Localization and putative function of TRPV1 channels
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",isbn:"978-1-80356-201-8",printIsbn:"978-1-80356-200-1",pdfIsbn:"978-1-80356-202-5",doi:null,price:0,priceEur:0,priceUsd:0,slug:null,numberOfPages:0,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isSalesforceBook:!1,isNomenclature:!1,hash:"528a15fa0d821fb8bf4ffac5c3cc19f4",bookSignature:"Dr. Courtney Marsh",publishedDate:null,coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11705.jpg",keywords:"Anatomy, Physiology, Reproduction, Fertility, Contraception, Metabolism, Food, Appetite, Obesity, Mood, Cognition, Behaviour",numberOfDownloads:2,numberOfWosCitations:0,numberOfCrossrefCitations:0,numberOfDimensionsCitations:0,numberOfTotalCitations:0,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"February 4th 2022",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"April 7th 2022",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"June 6th 2022",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"August 25th 2022",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"October 24th 2022",dateConfirmationOfParticipation:null,remainingDaysToSecondStep:"4 months",secondStepPassed:!0,areRegistrationsClosed:!0,currentStepOfPublishingProcess:4,editedByType:null,kuFlag:!1,biosketch:"Dr. Courtney Marsh is a reproductive endocrinology and infertility division director at the University of Kansas School of Medicine. She is the research chair for the department of obstetrics and gynecology and is active in many research activities.",coeditorOneBiosketch:null,coeditorTwoBiosketch:null,coeditorThreeBiosketch:null,coeditorFourBiosketch:null,coeditorFiveBiosketch:null,editors:[{id:"255491",title:"Dr.",name:"Courtney",middleName:null,surname:"Marsh",slug:"courtney-marsh",fullName:"Courtney Marsh",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/255491/images/system/255491.jpg",biography:"After graduating from the University of Kansas School of Medicine (KUMC), Dr. Marsh went on to complete her obstetrics and gynecology residency at Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia. For fellowship, Dr. Marsh trained in reproductive endocrinology and infertility at the University of Michigan.\n\nAs a fellow, she researched hypothalamic feedback of estrogen as related to the pubertal onset and menstrual cyclicity. She also completed research using neuroimaging techniques to better understand polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS). She has several publications in the scientific literature and is also a member of many medical associations.\n\n Dr. Marsh specializes in treating women with infertility and PCOS. 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The signal transduction capacity of calcium depends on the 10,000-fold gradient across the plasma membrane with 2.5 mM extracellular and resting intracellular calcium ion concentration of approximately 100 nM. Low intracellular calcium concentrations are managed by the extrusion of calcium by ATPases and transporters [1, 2], whereas rapid and distinct increases in intracellular calcium up to micromolar concentrations are mediated by calcium-permeable ion channels of the plasma membrane as well intracellular calcium storage compartments. Calcium mediates its biological functions by protein structures capable to bind calcium. These calcium-binding domains are building blocks of the proteins modulated by calcium directly or part of calcium sensor proteins (calmodulin, calcium binding protein, calcineurin, S100, NCS etc) mediating calcium-dependent modulation by protein-protein interaction [3].
In excitable cells like neurons, heart or skeletal or smooth muscle cells, calcium currents first identified are mediated by voltage-gated calcium channels [4-6]. Later, additional calcium-permeable ion channels have been identified mediating hormone-induced calcium entry also in non-excitable cells like endothelial, epithelial, immune cells. The identity of these channels has been unravelled via analysis of phototransduction in flies [7]. Montell and Rubin cloned Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) from
TRP channels have been identified and characterized by common biochemical, immunochemical and physiological methods. The function of TRP channels can be directly studied by patch clamp electrophysiology as well as imaging techniques. Patch clamp techniques enable to monitor currents across the plasma membrane mediated by TRP channels using small electrodes in small pipettes together with the ground electrode in the bath solution [20]. In this configuration, the electrical activity of ion channels in the plasma membrane can be monitored. Depending on configuration and access of the electrode within the patch pipette, different configurations can be discriminated (cell-attached, whole cell, inside-out or outside-out). On the other hand, a growing number of methods has been developed to monitor changes in ion concentrations in intact cells using small chemical compounds or artificial proteins constructs [21]. Fura-2 is one of the best known calcium dyes, a small chemical compound changing its fluorescence features depending on calcium concentration [22]. In the meantime a variety of new compounds have been developed characterized by changed ion selectivity, changes in Kd values or fluorescence intensities. The intracellular concentration of the indicator dyes depend on the activity and capability of organic solute carrier to export the dyes and thereby lowering intracellular dye concentrations. This disadvantage can be overcome by the use of the new protein-based probes. These artificial proteins are constructs of ion binding domains conjugated with fluorescence protein domains transcribed transiently from transfected plasmids or permanently from genomic localized expression cassettes [23, 24].
The following review will give an introduction in the broad field of TRP channel research related to their expression in the central nervous system (CNS), their physiological function in neurons as well as in glia cells, and their role in neurological and psychiatric CNS disorders. The involvement of TRP channels in the pathophysiology of glioma and the sensing of pain is not discussed here [for comprehensive reviews please refer to [25, 26]].
The classic TRP channel family comprises seven different genes with proteins showing the highest sequence similarity to the prototypic
In the brain, TRPC1 expression was confirmed using a set of techniques ranging from RT-PCR, western blotting to confocal and electron microscopy. TRPC1 was detected in different brain regions of adult mice including the cerebellum, the hippocampus, the basal ganglia, the amygdala and the forebrain [29-31]. Strübing et al. showed that TRPC1 and TRPC5 channels are expressed in similar brain areas suggesting that they might form heteromers for example in the hippocampus [31]. However, empirical evidence for the existence of these heteromers is still lacking [32]. Only little is known about the distribution of TRPC channels in neurons. TRPC5 channels were suggested to be expressed mainly in distal dendrites and dendritic spines in lateral septal neurons. However, the expression pattern might differ in different brain areas and neurons [33]. Interestingly, TRPC1 protein was not only detected in neurons such as in the hippocampal CA1 or CA3 pyramidal cells [31], but also in astrocytes and oligodendrocyte progenitor cells [34-36]. Furthermore, mRNA for all TRPC channels including TRPC1 was found in the cortex of the mouse developing brain [37]. TRPC1, together with TRPC3 and TRPC5 were the main isoforms detected in this study. This expression pattern might be time dependent and species specific because TRPC4 and TRPC5 were the most prominent isoforms in the adult rat prefrontal cortex [38], whereas TRPC3 and TRPC6 channels are major TRPC mRNAs detected in adult mice [29]. TRPC2 being expressed in the rodent vomeronasal organ is clearly an exception [39]. In humans, TRPC2 is a pseudogene; the transcribed mRNA is functionless due to various stop codons [40]. In rodents, the transcription of the TRPC2 gene results in a functionally active protein involved in sensory responses to pheromones [39]. Genetic inactivation of TRPC2 in mice leads to loss of sex discrimination of male mice [41-43]. TRPC4 mRNA expression was observed in the adult mouse brain in the cortex, the hippocampus, the thalamus, the amygdala, the basal ganglia as well as the prefrontal cortex [29, 30, 38, 44]. TRPC4 protein expression was shown in the hippocampus, the cortex as well as the cerebellum [38, 44]. Using in situ hybridisation or immunocytochemistry, the expression of TRPC4 channels in different brain areas was specified. For example, TRPC4 was detected in cell layers of the prefrontal cortex [38] or in pyramidal CA1 and CA3 neurons of the hippocampus. In lateral septal neurons, TRPC4 channels were found on the cell surface of the soma and primary dendrites [33].
TRPC3 and TRPC6 mRNAs were demonstrated in the basal ganglia, the cerebellum, hippocampus as well as the forebrain [29]. TRPC3 protein expression in the brain especially in the prefrontal cortex and cerebellum was not only shown in rat and mouse tissues but also in human tissue obtained from subjects of different age groups [45]. TRPC3 channel expression was higher in the developing cortex compared to the adult cortex, whereas TRPC3 cerebral expression was not age-dependent. The protein expression of TRPC6 channels in the hippocampus is controversial. While several groups using pharmacological approaches or RT-PCR or western blot analyses describe TRPC6 channels being expressed in all hippocampal regions [46-51], Nagy and co-workers as well as Chung and colleagues show expression of TRPC6 channels selectively in the dentate gyrus and interneurons [52, 53]. Interestingly, in contrast to Tai et al. 2008, who described TRPC6 expression in hippocampal CA1 soma as well as in dendrites, Nagy’s data suggest that TRPC6 channels are mainly expressed in dendrites of interneurons and neurons from the dentate gyrus [49, 53]. In the developing brain TRPC6 channels protein expression peaked between postnatal day 7 and 14, a period known to be important for maximal dendritic growth [49]. For TRPC7, only low mRNA expression levels were published [29, 30]. TRPC3 channels are also expressed in astrocytes [54].
Melastatin, the founding member of the melastatin-like TRP family, was identified within a screen for proteins differentially regulated in melanocytes and melanoma cells [55]. Analysis of clinical data showed that the presence of melastatin expression in melanoma patients inversely correlates with the severity and survival [56-58]. Although melastatin is the first member of the TRPM family its activation mechanism and physiological role is still unclear. In line with the first description as protein involved in melanocyte physiology several reports confirmed this view. A completely unexpected function, the integration in retinal signal processing, has recently been discovered by the identification of TRPM1 expression in retinal ON bipolar cells [59]. The critical role of TRPM1 in mammalian phototransduction is also highlighted by several reports describing TRPM1 mutations in patients suffering from congenital stationary night blindness [60-63]. Only very little is known about TRPM1 function and expression in the CNS. Rather low mRNA TRPM1 expression was found in three studies in the brain [29, 64, 65].
From sequence similarity, TRPM3 is phylogenetically the closest neighbour to melastatin. TRPM3 is a polymodal ion channel activated by a variety of different stimuli like hypotonicity [66], sphingolipids [67], steroids [68, 69], nifedipine [69], and heat [70]. TRPM3 is activated by hypotonic extracellular solution and represents together with TRPV4, the volume-regulated TRP channels in the kidney [71, 72]. With the help of pharmacological tools, calcium entry induced by the application of hypotonic extracellular solutions can be assigned to TRPV4 and TRPM3 [71, 73-75]. While TRPV4 is activated by 4α-Isomers of phorbolesters and is blocked by ruthenium red, TRPM3 is activated by sphingosine and by pregnenolone-sulphate and blocked by gadolinium ions. TRPM3 is expressed in different areas of the CNS such as the hippocampus, the corpus callosum, the cortex or the hippocampus. These findings were reproduced in different studies using RT-PCR [29], northern blot [66, 76], as well as immunohistochemistry [77, 78]. TRPM3 channels are found in neurons (cerebral Purkinje neurons) as well as in oligodendrocytes [76-78]. Interestingly, neuronal expression of TRPM3 is present throughout development. However, it is almost lost in the adult brain [77]. In contrast, TRPM3 is highly expressed in oligodendrocytes in the adult brain.
The phylogenetically next neighbours to TRPM1 and TRPM3 are TRPM6 and TRPM7 [79]. The latter ones are involved in the body magnesium homeostasis [80]. While TRPM7 is ubiquitously expressed, TRPM6 is expressed in epithelial cells of the gut and the kidney and responsible for magnesium absorption and reabsorption. Loss-of-function mutations in TRPM6 are linked to autosomal-recessive hypomagnesemia with secondary hypocalcemia [81, 82]. TRPM6, TRPM7 and TRPM2 share a common structural feature. All three genes code for chimeric proteins combining a hexahelical transmembrane channel forming domain with a C-terminal enzymatic active domain [83]. In the case of TRPM6 and TRPM7, the pore-forming domains are fused to atypical alpha kinase-like structures. The functional role for the enzymatic domain is still under dispute. TRPM6 and TRPM7 are permeable for magnesium and for other essential divalent cations like Ca2+, Zn2+, Mn2+, Co2+ as well as toxic cations like Ba2+, Sr2+, Ni2+, Cd2+ [84, 85]. While TRPM6 mRNA was detected at low level in different brain areas [29], nothing is known about its role in the CNS. In contrast to TRPM6 channels, TRPM7 mRNA is highly expressed in the brain [29, 86]. In primary hippocampal neurons as well as in pyramidal hippocampal CA1 neurons in rat brain slices, TRPM7 was detected by different groups using immunocyto- and immunohistochemistry [87-89].
While divalent ions are the preferentially carried ion of TRPM6- and TRPM7-mediated currents, TRPM4 and TRPM5 form ion pores impermeable for divalent ions and allow selectively sodium to pass [90]. As sodium channels, TRPM4 and TRPM5 are paradoxically activated by increased intracellular calcium concentrations and represent calcium-activated sodium channels. TRPM4 is expressed in different brain regions including the thalamus, the hypothalamus, the medulla oblongata, the hippocampus and the spinal cord in mouse, rat as well as human brain (Lein et al., 2007; [29, 91]. In contrast to TRPM4, the expression of TRPM5 is restricted to a few cell types. TRPM5 is expressed in taste buds of the tongue and involved in the sensation of bitter and sweet taste [92, 93].
The remaining two TRPM channels proteins, TRPM2 and TRPM8, can also be discussed in the light of sensory functions. As already mentioned, TRPM2 represents a chimeric protein integrating an ADP-ribose hydrolase domain C-terminal to the pore-forming transmembrane domains [83]. Simultaneously to the ADP-ribose hydrolysing activity of the C-terminal enzymatic domain, TRPM2 is activated by ADP-ribose and it has been shown that the C-terminal part is essential for the function of the pore forming channel protein [94, 95]. Increased intracellular ADP-ribose concentrations are linked to genotoxic and/or oxidative stress of cells leading to the activation of the poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) modulating protein stability by the mono and poly ADP-ribosylation of proteins [96]. This process of protein stability regulation is additionally controlled by an enzyme called poly(ADP-ribose) glucohydrolase (PARG). PARG reduces the post-translational poly ADP-ribose modifications to mono ADP-ribosylation, thereby increasing the intracellular ADP-ribose concentration leading to the activation of TRPM2. In whole cell calcium imaging experiments, the extracellular application of hydrogen peroxide results in the activation of TRPM2 validating its function as redox sensor. TRPM2 channels are preferentially expressed in microglia cells, the host macrophages of the CNS [97, 98]. In addition, in several brain regions such as the hippocampus, the cortex and the substantia nigra TRPM2 channels were also detected in neurons using RT-PCR, western blotting as well as immunohistochemistry [99, 100]. It was suggested that TRPM2 and TRPM7 channels form heteromers because knock-down of TRPM7 with siRNA is accompanied by down-regulation of TRPM2 channels [101]. TRPM8, the cold sensor, is mainly expressed in sensory neurons. TRPM8 is activated at temperatures between 8 °C to 28 °C as well as the secondary plant compound menthol and synthetic cooling compounds. Together with TRPA1, TRPM8 represent the cold sensors in human. Noxious cold is mediated by TRPA1 [26, 102].
Vanilloid structures, derivates of vanillin comprising eugenol, zingerone and capsaicin, are found in many spice plants and known for their individual characteristic flavour. Beside the use as spice, vanilloid containing plant extracts are used as remedy in the various traditions of folk medicines. Therapeutic and experimental use of capsaicin in pain treatment inspired research resulting in the unravelling of the molecular target of capsaicin. The molecular target, an ion channel related to
The warm and heat sensors (TRPV1 to TRPV4) and the cold sensors (TRPM8 and TRPA1) represent the thermosensors of the human body and cover the complete temperature range necessary for human life. As warning sensors expressed in dorsal root ganglia, the thermo TRPs are also involved in sensation and modulation of pain and therefore interesting as molecular targets for new pain-treating drugs. Most studies dealing with the structural and functional properties of the TRPV channel family in the CNS are focused on TRPV1. However, TRPV2, TRPV3 and TRPV4 are also detected in the CNS. In contrast for TRPV5 and TRPV6, there is no evidence for their expression in the CNS.
\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\t | \n\t\t
Hippocampus (interneurons, dentate gyrus) | \n\t\t\tinvolved in anxiety and fear | \n\t\t\t[132, 151] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | involved in LTD | \n\t\t\t[152, 153] | \n\t\t
involved in LTP | \n\t\t\t[152] | \n\t\t|
involved in pathogenesis of epilepsy | \n\t\t\t[126, 127] | \n\t\t|
hypothalamus | \n\t\t\tcentral osmoregulation | \n\t\t\t[154, 155] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | central regulation of temperature | \n\t\t\t[108] | \n\t\t
Locus coeruleus | \n\t\t\tpotentiation of glutamate, | \n\t\t\t\n\t\t |
\n\t\t\t | adrenaline or norepinephrine release | \n\t\t\t[151] | \n\t\t
Cortex | \n\t\t\tinvolved in cortical excitability | \n\t\t\t[156] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | involved in pathogenesis of epilepsy | \n\t\t\t[126] | \n\t\t
Striatum | \n\t\t\tfacilitation of glutamatergic | \n\t\t\t[157] | \n\t\t
\n\t\t\t | postsynaptic neurotransmission | \n\t\t\t[158] | \n\t\t
glutamate release | \n\t\t\t[159] | \n\t\t
Localization and putative function of TRPV1 channels
TRPV1 expression in the CNS was investigated using a variety of methods ranging from pharmacological characterization and immunohistochemistry [105] to RT-PCR [106], western blotting to radio ligand binding [107]. Beside the great variety of methods and studies the expression of TRPV1 in the brain remains controversial. Several studies showed a wide spread TRPV1 expression in the CNS suggesting an expression of TRPV1 in pyramidal neurons of the CA1, CA3 area of the hippocampus, the dentate gyrus, the locus coeruleus, the hypothalamus, the substantia nigra, the cerebellum, the cortex and other limbic structures [108]. Other studies reported TRPV1 expression which was highly restricted to primary sensory ganglia with minimal expression in few brain regions which are adjacent to the caudal hypothalamus [107] (expression profiles and methods are summarized in Table 1). However several groups used TRPV1 agonists or antagonists as well as TRPV1 knock-out mice to define the role of TRPV1 channels in the CNS and reported versatile functions in different brain regions such as the hippocampus, the substantia nigra, the cortex or the hypothalamus. TRPV1 channels are not only activated by capsaicin but also by the CB1 agonist anandamide [109], other endovanilloids such as N-acyldopamines or the endogenous lipoxygenase derivates HPETE which are released for example in the hippocampus after mGluR1 activation [108]. Importantly, colocalization of TRPV1 and CB1 receptors was found in different mouse brain regions including the pyramidal cells of the hippocampus and basal glia [110, 111]. Regarding its cellular localisation, TRPV1 channels were detected in neuronal cell bodies, presynaptic terminals as well as in dendrites on postsynaptic spines [105, 106, 112, 113]. Furthermore, these channels are also present in pericytes and at the feet of astrocytes surrounding small vessels [105, 114].
TRPV2 channels are widely distributed in the brain compromising the colocalisation with TRPV1 in the cortex [19, 112, 115, 116]. TRPV3 mRNA was detected throughout the cortex, hippocampus, thalamus, striatum and cerebellum [117, 118]. TRPV4 mRNA is present in the hypothalamus, the cerebellum, basal ganglia, as well as in pyramidal neurons of the hippocampus [29, 119, 120]. Importantly, TRPV1-4 were also found in astrocytes [121, 122].
Rett syndrome (RTT) is severe X-linked neurodevelopmental disorder which is unique among genetic, chromosomal and other developmental disorders because of its extreme female gender bias, early normal development, and subsequent developmental regression with loss of motor and language skills. RTT is caused by heterozygosity for mutations in the X-linked gene
Importantly, TRPC3 and TRPC6 channel expression and function was significantly lower in the hippocampus and several other brain regions of Mecp2 mutant mice revealing a cellular phenotype certainly contributing to hippocampal dysfunction in Mecp2 mutant mice as well as Rett syndrome etiology. These results suggest that compounds which enhance BDNF release or boost TRPC3/TRPC6 channel function might be an interesting new preclinical concept which needs to be evaluated in Rett mouse models [124, 125].
Recent data suggests that TRPV1 channels might contribute to the pathophysiology of epilepsy. In the cortex and hippocampus from patients suffering from mesial temporal lobe epilepsy, the most common form of chronic and intractable epilepsy, TRPV1 mRNA and protein expression was significantly increased compared to healthy controls [126]. In a mouse model of temperal lobe epilepsy, these findings were supported [127]. The expression of TRPV1 in the dentate gyrus was significantly enhanced. Furthermore, capsaicin and anandamide significantly enhanced glutamate release in a TRPV1-dependent manner in mice with temperal lobe epilepsy [128, 129]. In contrast, the TRPV1 antagonist capsazepine reduced 4-aminopyridine-induced seizure-like activity in mice [128].
Beside TRPV1 channels, data from knockout mice point to a role of TRPC1/4/5 as well as for TRPC3/6 channels in the pathophysiology of epilepsy. Phelan et al. described a major role of TRPC1 and TRPC4 channels in the plateau potential of lateral septal neurons which show a high vulnerability to seizure-induced neuronal death as well as direct excitotoxicity by the application of group I mGluR receptor agonists [33].
TRPC3 channels are also discussed to play a “toxic” role in status epilepticus [46, 130]. After pilocarpine-induced status epilepticus in rats, TRPC3 expression was significantly enhanced in CA1, CA3 pyramidal neurons as well as dentate granule cells, whereas TRPC6 channel expression was reduced in these areas. Using two pharmacological approaches, first the inhibition of TRPC3 with the selective antagonist Pyr3 and second activation of TRPC6 channels with the TRPC6 activator hyperforin protected against neuronal damages following the status epilepticus [46].
TRP channels might be involved in several processes relevant for the pathophysiology of migraine such as altered central calcium homeostasis, multimodal sensory and pain perception, or central or peripheral sensitization. Therefore, a recent study investigated single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in TRP genes in 1040 patients and 1037 healthy controls in Spain. For TRPV1, a nominal association was found for TRPV1 rs 222741 in the overall migraine group, for TRPV3 a correlation with TRPV3 rs7217270 was detected in the migraine group with aura [131].
TRPV1 and TRPV3 channels might be involved in fear and anxiety [107, 132]. TRPV1 knockout mice showed decreased anxiety-related behavior in several behavior paradigms such as the elevated plus maze test or the light dark test [107, 132]. Furthermore, fear and stress reaction were also reduced in TRPV1 knockout mice [107]. Therefore, TRPV1 antagonists such as capsazepine were investigated when they were applied directly into the ventral hippocampus or the periaqueductal grey. In both studies capsazepine showed anxiolytic effects. Recent studies investigated if compounds which act on both TRPV1 as well as CB1 receptors might be more effective than selective TRPV1 blocker [133]. N-arachidonoyl-serotonin which blocks TRPV1 channels and indirectly activates CB1 receptors and Arachidonyl-2-chloroethylamide (ACEA) which activates both TRPV1 as well as CB1 receptors were investigated. N-arachidonyl-serotonin was more effective than arachidonyl-2-chloroethylamide in behavioral paradigms for anxiety [134, 135]. The TRPV1/CB1 agonist ACEA showed anxiolytic effects in a bell shaped dose dependency in a mouse model using electrical stimulation of a brain area, the medial dorsal periaqueductal gray, which has an important role in orchestrating anxiety- and panic-related responses [133, 136]. The panicolytic effects are dependent on CB1 receptors. Importantly, in higher concentrations ACEA loses its anxiolytic effect probably via TRPC1 activation. This assumption is supported by the finding that ACEA effects in higher concentrations can be unmasked by the addition of the TRPV1 antagonist capsazepine. TRPV1 blockade per se also showed panicolytic effects suggesting opposite functions for TRPV1 and CB1 receptors in the modulation of panic-like responses [136].
The evidence for the role of TRPC6 channels in depression comes from the active antidepressant constituent of St. Johns wort, hyperforin. Hyperforin resembles in its effects several classical antidepressants and neurotrophic factors such brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) or nerve growth factor (NGF) [137-140]. Hyperforin inhibits neurotransmitter reuptake and improves synaptic plasticity ranging from increased neuritic outgrowth in PC12 cells to altered spine morphology in CA1 and CA3 neurons of the hippocampus via the activation of TRPC6 channels [137-139]. Recently, we showed that several signal cascades are involved in the alteration of synaptic plasticity such as Ras/MEK/ERK, PI3K/Akt as well as CAMKIV which finally result in CREB phorsphorylation [137]. In addition, enhanced CREB phosphorylation and TRPC6 channel expression was detected in the cortex but not the hippocampus after chronic hyperforin treatment for 4 weeks in adult mice [141]. However, hippocampal neurogenesis remained unchanged. Bouron et al. suggests that not only the hyperforin-mediated calcium influx but also its effects on intracellular zinc might be important for its antidepressant activity [142, 143]
Oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, and disrupted intracellular Ca2+ homeostasis are discussed to play a role in bipolar disorder (BD). TRPM2 channels, as a regulator and connector between reactive oxygen species (ROS) and intracellular Ca2+, seem to be implicated in bipolar disorder. In B-lymphocytes from patients, TRPM2 channel expression is elevated associated with enhanced intracellular Ca2+ levels [144]. In addition, several groups reported genetic association between several intronic and extronic single nucleotide polymorphisms in TRPM2 and BD [145-149]. In a recent study using B-lymphocytes from small group of patients (n = 6) suffering from bipolar disorder, no change in TRPM2 expression could be detected. However, they were more susceptible to oxidative stress when stimulated with H2O2 [150].
Multiple sclerosis is a neurodegenerative disease caused by chronic inflammation of the CNS. Schattling et al. recently demonstrated that TRPM4 channels are involved in the pathogenesis of multiple sclerosis by using TRPM4 knockout mice and inducing an experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) in these animals [91]. TRPM4 channels are located in hippocampal neurons from mice and humans as well as in the spinal cord and cortex. TRPM4 deficiency reduced overall disease severity. Importantly, deficiency or pharmacological inhibition of TRPM4 resulted in reduced axonal and neuronal degeneration without altering EAE relevant immune function. In addition, axonal TRPM4 expression in axons was significantly elevated in demyelinating white matter brain lesions of patients with multiple sclerosis in comparison to healthy controls. The authors further demonstrate that TRPV4 channels are involved in toxic effects of high glutamate levels which are a major contributor to neurodegeneration in multiple sclerosis.
Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels comprise a large family of non selective, calcium-permeable channel proteins which are activated and regulated by different mechanisms. TRP channels respond to secondary plant compounds as well as intracellular stimuli such as calcium, metabolites of the arachidonic acid or phosphatidylinositol signal transduction pathways. TRP channels sense environmental stimuli such as changes in temperature, osmolarity and pH and represent the molecular target of pheromones, taste and secondary plant compounds. The broad function of TRP channels in CNS physiology becomes apparent through their involvement in several psychiatric and neurological CNS disorders. This makes them an interesting topic for further research and drug development. The diversity of the chemical structures and the selectivity of the naturally occurring compounds modulating TRP channels show the possibility for pharmacological modulation of TRP channels and inspire the development of new synthetic structures for TRP channel interference at bench and bedside.
Desertification is at the forefront of the environmental crises currently facing the international community. In sensitive and fragile desert-adapted ecosystems, degradation processes can easily be converted into an irreversible trend. Desertification reduces access to ecosystem services, increases food insecurity and poverty, and affects communities’ well-being [1]. Desertification is land degradation or the impoverishment of arid, semi-arid (drylands), and some subhumid ecosystems, resulting from many factors including human activities and climatic change. The assessment of global scale desertification vulnerability to climate change and human activity is important to help decision-makers formulate the best strategies for land rehabilitation and combat global desertification in sensitive areas [2]. The range and intensity of desertification have increased in some dryland areas over the past several decades [3].
Drought and unreliable and variable rains are recurrent problems. Even without climate change, drylands face a daunting array of threats including population pressure, social changes (e.g. settlement of traditionally nomadic peoples), and exploitive agricultural and grazing practices that increase deforestation, soil erosion, salinization, and water depletion. Many political and institutional problems have conspired to degrade 20% of the world’s drylands, including 22% of Asia’s and 25% of Africa’s susceptible drylands [4].
Regions like Africa are particularly vulnerable to desertification since two-thirds of the continent is made up of either deserts or drylands, while 73% of its agricultural drylands are already degraded. More than two-thirds of its population is composed of subsistence farmers, and, therefore, the impact of land degradation is immediate and devastating [5].
Desertification may occur as a result of one process or the interaction of several functions. For example, wind erosion is one of the essential desertification processes in arid regions of the world, which alone or combined with other processes leads to desertification. The main desertification processes refer to the destruction of plant resources, soil resources, soil erosion, and water erosion, which are further explored below. In addition to natural factors, policies in Greece or Europe in recent decades have been reported to contribute to intensive land cultivation, overgrazing, rural–urban migration, etc., which directly affect desertification [6].
Degradation of vegetation through harvesting and destruction is the dominant desertification process. Ma et al. [7] cited vegetation degradation as an essential factor in southwest China’s socio-economic development. The researchers also identified nutrients in the soil, especially N, P, and K, as the main factors influencing plant species composition in rocky desert areas. Vegetation conservation in Greece has been introduced as an influential factor in reducing water and wind erosion [6]. Vegetation cover and vegetation composition are the most common characteristics of many terrestrial ecosystems. These characteristics are associated with many ecosystem services, including biodiversity, soil and water conservation, food production, and fiber. It is also common to use these two indicators to assess land degradation and rehabilitation and rehabilitation project success. Deforestation contributes to about 17% of annual human greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions [8]. Humans resort to deforestation to meet their wood and energy needs. Deforestation for fuelwood is much more significant in developing countries with high populations and less access to commercial energy sources. Forests are also being destroyed to provide more land for agriculture [9]. Desertification risk scenarios in northeastern Brazil predict that 75% of forest areas will decline from 2010 to 2040. In this scenario, most forest areas will be replaced by agricultural lands [1]. Therefore, lands with more suitable vegetation are more resistant to degradation. In contrast, poor vegetation areas are fragile and accelerate desertification over time due to adverse environmental factors.
Land degradation in recent years has become a primary global concern due to increased waste disposal and demand for food production. Soil flexibility is limited, and soil degradation can never be easily reversed. In this century, the focus of land degradation has been on soil erosion, since forests, grasslands, and wetlands have been destroyed for crop production.
Severe land use without proper soil management, especially in fragile ecosystems, can accelerate desertification [10]. Human activities or climate change negatively affecting vegetation can lead to irreversible soil degradation in semi-arid regions [11]. Soil degradation in the semi-arid region of northeastern Brazil is driven by a limited set of variables, the most important of which are climatic, economic, and population growth variables. These factors lead to the expansion of agricultural lands and overgrazing, which increase the rate of deforestation [12].
Soil degradation processes:
These refer to drastic changes in the soil’s physical properties, including reduced permeability and porosity, reduced stability of the soil structure, and loosening and compaction of the soil [13]. Root zone compaction is the main form of physical degradation in arable lands and pastures, reducing soil fertility and reducing the amount of soil organic matter. Low structural stability of compacted soils leads to high vulnerability to mechanical stresses from agricultural operations. Therefore, reducing soil permeability, increasing runoff, increasing erosion, reducing soil aeration, and reducing biomass production are side effects of soil compaction and tuber formation that should be considered an indicator to assess the intensity of desertification.
A change in the soil’s chemical properties in such a way that it interferes with nutrient uptake is called soil chemical degradation. Soil salinization, soil acidity imbalance, soil leaching, and ultimately reduced soil fertility are the most critical consequences of chemical soil degradation. Chemical degradation of soil can also occur due to increased concentrations of some toxic components such as aluminum.
Microorganisms in agricultural soils play a crucial role in soil fertility. The reduction of soil organic matter and living microorganisms in soil is called biodegradation. Humus is an essential soil substance that increases soil porosity, soil stability, soil water holding capacity, and micronutrients. Organic matter depletion is the first state of biodegradation that leads to changes in other soil properties. In arid regions, depletion of soil organic matter leads to a decrease in soil moisture-holding capacity, a reduction in crops, and an increase in soil erosion [14]. Land-use change affects the physical, chemical, and biological properties of the soil. The conversion of pastures into agricultural lands in some areas of Iran has reduced the soil quality and increased soil degradation. It has been reported that the transformation of ranges to agricultural fields in three regions in Isfahan province has reduced soil organic matter by about 26% in agricultural lands, which is probably due to poor vegetation density (Figure 1) [15].
Percentage of soil organic matter in the lands of three regions. The same letters for the regions indicate no statistical difference at the 5% level with the LSD test [
In the last century, the significant destruction of land has been through soil erosion, as the areas of forests, grasslands, and wetlands have been removed for crop production. Soil erosion is one of the essential desertification processes during which soil particles are separated, transported, and deposited. Moreover, the soil decays and its organic matter decreases in the process of erosion. Humans obtain more than 99.7% of their food (calories) from land and less than 0.3% from the oceans and other aquatic ecosystems. About 10 Mha of crops are lost each year due to soil erosion, thus reducing the amount of arable land available for food production [16]. Water erosion means the removal, transport, and deposition of soil particles by rain, runoff, and gravity Figure 2 [18] shows the mechanism of water erosion. Rain erosion is one of the most critical water erosion types, which occurs more widely than other types. As rainfall occurs, the raindrops onto the soil surface and makes the first contact with the soil [19]. The loosening of soil particles or the detachment process takes place when soil particles disengage as the rain touches down on the soil. Afterward, soil particles are transported by rolling, splashing, or dragging and translocate to another place. Finally, soil particles are deposited at some other place at a lower elevation [17].
Erosion stages by water [
The process of land degradation in arid areas is called desertification, which affects the land capacity to provide ecosystem services, such as food production or biodiversity hosting, to name a few. It is stimulated by both human activity and climate and depends on the specific context. More than 1 billion people in about 100 countries face some of the risks associated with the effects of desertification [20]. The risk of desertification can increase in parts of the world that may become arid due to climate change.
According to the United Nations (UN), about 2.1 billion people worldwide (25–30%) living in arid and semi-arid regions [21] are among the poorest people. Approximately 70% of rainfed areas are located in Africa and Asia (Figure 3) [3]. Asia, followed by Africa and South America, have the largest populations in arid regions [23]. The global population growth rates are very high, especially in dry areas. The rapid population growth increases the pressure on land and natural resources that have already been oppressed and leads to poverty by degrading land and increasing desertification [24].
Dryland categories across geographical areas (continents and Pacific region). Data: TerraClimate precipitation and potential evapotranspiration (1980–2015) [
Parivar et al. [25] comparisons of open, green, and impervious surface areas (ha) in Yazd, Iran for 1991 and 2018 (Figure 4). The continuum, impermeable levels (built area) increased strongly during the period under study. From 1991 to 2018, there was an 80% decrease in open space, 63% decrease in green space, and a 90% increase in built-up area. In this way, population growth and urban development reduce green space, which leads to desertification.
Land areas (ha) in Yazd categorized as open, green, and built-up space (1991–2018) [
Numerous factors affect the intensification and advancement of desertification, which can be classified into two categories, anthropogenic and climatic factors.
Human factors play an intensifying role in the development of desertification in arid and semi-arid ecosystems. These factors have a significant contribution to the process of land degradation. The annual plants are destroyed and the soil dries out when rainfall is low, thereby providing water and wind erosion and forming deserts and desertification globally. Some researchers have identified humans as a significant cause of desertification [4]. The shares of human factors and natural elements involved in desertification were 87 and 13%, respectively [26]. Changes in the use and destruction of forests and pastures, overgrazing, salinization of water and soil resources, burning of crop residues, improper use of groundwater, irregular plowing, and failure to observe proper crop rotation in agriculture, fire, sediment settlement, development of urban areas, and industrial activities are among the most important factors influencing desertification by humans. Deserts are divided into two general categories—natural deserts of environmental origin and human deserts. Natural deserts are commonly found in arid and hyper-arid regions of the world, and humans have a minor role in their formation, making bare natural landscapes without vegetation. In addition to arid and hyper-arid regions, human deserts can be seen in other climatic zones, including semi-arid to humid regions.
Climate change can further increase the risk of desertification for those regions of the world that may change into drylands for climatic reasons. Because arid areas are used for various purposes, such as agriculture, grazing, and gathering wood for fuel, the multiple activities performed in them can exacerbate the problem of desertification and bring about lasting changes in rainfed ecosystems. In this regard, drought, irregularity in rainfall, topographic factors, and radiation angle are the most critical environmental factors affecting desertification.
Although the effects of climate change can be seen in all activities, its impact on agricultural production seems to be more pronounced; annual damage from the adverse impacts of climate change due to rising temperatures, long periods of drought and desertification has been reported to be far greater than other activities affected by this change. For example, climate change has directly reduced crop productivity by reducing crop yields [27]. Barren ecosystems have low and variable rainfall, so climate change and other factors that lead to prolonged drought can rapidly reduce these ecosystems biological productivity. These changes may be temporary and last only one season, or they may last for years and decades [3].
One of the most important causes of desertification, especially in arid and semi-arid regions of the world, is improper activities in agriculture. Dense and improper cultivation of crops reduce soil structure stability and lead to soil degradation and erosion [28]. When the soil’s pressure increases due to agricultural operations and land clearing, soil fertility decreases, resulting in soil degradation and erosion.
Irrigation systems have developed over time as an agricultural technique in arid areas with low rainfall. If irrigation methods are misapplied, water loss and lowering of groundwater aquifers will lead to salinization and alkalinization of lands. Therefore, one of the most critical factors in desertification in agriculture is improper irrigation, which will ultimately lead to the destructive effects of drought, the phenomenon of soil and water salinization due to improper management of agricultural land [28]. Salinity is caused by improper irrigation in soils of arid and semi-arid regions. The leading cause of salinity and alkalinity in some parts of the world is the entry of low-quality water. Improper irrigation and lack of proper drainage raise the groundwater level and form a surface saline aquifer. With soil degradation, vegetation decreases and the soil is exposed to water and wind erosion, and its fertility is severely reduced. Therefore, knowing the main reasons for the salinization of soil and water in the world’s regions and proper management of such lands can help reduce the process of desertification.
Changes in the soil’s chemical composition with the use of fertilizers or chemical pesticides lead to changes in the soil’s physical condition, which increases soil erosion. On the other hand, nitrogen released from chemical fertilizers and its mixing with groundwater lead to pollution of groundwater resources, which is recognized as a severe problem in some parts of the world [29].
Effects of fire on vegetation cover change and expedite the process of desertification by humans is proven. The severity of the fire damage depends on the conditions of the area. In arid lands, severe fires lead to the extinction of plant, animal, and soil species, which in some cases alter ecosystems and contribute to intensified desertification. Frequent burning of straw and crop residues and reducing land fertility are also influential factors in desertification.
There is an important concern about the conversion of agricultural land to barren desert, exacerbated by desertification in countries such as Iran. Accordingly, desertification is one of the most important factors in Iran, which has been exacerbated by drought. The result of drought and desertification is a reduction in Iran’s land suitable for agriculture. Mesgaran et al. [30] classified Iran’s land suitability for cropping as (million ha): very good 0.4% (0.6), good 2.2% (3.6), medium 7.9% (12.8), poor 11.4% (18.5), very poor 6.3% (10.2), unsuitable 60.0% (97.4), and excluded areas 11.9% (19.3) (Figure 5). Hence, reducing suitable land for agriculture means reducing food production, which threatens food security.
Classification of Iran’s land suitability for agriculture based on soil properties, terrain, and climate conditions [
The most critical role of the agricultural sector is to ensure sustainable food security. So food security is, by definition, a situation where everyone has access to adequate, healthy, and nutritious food [31]. Therefore, desertification can be considered one of the most important factors limiting agricultural product production and, ultimately, the challenge of food security. According to Figure 6, if the population grows at a fixed exponential rate, the amount of food required will increase exponentially. But Malthus held that the output of food could increase only by a constant amount each period. Given these two different growth processes, food requirements would eventually catch up with food production. The population hits the subsistence level of food production at the Malthusian trap, shown here at point T [32].
The Malthusian growth model [
Drought stress in arid and semi-arid regions such as Iran has posed a serious challenge to sustainable production to provide food for the growing population. Concerns about the vulnerability of agricultural production become more pronounced when there is a proper understanding of the impact of climate change. If desertification leads to degradation and degradation of water, soil, and vegetation resources as three factors of survival in vulnerable ecosystems, food security will face serious problems. Thelma [33] reported that desertification has exacerbated the problem of food security in eleven states in northern Nigeria and its effect is very glaring on the agricultural sector.
In 1977, at the United Nations Conference on Desertification (UNCOD) in Nairobi, Kenya, representatives, and delegates first contemplated desertification’s worldwide effects. The conference explored the causes and contributing factors and also possible local and regional solutions to the phenomenon. Also, the delegates considered the varied consequences of desertification, such as crop failures or decreased yields in rain-fed farmland, the loss of perennial plant cover and thus loss of forage for livestock, reduced woody biomass, and therefore scarcity of fuelwood and building materials, a decrease in potable water stocks from reductions in surface water and groundwater flow, increased dune intrusion onto croplands and settlements, increased flooding due to rising sedimentation in rivers and lakes, and amplified air and water pollution from dust and sedimentation [34].
Non-desertification means preventing desertification of areas exposed to desertification due to destructive human actions, not destroying existing natural deserts. Climate, as the two main climatic factors that have many changes and fluctuations, plays an essential role in forming arid and desert areas. Since arid and semi-arid regions occupy a large part of the world area, identifying the potentials in these areas and discovering resources to provide management solutions to take advantage of existing potentials and prevent desertification from Is of particular importance [3].
The priority in combating this phenomenon is to prevent the destruction of lands that have not yet been destroyed or where the descent rate is low. In contrast, for the conquered lands, remedial plans should be considered. According to international experts, including the following in the medium and long-term goals can significantly improve desert management activities.
Strengthen awareness and development of information and care systems for areas exposed to desertification and drought, including the economic and social dimensions of these ecosystems
Development of comprehensive desertification plans and their inclusion in national development plans and programs and national environmental plans.
Combating land degradation through soil conservation, afforestation, and reforestation.
Develop comprehensive compensation and mobilization programs to combat drought, including self-help arrangements for drought-prone areas and programs for environmental refugees.
Develop coordinated development programs to eradicate poverty and improve living standards in areas prone to desertification.
Encourage and improve the level of public cooperation and environmental education with a focus on desertification control and drought management
Because rainfed environments are used for a variety of human purposes (such as agriculture, livestock grazing, and timber collection), the various activities performed in them can exacerbate desertification problems and bring about lasting changes in rainfed ecosystems. Desertification is a phenomenon that occurs as a result of natural or human factors. In recent decades, Desertification has intensified with the loss of fertile lands, destruction of pastures and agricultural lands, salinization and erosion of lands, and quantitative and qualitative reduction of surface and groundwater. This phenomenon poses a serious threat to most of the world’s ecosystems, mainly arid and semi-arid regions.
In recent years, due to the overexploitation of natural resources, this process has become more intense and severe, and comprehensive management is needed to deal with it. Implementing and implementing projects appropriate to this challenge and benefiting from successful practical programs in the world can effectively reduce the desertification process, especially in arid and semi-arid regions. In general, correct knowledge and assessment of the state of the world’s deserts will help manage these areas.
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Challenges of water treatment in rural and urban areas will be outlined.",book:{id:"6682",slug:"the-relevance-of-hygiene-to-health-in-developing-countries",title:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries",fullTitle:"The Relevance of Hygiene to Health in Developing Countries"},signatures:"Josephine Treacy",authors:[{id:"238173",title:"Dr.",name:"Josephine",middleName:null,surname:"Treacy",slug:"josephine-treacy",fullName:"Josephine Treacy"}]},{id:"44219",doi:"10.5772/54973",title:"Disaster Management Discourse in Bangladesh: A Shift from Post-Event Response to the Preparedness and Mitigation Approach Through Institutional Partnerships",slug:"disaster-management-discourse-in-bangladesh-a-shift-from-post-event-response-to-the-preparedness-and",totalDownloads:4124,totalCrossrefCites:4,totalDimensionsCites:28,abstract:null,book:{id:"3054",slug:"approaches-to-disaster-management-examining-the-implications-of-hazards-emergencies-and-disasters",title:"Approaches to Disaster Management",fullTitle:"Approaches to Disaster Management - Examining the Implications of Hazards, Emergencies and Disasters"},signatures:"C. Emdad Haque and M. Salim Uddin",authors:[{id:"163390",title:"Dr.",name:"C. Emdad",middleName:null,surname:"Haque",slug:"c.-emdad-haque",fullName:"C. Emdad Haque"},{id:"168399",title:"Mr.",name:"Mohammed S",middleName:null,surname:"Uddin",slug:"mohammed-s-uddin",fullName:"Mohammed S Uddin"}]},{id:"59705",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74943",title:"Augmented Reality Trends in Education between 2016 and 2017 Years",slug:"augmented-reality-trends-in-education-between-2016-and-2017-years",totalDownloads:2513,totalCrossrefCites:19,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:"The aim of this chapter is to review literature regarding using augmented reality (AR) in education articles published in between 2016 and 2017 years. The literature source was Web of Science and SSCI, SCI-EXPANDED, A&HCI, CPCI-S, CPCI-SSH, and ESCI indexes. Fifty-two articles were reviewed; however, 14 of them were not been included in the study. As a result, 38 articles were examined. Level of education, field of education, and material types of AR used in education and reported educational advantages of AR have been investigated. All articles are categorized according to target groups, which are early childhood education, primary education, secondary education, high school education, graduate education, and others. AR technology has been mostly carried out in primary and graduate education. “Science education” is the most explored field of education. Mobile applications and marker-based materials on paper have been mostly preferred. The major advantages indicated in the articles are “Learning/Academic Achievement,” “Motivation,” and “Attitude”.",book:{id:"6543",slug:"state-of-the-art-virtual-reality-and-augmented-reality-knowhow",title:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow",fullTitle:"State of the Art Virtual Reality and Augmented Reality Knowhow"},signatures:"Rabia M. Yilmaz",authors:[{id:"225838",title:"Dr.",name:"Rabia",middleName:null,surname:"Yilmaz",slug:"rabia-yilmaz",fullName:"Rabia Yilmaz"}]},{id:"45760",doi:"10.5772/56967",title:"Parenting and Culture – Evidence from Some African Communities",slug:"parenting-and-culture-evidence-from-some-african-communities",totalDownloads:9634,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:27,abstract:null,book:{id:"3440",slug:"parenting-in-south-american-and-african-contexts",title:"Parenting in South American and African Contexts",fullTitle:"Parenting in South American and African Contexts"},signatures:"Patricia Mawusi Amos",authors:[{id:"162496",title:"Mrs.",name:"Patricia",middleName:"Mawusi",surname:"Mawusi Amos",slug:"patricia-mawusi-amos",fullName:"Patricia Mawusi Amos"}]}],mostDownloadedChaptersLast30Days:[{id:"58890",title:"Philosophy and Paradigm of Scientific Research",slug:"philosophy-and-paradigm-of-scientific-research",totalDownloads:14128,totalCrossrefCites:10,totalDimensionsCites:17,abstract:"Before carrying out the empirical analysis of the role of management culture in corporate social responsibility, identification of the philosophical approach and the paradigm on which the research carried out is based is necessary. Therefore, this chapter deals with the philosophical systems and paradigms of scientific research, the epistemology, evaluating understanding and application of various theories and practices used in the scientific research. The key components of the scientific research paradigm are highlighted. Theories on the basis of which this research was focused on identification of the level of development of the management culture in order to implement corporate social responsibility are identified, and the stages of its implementation are described.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]},{id:"74550",title:"School Conflicts: Causes and Management Strategies in Classroom Relationships",slug:"school-conflicts-causes-and-management-strategies-in-classroom-relationships",totalDownloads:2339,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:10,abstract:"Conflicts cannot cease to exist, as they are intrinsic to human beings, forming an integral part of their moral and emotional growth. Likewise, they exist in all schools. The school is inserted in a space where the conflict manifests itself daily and assumes relevance, being the result of the multiple interpersonal relationships that occur in the school context. Thus, conflict is part of school life, which implies that teachers must have the skills to manage conflict constructively. Recognizing the diversity of school conflicts, this chapter aimed to present its causes, highlighting the main ones in the classroom, in the teacher-student relationship. It is important to conflict face and resolve it with skills to manage it properly and constructively, establishing cooperative relationships, and producing integrative solutions. Harmony and appreciation should coexist in a classroom environment and conflict should not interfere, negatively, in the teaching and learning process. This bibliography review underscore the need for during the teachers’ initial training the conflict management skills development.",book:{id:"7827",slug:"interpersonal-relationships",title:"Interpersonal Relationships",fullTitle:"Interpersonal Relationships"},signatures:"Sabina Valente, Abílio Afonso Lourenço and Zsolt Németh",authors:[{id:"324514",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Sabina",middleName:"N.",surname:"Valente",slug:"sabina-valente",fullName:"Sabina Valente"},{id:"326375",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Abílio",middleName:"Afonso",surname:"Lourenço",slug:"abilio-lourenco",fullName:"Abílio Lourenço"},{id:"329177",title:"Dr.",name:"Zsolt",middleName:null,surname:"Németh",slug:"zsolt-nemeth",fullName:"Zsolt Németh"}]},{id:"52475",title:"Teenage Pregnancies: A Worldwide Social and Medical Problem",slug:"teenage-pregnancies-a-worldwide-social-and-medical-problem",totalDownloads:8307,totalCrossrefCites:6,totalDimensionsCites:8,abstract:"Teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood are a cause for concern worldwide. From a historical point of view, teenage pregnancies are nothing new. For much of human history, it was absolutely common that girls married during their late adolescence and experienced first birth during their second decade of life. This kind of reproductive behavior was socially desired and considered as normal. Nowadays, however, the prevention of teenage pregnancies and teenage motherhood is a priority for public health in nearly all developed and increasingly in developing countries. For a long time, teenage pregnancies were associated with severe medical problems; however, most of data supporting this viewpoint have been collected some decades ago and reflect mainly the situation of per se socially disadvantaged teenage mothers. According to more recent studies, teenage pregnancies are not per se risky ones. A clear risk group are extremely young teenage mothers (younger than 15 years) who are confronted with various medical risks, such as preeclampsia, preterm labor, and small for gestational age newborns but also marked social disadvantage, such as poverty, unemployment, low educational level, and single parenting. In the present study, the prevalence and outcome of teenage pregnancies in Austria are focused on.",book:{id:"5392",slug:"an-analysis-of-contemporary-social-welfare-issues",title:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues",fullTitle:"An Analysis of Contemporary Social Welfare Issues"},signatures:"Sylvia Kirchengast",authors:[{id:"188289",title:"Prof.",name:"Sylvia",middleName:null,surname:"Kirchengast",slug:"sylvia-kirchengast",fullName:"Sylvia Kirchengast"}]},{id:"58060",title:"Pedagogy of the Twenty-First Century: Innovative Teaching Methods",slug:"pedagogy-of-the-twenty-first-century-innovative-teaching-methods",totalDownloads:8845,totalCrossrefCites:17,totalDimensionsCites:23,abstract:"In the twenty-first century, significant changes are occurring related to new scientific discoveries, informatization, globalization, the development of astronautics, robotics, and artificial intelligence. This century is called the age of digital technologies and knowledge. How is the school changing in the new century? How does learning theory change? Currently, you can hear a lot of criticism that the classroom has not changed significantly compared to the last century or even like two centuries ago. Do the teachers succeed in modern changes? The purpose of the chapter is to summarize the current changes in didactics for the use of innovative teaching methods and study the understanding of changes by teachers. In this chapter, we consider four areas: the expansion of the subject of pedagogy, environmental approach to teaching, the digital generation and the changes taking place, and innovation in teaching. The theory of education, figuratively speaking, has two levels. At the macro-level, in the “education-society” relationship, decentralization and diversification, internationalization of education, and the introduction of digital technologies occur. At the micro-level in the “teacher-learner” relationship, there is an active mix of traditional and innovative methods, combination of an activity approach with an energy-informational environment approach, cognition with constructivism and connectivism.",book:{id:"5980",slug:"new-pedagogical-challenges-in-the-21st-century-contributions-of-research-in-education",title:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century",fullTitle:"New Pedagogical Challenges in the 21st Century - Contributions of Research in Education"},signatures:"Aigerim Mynbayeva, Zukhra Sadvakassova and Bakhytkul\nAkshalova",authors:[{id:"201997",title:"Dr.",name:"Aigerim",middleName:null,surname:"Mynbayeva",slug:"aigerim-mynbayeva",fullName:"Aigerim Mynbayeva"},{id:"209208",title:"Dr.",name:"Zukhra",middleName:null,surname:"Sadvakassova",slug:"zukhra-sadvakassova",fullName:"Zukhra Sadvakassova"},{id:"209210",title:"Dr.",name:"Bakhytkul",middleName:null,surname:"Akshalova",slug:"bakhytkul-akshalova",fullName:"Bakhytkul Akshalova"}]},{id:"58894",title:"Research Ethics",slug:"research-ethics",totalDownloads:3373,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:2,abstract:"Research ethics is closely related to the ethical principles of social responsibility. This research covers a wide context of working with people, so the researchers raised a task not only to gain confidence in the respondents’ eyes, to receive reliable data, but also to ensure the transparency of the science. This chapter discusses the theoretical and practical topics of research, after evaluation of which ethical principles of organization and conducting the research are presented. There is a detailed description of how and what ethical principles were followed on the different stages of the research.",book:{id:"5791",slug:"management-culture-and-corporate-social-responsibility",title:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility",fullTitle:"Management Culture and Corporate Social Responsibility"},signatures:"Pranas Žukauskas, Jolita Vveinhardt and Regina Andriukaitienė",authors:[{id:"179629",title:"Prof.",name:"Jolita",middleName:null,surname:"Vveinhardt",slug:"jolita-vveinhardt",fullName:"Jolita Vveinhardt"}]}],onlineFirstChaptersFilter:{topicId:"23",limit:6,offset:0},onlineFirstChaptersCollection:[{id:"83148",title:"Private Practice Social Work in the Arab World: Sultanate of Oman as a Model",slug:"private-practice-social-work-in-the-arab-world-sultanate-of-oman-as-a-model",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106284",abstract:"This chapter aims to discuss the reality of the private practice social work profession in the Arab world from both research and practice perspectives. Furthermore, it identifies the most significant obstacles to the spread of its agencies. Additionally, this chapter discusses several fundamental concepts in this field, such as private practice, private practice agencies, and private practitioners. By referring to scientific research undertaken in the Arab world and, in particular, Oman society, a systematic scientific approach is significant to private practice and its themes. Finally, the author will wrap up the chapter by discussing the findings of one of his studies that identified the obstacles to the spread of private practice.",book:{id:"11095",title:"Social Work - Perspectives on Leadership and Organisation",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11095.jpg"},signatures:"Emad Saleh"},{id:"81124",title:"Views of South Sudanese Secondary School Teachers about the Use of Humour in the Mathematics Classroom",slug:"views-of-south-sudanese-secondary-school-teachers-about-the-use-of-humour-in-the-mathematics-classro",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.103007",abstract:"This chapter reports the views of South Sudanese secondary school teachers about the use of humour in the mathematics classroom as a teaching and learning tool. The use of humour as a pedagogical toolkit in a mathematics classroom is something that has not yet been seriously or widely considered and how the teachers, especially South Sudanese teachers, would react to the use of humour in the classroom was not yet known. An opinion survey containing six (6) close-ended questionnaire items or statements related to the use of humour in the classroom was distributed to ten (10) secondary schools located within and around Juba city. About sixty-five (65) South Sudanese secondary school teachers responded to the survey. Posed was a research question intended to explore the general views, attitudes, or opinions of South Sudanese secondary school teachers: What do South Sudanese secondary school teachers think about the use of Humour-Supported Instructional Approach (H-SIA), a proposed-alternative method of teaching and learning mathematics at secondary school level? Findings of this opinions survey indicate that South Sudanese secondary school teachers’ overall average views are positive toward the use of humour in the classroom setting. The average majority of the surveyed secondary school teachers appeared keen and seemed eager to welcome experimentation with new ways of teaching and learning in the classroom. Hence, it is recommended that classroom teachers be always encouraged and allowed a certain degree of freedom to explore and try out new ways of teaching and learning. It is suggested, however, that teachers be first provided with necessary proper training about how to use humour appropriately, effectively, and creatively in the classroom environments.",book:{id:"11279",title:"Advances in Research in STEM Education",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11279.jpg"},signatures:"William Deng Tap, Helicopter Mark Bulbul and Biar Simon Ajang"},{id:"83149",title:"Perspective Chapter: Ungrading, Grading Contracts, Gamification and Game-Based Learning",slug:"perspective-chapter-ungrading-grading-contracts-gamification-and-game-based-learning",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.105967",abstract:"This chapter will explore considerations for the adoption of grading contracts with the possible addition of the mechanics of game design, game-based learning, or gamification. The motivation for this approach is to ensure equity and inclusion in the classroom by creating a compassionate environment to enhance student engagement and learning. When introduced in the appropriate way, teachers can track students’ progress without the imposition of the added stress and fear that conventional assessment practices engender. Sometimes referred as “ungrading,” the adoption of these strategies prioritizes the progress of each individual student and re-envisions learning as a series of achievements that students complete and level-up to take on a series of successive challenges based on previous accomplishments not unlike the playing of a video game. If virtual reality can be called an empathy machine, a well-crafted video game is a learning and engagement machine. In other words, the magic “sauce” of video games is that players put in untold hours and effort to learn new skills and are rewarded by the sense of mastery and achievement.",book:{id:"11481",title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice for STEAM and social sciences education",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg"},signatures:"Gregory Garvey"},{id:"83112",title:"Anomalies in Nigeria Presidential Election Data and the Way Forward",slug:"anomalies-in-nigeria-presidential-election-data-and-the-way-forward",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106657",abstract:"Nigeria presently runs a presidential system of government and the Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) is saddled with the responsibility of conducting elections, every four years. A fraud-free and credible election is a necessary ingredient to the growth of democracy. However, election fraud has become a major challenge in the Nigerian political system. Till date, reports show that elections in Nigeria have been marred with vote buying, falsification of results, underage voting, and the use of security forces to intimidate voters, among others. Hence, the authors suggest the need for transparency in the voting process and in the collation of results. There is also a need for an electoral reform to address the issue of electronic voting and electronic transmission of results. Electronic voting should be supported and encouraged by all stakeholders. The INEC, executive and legislative arms of government are advised to work in tandem to provide credible electoral process and improve on the conducts of elections in Nigeria. The chapter concludes with suggestion on the possibility of adopting election forensic techniques to address anomalies in Nigeria electoral results. The authors believe that this chapter contribution will be of great benefit to Nigeria and Africa as a whole.",book:{id:"11435",title:"Election and Democracy in the Digital Age - Status, Challenges, and Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11435.jpg"},signatures:"Sunday Tunmibi and Wole Olatokun"},{id:"83121",title:"Social Media and Democracy",slug:"social-media-and-democracy",totalDownloads:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106660",abstract:"The purpose of this chapter is to analyze the implications of freedom of speech regarding political discussions on social media platforms, such as Facebook. The paper will look at the following aspects: the occasion when social media users have to discuss politics as a hobby and as a means to keep their ideas out of the view of face-to-face social circles, to engage in social issues and even be part of protests, to discuss politicians’ public image, and attempt to change some users’ perception about it. Within social media, we witness debates or simple displays of emotions, allowing users to speak their minds and interact with other users, showing empathy toward them. The benefits of this are related to the therapeutic effects of speaking about what upsets them or angers them and finding like-minded users.",book:{id:"11435",title:"Election and Democracy in the Digital Age - Status, Challenges, and Trends",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11435.jpg"},signatures:"Irina-Ana Drobot"},{id:"83113",title:"Agoraphobic Dispositions towards Action Research: Teacher Education Students’ Perceptions and Experiences",slug:"agoraphobic-dispositions-towards-action-research-teacher-education-students-perceptions-and-experien",totalDownloads:7,totalDimensionsCites:0,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.106188",abstract:"One of the contemporary global education thrusts in teacher education is the generation of context-based theory through engagement in action research. While practicing in the classroom, the teacher education student is essentially in the laboratory creating procedural knowledge. Action research in the classroom involves reflective practice, which is indispensable to praxis. Despite the efficacy of action research in facilitating mathetics (learning how to learn), there are some militating situations that are fuelled by diehard traditional perceptions and practices. An exploration of teacher education students’ perceptions and experiences with action research was done with 16 informants who were selected purposively and exposed to in-depth interviews. The data were thematically analyzed and the findings were that some students develop agoraphobic dispositions toward action research due to some miseducative experiences that are largely attributed to traditional educational practices. The teacher education students are exposed to vices like technical rationality instead they should be oriented toward epistemic and pragmatic rationalities that are the linchpins of professional development. The experiences that precipitate agoraphobic dispositions in action research should be known and subsequently obliterated.",book:{id:"11481",title:"Active Learning - Research and Practice for STEAM and social sciences education",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11481.jpg"},signatures:"Davison Zireva"}],onlineFirstChaptersTotal:152},preDownload:{success:null,errors:{}},subscriptionForm:{success:null,errors:{}},aboutIntechopen:{},privacyPolicy:{},peerReviewing:{},howOpenAccessPublishingWithIntechopenWorks:{},sponsorshipBooks:{sponsorshipBooks:[],offset:8,limit:8,total:0},allSeries:{pteSeriesList:[{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:91,numberOfOpenTopics:6,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2633-1403",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",numberOfPublishedBooks:12,numberOfPublishedChapters:108,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-5343",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],lsSeriesList:[{id:"11",title:"Biochemistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:33,numberOfPublishedChapters:333,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0983",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72877",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"25",title:"Environmental Sciences",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2754-6713",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100362",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"10",title:"Physiology",numberOfPublishedBooks:14,numberOfPublishedChapters:145,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-8261",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.72796",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],hsSeriesList:[{id:"3",title:"Dentistry",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:144,numberOfOpenTopics:2,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6218",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71199",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",numberOfPublishedBooks:13,numberOfPublishedChapters:126,numberOfOpenTopics:4,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2631-6188",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"13",title:"Veterinary Medicine and Science",numberOfPublishedBooks:11,numberOfPublishedChapters:113,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2632-0517",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.73681",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],sshSeriesList:[{id:"22",title:"Business, Management and Economics",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:23,numberOfOpenTopics:3,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-894X",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100359",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"23",title:"Education and Human Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:0,numberOfPublishedChapters:13,numberOfOpenTopics:1,numberOfUpcomingTopics:1,issn:null,doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100360",isOpenForSubmission:!0},{id:"24",title:"Sustainable Development",numberOfPublishedBooks:1,numberOfPublishedChapters:19,numberOfOpenTopics:5,numberOfUpcomingTopics:0,issn:"2753-6580",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.100361",isOpenForSubmission:!0}],testimonialsList:[{id:"13",text:"The collaboration with and support of the technical staff of IntechOpen is fantastic. The whole process of submitting an article and editing of the submitted article goes extremely smooth and fast, the number of reads and downloads of chapters is high, and the contributions are also frequently cited.",author:{id:"55578",name:"Antonio",surname:"Jurado-Navas",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRisIQAS/Profile_Picture_1626166543950",slug:"antonio-jurado-navas",institution:{id:"720",name:"University of Malaga",country:{id:null,name:"Spain"}}}},{id:"6",text:"It is great to work with the IntechOpen to produce a worthwhile collection of research that also becomes a great educational resource and guide for future research endeavors.",author:{id:"259298",name:"Edward",surname:"Narayan",institutionString:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/259298/images/system/259298.jpeg",slug:"edward-narayan",institution:{id:"3",name:"University of Queensland",country:{id:null,name:"Australia"}}}}]},series:{item:{id:"14",title:"Artificial Intelligence",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.79920",issn:"2633-1403",scope:"Artificial Intelligence (AI) is a rapidly developing multidisciplinary research area that aims to solve increasingly complex problems. In today's highly integrated world, AI promises to become a robust and powerful means for obtaining solutions to previously unsolvable problems. This Series is intended for researchers and students alike interested in this fascinating field and its many applications.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series/covers/14.jpg",latestPublicationDate:"August 17th, 2022",hasOnlineFirst:!0,numberOfPublishedBooks:11,editor:{id:"218714",title:"Prof.",name:"Andries",middleName:null,surname:"Engelbrecht",slug:"andries-engelbrecht",fullName:"Andries Engelbrecht",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRNR8QAO/Profile_Picture_1622640468300",biography:"Andries Engelbrecht received the Masters and PhD degrees in Computer Science from the University of Stellenbosch, South Africa, in 1994 and 1999 respectively. He is currently appointed as the Voigt Chair in Data Science in the Department of Industrial Engineering, with a joint appointment as Professor in the Computer Science Division, Stellenbosch University. Prior to his appointment at Stellenbosch University, he has been at the University of Pretoria, Department of Computer Science (1998-2018), where he was appointed as South Africa Research Chair in Artifical Intelligence (2007-2018), the head of the Department of Computer Science (2008-2017), and Director of the Institute for Big Data and Data Science (2017-2018). In addition to a number of research articles, he has written two books, Computational Intelligence: An Introduction and Fundamentals of Computational Swarm Intelligence.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Stellenbosch University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"South Africa"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},subseries:{paginationCount:6,paginationItems:[{id:"22",title:"Applied Intelligence",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/22.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"27170",title:"Prof.",name:"Carlos",middleName:"M.",surname:"Travieso-Gonzalez",slug:"carlos-travieso-gonzalez",fullName:"Carlos Travieso-Gonzalez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/27170/images/system/27170.jpeg",biography:"Carlos M. Travieso-González received his MSc degree in Telecommunication Engineering at Polytechnic University of Catalonia (UPC), Spain in 1997, and his Ph.D. degree in 2002 at the University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria (ULPGC-Spain). He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. Dr Ventura also holds the positions of Affiliated Professor at Virginia Commonwealth University (Richmond, USA) and Distinguished Adjunct Professor at King Abdulaziz University (Jeddah, Saudi Arabia). Additionally, he is deputy director of the Andalusian Research Institute in Data Science and Computational Intelligence (DaSCI) and heads the Knowledge Discovery and Intelligent Systems Research Laboratory. He has published more than ten books and over 300 articles in journals and scientific conferences. Currently, his work has received over 18,000 citations according to Google Scholar, including more than 2200 citations in 2020. In the last five years, he has published more than 60 papers in international journals indexed in the JCR (around 70% of them belonging to first quartile journals) and he has edited some Springer books “Supervised Descriptive Pattern Mining” (2018), “Multiple Instance Learning - Foundations and Algorithms” (2016), and “Pattern Mining with Evolutionary Algorithms” (2016). He has also been involved in more than 20 research projects supported by the Spanish and Andalusian governments and the European Union. He currently belongs to the editorial board of PeerJ Computer Science, Information Fusion and Engineering Applications of Artificial Intelligence journals, being also associate editor of Applied Computational Intelligence and Soft Computing and IEEE Transactions on Cybernetics. Finally, he is editor-in-chief of Progress in Artificial Intelligence. He is a Senior Member of the IEEE Computer, the IEEE Computational Intelligence, and the IEEE Systems, Man, and Cybernetics Societies, and the Association of Computing Machinery (ACM). Finally, his main research interests include data science, computational intelligence, and their applications.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Córdoba",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"26",title:"Machine Learning and Data Mining",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/26.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"24555",title:"Dr.",name:"Marco Antonio",middleName:null,surname:"Aceves Fernandez",slug:"marco-antonio-aceves-fernandez",fullName:"Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/24555/images/system/24555.jpg",biography:"Dr. Marco Antonio Aceves Fernandez obtained his B.Sc. (Eng.) in Telematics from the Universidad de Colima, Mexico. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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He is currently a full professor in\nthe Department of Automation and Applied Informatics at the\nsame university. Dr. Voloşencu is the author of ten books, seven\nbook chapters, and more than 160 papers published in journals\nand conference proceedings. He has also edited twelve books and\nhas twenty-seven patents to his name. He is a manager of research grants, editor in\nchief and member of international journal editorial boards, a former plenary speaker, a member of scientific committees, and chair at international conferences. His\nresearch is in the fields of control systems, control of electric drives, fuzzy control\nsystems, neural network applications, fault detection and diagnosis, sensor network\napplications, monitoring of distributed parameter systems, and power ultrasound\napplications. 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He has edited more than 50 international books, presented more than 500 lectures/posters in congresses/meetings, and published more than 1,100 scientific papers in international journals.",institutionString:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",institution:{name:"Tehran University of Medical Sciences",country:{name:"Iran"}}},{id:"180733",title:"Dr.",name:"Jean",middleName:null,surname:"Engohang-Ndong",slug:"jean-engohang-ndong",fullName:"Jean Engohang-Ndong",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/180733/images/system/180733.png",biography:"Dr. Jean Engohang-Ndong was born and raised in Gabon. After obtaining his Associate Degree of Science at the University of Science and Technology of Masuku, Gabon, he continued his education in France where he obtained his BS, MS, and Ph.D. in Medical Microbiology. He worked as a post-doctoral fellow at the Public Health Research Institute (PHRI), Newark, NJ for four years before accepting a three-year faculty position at Brigham Young University-Hawaii. Dr. Engohang-Ndong is a tenured faculty member with the academic rank of Full Professor at Kent State University, Ohio, where he teaches a wide range of biological science courses and pursues his research in medical and environmental microbiology. Recently, he expanded his research interest to epidemiology and biostatistics of chronic diseases in Gabon.",institutionString:"Kent State University",institution:{name:"Kent State University",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",biography:"Emmanuel Drouet, PharmD, is a Professor of Virology at the Faculty of Pharmacy, the University Grenoble-Alpes, France. As a head scientist at the Institute of Structural Biology in Grenoble, Dr. Drouet’s research investigates persisting viruses in humans (RNA and DNA viruses) and the balance with our host immune system. He focuses on these viruses’ effects on humans (both their impact on pathology and their symbiotic relationships in humans). He has an excellent track record in the herpesvirus field, and his group is engaged in clinical research in the field of Epstein-Barr virus diseases. He is the editor of the online Encyclopedia of Environment and he coordinates the Universal Health Coverage education program for the BioHealth Computing Schools of the European Institute of Science.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"131400",title:"Prof.",name:"Alfonso J.",middleName:null,surname:"Rodriguez-Morales",slug:"alfonso-j.-rodriguez-morales",fullName:"Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/131400/images/system/131400.png",biography:"Dr. Rodriguez-Morales is an expert in tropical and emerging diseases, particularly zoonotic and vector-borne diseases (especially arboviral diseases). He is the president of the Travel Medicine Committee of the Pan-American Infectious Diseases Association (API), as well as the president of the Colombian Association of Infectious Diseases (ACIN). He is a member of the Committee on Tropical Medicine, Zoonoses, and Travel Medicine of ACIN. He is a vice-president of the Latin American Society for Travel Medicine (SLAMVI) and a Member of the Council of the International Society for Infectious Diseases (ISID). Since 2014, he has been recognized as a Senior Researcher, at the Ministry of Science of Colombia. He is a professor at the Faculty of Medicine of the Fundacion Universitaria Autonoma de las Americas, in Pereira, Risaralda, Colombia. He is an External Professor, Master in Research on Tropical Medicine and International Health, Universitat de Barcelona, Spain. He is also a professor at the Master in Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima, Peru. In 2021 he has been awarded the “Raul Isturiz Award” Medal of the API. Also, in 2021, he was awarded with the “Jose Felix Patiño” Asclepius Staff Medal of the Colombian Medical College, due to his scientific contributions to COVID-19 during the pandemic. He is currently the Editor in Chief of the journal Travel Medicine and Infectious Diseases. His Scopus H index is 47 (Google Scholar H index, 68).",institutionString:"Institución Universitaria Visión de las Américas, Colombia",institution:null},{id:"332819",title:"Dr.",name:"Chukwudi Michael",middleName:"Michael",surname:"Egbuche",slug:"chukwudi-michael-egbuche",fullName:"Chukwudi Michael Egbuche",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/332819/images/14624_n.jpg",biography:"I an Dr. Chukwudi Michael Egbuche. I am a Senior Lecturer in the Department of Parasitology and Entomology, Nnamdi Azikiwe University, Awka.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Nnamdi Azikiwe University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"284232",title:"Mr.",name:"Nikunj",middleName:"U",surname:"Tandel",slug:"nikunj-tandel",fullName:"Nikunj Tandel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/284232/images/8275_n.jpg",biography:'Mr. Nikunj Tandel has completed his Master\'s degree in Biotechnology from VIT University, India in the year of 2012. He is having 8 years of research experience especially in the field of malaria epidemiology, immunology, and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system against the infectious diseases, autoimmune disorders and cancer. He has worked for the NIH funded-International Center of Excellence in Malaria Research project "Center for the study of complex malaria in India (CSCMi)" in collaboration with New York University. The preliminary objectives of the study are to understand and develop the evidence-based tools and interventions for the control and prevention of malaria in different sites of the INDIA. Alongside, with the help of next-generation genomics study, the team has studied the antimalarial drug resistance in India. Further, he has extended his research in the development of Humanized mice for the study of liver-stage malaria and identification of molecular marker(s) for the Artemisinin resistance. At present, his research focuses on understanding the role of B cells in the activation of CD8+ T cells in malaria. Received the CSIR-SRF (Senior Research Fellow) award-2018, FIMSA (Federation of Immunological Societies of Asia-Oceania) Travel Bursary award to attend the IUIS-IIS-FIMSA Immunology course-2019',institutionString:"Nirma University",institution:{name:"Nirma University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"334383",title:"Ph.D.",name:"Simone",middleName:"Ulrich",surname:"Ulrich Picoli",slug:"simone-ulrich-picoli",fullName:"Simone Ulrich Picoli",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/334383/images/15919_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Pharmacy from Universidade Luterana do Brasil (1999), Master in Agricultural and Environmental Microbiology from Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul (2002), Specialization in Clinical Microbiology from Universidade de São Paulo, USP (2007) and PhD in Sciences in Gastroenterology and Hepatology (2012). She is currently an Adjunct Professor at Feevale University in Medicine and Biomedicine courses and a permanent professor of the Academic Master\\'s Degree in Virology. She has experience in the field of Microbiology, with an emphasis on Bacteriology, working mainly on the following topics: bacteriophages, bacterial resistance, clinical microbiology and food microbiology.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Feevale",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"229220",title:"Dr.",name:"Amjad",middleName:"Islam",surname:"Aqib",slug:"amjad-aqib",fullName:"Amjad Aqib",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229220/images/system/229220.png",biography:"Dr. Amjad Islam Aqib obtained a DVM and MSc (Hons) from University of Agriculture Faisalabad (UAF), Pakistan, and a PhD from the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences Lahore, Pakistan. Dr. Aqib joined the Department of Clinical Medicine and Surgery at UAF for one year as an assistant professor where he developed a research laboratory designated for pathogenic bacteria. Since 2018, he has been Assistant Professor/Officer in-charge, Department of Medicine, Manager Research Operations and Development-ORIC, and President One Health Club at Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Bahawalpur, Pakistan. He has nearly 100 publications to his credit. His research interests include epidemiological patterns and molecular analysis of antimicrobial resistance and modulation and vaccine development against animal pathogens of public health concern.",institutionString:"Cholistan University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"333753",title:"Dr.",name:"Rais",middleName:null,surname:"Ahmed",slug:"rais-ahmed",fullName:"Rais Ahmed",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/333753/images/20168_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Agriculture Faisalabad",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"62900",title:"Prof.",name:"Fethi",middleName:null,surname:"Derbel",slug:"fethi-derbel",fullName:"Fethi Derbel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/62900/images/system/62900.jpeg",biography:"Professor Fethi Derbel was born in 1960 in Tunisia. He received his medical degree from the Sousse Faculty of Medicine at Sousse, University of Sousse, Tunisia. He completed his surgical residency in General Surgery at the University Hospital Farhat Hached of Sousse and was a member of the Unit of Liver Transplantation in the University of Rennes, France. He then worked in the Department of Surgery at the Sahloul University Hospital in Sousse. Professor Derbel is presently working at the Clinique les Oliviers, Sousse, Tunisia. His hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, colorectal, pancreatic, hepatobiliary, and gastric surgery. He is also very interested in hernia surgery and performs ventral hernia repairs and inguinal hernia repairs. He has been a member of the GREPA and Tunisian Hernia Society (THS). During his residency, he managed patients suffering from diabetic foot, and he was very interested in this pathology. For this reason, he decided to coordinate a book project dealing with the diabetic foot. Professor Derbel has published many articles in journals and collaborates intensively with IntechOpen Access Publisher as an editor.",institutionString:"Clinique les Oliviers",institution:null},{id:"300144",title:"Dr.",name:"Meriem",middleName:null,surname:"Braiki",slug:"meriem-braiki",fullName:"Meriem Braiki",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/300144/images/system/300144.jpg",biography:"Dr. Meriem Braiki is a specialist in pediatric surgeon from Tunisia. She was born in 1985. She received her medical degree from the University of Medicine at Sousse, Tunisia. She achieved her surgical residency training periods in Pediatric Surgery departments at University Hospitals in Monastir, Tunis and France.\r\nShe is currently working at the Pediatric surgery department, Sidi Bouzid Hospital, Tunisia. Her hospital activities are mostly concerned with laparoscopic, parietal, urological and digestive surgery. She has published several articles in diffrent journals.",institutionString:"Sidi Bouzid Regional Hospital",institution:null},{id:"229481",title:"Dr.",name:"Erika M.",middleName:"Martins",surname:"de Carvalho",slug:"erika-m.-de-carvalho",fullName:"Erika M. de Carvalho",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/229481/images/6397_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Oswaldo Cruz Foundation",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"186537",title:"Prof.",name:"Tonay",middleName:null,surname:"Inceboz",slug:"tonay-inceboz",fullName:"Tonay Inceboz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/186537/images/system/186537.jfif",biography:"I was graduated from Ege University of Medical Faculty (Turkey) in 1988 and completed his Med. PhD degree in Medical Parasitology at the same university. I became an Associate Professor in 2008 and Professor in 2014. I am currently working as a Professor at the Department of Medical Parasitology at Dokuz Eylul University, Izmir, Turkey.\n\nI have given many lectures, presentations in different academic meetings. I have more than 60 articles in peer-reviewed journals, 18 book chapters, 1 book editorship.\n\nMy research interests are Echinococcus granulosus, Echinococcus multilocularis (diagnosis, life cycle, in vitro and in vivo cultivation), and Trichomonas vaginalis (diagnosis, PCR, and in vitro cultivation).",institutionString:"Dokuz Eylül University",institution:{name:"Dokuz Eylül University",country:{name:"Turkey"}}},{id:"71812",title:"Prof.",name:"Hanem Fathy",middleName:"Fathy",surname:"Khater",slug:"hanem-fathy-khater",fullName:"Hanem Fathy Khater",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/71812/images/1167_n.jpg",biography:"Prof. Khater is a Professor of Parasitology at Benha University, Egypt. She studied for her doctoral degree, at the Department of Entomology, College of Agriculture, Food and Natural Resources, University of Missouri, Columbia, USA. She has completed her Ph.D. degrees in Parasitology in Egypt, from where she got the award for “the best scientific Ph.D. dissertation”. She worked at the School of Biological Sciences, Bristol, England, the UK in controlling insects of medical and veterinary importance as a grant from Newton Mosharafa, the British Council. Her research is focused on searching of pesticides against mosquitoes, house flies, lice, green bottle fly, camel nasal botfly, soft and hard ticks, mites, and the diamondback moth as well as control of several parasites using safe and natural materials to avoid drug resistances and environmental contamination.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Banha University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"99780",title:"Prof.",name:"Omolade",middleName:"Olayinka",surname:"Okwa",slug:"omolade-okwa",fullName:"Omolade Okwa",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/99780/images/system/99780.jpg",biography:"Omolade Olayinka Okwa is presently a Professor of Parasitology at Lagos State University, Nigeria. She has a PhD in Parasitology (1997), an MSc in Cellular Parasitology (1992), and a BSc (Hons) Zoology (1990) all from the University of Ibadan, Nigeria. She teaches parasitology at the undergraduate and postgraduate levels. She was a recipient of a Commonwealth fellowship supported by British Council tenable at the Centre for Entomology and Parasitology (CAEP), Keele University, United Kingdom between 2004 and 2005. She was awarded an Honorary Visiting Research Fellow at the same university from 2005 to 2007. \nShe has been an external examiner to the Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Parasitology, University of Ibadan, MSc programme between 2010 and 2012. She is a member of the Nigerian Society of Experimental Biology (NISEB), Parasitology and Public Health Society of Nigeria (PPSN), Science Association of Nigeria (SAN), Zoological Society of Nigeria (ZSN), and is Vice Chairperson of the Organisation of Women in Science (OWSG), LASU chapter. She served as Head of Department of Zoology and Environmental Biology, Lagos State University from 2007 to 2010 and 2014 to 2016. She is a reviewer for several local and international journals such as Unilag Journal of Science, Libyan Journal of Medicine, Journal of Medicine and Medical Sciences, and Annual Research and Review in Science. \nShe has authored 45 scientific research publications in local and international journals, 8 scientific reviews, 4 books, and 3 book chapters, which includes the books “Malaria Parasites” and “Malaria” which are IntechOpen access publications.",institutionString:"Lagos State University",institution:{name:"Lagos State University",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"273100",title:"Dr.",name:"Vijay",middleName:null,surname:"Gayam",slug:"vijay-gayam",fullName:"Vijay Gayam",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/273100/images/system/273100.jpeg",biography:"Dr. Vijay Bhaskar Reddy Gayam is currently practicing as an internist at Interfaith Medical Center in Brooklyn, New York, USA. He is also a Clinical Assistant Professor at the SUNY Downstate University Hospital and Adjunct Professor of Medicine at the American University of Antigua. He is a holder of an M.B.B.S. degree bestowed to him by Osmania Medical College and received his M.D. at Interfaith Medical Center. His career goals thus far have heavily focused on direct patient care, medical education, and clinical research. He currently serves in two leadership capacities; Assistant Program Director of Medicine at Interfaith Medical Center and as a Councilor for the American\r\nFederation for Medical Research. As a true academician and researcher, he has more than 50 papers indexed in international peer-reviewed journals. He has also presented numerous papers in multiple national and international scientific conferences. His areas of research interest include general internal medicine, gastroenterology and hepatology. He serves as an editor, editorial board member and reviewer for multiple international journals. His research on Hepatitis C has been very successful and has led to multiple research awards, including the 'Equity in Prevention and Treatment Award” from the New York Department of Health Viral Hepatitis Symposium (2018) and the 'Presidential Poster Award” awarded to him by the American College of Gastroenterology (2018). He was also awarded 'Outstanding Clinician in General Medicine” by Venus International Foundation for his extensive research expertise and services, perform over and above the standard expected in the advancement of healthcare, patient safety and quality of care.",institutionString:"Interfaith Medical Center",institution:{name:"Interfaith Medical Center",country:{name:"United States of America"}}},{id:"93517",title:"Dr.",name:"Clement",middleName:"Adebajo",surname:"Meseko",slug:"clement-meseko",fullName:"Clement Meseko",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/93517/images/system/93517.jpg",biography:"Dr. Clement Meseko obtained DVM and PhD degree in Veterinary Medicine and Virology respectively. He has worked for over 20 years in both private and public sectors including the academia, contributing to knowledge and control of infectious disease. Through the application of epidemiological skill, classical and molecular virological skills, he investigates viruses of economic and public health importance for the mitigation of the negative impact on people, animal and the environment in the context of Onehealth. \r\nDr. Meseko’s field experience on animal and zoonotic diseases and pathogen dynamics at the human-animal interface over the years shaped his carrier in research and scientific inquiries. He has been part of the investigation of Highly Pathogenic Avian Influenza incursions in sub Saharan Africa and monitors swine Influenza (Pandemic influenza Virus) agro-ecology and potential for interspecies transmission. He has authored and reviewed a number of journal articles and book chapters.",institutionString:"National Veterinary Research Institute",institution:{name:"National Veterinary Research Institute",country:{name:"Nigeria"}}},{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. Saxena",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRET3QAO/Profile_Picture_2022-05-10T10:10:26.jpeg",biography:"Professor Dr. Shailendra K. Saxena is a vice dean and professor at King George's Medical University, Lucknow, India. His research interests involve understanding the molecular mechanisms of host defense during human viral infections and developing new predictive, preventive, and therapeutic strategies for them using Japanese encephalitis virus (JEV), HIV, and emerging viruses as a model via stem cell and cell culture technologies. His research work has been published in various high-impact factor journals (Science, PNAS, Nature Medicine) with a high number of citations. He has received many awards and honors in India and abroad including various Young Scientist Awards, BBSRC India Partnering Award, and Dr. JC Bose National Award of Department of Biotechnology, Min. of Science and Technology, Govt. of India. Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"94928",title:"Dr.",name:"Takuo",middleName:null,surname:"Mizukami",slug:"takuo-mizukami",fullName:"Takuo Mizukami",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/94928/images/6402_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Institute of Infectious Diseases",country:{name:"Japan"}}},{id:"233433",title:"Dr.",name:"Yulia",middleName:null,surname:"Desheva",slug:"yulia-desheva",fullName:"Yulia Desheva",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/233433/images/system/233433.png",biography:"Dr. Yulia Desheva is a leading researcher at the Institute of Experimental Medicine, St. Petersburg, Russia. She is a professor in the Stomatology Faculty, St. Petersburg State University. She has expertise in the development and evaluation of a wide range of live mucosal vaccines against influenza and bacterial complications. Her research interests include immunity against influenza and COVID-19 and the development of immunization schemes for high-risk individuals.",institutionString:'Federal State Budgetary Scientific Institution "Institute of Experimental Medicine"',institution:null},{id:"238958",title:"Mr.",name:"Atamjit",middleName:null,surname:"Singh",slug:"atamjit-singh",fullName:"Atamjit Singh",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/238958/images/6575_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"252058",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"Sulca",slug:"juan-sulca",fullName:"Juan Sulca",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/252058/images/12834_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"191392",title:"Dr.",name:"Marimuthu",middleName:null,surname:"Govindarajan",slug:"marimuthu-govindarajan",fullName:"Marimuthu Govindarajan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/191392/images/5828_n.jpg",biography:"Dr. M. 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He serves as an editorial board member in various national and international scientific journals.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"274660",title:"Dr.",name:"Damodar",middleName:null,surname:"Paudel",slug:"damodar-paudel",fullName:"Damodar Paudel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/274660/images/8176_n.jpg",biography:"I am DrDamodar Paudel,currently working as consultant Physician in Nepal police Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"241562",title:"Dr.",name:"Melvin",middleName:null,surname:"Sanicas",slug:"melvin-sanicas",fullName:"Melvin Sanicas",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/241562/images/6699_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"117248",title:"Dr.",name:"Andrew",middleName:null,surname:"Macnab",slug:"andrew-macnab",fullName:"Andrew Macnab",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of British Columbia",country:{name:"Canada"}}},{id:"322007",title:"Dr.",name:"Maria Elizbeth",middleName:null,surname:"Alvarez-Sánchez",slug:"maria-elizbeth-alvarez-sanchez",fullName:"Maria Elizbeth Alvarez-Sánchez",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de la Ciudad de México",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"337443",title:"Dr.",name:"Juan",middleName:null,surname:"A. 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The emergence of any viral disease is hard to anticipate, which often contributes to death. A viral disease can be defined as an infectious disease that has recently appeared within a population or exists in nature with the rapid expansion of incident or geographic range. This series will focus on various crucial factors related to emerging viral infectious diseases, including epidemiology, pathogenesis, host immune response, clinical manifestations, diagnosis, treatment, and clinical recommendations for managing viral infectious diseases, highlighting the recent issues with future directions for effective therapeutic strategies.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/6.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11402,editor:{id:"158026",title:"Prof.",name:"Shailendra K.",middleName:null,surname:"Saxena",slug:"shailendra-k.-saxena",fullName:"Shailendra K. 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Dr. Saxena is a fellow of various international societies/academies including the Royal College of Pathologists, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Medicine, London; Royal Society of Biology, United Kingdom; Royal Society of Chemistry, London; and Academy of Translational Medicine Professionals, Austria. He was named a Global Leader in Science by The Scientist. He is also an international opinion leader/expert in vaccination for Japanese encephalitis by IPIC (UK).",institutionString:"King George's Medical University",institution:{name:"King George's Medical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"India"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"6",title:"Infectious Diseases",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71852",issn:"2631-6188"},editorialBoard:[{id:"188773",title:"Prof.",name:"Emmanuel",middleName:null,surname:"Drouet",slug:"emmanuel-drouet",fullName:"Emmanuel Drouet",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188773/images/system/188773.png",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Grenoble Alpes University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"France"}}},{id:"188219",title:"Prof.",name:"Imran",middleName:null,surname:"Shahid",slug:"imran-shahid",fullName:"Imran Shahid",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/188219/images/system/188219.jpeg",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Umm al-Qura 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