective layer on the metal surface, thus enhancement of the boundary lubrication. The most active polar materials naturally occurring in diesel fuel are hetero-compounds containing nitrogen and oxygen. The hydro-desulphurization (HDS) process which removes sulphur content also removes these polar compounds, resulting in very poor lubricity characteristics and exposing pumping systems to damage and potential catastrophic failure. It is main reason that the lower fuel lubricity can be seen as abrasive wear of fuel system components. It is not sufficient fuel to supply to the plungers, barrels and injectors.
\nThe proper lubrication in a marine plunger/barrel fuel pump depends on a balance between both hydrodynamic lubrication (Figure 7) and boundary lubrication (Figure 8). Hydrodynamic lubrication occurs when two surfaces are in motion to each other and are separated by a liquid film that carries the applied load. The result is collected to make a low friction and minimal wear between two surfaces (Figure 7).
\nHydrodynamic lubrication.
Boundary lubrication.
In contrast, the boundary lubrication happens when the liquid film becomes thin to the point that it attains the same thickness as the surface roughness of the high points of the two interfacing solid surface contact, the fuel must have sufficient lubricity to prevent increased friction and wear. The boundary lubrication is critical in three different situations, namely on initial start-up with insufficient liquid film, at low speed operations when not enough fuel is pumped to provide a satisfactory film and at very high speed operation when high pressure within the pump diminishes the film thickness (Figure 8).
\nA viscosity range 12–16 centistokes is sufficient to provide adequate hydrodynamic lubrication. Viscosity of low sulphur MGO varies from 1.5 to 3.0 cSt. In that case the protective fuel film between the surfaces of the barrel and plunger becomes dangerously thinner resulting is increased metal to metal contact even if fuel viscosity is increased through chilling or cooling. The difference between boundary and hydrodynamic lubrication is depicted.
\nUnfortunately the IMO regulation only regulates the sulphur content and no other fuel specifications are addressed. Low sulphur fuel with good lubricity characteristics is expected to be more expensive. Owners should not opt for less expensive fuel quantities, which will result in wear of fuel pump and injection components, bad combustion and engine wear and damages.
\nThe hydro-desulphurization (HDS) removes a large measure of aromatic content, resulting in reduced ignition quality. It also removes naturally occurring anti-oxidants that provide both physical and thermal stability of the fuel. Absence of natural anti-oxidants leads to the formation of hyper-peroxides, which can result in acid corrosion attach of fuel pump systems and pump seal failure. Especially, the formation of hyper-peroxide in fuel oil happens quickly at high temperature and it causes the negative influence on the fuel oil system. Oxidation process also produces gums, polymers and other insolubles. Standards to detect hyper-peroxide contamination are available.
\nThe inherent instability of low sulphur fuel poses four critical threats to safe marine engine operation, namely degraded ignition quality, excessive engine deposits, an increase in visible particular emissions and excessive sludge production and fuel system fouling. Reduced stability of the fuel can also result increased emissions. Low sulphur marine fuels often produce excessive unburned hydrocarbon and visible particulate emissions (smoke opacity). Poor stability may result in the formation of gum and sludge during storage as well as deposit formation on injection nozzles and gumming of valves.
\nPoor physical stability can result in problems with fuel compatibility, particular when transitioning from operation on heavy fuel to low sulphur marine gas oil. Since some marine gas oils will be stored aboard the vessel for prolonged time periods, fuels of poor stability characteristics will suffer accelerated degradation, resulting in reduced ignition quality and degraded engine operation.
\nLow sulphur distillates have relatively low viscosity, ranging from 1.5 to 3.0 cSt. Fuel pumps depend upon an appropriate viscosity to meet required volumetric capacity, an especially important consideration in maintaining proper feed rates. ISO 8217 states minimum viscosities for DMX, Distillate Marine Oil of Class X, of 1.4 cSt at 40°C and DMA, Distillate Marine Oil of Class A, of 1.5 cSt at 40°C. A rule of thumb value advised by the makers is 2 cSt at engine inlet [10]. Ambient temperature in an engine room easily reaches 40°C and sometimes even higher—in some cases as much as 55°C. Adding excessive heat from pipes and engines will raise the temperature even further and as consequence viscosity will fall, causing a significant change of operating conditions in the system. Mercifully, the lower the viscosity at 40°C the more gradual the fall of viscosity with temperature rise as depicted in Figure 9.
\nViscosity versus temperature [16].
The lower viscosity will reduce the film thickness between the fuel pump plunger and casing and in the fuel valves leading to excessive wear and possible sticking, causing failure of the fuel pump. Special fuel injection pumps may be available that are more suitable for this type of fuel, such as tungsten carbide coated pumps, or a fuel pump lubrication system could be installed. Any new types of fuel injection equipment installed to address lubrication issues shall be certified by the engine maker to maintain engine compliance with emission standards and may require re-certification of engines.
\nFollowing the operation experience associates with the properties of the low sulphur fuel oil. The use of low sulphur fuel oil for marine diesel engine has caused the corrosion between piston-cylinder liner components due to the cylinder liner lubrication oil with low BN (Base Number). It is primarily obtained from stationary engines, operating at 100% load and 100% rpm in high ambient conditions.
\nUsing of low sulphur fuel oil for marine diesel engine will be momentum for causing the sulphuric acid (H2SO4) in the combustion chamber. This process is made from the progress chain in Figure 10.
\nChemical conversion of sulphur to sulphuric acid.
To neutralise the acid generated, the cylinder liner lubrication oil must contain alkaline components by mean of using calcium salts. Normally, the Base Number (BN or TBN) is a measure of the cylinder liner lubrication oil’s ability to neutralise acid because the higher BN, the more acid can be neutralised.
\nSo the Base Number (BN) is very important parameter in controlling the corrosion on the cylinder liner surface. To control corrosion is not avoiding corrosion so it is important to ensure the proper tribology needed for creation of the lubrication oil film. It the neutralisation of the acid is too efficient, the cylinder liner surface has a risk of being polished. It is leading to the lubrication oil film damaged and the risk of the scuffing increases.
\nOn the other hand, the operation of engine with an unmatched BN/fuel sulphur content could increase the risk of either scuffing or excessive corrosive wear.
\nTo make a comparison between using of the different BN lubrication oil for the cylinder line with the same type of low sulphur fuel oil.
\nLike as Figures 11 and 12, it is used the different BN lubrication oil will make the changeable graphite structure on the cylinder liner surface. By using of BN40 lubrication oil will create the ‘open’ graphite structure with good tribological abilities in contrast to using BN70 lubrication oil has the ‘closed’ graphite structure with reduced tribological abilities.
\nCylinder liner surface with BN40. ‘Open’ graphite structure with good tribological abilities.
Cylinder liner surface with BN70. ‘Closed’ graphite structure with reduced tribological abilities.
It is essential for a good cylinder condition and performance that keeps an ‘open’ graphic structure on the cylinder liner surface so that a hydro-dynamic oil film is always kept between the piston-rings and cylinder walls at all times.
\nTherefore, it runs on low sulphur fuel oil that is considered more complex due to the relationship between liner corrosion and scuffing resistance, dry lubrication properties from elements in the fuel (or lack of same), the interaction between the BN in the cylinder oil and the detergency level, possible sulphur of alkaline additives, the piston ring pack, etc.
\nThe appropriate operation of diesel engine is very important especially when it operate at the low sulphur fuel oil. Due to the selection of the low BN cylinder liner lubrication oil is carried out carefully. In this research, OEMs (Original Equipment Manufactures) recommend the regular testing of scrape down oil for residual BN and Fe content and adjustments to BN of cylinder oil and feed rate to suit. They provide the charts showing the safe zones for the results of the testing and adjustments. In Figure 13, the blending on board system is given out in aim with regulating the lubricating oil quality for main diesel engines according to the use of low sulphur content fuel oil nowadays.
\nThe blend on board (BOB) system for main diesel engine lubricating oil.
The lubricating oil for main diesel engine is regulated through onboard blender from using the system lubricating oil and additives. This task will meet the BN characteristics of lubricating oil in process of using low sulphur content fuel oil for main diesel engines. The scheme of blend on board system is represented in Figure 13.
\nThe use of BOB system will get benefit to obtain the lubricating oil feed rate depending on variable BN characteristic. And then, it will increase the lubricity of lubricating oil for main diesel engines in case of using low sulphur content fuel oil onboards.
\nIn a result, it is recommended for using the BN40-BN70 for cylinder liner lubrication oil at feed rate of large bore (Figure 14). The selection of appropriate lubrication oil depends on the low sulphur content in marine fuel.
\nUse of BN40, BN50, BN60 and BN70 for cylinder liner lubrication oil.
The fuel oil viscosity is very important because it decides the ignition quality of fuel oil in diesel engine combustion chamber. Since the main engine must change-over to low sulphur fuel oil when the ship sails into the emission control areas (ECAs) with low viscosity. So, the best method that has solved this problem is the cooler in the fuel oil system.
\nIt is necessary to instant cooler in the fuel oil system in order to maintain the required viscosity at the engine inlet fuel oil (Figure 15).
\nFuel oil system with fuel oil cooler.
On the other hand, the hydrodynamic characteristics of fuel oil are completely dependent on the fuel oil temperature and fuel oil viscosity. The fuel oil system contains supporting equipment such as pumps (transfer pump, supply pump, booter pump, fuel oil pump, etc.), filters, heaters and coolers. So it is necessary to concern about the fuel oil viscosity. In this chapter, it describes the depend between the fuel oil viscosity and temperature in Figure 16. It is useful to ensure the appropriate temperature of fuel oil flows in the system.
\nFuel oil temperature and viscosity [9].
The horizontal axis shows the fuel viscosity in cSt. Its value is taken from the bunker analysis report. In the case if the temperature of the MGO (marine gas oil) is below the lower blue curve at engine inlet, the viscosity must be above 3 cSt.
\nFurthermore, the black thick line shows the viscosity at reference condition at 40°C according to ISO 8217. Minimum viscosity for marine distillate DMX, DMA, DMB and DMZ are indicated.
\nMoreover, there are a lot of factors that influence the viscosity tolerance during the engine operation during of the time from the start point to the normal operation. These include engine condition and maintenance, fuel pump wear, engine pump wear, engine adjustment, actual fuel temperature in the fuel system, human factor, etc.
\nThe effective operation plays an important role to maintain in good condition for devices and equipment in the fuel oil system. The makers of marine diesel engine (MAN B&W) recommend to operate the engine with viscosity of fuel oil above 3 cSt when using the low sulphur content fuel oil.
\nThe use of low sulphur content fuel oil will be applied widely for all ships operate outside the emission control areas (ECAs) from 2020 with no more of 0.50% m/m. This regulation will impact positively on the environment due to the reduction of sulphur dioxide (SO2) emissions from engine exhaust gas. However, there will be a lack of lubrication oil. Its effect includes abnormal friction and operational defects, crucial parts of engines such as the fuel-supply pumps and fuel-injection pumps. As a result, the additives for low sulphur diesel oil are used in order to improve the lubricity of low sulphur marine gas oils with aims in keeping the safe vessel operations as well as protecting the environment.
\nYunic 700LS is used in order to improve the lubricity for low sulphur marine gas oil (LSMGO) and low sulphur marine diesel oil (LSMDO) with standard dosing rate of 1/2500 (Figure 17). Its effect is addressed to prevent the abnormal wear and stick the fuel injection pump and fuel pump of marine diesel engine by the low lubricity of fuel oil. There are lots of other similar products which are used for increasing the lubricity ability of low sulphur diesel oil. The comparison between other products is showed in Table 6.
\nYunic 700LS.
Products | \nAdvantages | \nInconvenients | \n
---|---|---|
Yunic 700LS | \nImprove the lubricity of low sulphur fuel oil Prevent the stick phenomenon of fuel oil injection pumps | \nDisable to prevent the emulsion phenomenon Disable to prevent the sludge dispersion of low sulphur heavy fuel oil Lower price than Yunic 750 LS-F | \n
Yunic 300 | \nSeparate the water out of oil from emulsion phenomenon | \nDisable to increase the lubricity ability of low sulphur fuel oil | \n
Yunic 555D | \nIncrease the sludge dispersion of low sulphur heavy fuel oil Improve the combustion process of diesel engine when using low sulphur fuel oil | \nDisable to increase the lubricity ability of low sulphur fuel oil | \n
Yunic 650-II | \nIncrease the sludge dispersion of low suphur fuel oil Increase the melting point of ash factor of low sulphur fuel oil | \nDisable to increase the lubricity ability of low sulphur fuel oil | \n
Yunic 600S-II | \nIncrease the melting point of ash factor of low sulphur fuel oil Decrease the gas leakage phenomenon from exhaust valve of diesel engine | \nDisable to increase the lubricity ability of low sulphur fuel oil | \n
Yunic 600SX | \nPrevent the slag formation with high content of vanadium of low sulphur fuel oil | \nDisable to increase the lubricity ability of low sulphur fuel oil Normally used for marine boiler | \n
Yunic 750LS-F | \nIncrease the lubricity ability of low sulphur fuel oil Prevent the mould sludge of fuel oil | \nDisable to prevent the emulsion phenomenon Disable to prevent the sludge dispersion of low sulphur heavy fuel oil | \n
The comparison between same other products.
In addition, the blending Yunic 700LS into the low sulphur, the low lubricity ability of marine gas oils (MGO) was verified through an HFRR (High Frequency Reciprocating Rig) test (Figure 18). The HFRR is currently approved and then it is a standard index for evaluating lubricative ability of low sulphur fuel oil. In particular, the HFRR uses a ball in which a load is applied. Then, the ball will reciprocate on a metal surface immersed in the test of fuel oil. Finally, the size of the scars created on the ball is used to assess the lubricative ability of fuel oil.
\nHigh Frequency Reciprocating Rig (HFRR) test method.
In HFRR test, the lubricity indexes of light fuel oil are tested, the wear scar diameter of low sulphur fuel oil is about 600 μm. Addition of 200 pm with 1/5000 is standard addition rate of Yunic 700LS, the wear scar diameter is reduced to 460 μm or less, which is the specification recommended by engine manufacturers (Figure 19).
\nRelationship of addition rate of Yunic 700LS and HFRR.
So, the engine manufacturers suggest using with HFRR wear scar diameter of 460–520 μm or less. In reality, the use of fuel oil has a lower lubricity that will lead to the corrosion of fuel injection pump and fuel pump of main diesel engine on ships.
\nThe Alpha Lubricator System is available for all MAN B&W MC/MC-C two-stroke diesel engines (Figure 20) [16].
\nAlpha lubricator system.
The Alpha Lubricator System has an algorithm controlling cylinder oil dosage proportional to the sulphur content in the fuel. And, this algorithm is considered as Alpha Adaptive Cylinder-oil Control (Alpha ACC).
\nThe advantage of Alpha Adaptive Cylinder-oil Control (Alpha ACC) in field of saving cylinder oil then a large scale testing programme is in progress on MAN B&W MC/MC-C type engines in service for a number of owners. In addition, to save the cylinder oil consumption will protect the environment from impacting on ship operation by Alpha Lubricator System.
\nThe testing programme includes large bore engines for both container ships (K-MC/MC-C) and for VLCC propulsion (S-MC/MC-C), as well as small and medium bore MC/MC-C engines [16].
\nThe cylinder oil dosage is proposed to an amount of sulphur content percentage in fuel oil. The cylinder oil dosage shall be proportional to the sulphur percentage in the fuel oil in Figure 21. On the other hand, the cylinder oil dosage shall be proportional to the engine load like this amount of fuel admitted into the cylinders. This one will decide an optimal cylinder oil dosage with sulphur content in the fuel oil admitted into the cylinders.
\nCylinder oil dosage versus sulphur percentage in the fuel oil.
Furthermore, it is very important to determine the cylinder oil dosage admitted into the cylinder line in aims with saving amount of cylinder oil following the sulphur content percentage in fuel oil used.
\nInFigure 22, the control of cylinder oil dosage proportional to the engine load together with revolution per minute (rpm)-proportional and mep-proportional lubrication. In case of part load, load-proportional cylinder oil dosage will provide large cost saving and reduce environmental pollution due to excessive lubrication. Additionally, if it is below 25% load, the load-proportional lubrication will stop and rpm-proportional lubrication will take over.
\nLoad-proportional cylinder oil dosage is used by alpha ACC.
In this chapter, the new regulations for sea environment protection have been introduced through IMO and MARPOL 73/78 for all vessels that operate on special areas (ECAs). Especially, the IMO decision of 0.50% m/m sulphur content limit in marine fuel oil after 2020 is definite and no further decision till the date has happened. So, some methods have been represented including the use of an appropriate lubrication oil quality for diesel engine on ships, installing the cooler in fuel oil system, improving the additive for low sulphur fuel oil and using the alpha adaptive cylinder oil control (Alpha ACC). This research will be meaningful solutions for all ships to comply with the new regulations when sailing on ECAs.
\nThe author wants to thank Chief Engineer, MSc, Thuy.H.V of M/V NSU JUSTICE, who gave meaningful suggestion to complete this study. Furthermore, I acknowledge all colleagues at Reliability Engineering Institute and Key Laboratory of Marine Power Engineering & Technology (Ministry of Transportation), School of Energy and Power Engineering, Wuhan University of Technology, 430063 Wuhan, P.R. China. Finally, I would like to thank reviewers for valuable comments for revised manuscript.
\n\n alpha adaptive cylinder oil control Ballast Water Management Base Number/Total Base Number California Air Resources Board emission control areas Environmental Protection Agency high sulphur fuel oil heavy fuel oil High Frequency Reciprocating Rig hydro-desulphurization International Maritime Organisation International Standard Organisation Intermediate Fuel Oil Greenhouse Gas low sulphur fuel oil liquefied petroleum gas liquefied natural gas Marine Environment Protection Committee marine gas oil marine diesel oil International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships particulate matter revolution per minute specific fuel oil consumption ultra low sulphur fuel oil
Cancer is a wide collection of diseases that can begin in practically any organ or tissue of the body when abnormal cells develop and move beyond their space to attack surrounding areas and also spread to different organs [1]. There are numerous types of cancer such as breast cancer, skin cancer, bone cancer, lung cancer, colon cancer, prostate cancer and if left untreated, it results in serious harm and could eventually lead to death [2]. Different causes of cancer include hereditary variables, way of life, diet, exposure to various kinds of synthetic compounds, and radiation. The American Cancer Society has estimated the number of new cancer cases for the year 2020 in the United States is 1,806,590 cases and 606,520 deaths. Previously, the cancer death rate increased up until the year 1991, at which point, the numbers dropped ceaselessly from 2017, bringing about a general decrease of about 29% which is equivalent to 2.9 million fewer cancer deaths than as projected. This was attributed to the long-term decrease in death rates for the 4 main cancer types (colorectal, prostate, breast, and lung cancer) [3]. Among the reasons that can be mentioned for the reduction in the mortality rate of cancer patients are the various techniques being used for treatment such as chemotherapy, surgery, and radiotherapy. Various kinds of cancer can proceed in abnormal ways, develop at different rates, and react to treatment differently, hence, each cancer treatment is focused on the specific cancer type. Cancer therapy used in the treatment of cancer patient includes surgery, chemotherapy, radiotherapy and more recently antioxidant have been proposed to benefit cancer patients during cancer therapy [2].
Antioxidants are substances that can neutralize the production of free radicals and counteract the oxidation process. Antioxidants can be classified based on their source; endogenous source (enzymes) and exogenous diets (carotenoids, flavonoids, phenolics, minerals, and vitamins) [4]. Antioxidants are naturally found abundant in dietary sources, and their consumption possesses great health benefits [5]. The use of dietary antioxidants mitigates oxidative stress which contributes majorly to several diseases. Plant nutrients including organic products, vegetables, tea, grains, red wine, nuts, spices, and flavors give a huge sum and variety of antioxidants by preventing diseases. Dietary antioxidants are also a complex mixture of minerals (selenium, zinc, or copper) and micronutrients (vitamins A, C, and E) [6]. There are recommended antioxidants intake either as a diet with antioxidant activities or combined with antioxidant enzymes. Metals such as iron, zinc, manganese, copper, and selenium are considered cofactors of various enzyme antioxidants, and some nutrients (β-carotene, α-tocopherol, ascorbic acid, and folic acid) as sequestrate of reactive oxygen species (ROS) [7]. In light of this, this review discusses dietary antioxidants in cancer therapy in light of merits and demerits.
A free radical is a particle capable of existing independently and has at least one unpaired electron in its outer shell. Most free radicals are profoundly reactive and unsteady as a result of the number of electrons. Therefore, they rapidly react with different substances to attain stability. Free radical attacks the nearest steady particle and acquire its electron, meanwhile, the attacked particle can turn into a free radical by loosing its electron and start a chain reaction course harming the living cells. Examples of free radicals are superoxide anion, lipid alkoxyl, lipid peroxide, lipid peroxyl, and hydroxyl radical. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) are radical subordinates, for example, hydrogen peroxide and singlet oxygen [8]. Free radicals are fundamentally reactive oxygen species (ROS) or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) comprising of singlet oxygen, hydrogen peroxide, superoxide radicals, intermediary nitrite, and nitric oxide (NO) [9]. The primary reactive oxygen species (ROS) are the superoxide (O2-), singlet oxygen (O2), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), hydroxyl radicals (HO-), peroxyl and alkoxyl radicals (ROS- and RO-), and natural peroxides (ROOH). In the event of cellular damage caused by free radicals, for example, involving cellular amino acids, lipids, and DNA, reactive oxygen species (ROS) can activate enzymatic and non-enzymatic cell reactions, with the possibility of tampering with different metabolic processes and interfering with gene expression among other things.
Oxidative stress is an aftereffect of a variation in reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidant resistances. Oxidative stress takes control of the development and function of the cell which can contribute to the pathogenesis of various conditions like neurodegenerative sickness, Parkinson’s dementia, diabetes, cancer, immune system ailments, Alzheimer’s ailment, cardiovascular diseases, carcinogenesis, asthma [10]. Oxidative stress predisposes cellular harm through oxidation of proteins, nucleic acids, and lipid, structural adjustment of the membranes, the harm induced may extend to the organs and become systemic [11]. Countering the effect of free radicals can be through a large intake of dietary antioxidants and specific antioxidant supplements as part of the diet. Though, some reports have suggested that combining several antioxidants is more viable in the long-term than single antioxidant substances. Therefore, antioxidants provide a great advantage in improving personal health by hindering several diseases conditions [12].
Antioxidants act as scavengers of free radical or reactive oxygen species (ROS) and avert oxidation leading to several disease conditions. An antioxidant hinders the oxidation of lipids, DNA, sugar, and proteins at low concentrations. Antioxidants are found in plants, numerous foods, and some are synthesized in the body [13, 14]. In recent times, there has been increased utilization of natural products and reports have indicated that consumption of vegetables and fruits that contains antioxidants might be related to the decreased frequency of diseases activated by reactive oxygen species (ROS), such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer, etc. Oxidative stress and its damaging effects can be averted through the consumption of naturally occurring antioxidants [15]. Polyphenols and carotenoids (natural antioxidants) reveal natural activities as anti-atherosclerosis, anti-aging, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer [16]. Antioxidants function in the body to promote health and strength, particularly during old age. They ensure protection from damage to the tissues, and skin caused by the production of free radicals. In industries, they help to expand the food shelf-life and are added in the skin-care products for anti-aging purposes [13].
The antioxidant system comprises of enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants. Among the enzymatic antioxidants, are superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione peroxidase (GPx), and catalase (CAT). The non-enzymatic antioxidant also contributes to the cellular redox balance, examples include hormones such as estradiol, melatonin, as well as certain nutrients, for example, vitamins E and C [17].
The antioxidants are grouped into three fundamental classes:
The principal line guard antioxidants which involve superoxide dismutase (SOD), glutathione reductase (GR), catalase (CAT), and minerals like Zn, Se, and Cu, etc.
The second line safeguard antioxidants which involve glutathione (GSH), flavonoids, carotenoids, vitamin C, vitamin E, etc.
The third line safeguards antioxidants which involve a complex combination of chemicals responsible for fixing the damaged DNA, proteins, oxidized lipids, and peroxides. Examples are DNA repair enzymes, methionine sulphoxide reductase, protease, lipase, transferases, and so on [10].
Dietary antioxidants are substances found in food and it ensures the protection of cells, tissues, and DNA against oxidative harm of free radicals. Dietary antioxidant supplements involve protein, starch, sodium, fiber, fat as well as minerals and vitamins. Dietary antioxidants having both antioxidant and pro-oxidant impacts involve nutrients (tocopherol, carotenoids, pro-vitamin A, ascorbic acid, basic micronutrients with physiological roles) and also involve phytochemicals and polyphenols. In a review, dietary consumption of anthocyanins (an antioxidant found in berries) was revealed about 8% decrease in hypertensive condition [18]. Dietary nutrients have also shown significant improvement in bodily functions such as brain health, improved nervous system metabolism, and so on [19].
Since scientific evidence established the role of free radicals in the pathogenesis of diseases such as cardiovascular diseases, cancer among others, there have been considerable studies towards natural antioxidant properties to ameliorate such effects. The dietary antioxidant can have useful impacts on the body by scavenging free radicals and also the redox potential if they are available in tissues at adequate concentrations. For some dietary phytochemicals, direct antioxidants intake for some disease condition might be less significant to health than others as well as its consequences on cell signaling and gene expression [20]. There is a concern that the global consumption of fruits and vegetables is insufficient, leading to a decreased intake of antioxidants and predisposes to degenerative diseases [21].
Vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is vital to the health of the body by acting as an intense scavenger of radical. Ascorbic acid is a water-soluble vitamin and a huge supplement for quick intestinal absorption. It is needed for the collagen synthesis in the body, essential in regulating norepinephrine from dopamine and function in tyrosine digestion. Insufficient intake of vegetables and fruits, the main sources of vitamin C, can prompt the inadequacy of this crucial nutrient in the body. Ascorbic acid is quickly exhausted and oxidized during oxidative stress. Examples of natural sources rich in vitamin C are grapefruits, pineapple, cherries, citrus fruits, potatoes, pepper, strawberries, gooseberry, broccoli, kiwi fruit, and paprika, etc. [22].
Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin known to assume an important role in bone and calcium homeostasis and function as an anti-inflammatory agent since it represses invulnerable the expression of cell cytokine and prompts monocyte/macrophage to emit molecules which have a firm antibiotic impact. Its insufficiency can expand the danger of infectious diseases. Almost 95% of vitamin D is gathered in the epidermis of the skin on exposure to the sun, the rest is gotten from different dietary sources. In food, oily fish contains the largest amount of vitamin D, other sources include milk, orange, etc. [22].
Vitamin E also called tocopherol is a fat-soluble vitamin. Vitamin E has an extremely wide capacity of preserving biological membrane and nucleic acids in the body from the attacks of free radicals. Vitamin E is rich in vegetables, vegetable oil, almonds, walnuts, etc. Vitamin E has been discovered to have repressive capacity on tumors [23].
Plants have numerous flavonoids essential to mitigate the development of diseases. Basic flavonoids compounds involve anthocyanins, isoflavones, flavones, etc. Flavonoids destroy the free radicals by transforming them into phenolic radicals (inactive) after providing hydrogen to lipid compound radicals. Foods containing a large number of flavonoids involve herb, onions, blueberries, banana, and all citrus fruits, etc. [23].
These are dietary antioxidants that have exhibited action of photoprotection. In plants, these compounds are found in the photosynthetic parts where they are classified as extra light-collecting shades and shield from harm caused by sunlight. The photoprotective impacts of carotenoid-rich eating routine have been researched for its capacity to diminish the erythema (skin redness) size upon UV radiation exposure, though an extended period is necessary for a successful mediation. Among carotenoids, beta-carotene, lycopene, and lutein are gotten from various plant sources, for example, tomato, carrots, etc. [24].
There has been developing interest upheld by various epidemiological tests, on the possible gainful impacts of polyphenols on brain health. Polyphenol is micronutrients abundant in plant-determined nourishment which is also strong antioxidants. Fruits and beverages, for example, coffee, cocoa, and tea, and so on are significant dietary sources of polyphenols. Polyphenols are noted for their neuroprotective activities; protecting neurons against damage induced by neurotoxins, can suppress neuroinflammation, and the possibility to advance memory, learning, and psychological capacity. Recent evidence suggests that their beneficial impact includes a reduction in oxidative stress, an increase in defensive signaling, prompting the expression of genes that encode antioxidant enzymes, neurotrophic factors, and protective protein [7].
Cancer is a major medical issue globally and is the second leading cause of death in the United States. A century ago, cancer was not all that normal, however, since the last few decades, its frequency has been rising alarmingly, presumably because of our evolving way of life and habits. Cancer is among the most dreaded illnesses of the 20th century and grows forward with the increasing rate in the 21st century. Cancer is the abnormal development of cells. Cancers are made of small cells that have lost the capacity to stop developing and can emerge from any body structure or organ. Caner is not easily detected in its early stages but might be recognized by chance via a laboratory test or radiological routine test [25].
Cancer is a general term used in describing a group of diseases portrayed through independent development and the spread of a somatic clone. In this light, cancer must approach different cell pathways that empower it to disregard the typical requirements on cell development, change the local microenvironment to support its growth, attack through tissue boundaries, spread to different organs, and avoid immune system observation. No single cell program coordinates these behaviors, rather, there is a wide mass of pathogenic abnormalities from which singular cancers draw their combination, the shared traits of macroscopic features across tumors give a false representation of a huge heterogeneous scene of cell abnormalities [1].
Any time a cell divides, errors during the DNA replication process suggest that new mutations are present in the genomes of the daughter cells. Epigenetic marks (e.g. DNA methylation) are also replicated with limited precision. Larger-scope chromosol or part-chromosome losses or modifications [somatic copy number alternation (SCNAs)] and other structural modifications also occur at a standard frequency in many cancers. It is naturally occurring in the genetic modification that records the history of the cells in the tumor and since tumors are clonally derived; the entire cells in the tumor will carry the mutations in the main cancer cell, thus later-emerging subclones are recognizable by their sharing of a specific arrangement of variants, therefore, the order of clone advancement can be constructed by comparing the arrangement of mutation present in various cell tumor [26]. Cancer cells to meet their energy requirements, they depend on aerobic metabolism and also combined fatty acids, proteins, and nucleotides. Therefore, there is a constant need to expand the glucose supply needed to uphold diseases like diabetic-related hyperglycemia [27].
Lung cancer is the most dangerous tumor, and the principal reason for cancer death worldwide in both genders combined. Globally, lung cancer occurrence and mortality on the general populace are essentially dictated by tobacco usage, the fundamental etiological factor in lung carcinogenesis [28]. The hazard factors for lung cancer involve ecological and hereditary hazard factors, all of which have an impact on tumor advancement and additionally influence patients’ treatment [29]. Ladies have some unique hazard factors for lung cancer compared to men, and lung tumors in ladies have different pathologic conduct, results, and visualization in comparison to lung cancer growth in men [30]. The viability of lung cancer growth screening, utilizing computed tomography (CT) or chest X-ray (CXR), involving extra aides or not, such as sputum cytology, has been explored in various studies as asymptomatic at-risk populations [31].
Breast cancer is the commonest cancer analyzed in the female population (excluding skin cancer) and reported the second highest cause of death among ladies after lung cancer [32]. There have been numerous analytic techniques for diagnosing early-stage breast cancer such as biopsy, breast MI, MRI, PET, ultrasonography, and mammography [33]. There are various hazardous factors, for example, sex, maturing, estrogen, family history, gene mutation, and an unhealthy lifestyle, which can contribute to the risk of breast cancer. Most breast cancers occur in ladies and the quantity of cases is multiple times more in ladies than that of men [34]. Various treatments can be utilized, for example, targeted therapy, hormonal therapy, radiation treatment, surgery, and chemotherapy [35].
Prostate cancer is another deadly cancer diagnosed in men and the fifth-highest cause of death around the world. Prostate cancer might show no symptoms in the beginning phase, regularly has slow movement, and may require little or even no treatment. Problems with urination have been the most common issue, however, records indicate that it may emerge from prostatic hypertrophy [36]. Screening for prostate cancer is initiated by measuring prostate-specific antigen (PSA) protein levels in the blood. A raised prostate-specific antigen (PSA) level indicates prostate cancer and other conditions, such as inflammation of the prostate and amplified prostate [37]. Prostate cancer has more victims of older men. Numerous patients with prostate cancer in the beginning stages obtain good results after various treatments involving prostatectomy, radiation therapy, hormonal therapy, etc. [38].
Colon cancer is the third most commonly diagnosed and second deadliest cancer for all genders joined. Natural affiliations and hereditary are the main risk factors. In patients, screening colonoscopy is required for tissue biopsy neurotic affirmation of colon carcinoma, such as baseline computed tomography (CT) of the chest, mid-region, and pelvis, and carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) are favored cost-effective [39]. Chemotherapy and Surgery are the fundamental treatment choices for colon cancer, depending on the cancer stages and tumor area, as well as the health qualities of the patients [40].
Pancreatic cancer is one of the highest causes of cancer deaths in developed nations and one of the deadliest cancers worldwide. The two-fundamental tumors; pancreatic endocrine tumors (less than 5% of cases) and pancreatic cancer are adenocarcinoma (about 85% of cases) [41]. Finding the tumor at a treatable stage is extremely difficult, patients do not usually show symptoms and tumors do not show sensitivity or signals to help in early discovery [42].
Other types of cancer including skin cancer, kidney cancer, lymphoma, bone cancer, leukemia, liver cancer, etc.
Cancer is caused by changes to the DNA within cells which are influenced by factors such as unhealthy diet, alcohol intake, tobacco use, infections, genetic tendency, ionizing radiation, toxins, obesity, inactive lifestyle, and other environmental factors [43] (Figures 1 and 2).
Estimation of new cancer cases and deaths by sex, specifically the ten Main types of cancer in the United States, 2020. Estimates are regulated to the closest 10 and avoid basal cell, squamous cell skin tumors, and cancer which have not undergone metastasis except for urinary bladder [43].
Estimated amount of US cancer survivors. Evaluations exclude cancer which has not undergone metastasis, except for urinary bladder and exclude basal cells or squamous cell skin cancer [45].
Cancer is among the primary causes of deaths globally, and in the previous years, numerous researches have concentrated on discovering new treatments other than the customary treatments which carry side effects. There are still numerous issues that must be addressed to improve cancer treatment, though much advancement has been accomplished in medication [44]. The number of cancer survivors continues to grow in the United States, notwithstanding the general declining age-normalized rates in men and stable rates in women. This shows an expanding number of new cancer analysis methods coming from the developing population as well as an increase in cancer survival due to advances in early detection and treatment. Many cancer survivors must adapt to the physical impacts of cancer and its treatment, possibly prompting functional and intellectual exhaustion [45]. There are numerous types of cancer treatment techniques based on the type of cancer and stage it has progressed to. There is no specific treatment or procedure rivaling cancer, in some cases, the treatment plan may utilize a mix of the treatment techniques to have a more effective treatment. Every one of the techniques has its side effect on the patient [46].
Treatment of cancer by surgery is usually operated on non-hematological cancers. By surgical technique, the specialist expels the cancer tissues from the body. The surgical methodology can give a total or fractional fix for cancer. There might be side effects of the surgery based on the kind of cancer and the patients’ health status. If cancer is metastasized to different areas of the body, at that point expelling cancer by the surgical process is impossible. The development of the cancer cells follows the Halstedian model of cancer progression where the tumors begin developing locally and spreading to the lymph nodes and the rest of the body. The treatment of cancer by surgery should be possible to cancers that are limited to an area and the tumor is small in size [47].
The technique of chemotherapy is done using drugs, generally known as anticancer medications, to destroy or pulverize the cancer cells. These medications interfere with the development of tumors and even damage the cancer cells. Chemotherapy is commonly considered a powerful technique for the treatment of cancer, though it can cause extreme side effects as it can also damage healthy cells or tissues. The side effects caused by chemotherapy depend on the type of cancer, its areas, and the patients’ reaction to the specific kinds of chemotherapy treatment. The side effects on the cancer patient do not represent the viability of the treatment and disappear once the treatment process is finished. For the most part, chemotherapy medicines are recommended to a subject in an estimated amount over a time frame. In some cases, chemotherapy is administered at least two different medications at a time, this method is known as combination chemotherapy [48].
Immunotherapy is a technique for cancer treatment that causes the immune system to fight cancer. This is otherwise called biologic therapy, which excites the immune system of the patient to fight cancer. Several studies have been conducted on immunotherapy for treating cancer, for example, monoclonal antibodies that block specific protein work by constraining to cancer cells, which train the immune system to perceive and fight the cancer cells. This technique for treatment does not have any significant side effects. Immunotherapy is divided into two principle immunotherapeutic; passive and active. The grouping depends on the component of the therapeutic agent utilized, as well as the status of the patients’ immune system. The passive immunotherapeutic is utilized in cancer patients with feeble, unresponsive, or low responsive immune systems. To apply active immunotherapeutic, the patients’ immune system should be able to react strongly when opposed, be adequately stimulated, and resolve effector capacities [49].
Radiation therapy utilizes high portions of ionizing radiation to kill cancer cells and destroy the tumor tissues. This treatment is regularly utilized as a medical procedure to evacuate or lessen the size of the tumors. The radiation treatment is usually administered externally and internally to the target area and can be harmful to ordinary cells and prompt a reaction from ordinary cells because of these ionizing radiations. The radiation treatment utilizes unique equipment to carry estimated portions of radiation to the cancer cells. The radiation treatment destroys tumor cells by damaging their DNA either directly or by harming free radicals inside the cells which can hence damage the DNA. This treatment utilizes high energy ionizing radiation, for example, x-rays. This treatment has significant side effects that have different approaches in both grown-ups and children [50].
The hormone treatment fights cancer by evolving the number of hormones in the body to treat particular types of cancer that depend on the chemicals to develop and spread. This treatment technique is utilized for treating cancers of the breast, reproductive system, and prostate. The side effects depend on the type of cancer, age, sex, and the sort of medication utilized in the treatment [51].
The targeted treatment of cancer focuses on the cells that re-empower the cancer cells to develop, separation, and spread. The targeted treatment utilizes specific agents for the deregulated proteins of cancer cells. The small atoms of targeted therapy medication are inhibitors of enzymatic areas on the change, overexpressed, or critical proteins inside the cancer cells [52].
Other treatments include bone marrow transplant, cryoablation, and radiofrequency ablation.
Numerous types of cancer have been associated with the relation between free radicals and DNA which can cause harmful impacts on the cell cycle and also prompt dire threats. Antioxidants in suitable portions indicate that they have a generally good effect in making the tumors progressively responsive towards chemotherapy and radiation therapy. They can repress the development of tumors specifically without interfering with typical cells. Antioxidants can ensure protection against the toxicity caused by chemotherapy by hindering cell expansion. Additionally, antioxidants have demonstrated to hold an advantageous ability to decrease harm by oxidative stress, lessening the issues joined with the production of ROS and neurodegenerative issues [53].
ROS are chemically reactive particles containing oxygen, created by cellular metabolism. A moderate amount of ROS assumes a fundamental role in managing cell multiplication and cell survival. Nonetheless, an increase in ROS levels can harm cell components, for example, lipids, proteins, and DNA causing an imbalance between cell reduction–oxidation (redox) conditions and cause disturbance of homeostasis. Constantly, increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) prompt extreme cell harm and lead to carcinogenesis by regulating cell signaling such as cell expansion, angiogenesis, and metastasis [54].
There are two kinds of antioxidant dosages utilized in cancer treatment; a preventive low portion, which restrains typical cells as well as tumor cells from developing, and a remedial high portion, which restrains the development of cancer cells without impacting typical cells. Ongoing tests demonstrated that certain conditions should be met before involving antioxidants in chemotherapy. Moreover, they do not hinder but improve the cytotoxic effect of chemotherapy while protecting the typical tissue which subsequently increases the patients’ survival and therapeutic response [55].
Research has indicated that 35% of cancer can be prevented by dietary adjustments. Fruits and vegetables, which are wealthy in antioxidants, act defensively against some types of cancer. Plant nutrients that contain polyphenols have demonstrated to be viable antioxidant agents for the body, they appear to oppose cancer growth in prostate, lung, breast, tongue, gastric, larynx, and colon cancers [56]. Besides, supplements such as nutrients and minerals can lessen the risk of cancer by stimulating antioxidant activity, restraining the multiplication of cancerous cells, tending to DNA methylation, and advancing cell-cycle capture. In patients recently treated for cancer, a healthy eating routine rich in fruits and vegetables can alter biomarkers of cancer growth [57]. Notably, the redox status of the cancer cell which is under stress is not the same as the ordinary cell. Ordinary cells keep up cell homeostasis by the endogenous antioxidant mechanism which perfectly makes redox balance between the beginning and end of an overabundance of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Unfortunately, the remedial technique utilized in cancer treatment could cause an increased ROS level and also increases the endogenous ROS threshold level in cancer cells and may render ordinary cells of certain organs such as the kidney, liver, and heart ineffective against oxidative toxicity caused by oxidative stress. However, current research aims to distinguish the properties which may improve oxidative stress in cancer cells and protect ordinary cells from oxidative harm. Extensive research conducted in recent years has indicated that plant-based nutrients have a high substance of phytochemicals such as flavonoids and polyphenols with chemopreventive properties that focus on some key factors associated with the improvement of cancer [58].
Some chemo-preventive compounds having antioxidant properties have been noted to have the potential to mitigate the cytotoxic effect of radiation treatment in cancerous cells while reducing its harm to ordinary cells and tissues. In such a manner, different research has demonstrated that phytochemicals soy isoflavones such as glycitein, show anti-carcinogenic properties to an extent using their antioxidant activities, and can be utilized as powerful radio-sensitizers to improve the viability of radiotherapy-mediated suppression of the development and metastatic capacity of tumors. As cancer patients experience treatment some unfavorable side effects may develop such as weight reduction, or loss of appetite, and so on [59].
The ability of antioxidants to shield the cells from ROS created the premise of its production in food supplement enterprise, with the increase in the scientific literature on its helpful impacts and wide acknowledgment among the general public. Nonetheless, present research in cancer shows two different aspects of antioxidants. Antioxidants are both helpful as a treatment system for the cancer patient and also involve harmful impacts of expanding the cancer cell growth [60].
DNA protection utilizing antioxidant therapy has been a productive choice for clinical trials. Flavonoids and phenolic acid are being noted as effective agents against the side effects of chemotherapy. A strong antioxidant such as coenzyme Q is mainly applied as a treatment in cancer, inflammation, and maturing. Application of coenzyme Q, for example on human epidermal cells, ensures protection against cell death initiated by reactive oxygen species (ROS) [61]. Supplements of vitamin C, one of the most abundant dietary antioxidants, have been found to ensure protection against oxidative harm caused by tobacco smoking reducing the risk factor of cancer. The relation between reactive oxygen species and cancer initiation is long-established. Other than the significant levels of ROS in environmental carcinogens such as tobacco smoking, reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been demonstrated to be basic for the transformation of cells caused by a gene that can transform a cell into a tumor cell or a loss of tumor suppressors. For instance, the downregulation of the p53 gene (a tumor suppressor) prompts increased reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels and antioxidant-related medications hinder tumor formation in mice lacking this gene. Though every tumor is unique and the role of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and antioxidants can differ depending on hereditary, epigenetic, and environmental variation [62].
Discovery is being made implying that the impact which antioxidants have on cancer patients is truly harmful. It is important to note that a few antioxidants do behave as pro-oxidants under certain conditions. Another study showed that the b-carotene, a likely antioxidant, should be utilized cautiously, clear from its extremely reactive carotenoid radical development during the searching system of free radicals. The investigation indicated that the carotenoid radical structure which is scavenged through vitamin C can have harmful impacts on the initiation of cancer by UV-radiation with altering levels of vitamin C. The research implies that when antioxidants are taken by healthy persons, they present gainful impacts, however, when there is a beginning of tumor development, high portions of antioxidants should be avoided to stop the increase in expansion of tumor cells. It is also important to note that the antioxidants utilized as the cream can turn unstable through the responses related to UV-radiation which can prompt harmful impacts. These facts raise issues concerning antioxidant treatment, a potential solution could be the intake of selected antioxidants according to the cancer cells movement and utilizing standard eating routine involving such antioxidants instead of the intake of direct supplements [14].
Adequate verification is required to determine the efficacy of different anticancer agents combined with antioxidant supplements. In a recent study, no reports have shown that they cause cancer growth or an increase in mortality rate. However, if antioxidant supplements are to be utilized as aids for cancer patients, more research is required for the combination of cancer therapy and dietary supplement. The use of unauthorized supplements should be avoided [60].
There is uncertainty in determining whether antioxidants may have positively affected cancer treatment outcomes or prevent the harmful impacts of chemotherapy and radiotherapy. At first, it is important to consider all options of treatment and some patients are usually in good condition to endure the side effects of antioxidants. On second thought, some patients are not ready to endure the side effects of antioxidants, and to use treatment certain to work to some degree is more advisable. However, to be able to manage the side effects, these conditions should be revised; the dosage and types of antioxidants, the background and condition of the patient, and type of cancer and anticancer therapy. It is advisable to utilize a proof-based technique to choose the most appropriate supplement for cancer patients. Even though there are many opinions on the good and bad of antioxidants, it is difficult to clinically conclude that dietary antioxidants enhance therapeutic toxicities and also, there is no evidence of dietary antioxidant causing harm with cancer treatment, aside from smokers experiencing radiotherapy.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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