Financial resources required for a maintenance program.
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Released this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\\n\\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\\n"}]',published:!0,mainMedia:{caption:"Highly Cited",originalUrl:"/media/original/117"}},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'IntechOpen is proud to announce that 191 of our authors have made the Clarivate™ Highly Cited Researchers List for 2020, ranking them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nThroughout the years, the list has named a total of 261 IntechOpen authors as Highly Cited. Of those researchers, 69 have been featured on the list multiple times.
\n\n\n\nReleased this past November, the list is based on data collected from the Web of Science and highlights some of the world’s most influential scientific minds by naming the researchers whose publications over the previous decade have included a high number of Highly Cited Papers placing them among the top 1% most-cited.
\n\nWe wish to congratulate all of the researchers named and especially our authors on this amazing accomplishment! We are happy and proud to share in their success!
Note: Edited in March 2021
\n'}],latestNews:[{slug:"intechopen-supports-asapbio-s-new-initiative-publish-your-reviews-20220729",title:"IntechOpen Supports ASAPbio’s New Initiative Publish Your Reviews"},{slug:"webinar-introduction-to-open-science-wednesday-18-may-1-pm-cest-20220518",title:"Webinar: Introduction to Open Science | Wednesday 18 May, 1 PM CEST"},{slug:"step-in-the-right-direction-intechopen-launches-a-portfolio-of-open-science-journals-20220414",title:"Step in the Right Direction: IntechOpen Launches a Portfolio of Open Science Journals"},{slug:"let-s-meet-at-london-book-fair-5-7-april-2022-olympia-london-20220321",title:"Let’s meet at London Book Fair, 5-7 April 2022, Olympia London"},{slug:"50-books-published-as-part-of-intechopen-and-knowledge-unlatched-ku-collaboration-20220316",title:"50 Books published as part of IntechOpen and Knowledge Unlatched (KU) Collaboration"},{slug:"intechopen-joins-the-united-nations-sustainable-development-goals-publishers-compact-20221702",title:"IntechOpen joins the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals Publishers Compact"},{slug:"intechopen-signs-exclusive-representation-agreement-with-lsr-libros-servicios-y-representaciones-s-a-de-c-v-20211123",title:"IntechOpen Signs Exclusive Representation Agreement with LSR Libros Servicios y Representaciones S.A. de C.V"},{slug:"intechopen-expands-partnership-with-research4life-20211110",title:"IntechOpen Expands Partnership with Research4Life"}]},book:{item:{type:"book",id:"7650",leadTitle:null,fullTitle:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",title:"Different Strategies of Housing Design",subtitle:null,reviewType:"peer-reviewed",abstract:"As one of the largest consumers of energy, the housing sector and its unconscious occupants' activities negatively affect the environment. Architects and engineers have a major role in resolving the associated problems while maintaining comfort for occupants. Also very important are environmental education and awareness of appropriate environmental development in designing activity and selecting building materials and products. There are different architectural strategies that are aimed to achieve a low-energy built environment. Determining the needed strategy according to function, economy, and occupant comfort and affordability is the crucial step. This book helps the reader to achieve a sustainable development without destruction of the resources while maintaining a growing universal awareness of protecting the living and non-living environment.",isbn:"978-1-78984-386-6",printIsbn:"978-1-78984-385-9",pdfIsbn:"978-1-83962-677-7",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.77454",price:119,priceEur:129,priceUsd:155,slug:"different-strategies-of-housing-design",numberOfPages:104,isOpenForSubmission:!1,isInWos:null,isInBkci:!1,hash:"a7228ca821b354d974a45eac0ca0eff8",bookSignature:"Ayşem Berrin Çakmaklı",publishedDate:"November 20th 2019",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/7650.jpg",numberOfDownloads:6359,numberOfWosCitations:6,numberOfCrossrefCitations:5,numberOfCrossrefCitationsByBook:2,numberOfDimensionsCitations:10,numberOfDimensionsCitationsByBook:2,hasAltmetrics:1,numberOfTotalCitations:21,isAvailableForWebshopOrdering:!0,dateEndFirstStepPublish:"October 17th 2018",dateEndSecondStepPublish:"November 7th 2018",dateEndThirdStepPublish:"January 6th 2019",dateEndFourthStepPublish:"March 27th 2019",dateEndFifthStepPublish:"May 26th 2019",currentStepOfPublishingProcess:5,indexedIn:"1,2,3,4,5,6",editedByType:"Edited by",kuFlag:!1,featuredMarkup:null,editors:[{id:"220974",title:"Dr.",name:"Aysem",middleName:"Berrin",surname:"Cakmakli",slug:"aysem-cakmakli",fullName:"Aysem Cakmakli",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/220974/images/system/220974.jpg",biography:"Dr. Ayşem Berrin Çakmaklı is an instructor in Department of Architecture at METU. She received her B.Arch. and M.S. degrees from the Middle East Technical University, Faculty of Architecture. She also received her Ph.D. from Middle East Technical University, Faculty of Architecture in Building Science. Her master thesis is about sustainable architecture and sustainable building materials and their effects on human and environment health. The title of her Ph.D. thesis is 'Life Cycle Assessment of Building Materials in Hotel Refurbishment Projects: A Case Study in Ankara”. \r\nHer main fields of interest are ecological and sustainable architecture and building materials, energy efficiency and life cycle assessment of buildings, building performance evaluations and lighting in architecture. She is teaching environmental design lectures, energy and environment lectures, appropriate building materials lectures, building detailing modelling and basic design studio.",institutionString:"Middle East Technical University",position:null,outsideEditionCount:0,totalCites:0,totalAuthoredChapters:"1",totalChapterViews:"0",totalEditedBooks:"1",institution:{name:"Middle East Technical University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Turkey"}}}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,coeditorOne:null,coeditorTwo:null,coeditorThree:null,coeditorFour:null,coeditorFive:null,topics:[{id:"852",title:"Sustainability",slug:"environmental-design-sustainability"}],chapters:[{id:"69562",title:"Introductory Chapter: Healthy and Affordable Housing Strategies",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.89790",slug:"introductory-chapter-healthy-and-affordable-housing-strategies",totalDownloads:738,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:null,signatures:"Aysem Berrin Cakmakli",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/69562",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/69562",authors:[{id:"220974",title:"Dr.",name:"Aysem",surname:"Cakmakli",slug:"aysem-cakmakli",fullName:"Aysem Cakmakli"}],corrections:null},{id:"65804",title:"Effects of Street Geometry on Airflow Regimes for Natural Ventilation in Three Different Street Configurations in Enugu City",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.84786",slug:"effects-of-street-geometry-on-airflow-regimes-for-natural-ventilation-in-three-different-street-conf",totalDownloads:1421,totalCrossrefCites:1,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:1,abstract:"Efficient natural ventilation is dependent on the micro climate conditions of an urban environment. This is affected by ambient wind flow, radiation and air temperatures. The airflow within the urban street can be cultivated into two regions. The first is a recirculation region, which forms in the near wake of each building. The Second is a ventilated region downstream of the recirculation region, formed when the street is sufficiently wide. The development of the flow into these two regions depends on geometry. This chapter looks at the impacts of street geometry on these regions of airflow cultivation in three different street configurations in high density residential settlements in Enugu city. It utilized schematic analysis of airflow regimes to identify the behaviors of flow in these street configurations relative to the height and width ratios of the street canyon. This schematic analysis can be utilized in preliminary design studies by city and building designers for justifying street dimensions and configurations in tropical regions where natural ventilation is paramount.",signatures:"Jideofor Anselm Akubue",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/65804",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/65804",authors:[{id:"139659",title:"Dr.",name:"Akubue",surname:"Anselm",slug:"akubue-anselm",fullName:"Akubue Anselm"}],corrections:null},{id:"66000",title:"Fundamentals of Natural Ventilation Design within Dwellings",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.85141",slug:"fundamentals-of-natural-ventilation-design-within-dwellings",totalDownloads:982,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Along with acoustical and lighting comfort, indoor air quality (IAQ) and thermal comfort upon households are essential to maintain a proper indoor environment, therefore ensuring a welfare toward the occupants. Nevertheless, sometimes, these features are neglected by building designers and constructers, causing problems such as the so-called sick building syndrome (SBS) and thermal discomfort, among others. Although there are short-term solutions such as purifiers, extractors, fans, and air conditioning, eventually these methods become not sustainable activities that consume energy and emit polluting gases such as chlorofluorocarbons. One alternative to this is natural ventilation, understood as the airflow throughout a building caused by changes of pressures naturally produced. In this chapter, the role of the early-stage building design as well as the correct occupant behavior is presented as essential to develop a naturally ventilated dwelling, which is an excellent alternative to achieve proper levels of indoor environment in a sustainable manner.",signatures:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/66000",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/66000",authors:[{id:"282172",title:"Dr.",name:"Ivan",surname:"Oropeza-Perez",slug:"ivan-oropeza-perez",fullName:"Ivan Oropeza-Perez"}],corrections:null},{id:"67084",title:"Comprehensive Strategy for Sustainable Housing Design",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86278",slug:"comprehensive-strategy-for-sustainable-housing-design",totalDownloads:1386,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:3,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Sustainable housing needs to be designed to maximize occupants’ well-being and minimize the environmental load. The pursuit of combining these two different aspects toward sustainability is a goal-oriented task. The science of control can be applied to all goal-oriented tasks. Therefore, applying control science, we have been progressing in research on sustainable housing design. Our previous study has produced the control system for promoting sustainable housing design in which sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist are incorporated. Based on these accomplished results, this study has comprehensively visualized the process of producing and revising the sustainable design guidelines and sustainability checklist. Following this visualized process, also this study has concretely shown the production and revision processes of the sustainable design guidelines. The study results suggest that the comprehensive visualization can make these processes more manageable and help system designers to produce and revise the guidelines more efficiently. Furthermore, these results have led to indicating how to adjust the guidelines to different countries or regions as well as changing situations over time.",signatures:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67084",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67084",authors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}],corrections:null},{id:"67105",title:"Social Innovation and Environmental Sustainability in Social Housing Policies: Learning from Two Experimental Case Studies in Italy",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86279",slug:"social-innovation-and-environmental-sustainability-in-social-housing-policies-learning-from-two-expe",totalDownloads:1026,totalCrossrefCites:2,totalDimensionsCites:4,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"This chapter critically examines approaches and solutions developed by social housing to sustainably respond to the housing emergency plaguing contemporary cities and Italian cities in particular. In a broader perspective, we also investigate how housing has become ‘difficult’ in Europe and the poorest segments of the population run the risk of having their right to housing dramatically denied. Analysing housing in terms of its procedural dimension, we focus on two Italian case studies that evoke a new way of inhabiting the city, cases in which high standards characterised social housing and yet remain accessible to all. The Sharing hotel residence in Turin and Zoia social housing in Milan combine housing with other socially innovative measures in a framework of sustainability and avant-garde construction. These are significant examples that speak to issues such as temporariness, flexibility and the coordination of measures. These two cases both pursued objectives having to do with social, planning, architectural and environmental quality, albeit each in their own way. There are by now numerous examples of social housing in Europe and these have recently attracted growing interest in Italy as well; in this country, however, such projects represent valid instances of experimentation but are not at all widespread.",signatures:"Rossana Galdini and Silvia Lucciarini",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/67105",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/67105",authors:[{id:"281246",title:"Dr.",name:"Silvia",surname:"Lucciarini",slug:"silvia-lucciarini",fullName:"Silvia Lucciarini"},{id:"282958",title:"Prof.",name:"Rossana",surname:"Galdini",slug:"rossana-galdini",fullName:"Rossana Galdini"}],corrections:null},{id:"68731",title:"Socioeconomic Influences on Affordable Housing Residents: Problem Definition and Possible Solutions",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.86960",slug:"socioeconomic-influences-on-affordable-housing-residents-problem-definition-and-possible-solutions",totalDownloads:806,totalCrossrefCites:0,totalDimensionsCites:0,hasAltmetrics:0,abstract:"Socioeconomic status (SES) is a powerful social determinant of health. Often, affordable housing is an important step in promoting reliable economic and social health among individuals living in poverty. However, we argue that we must go further to improve the long-term health outcomes of these individuals and families. First, we use survey data and geographical analysis to identify the socioeconomic status of neighborhoods and residents of affordable housing in a major urban center. SES levels are certainly lower among affordable housing residents, and SES was significantly lower in public housing development neighborhoods than other neighborhoods. We offer solutions from our own and other research experiences that identify potential changes to affordable housing to promote and maximize health of residents. These data have implications for multilevel intervention.",signatures:"Deborah J. Bowen and Lisa Quintiliani",downloadPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-download/68731",previewPdfUrl:"/chapter/pdf-preview/68731",authors:[{id:"182794",title:"Dr.",name:"Deborah",surname:"Bowen",slug:"deborah-bowen",fullName:"Deborah Bowen"},{id:"287786",title:"Dr.",name:"Lisa",surname:"Quintiliani",slug:"lisa-quintiliani",fullName:"Lisa Quintiliani"}],corrections:null}],productType:{id:"1",title:"Edited Volume",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"},subseries:null,tags:null},relatedBooks:[{type:"book",id:"9916",title:"Zero-Energy Buildings",subtitle:"New Approaches and Technologies",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"03b533ca4c0a7f4f0307e4e4ec474594",slug:"zero-energy-buildings-new-approaches-and-technologies",bookSignature:"Jesús Alberto Pulido Arcas, Carlos Rubio-Bellido, Alexis Pérez-Fargallo and Ivan Oropeza-Perez",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/9916.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"172801",title:"Dr.",name:"Jesus Alberto",surname:"Pulido Arcas",slug:"jesus-alberto-pulido-arcas",fullName:"Jesus Alberto Pulido Arcas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"11175",title:"Nearly Zero Energy Building (NZEB)",subtitle:"Materials, Design and New Approaches",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"7e4718f36725ff9ce60b349b7681d7cc",slug:"nearly-zero-energy-building-nzeb-materials-design-and-new-approaches",bookSignature:"David Bienvenido-Huertas",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/11175.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"320815",title:"Dr.",name:"David",surname:"Bienvenido Huertas",slug:"david-bienvenido-huertas",fullName:"David Bienvenido Huertas"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"5692",title:"Sustainable Home Design by Applying Control Science",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"83bab2850ca5c3aea1dd9c25cd2aee8c",slug:"sustainable-home-design-by-applying-control-science",bookSignature:"Kazutoshi Fujihira",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/5692.jpg",editedByType:"Authored by",editors:[{id:"69662",title:"BSc.",name:"Kazutoshi",surname:"Fujihira",slug:"kazutoshi-fujihira",fullName:"Kazutoshi Fujihira"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"3",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Authored by"}},{type:"book",id:"1591",title:"Infrared Spectroscopy",subtitle:"Materials Science, Engineering and Technology",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"99b4b7b71a8caeb693ed762b40b017f4",slug:"infrared-spectroscopy-materials-science-engineering-and-technology",bookSignature:"Theophile Theophanides",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/1591.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"37194",title:"Dr.",name:"Theophile",surname:"Theophanides",slug:"theophile-theophanides",fullName:"Theophile Theophanides"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"3161",title:"Frontiers in Guided Wave Optics and Optoelectronics",subtitle:null,isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"deb44e9c99f82bbce1083abea743146c",slug:"frontiers-in-guided-wave-optics-and-optoelectronics",bookSignature:"Bishnu Pal",coverURL:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/books/images_new/3161.jpg",editedByType:"Edited by",editors:[{id:"4782",title:"Prof.",name:"Bishnu",surname:"Pal",slug:"bishnu-pal",fullName:"Bishnu Pal"}],equalEditorOne:null,equalEditorTwo:null,equalEditorThree:null,productType:{id:"1",chapterContentType:"chapter",authoredCaption:"Edited by"}},{type:"book",id:"371",title:"Abiotic Stress in Plants",subtitle:"Mechanisms and Adaptations",isOpenForSubmission:!1,hash:"588466f487e307619849d72389178a74",slug:"abiotic-stress-in-plants-mechanisms-and-adaptations",bookSignature:"Arun Shanker and B. 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Diamond, graphite, fullerenes, carbon nanotubes and newly discovered graphene are the most studied allotropes of the carbon family. The significance of the these material can be understand as the discovery of fullerene and graphene has been awarded noble prizes in the years 1996 and 2010 to Curl, Kroto & Smalley and Geim & Novalec, respectively. After the flood of publications on graphite intercalated [1], fullerenes (1985) [2], and carbon nanotubes (1991) [3], graphene have been the subject of countless publications since 2004 [4,5]. Graphene is a flat monolayer of carbon atoms tightly packed into a two-dimensional (2D) honeycomb lattice, completely conjugated sp2 hybridized planar structure and is a basic building block for graphitic materials of all other dimensionalities (Figure 1). It can be wrapped up into 0D fullerenes, rolled into 1D nanotube or stacked into 3D graphite.
\n\t\t\tIn 2004, Geim and co-workers at Manchester University successfully identified single layers of graphene in a simple tabletop experiment and added a revolutionary discovery in the field of nano science and nanotechnology. Interest in graphene increased dramatically after Novoselov, Geim et al. reported on the unusual electronic properties of single layers of the graphite lattice. One of the most remarkable properties of graphene is that its charge carriers behave as massless relativistic particles or Dirac fermions, and under ambient conditions they can move with little scattering. This unique behavior has led to a number of exceptional phenomena in graphene [4]. First, graphene is a zero-band gap 2D semiconductor with a tiny overlap between valence and conduction bands. Second, it exhibits a strong ambipolar electric field effect so that the charge carrier concentrations of up to 1013 cm-2 and room-temperature mobility of ∼10000 cm-2s-1 are measured. Third, an unusual half-integer quantum Hall effect (QHE) for both electron and hole carriers in graphene has been observed by adjusting the chemical potential using the electric field effect [5,6]. It has high thermal conductivity with a value of ∼ 5000 WmK−1 for a single-layer sheet at room temperature. In addition, graphene is highly transparent, with absorption of ∼ 2.3% towards visible light [7, 8]. Narrow ribbons of graphene with a thickness of 1-2 nm are, however, semiconductors with a distinct band gap, and these can be used to produce transistors [9-11].
\n\t\t\tDifferent allotropes of carbon viz Graphite, Diamond, Fullerene, and Carbon nanotube
In last couples of years, graphene has been used as alternative carbon-based nanofiller in the preparation of polymer nanocomposites and have shown improved mechanical, thermal, and electrical properties [12-19]. The recent advances have shown that it can replace brittle and chemically unstable indium tin oxide in flexible displays and touch screens [20-21]. It is well established that the superior properties of graphene are associated with its single-layer. However, the fabrication of single-layer graphene is difficult at ambient temperature. If the sheets are not well separated from each other than graphene sheets with a high surface area tend to form irreversible agglomerates and restacks to form graphite through p–p stacking and Vander Waals interactions [22,23]. Aggregation can be reduced by the attachment of other small molecules or polymers to the graphene sheets. The presence of hydrophilic or hydrophobic groups prevents aggregation of graphene sheets by strong polar-polar interactions or by their bulky size [24]. The attachment of functional groups to graphene also aids in dispersion in a hydrophilic or hydrophobic media, as well as in the organic polymer. Therefore, an efficient approach to the production of surface-functionalized graphene sheets in large quantities has been a major focus of many researchers. The goal is to exploit the most frequently proposed applications of graphene in the areas of polymer nanocomposites, super-capacitor devices, drug delivery systems, solar cells, memory devices, transistor devices, biosensors and electromagnetic/ microwave absorption shields.
\n\t\tThere have been continuous efforts to develop high quality graphene in large quantities for both research purposes and with a view to possible applications. The methods of preparation for graphene can be divided into two categories, top-down and bottom-up ones. The top-down methods include (1) mechanical exfoliation (2) chemical oxidation/exfoliation followed by reduction of graphene derivatives such as graphene oxide. While the bottom-up methods include (1) epitaxial growth on SiC and other substrates, (2) Chemical vapor deposition, and (3) arc discharging methods. Each of these methods has some advantages and limitations. Among them chemical synthesis of graphene using graphite, graphite oxide (GO) is a scalable process but it leads to more defent in the graphene layer.
\n\t\t\tA) Mechanical exfoliation of graphene using scotch tape from HOPG (B) Schematic illustration of the graphene exfoliation process. Graphite flakes are combined with sodium cholate in aqueous solution. Horn-ultrasonication exfoliates few-layer graphene flakes that are encapsulated by sodium cholate micelles. & (C) Photograph of 90 μg/ml graphene dispersion in sodium cholate (Reprinted with permission from ref 25 Copyright.2009 American Chemical Society)
The “perfect” graphene, necessary for the fundamental studies can be obtained by the mechanical exfoliation and epitaxial methods, but these methods have a limit for scale up. Mechanical exfoliation is a simple peeling process where a dried highly oriented pyrolytic graphite (HOPG) sheet are etched in oxygen plasma and then it is stuck onto a photo resist and peeled off layers by a scotch tape (Figure 2a). The thin flakes left on the photo resist were washed off in acetone and transferred to a silicon wafer. It was found that these thin flakes were composed of monolayer or a few layers of graphene [4].
\n\t\t\tThe first graphite intercalation compound (GIC), commonly known as expandable graphite was prepared by Schafhautl in 1841, while analyzing crystal flake of graphite in sulfuric acid solution. The intercalation of graphite by atoms or molecules such as alkali metals or mineral acids increases its interlayer spacing, weakening the interlayer interactions and facilitating the exfoliation of GIC by mechanical or thermal methods (Figure 2b& 2c) [25]. The intercalation of graphite by a mixture of sulfuric and nitric acid produces a higher-stage GIC that can be exfoliated by rapid heating or microwave treatment of the dried down powder, producing a material commonly referred to as expanded graphite [26]. It retained a layered structure but has slightly increased interlayer spacing relative to graphite and has been investigated as a composite filler [27-28]. However its effectiveness in enhancing the properties as compared to graphene oxide (GO) derived fliers is limited by its layered structure and relatively low specific surface area. To produce a higher surface area material, expanded graphite can be further exfoliated by various techniques to yield graphene nanoplates (GNPs) down to 5 nm thickness[29-30]. It has also been reported that sulfuric acid intercalated expanded graphite can be co-intercalated with tetrabutyl ammonium hydroxide. A monolayer like graphene can be obtained by sonicating the GIC in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) in the presence of a surfactant like poly(ethylene glycol)-modified phospholipid. Blake et al. and Hernandez et al.[31-32] have established a method for the preparation of defect free graphene by exfoliation of graphite in N-methyl-pyrrolidione. Such approach utilizes the similar surface energy of N-methyl-pyrrolidone and graphene that facilitates the exfoliation. However, the disadvantage of this process is the high cost of the solvent and the high boiling point of the solvent that makes the graphene deposition difficult. Lotya and coworkers have used a surfactant (sodium dodecyl benzene sulfonate, SDBS) to exfoliate graphite in water to produce graphene. The graphene monolayers are stabilized against aggregation by a relatively large potential barrier caused by the Coulomb repulsion between surfactant-coated sheets. The dispersions are reasonably stable with larger flakes precipitating out over more than 6 weeks [33].
\n\t\t\tChemical vapor deposition (CVD) is alternatives method to mechanical exfoliation and used to obtain high quality graphene for large-scale production of mono or few layer graphene films on metal substrate[34-40]. The CVD processes generally utilize transition metal surfaces for growth of Graphene nanosheets (GNS) using hydrocarbon gases as GNS precursors at the deposition temperature of about 1000 ºC. Ruoff et al. reported a CVD method for large-area synthesis of high-quality and uniform GNS films on copper foils using a mixture of methane and hydrogen as precursors. As obtained films are predominantly single-layer GNS with a small percentage (less than 5%) of the area having few layers, and continuous across copper surface steps and grain boundaries. Particularly, one of the major benefits of their process is that it could be used to grow GNS on 300 mm copper films on Si substrate and this GNS film could also be easily transferred to alternative substrates, such as SiO2/Si or glass. Recently, Bae and coworkers reported a roll-to-roll production of 30 inch (Figure 3) graphene films using the CVD approach [41].
\n\t\t\t\tAnother technique for the GNS synthesis is Epitaxial growth on silicon carbide (SiC). It is a very promising method for the synthesis of uniform, wafer-size graphene nano layers, in which single crystal SiC substrates are heated in vacuum to high temperatures in the range of 1200–1600 ºC. Since the sublimation rate of silicon is higher than that of carbon, excess carbon is left behind on the surface, which rearranges to form GNS[42-44] More recently Bao et al has reported an interesting route for the preparation of GNS that employed commercial polycrystalline SiC granules instead of single-crystal SiC [45] to formulate high-quality freestanding single-layer GNS.
\n\t\t\tAt present, the most viable method to afford graphene single sheets in considerable quantities is chemical conversion of graphite to graphene oxide followed by successive reduction [46-48]. Graphite oxide (GO) is usually synthesized through the oxidation of graphite using strong oxidants including concentrated sulfuric acid, nitric acid and potassium permanganate.
\n\t\t\t\tSchematic of the roll-based production of graphene films grown on a copper foil. A transparent ultra large-area graphene film transferred on a 35-in. PET sheet and an assembled graphene/PET touch panel showing outstanding flexibility. (Reprinted by permission from Macmillan Publishers Ltd: [Nature Nanotechnology] (ref 41: copyright (2010)
In 1859, Brodie was first to prepared graphite oxide by the oxidation of graphite with fuming nitric acid and potassium chlorate under cooling [49], In 1898, Staudenmaier improved this protocol by using concentrated sulfuric acid as well as fuming nitric acid and adding the chlorate in multiple aliquots over the course of the reaction. This small change in the procedure made the production of highly oxidized GO in a single reaction vessel [50]. In 1958, Hummers reported the method most commonly used today in which graphite is oxidized by treatment with KMnO4 and NaNO3 in concentrated H2SO4 [51]. These three methods comprise the primary routes for forming GO. Recently, an improved method was reported by Marcano et al. [52], they used KMnO4 as the only oxidant and an acid mixture of concentrated H2SO4 and H3PO4 (9:1) as the acidic medium. This technique greatly increased the efficiency of oxidizing graphite to GO and also prevented the formation of toxic gases, such as NO2 and N2O4. The graphene oxide prepared by this method is more oxidized than that prepared by Hummer’s method and also possesses a more regular structure. Graphite can also be oxidized by benzoyl peroxide (BPO) at 110 C for 10 min in an opened system (Caution! BPO is a strong oxidizer and may explode when heated in a closed container) to GO [53]. This technique provides a fast and efficient route to graphene oxide. The composition of anhydrous GO is approximately C8O2 (OH)2. Almost none of the carbon of the graphite used is lost during the formation of GO. Compared to pristine graphite, GO is heavily oxygenated bearing hydroxyl and epoxy groups on sp3 hybridized carbon on the basal plane, in addition to carbonyl and carboxyl groups located the sheet edges on sp2 hybridized carbon. Hence, GO is highly hydrophilic and readily exfoliated in water, yielding stable dispersion consisting mostly of single layered sheets (graphene oxide). It is important to note that although graphite oxide and graphene oxide share similar chemical properties (i.e. surface functional group), their structures are different. Graphene oxide is a monolayer material produced by the exfoliation of graphite oxide. Sufficiently dilute colloidal suspension of graphene oxide prepared by sonication are clear, homogeneous and stable indefinitely. AFM images of GO exfoliated by the ultrasonic treatment at concentrations of 1 mg/ml in water always revealed the presence of sheets with uniform thickness (1 nm). The pristine graphite sheet is atomically flat with the Vander Waals thickness of 0.34 nm, graphene oxide sheets are thicker due to the displacement of sp3 hybridized carbon atoms slightly above and below the original graphene plane and presence of covalently bound oxygen atoms. A similar degree of exfoliation of GO was also attained for N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF), tetrahydrofuran (THF), N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP) and ethylene glycol [54]. Chung et al [55] has utilized the utilized a modified hummer method to produces a large sized highly functionalized graphene oxide, In a typical method a small amount of graphite was irradiated for 10 s in a microwave oven and expanded to about 150 times its original volume and carried out the further oxidation by modified Hummers method (Figure 4).
\n\t\t\t\tAs discussed the exfoliated sheets contain many hydrophilic functionality like –OH, ─COOH, ─C─O─C─, C=O which keep them highly dispersible and the layered sheets are named graphene oxide (GO). The most attractive property of GO is that it can be reduced to graphene-like sheets by removing the oxygen-containing groups with the recovery of a conjugated structure. The reduced GO (RGO) sheets are usually considered as one kind of chemically derived graphene (CCG). It is a very promising candidate for many applications such as electronic devices [56,57], polymer composites [58-61], energy conversion, storage materials [62,63], and sensors [64]. The most desirable goal of any reduction procedure is produce graphene-like materials similar to the pristine graphene. Though numerous efforts have been made, the final target is still a dream. Residual functional groups and defects dramatically alter the structure of the carbon plane and affect its conductivity which mainly depend on the long-range conjugated network of the graphitic lattice [65,66]. Functionalization breaks the conjugated structure and localizes p-electrons, which results in a decrease of both carrier mobility and carrier concentration therefore, it is not appropriate to refer to RGO/CCG, simply as graphene since the properties are considerably different [67-72]. Several reducing agents have been used to reduce graphene oxide, such as hydrazine [73], sodium borohydride [74], hydroiodic acid [75,76], sulfur-containing compounds [77], ascorbic acid [78], and vitamin C[79]
\n\t\t\t\t\tScheme of synthesis of XRD and AFM image of GO.
Among them, hydrazine is widely used because it is an effective reducing agent and well suited to the reduction of graphene oxide in various media, including the aqueous phase, gas phase, and especially in organic solvents. The most obvious changes can be directly observed or measured to judge the reducing effect of different reduction processes. Since a reduction process can dramatically improve the electrical conductivity of GO, the increased charge carrier concentration and mobility will improve the reflection to incident light, and color changes to brown to black as shown in Figure 4. The variation of electrical conductivity of RGO can be a direct criterion to judge the effect of different reduction methods. Another important change is C/O ratio is usually obtained through elemental analysis measurements by combustion, and also by X-ray photo-electron spectrometry (XPS) analysis. Depending on the preparation method, GO with chemical compositions ranging from C8O2H3 to C8O4H5, corresponding to a C/O ratio of 4:1–2:1, is typically produced [80,81]. After reduction, the C/O ratio can be improved to approximately 12:1 in most cases, but values as large as 246:1 have been recently reported [82]. In addition to these other tools like Raman spectroscopy, solid-state FT-NMR spectroscopy, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and atomic force microscopy (AFM), are most promising tools to show the structural changes of GO after reduction.
\n\t\t\t\t\tThere are several routes to reduce the graphene oxide like thermal annealing, microwave and photo reduction, and chemical reduction (Chemical reagent reduction, Solvo-thermal reduction, Multi-step reduction, Electrochemical reduction, Photocatalyst reduction). Here we are only focusing on thermal annealing and solvo-thermal chemical reduction as these are most wide used method for the reduction.
\n\t\t\t\tGO can be reduced by thermal annealing and a temperature less than 2000 ºC was used in the initial stages of graphene research, to exfoliate graphite oxide to achieve graphene [83\n\t\t\t\t\t\t84]]. The mechanism of exfoliation is mainly the sudden expansion of CO or CO2 gases evolved into the spaces between graphene sheets during rapid heating of the graphite oxide. However, this technique is not so promising as it leads to the structural damage to graphene sheets caused by the release of carbon dioxide [85]. Approximately 30% of the mass of the graphite oxide is lost during the exfoliation process, leaving behind lattice defects throughout the sheet [83]. As a result, the electrical conductivity of the graphene sheets has a typical mean value of 10–23 S/cm that is much lower than that of perfect graphene, indicating a weak effect on reduction and restoration of the electronic structure of carbon plane.
\n\t\t\t\t\tAn alternative way is to exfoliate graphite oxide in the liquid phase, which enables the exfoliation of graphene sheets with large lateral sizes [86]. The reduction is carried out after the formation of macroscopic materials, e.g. films or powders, by annealing in inert or reducing atmospheres. In this strategy, the heating temperature significantly affects reduction of GO. Schniepp et al [83] found that if the temperature was less than 500 ºC, the C/O ratio was not more than 7, while if the temperature reached 750 ºC, the C/O ratio could be higher than 13. The reduced GO film obtained at 500 ºC was only 50 S/cm, while for those at 700 and 1100 ºC it could be 100 and 550 S/cm respectively. In addition to annealing temperature, annealing atmosphere is important for the thermal annealing reduction of GO. Since the etching of oxygen will be dramatically increased at high temperatures, oxygen gas should be excluded during annealing. As a result, annealing reduction is usually carried out in vacuum [87], or an inert [88] or reducing atmosphere [89].
\n\t\t\t\tChemical reduction has been evaluated as one of the most efficient methods for low-cost, large-scale production of Graphene. Another advantage of chemical reduction methods is that the produced GNS in the form of a monolayer can be conveniently deposited on any substrate with simple processing. The chemical reduction method involves graphite oxidation by a strong oxidant to create graphene oxide, which is subsequently reduced by reducing agents [90-94] thermal [94], solvo-thermal [95-98], or electrochemical [99] methods to produce chemically modified graphene. Among these reduction processes, hydrazine reduction and solvo-thermal reduction can create process able colloidal dispersions of reduced graphene oxide, which may be used in a wide range of applications. Chemical reduction using hydrazine is one of the most effective methods for converting graphene oxide to chemically converted graphene (CCG). Chung at al [100] has report a simple and effective method for reducing and functionalizing graphene oxide into chemically converted graphene by solvo-thermal reduction of a graphene oxide suspension in N-methyl-2-pyrrolidone (NMP). NMP is a powerful solvent for dispersing SWCNT and graphene and high boiling point (~202 ºC) of NMP facilitates the use of NMP as a solvent for solvo-thermal reduction in open systems. Dubin et al. [101] reported solvo-thermally reduced graphene oxide suspension in NMP for 24 h at 200 ºC under oxygen-free conditions. As obtained, graphene was well dispersed in various solvents such as dimethylsulfoxide, ethyl acetate, acetonitrile, ethanol, tetrahydrofuran (THF), DMF, chloroform, and acetone with minimum precipitation at 1 mg/ml after 6 weeks.
\n\t\t\t\t\tHowever, the electrical conductivity of free-standing paper of graphene prepared by filtration was very low i.e. 374 S/m, when dried in air and 1380 S/m, when dried at 250 ºC. Recently Chung et al. have report the superior disersibility of RGO in N,N-dimethylformamide (DMF) by controlling the conditions of the hydrazine reduction. Instead of reducing the graphene oxide using hydrazine at high temperature (80–100 ºC) excess amounts of hydrazine were used. Reduction was carried out at ambient temperature to achieve extensive reduction with a C/O ratio of approximately 9.5, which is comparable to previous reports, while the RGO disersibility in NMP was as high as 0.71 mg/mL. The key to achieve highly dispersed RGO is performing the hydrazine reduction of graphene oxide at low temperature, which minimizes the formation of irreversible RGO aggregates [102]. Notably, the electrical conductivity of the hydrazine reduced graphene (HRGs) was sharply and inversely proportional to the dispersibility in DMF.
\n\t\t\t\tNanocomposites have been investigated since 1950, but industrial importance of the nanocomposites came nearly forty years later following a report from researchers at Toyota Motor Corporation that demonstrated large mechanical property enhancement using montmorillonite as filler in a Nylon-6 matrix and new applications of polymers. A nanocomposite is defined as a material with more than one solid phase, metal ceramic, or polymer, compositionally or structurally where at least one dimension falls in the nanometers range. Most of the composite materials are composed of just two phases; one is termed the matrix, which is continuous and surrounds the other phase, often called the dispersed phase and their properties are a function of properties of the constituent phases, their relative amounts, and the geometry of the dispersed phase. The combination of the nanomaterial with polymer is very attractive not only to reinforce polymer but also to introduce new electronic properties based on the morphological modification or electronic interaction between the two components. Depending on the nature of the components used and the method of preparation, significant differences in composite properties may be obtained. Nanocomposites of conducting polymers have been prepared by various methods such as colloidal dispersions, electrochemical encapsulation coating of inorganic polymers, and insitu polymerization with nanoparticles and have opened new avenues for material synthesis [103-105].
\n\t\t\tConducting polymer composites with graphite, CNT, Metal/metal oxides are studied a lot because of their usual electrical and mechanical properties. For example, In case of electromagnetic interference shielding application, the combination of magnetic nanoparticles with conducting polymer leads to form a ferromagnetic conducting polymer composite possessing unique combination of both electrical and magnetic properties. This type of materials can effectively shield electromagnetic waves generated from an electric source. When conducting polymers are combined with carbons material like CNT graphite and graphene they show good thermal and electrical properties as electronic conduction occurs at long range. In last couples of years, a variety of processing routes have been reported for dispersing the graphene based and it derivative as fillers in the polymer matrices. Many of these procedures are similar to those used for other nanocomposite systems but some are different and unique and have enhanced the bonding interaction at the interface between the filler and matrix significantly. Most of the dispersion methods produce composites by non-covalent assemblies where the polymer matrix and the filler interact through relatively weak dispersive forces. However, there is a growing research focus on introducing covalent linkages between graphene-based filler and the supporting polymer to promote stronger interfacial bonding. It is well known that most of the π-conjugated conducting polymers (CPs) are quite different from classical insulating polymers. They have conjugated backbones, which provide them with unique electrical and optical properties. These polymers are conductive in their doped states while insulating in their neutral states. Furthermore they are usually brittle, weak in mechanical strengths and usually insoluble, intractable and decompose before melting, having poor processability [104]. Thus, CP/CCG composites were mostly prepared by in situ polymerizations using different approaches. The incorporation of CCG into conducting polymer is attractive for combining the properties of both components or improving the properties of resulting composites based on synergy effects. The major forerunner of conducting polymer family are polyaniline (PANI), polypyrrole (PPy), polythiophene and poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) PEDOT and most of the research work has been done on them, polyaniline [105,106-111], PPy [112], poly(3-hexylthiophene) (P3HT) [113], PEDOT [1114] have been hybridized with CCG to form composites.
\n\t\t\tIn situ polymerization combines a post-graphitization strategy and is most widely applied method for preparing CCG/CP composites. Most of the work is done on PANI as it has good environmental stability, reversible redox activity, and potential applications in sensing, energy conversion and storages and electromagnetic shielding application [109,110-111,115]. Graphene oxide/PANI composites can be prepared by polymerizing aniline in graphene oxide dispersion. After the reduction of GO with hydrazine, the corresponding composites with CCG can be obtained. The key point to note here is that, the polymerization must be carried out in an acidic medium (pH ~ 1) for producing high-quality PANI. However, over acidification of the solution will cause clogging of graphene oxide sheets. Thus, the pH value of the reaction system must be optimized carefully. A graphene oxide-polypyrrole composite was also prepared by in situ polymerization in water in the presence of a surfactant [116-120] although graphene oxide was not converted to CCG, the composite exhibited a higher electrical conductivity than pure PPy.
\n\t\t\t\tGraphene has a tendency of aggregation and shows poor solubility, is the dominant factor for limiting the application of this technique. In this case, special care should be taken to avoid the precipitation of CCG, especially when oxidant was added. In another work, Xu and Chen et al. polymerized 3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene (EDOT) in the dispersion of sulfonated graphene, giving a CCG/PEDOT composite [121]. They claimed that sulfonate groups could increase the solubility of CCG and acted as dopants of PEDOT.
\n\t\t\tA very less number of research articles are available on the preparation of CCG/CP composites using solution mixing in comparison to insitu polymerization as most of the CPs are insoluble in common solvent. However, the solubility or dispersibility of CPs can be improved by chemical modifications or fabricating them into nanostructures. On the basis of this idea, CCG/sulfonated PANI (SPANI) [122] can be recognized as conjugated polyelectrolytes (CPE) according to their chain structures. The strong π –π interaction between the CPE chains and the basal planes of CCG sheets enables the composites to form stable dispersions. Composite films can be fabricated by casting the blend solutions. Graphene oxide was also reduced in an organic solvent with the presence of P3HT, giving a CCG/P3HT composite. Transparent and conductive film of graphene –polymer composite can be spin-coated or evaporated to produce composite films and can be used as the counter electrode of a dye-sensitized solar cell [123-125].
\n\t\t\tRecently Kumar et al [126] has reported the covalent functionalization of amine-protected 4-aminophenol to acylated graphene oxide and simultaneously reduced and
First the GO was synthesized by modified Hummers method and acylated in the presence of excess SOCl2 and then reacted with amine-protected 4-aminophenol. Futher, deprotection of N-(tert-butoxycarbonyl) groups by hydrolysis with trifluoroacetic acid. PANI-g-RGO was prepared from
Scheme of direct grafting of polyaniline on the reduced graphene sheets (Reprinted with permission from ref 126 Copyright 2012 American Chemical Society)
Typical FE-SEM images: (a) GO; (b and c) the surface of the PANI-g-RGO hybrid. HR-TEM images: (d) GO. Inset image is of a selected-area electron diffraction (SAED) pattern; (e) RGO-NH2. Inset image is at higher magnification; (f) PANI-g-RGO. (Reprinted with permission from ref 126 Copyright 2012 American Chemical Society)
Graphene being a two-dimensional (2D) structure of carbon atoms own exceptional chemical, thermal, mechanical, and electrical properties and mechanical properties. Extensive research has shown the potential of graphene or graphene-based sheets to impact a wide range of technologies. In this section, graphene based conducting polymer composites are discussed focusing their use an Electromagnetic interference shielding material [127-130].
\n\t\t\tThe development made in the Nano sciences & nanotechnology had flourished the electronic industries. Electronic systems have compact with increased the density of electrical components within an instrument. The operating frequencies of signals in these systems are also increasing and have created a new kind of problem called electromagnetic interference (EMI). Unwanted EMI effects occur when sensitive devices receive electromagnetic radiation that is being emitted whether intended or not, by other electric or electronic devices such as microwaves, wireless computers, radios and mobile phones. As a result, the affected receiving devices may malfunction or fail. The effects of electromagnetic interference are becoming more and more pronounced, caused by the demand for high-speed electronic devices operating at higher frequencies, more intensive use of electronics in computers, communication equipment and the miniaturisation of these electronics. For example, mobile phones and smartphones are typically operating at 2-3 GHz for data transmission through Universal Mobile Telecommunications Systems (UMTS). Compact, densely packed electronic components produce more electronic noise. Due to the increase in use of high operating frequency and band width in electronic systems, especially in X-band and broad band frequencies, there are concerns and more chances of deterioration of the radio wave environment. These trends indicate the need to protect components against electromagnetic interference (EMI) in order to decrease the chances of these components adversely affecting each other or the outer world. The effects of electromagnetic interference can be reduced or diminished by positioning a shielding material between the source of the electromagnetic field and the sensitive component. Shielding can be specified in the terms of reduction in magnetic (and electric) field or plane-wave strength caused by shielding. The effectiveness of a shield and its resulting EMI attenuation are based on the frequency, the distance of the shield from the source, the thickness of the shield and the shield material. Shielding effectiveness (SE) is normally expressed in decibels (dB) as a function of the logarithm of the ratio of the incident and exit electric (E), magnetic (H), or plane-wave field intensities (F): SE (dB) = 20 log (Eo/E1), SE (dB) = 20 log (Ho/H1), or SE (dB) = 20 log (Fo/F1), respectively. With any kind of electromagnetic interference, there are three mechanisms contributing to the effectiveness of a shield. Part of the incident radiation is reflected from the front surface of the shield, part is absorbed within the shield material and part is reflected from the shield rear surface to the front where it can aid or hinder the effectiveness of the shield depending on its phase relationship with the incident wave, as shown in Figure 7\n\t\t\t
\n\t\t\tTherefore, the total shielding effectiveness of a shielding material (SE) equals the sum of the absorption factor (SEA), the reflection factor (SER) and the correction factor to account for multiple reflections (SEM) in thin shields
\n\t\t\tAll the terms in the equation are expressed in dB. The multiple reflection factor SEM, can be neglected if the absorption loss SEA is greater than 10 dB. In practical calculation, SEM can also be neglected for electric fields and plane waves.
\n\t\t\tAbsorption loss SEA, is a function of the physical characteristics of the shield and is independent of the type of source field. Therefore, the absorption term SEA is the same for all three waves. As shown in Figure 8, when an electromagnetic wave passes through a medium its amplitude decreases exponentially. This decay or absorption loss occurs because currents induced in the medium produce ohmic losses and heating of the material, where E1 and H1 can be expressed as \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
Graphical representation of EMI shielding
where, t is the thickness of the shield in mm; f is frequency in MHz; μ is relative permeability (1 for copper); σ is conductivity relative to copper. The skin depth δ can be expressed as:
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tThe absorption loss of one skin depth in a shield is approximately 9 dB. Skin effect is especially important at low frequencies, where the fields experienced are more likely to be predominantly magnetic with lower wave impedance than 377 Ω. From the absorption loss point of view, a good material for a shield will have high conductivity and high permeability along with a sufficient thickness to achieve the required number of skin depths at the lowest frequency of concern.
\n\t\t\tThe reflection loss is related to the relative mismatch between the incident wave and the surface impedance of the shield. The computation of refection losses can be greatly simplified by considering shielding effectiveness for incident electric fields as a separate problem from that of electric, magnetic or plane waves. The equations for the three principle fields are given by the expressions
\n\t\t\t\twhere, RE, RH, and RP are the reflection losses for the electric, magnetic and plane wave fields, respectively, expressed in dB; σ is the relative conductivity relative to copper; f is the frequency in Hz; μ is the relative permeability relative to free space; r is the distance from the source to the shielding in meter.
\n\t\t\tThe factor SEM can be mathematically positive or negative (in practice, it is always negative) and becomes insignificant when the absorption loss SEA> 6 dB. It is usually only important when metals are thin and at low frequencies (i.e., below approximately 20 kHz). The formulation of factor SEM can be expressed as
\n\t\t\t\tDue to their high electrical conductivity, metals are particularly suitable as shielding material against electromagnetic fields. This can be a self-supporting full metal shielding, but also a sprayed, painted or electro-less applied conducting coating (e.g. nickel) on a supporting material such as plastic. Another option is the incorporation of metal (stainless steel) powder or fibres as conducting filler in a plastic matrix.
\n\t\t\t\tHowever, there are a certain draw backs to use metal as a shielding material. The weight of the ‘heavy’ metal can be an issue in the case of full metal shielding, processing and corrosion are other draw back to prohibit their use. In order to produce metal coatings, at least two processing techniques have to be applied one for the support and one for the coating, which can be costly. It will also be difficult to apply these coatings onto complicated shaped objects. In addition, the long-term adhesion of the coating to the support has to be reliable.
\n\t\t\t\tTo solve the EMI problems, spinel-type ferrites, metallic magnetic materials, and carbon nanotube (CNT) composites [131-138] have been extensively studied. To achieve higher SE and to overcome the drawbacks of the metal-based art, polymer material with appropriate conductive fillers can be shaped into an EMI shielding substrate, which exhibit improved EMI shielding and absorption properties. The conductive composites in the form of coatings, strips or molded materials have been prepared by the addition of highly conductive fillers or powders to non-conductive polymer substrates. Conductive polymer composites give a significantly better balance of mechanical and electrical properties than some of the current generation of commercially available EMI-shielding material. It is observed that the high conductivity and dielectric constant of the materials contribute to high EMI shielding efficiency (SE). The combination of conducting polymer with nanostructured ferrite along with graphene offers potentials to fight with EM pollution. Recently Dhawan et al have reported that if magnetic particles of barium ferrite or Fe2O3 are incorporated in the polymer matrix they improve the magnetic and dielectric properties of host materials [139-141]. Therefore, conjugated polymers combined with magnetic nanoparticles to form ferromagnetic nanocomposites provide an exciting system to investigate the possibility of exhibiting novel functionality. The unique properties of nanostructured ferrite offer excellent prospects for designing a new kind of shielding materials. The absorption loss in the material is caused by the heat loss under the action between electric dipole and/or magnetic dipole in the shielding material and the electromagnetic field so that the absorption loss is the function of conductivity and the magnetic permeability of the material. The designing of ferrite based conducting polymer nanocomposites increases the shielding effectiveness. Conducting and magnetic properties of conducing polymer-ferrite nanocomposites can be tuned by suitable selection of polymerization conditions and controlled addition of ferrite nanoparticles. The contribution to the absorption value comes mainly due the magnetic losses (μ˝) and dielectric losses (ε˝). The dependence of SEA on magnetic permeability and conductivity demonstrates that better absorption value has been obtained for material with higher conductivity and magnetization. Therefore, it has been concluded that the incorporation of magnetic and dielectric fillers in the polymer matrix lead to better absorbing material which make them futuristic radar absorbing material.
\n\t\t\tThere are many methods for the preparation of conducting polyaniline (PANI) like chemical or electrochemical oxidation of a monomer where the polymerization reaction is stoichiometric in electrons. However, number of methods such as photochemical polymerization, pyrolysis, metal-catalyzed polymerization, solid-state polymerization, plasma polymerization, ring-forming condensation, step-growth polymerization, and soluble precursor polymer preparation, have been reported in literature for synthesis of conjugated polymers. However, as discussed earlier good quality of polymer graphene composite can synthesized
Prior to the synthesis of polyaniline graphene composite, graphene oxide was synthesis using modified Hummers method followed by hydrazine reduction at 80 ºC to get CCG/RGO and
Here key to synthesized good quality of polymer composite is the weight ratio of ferrite and graphene to monomer. In this process, water is the continuous phase and DBSA is a surfactant that acts as discontinuous phase. Monomer aniline is emulsified to form the micro micelles of oil in water type. The shape of a micelle is a function of the molecular geometry of its surfactant molecules and solution conditions such as surfactant concentration, temperature, pH and ionic strength. Addition of the APS to the aniline monomer leads to the formation of cation radicals which combine with another monomer moiety to form a dimer, which on further oxidation and combination with another cation radical forms a termer and ultimately to a long chain of polymer.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tRecently our group has synthesized the graphene oxide coated Fe2O3 nanoparticles and prepared polyaniline GO- Fe2O3 ( PGF) nanocomposite by the same procedure as depicted in scheme (Figure 9 )and reports the SE and dielectric measurement. Here we have varied the weight ratio of monomer to γ-Fe2O3 as An: GO: γ-Fe2O3: 1:1:1 (PGF11), 1:1:2 (PGF12) and compared results with pristine polyaniline doped with DBSA (PD13) without ferrite particles and GO/polyaniline composite having weight ratio of aniline: GO in 2:1 (PG21) has also been synthesized in similar manner.
\n\t\t\tSchematic representation of the polymerization of graphene polyaniline composite
Pictorial representation for the formation of polyaniline nanocomposite by chemical oxidative polymerization
\n\t\t\t\t\tFigure 10 shows the variation of the SEA and SER with frequency for single layer of PG21, PGF11 and PGF12 composites in 12.4-18 GHz frequency range having thickness of ~2mm. It has been observed that conducting composites of polyaniline with nanosize γ-Fe2O3 and GO have SE mainly attributed by absorption. The maximum shielding effectiveness due to absorption SEA(max) has been ca. 41.6 dB at 16.1 GHz for PGF12 sample whereas for PG21 and PGF11 samples the SEA(max) has been ca. 20 dB at 18 GHz and 24.8 dB at 13.8 GHz, respectively. For the reflection part, the SER(max) has been ca. 7.7 dB at 12.4 GHz for PG21 sample whereas for PGF11 and PGF12 samples the SER(max) has been ca. 1.3 and 2 dB at 18 GHz, respectively. The higher values of SEA strongly suggest that the microwave absorption in the PGF nanocomposites results mainly from the absorption loss rather than the reflection loss. In addition, it is observed that SE increases with the concentration of γ-Fe2O3 in the polymer matrix. The increase in the absorption part is mainly attributed to be due to the presence of GO and a magnetic γ-Fe2O3 nanomaterial which increase more scattering which in turn results in more attenuation of the electromagnetic radiations. Moreover, with the change in the frequency in 12–18 GHz, the variation in the SEA value is very small, showing high bandwidth, which is commercially important for wide band absorbers. Clearly, compared to the other carbon coated magnetic nanoparticle as reported by Zhang et al. [142] (Rmax is ca. –32 dB) and Tang et al. [143] (Rmax is ca. –36 dB) these PGF composites demonstrate superior absorption properties.
\n\t\t\t\tDependence of shielding effectiveness (SEA& SER) of polyaniline composites PG21, PGF11 and PGF12 on frequency in 12.4-18 GHz
The total shielding effectiveness (SET = SER + SEA) of the respective samples has been calculated and it is observed that the PGF12 composite show maximum SET value of 43.5 dB whereas total SE for PG21 and PGF11 composites is of same order i.e. ~ 26 dB. In PG21 composite, incorporation of GO in the polymer matrix increase the total SE to 26 dB in which ~18 dB is due to absorption and ~ 8 dB is due to the reflection. With the addition of γ-Fe2O3 nanoparticles the absorption part increases to ~ 24.5 dB while reflection part decreases to ~ 1.5 dB and further by doubling the concentration of γ-Fe2O3 nanoparticles the absorption value enhanced to 41.6 dB. This increase in the absorption of microwave is due to the fact that in PG21 only dielectric losses contributes to the SEA whereas in PGF11 both dielectric and magnetic losses contributes to the absorption of microwaves. The dependence of SE on complex permittivity and permeability can be expressed as [144]
\n\t\t\t\twhere, d is the thickness of the shield, μr is the magnetic permeability, δ is the skin depth, \n\t\t\t\t\t\t
To investigate the possible mechanism and effects giving rise to improve microwave absorption, complex permittivity (εr = ε´–jε˝) and permeability (µr = µ´–jµ˝) of the samples have been calculated using scattering parameters (S11& S21) based on the theoretical calculations given in Nicholson, Ross and Weir method [146,147]. The dielectric performance of the material depends on ionic, electronic, orientational and space charge polarization. The contribution to the space charge polarization appears due to the heterogeneity of the material. The real (ε´) and imaginary (ε˝) part of complex permittivity vs. frequency has been shown in Fig. 11 (a& b). The real part (ε´) is mainly associated with the amount of polarization occurring in the material while the imaginary part (ε˝) is related with the dissipation of energy. In polyaniline, strong polarization occurs due to the presence of polaron/bipolaron and other bound charges, which leads to high value of ε´ & ε˝. With the increase in frequency, the dipoles present in the system cannot reorient themselves along with the applied electric field as a result of this dielectric constant decreases.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\tThe main characteristic feature of GO is that it has high dielectric constant (ε´~32) with dominant dipolar polarization and the associated relaxation phenomenon constitutes the loss mechanism. With the addition of GO and γ-Fe2O3 in polyaniline matrix, significant increase in the imaginary part of complex permittivity has been observed. The higher values of the dielectric loss is attributed to the more interfacial polarization due to the presence of GO and γ-Fe2O3 particles which consequently leads to more shielding effectiveness due to absorption. Fig. 12 (a& b) shows the variation of real part and imaginary part of magnetic permeability with frequency. The magnetic permeability of all the samples decreases with the increase in frequency whereas, higher magnetic loss has been observed for higher percentage of γ-Fe2O3 in the polymer matrix.
\n\t\t\t\tBehavior of (a) real and (b) imaginary part of permittivity of PG21, PGF11 and PGF12 composites as a function of frequency
Variation of real and imaginary part of magnetic permeability of PGF11 and PGF12 composites as a function of frequency
The magnetic loss caused by the time lag of magnetization vector (M) behind the magnetic field vector. The change in magnetization vector generally brought about by the rotation of magnetization and the domain wall displacement. These motions lag behind the change of the magnetic field and contribute to the magnetic loss (μ˝). The rotation of domain of magnetic nanoparticles might become difficult due to the effective anisotropy (magneto-crystalline anisotropy and shape anisotropy). The surface area, number of atoms with dangling bonds and unsaturated coordination on the surface of polymer matrix are all enhanced [148-150]. These variations lead to the interface polarization and multiple scattering, which is useful for the absorption of large number of microwaves. Therefore we can conclude that, incorporation of graphene along with ferrite nanoparticles in the polyaniline matrix by
In another article, Basavaraja et al [151] has synthesized polyaniline-gold-GO nanocomposite by an in situ polymerization and reports the microwave absorption property in the 2 –12 GHz frequency range. They found electromagnetic interference shielding effectiveness of polyaniline gold nanocomposite (PANI-GNP) has been enhanced due to the inclusion of 25% by weight GO in the polyaniline matrix. In Figure 13a, FT-IR spectra of GO, PANI-GNP, and PANI-GNP-GO has shown which clearly shows that some small deviations from the characteristic band of polyaniline that may be attributed some molecular interaction between GO with polyaniline ring has taken place this can be supported by UV–Vis spectra as shown in figure 14b. The spectrum for PANI-GNP shows three sharp absorption bands at around 320, 415, and 550 nm attributed to the π–π* transition of the benzenoid rings, and the polaron/bipolaron transition. The presence of GNPs is shown by the absorption peak at 520–530 nm. The peak at 550 nm indicates the presence of GNPs in PANI-GNP and their conjugation with PANI. The spectrum for PANI-GNP-GO shows all three absorption bands with slightly larger area as compared to that of PANI-GNP and red shift has taken place. However the GO peak in PANI-GNP-GO appeared to merged with the π–π* transition of the benzenoid rings. Figure 14c shows the SEM images Here the lump- and fiber-like structures of PANI-GNP disappeared after incorporation of GO into the matrix while the Figure 13d shows the TEM images for PANI-GNP and PANI-GNP-GO. In PANI-GNP, spherical GNPs covered by PANI polymers formed nano-capsules. These particles had a diameter between 25 and 45 nm. After the incorporation of GO in PANI-GNP, the surface morphology of PANI-GNP- GO changed. The spherical PANI-GNP particles disappeared and new pellet/flake-like structures were formed.
\n\t\t\t\ta) FT-IR spectra of GO, PANI-GNP, and PANI-GNP-GO, (b) UV–vis spectra of GO, PANI-GNP, and PANI-GNP-GO, (c) SEM images of PANI-GNP and PANI-GNP-GO, (d) TEM images of PANI-GNP and PANI-GNP-GO (Reprinted from ref 151 Copyright (2011), with permission from Elsevier)
The variation of the electromagnetic interference (EMI) shielding effectiveness (SE) as a function of frequency measured in the 2.0–12.0 GHz for GO, PANI-GNP, and PANI-GNP-GO films are shown in figure 14a Here GO exhibited lower values of SE, The SE values observed for GO and PANI-GNP in this frequency range were 20–33 and 45–69 dB, respectively. The higher values in the PANI-GNP are mainly attributed to the presence of GNPs. The highest values of SE have been observed in the PANIGNP- GO composite. The observed SE values for PANI-GNP-GO were within 90–120 dB. This range of values is very high compared with other carbon-based materials [152]. The EMI-SE data suggest that the electrochemical responses of PANI-GNP have been enhanced due to the inclusion of GO. Figure 14b shows the SE values variation with the thickness at 9.0 GHz. The SE values increase with increasing thickness of the sheets. This probably would overcome the poor cycling life, processability and solubility of the homo-polymer.
\n\t\t\t\t\n\t\t\t\ta) EMI-SE values as a function of frequency measured at 2.0–12.0 GHz. (b) EMI-SE values as a function of sheet thickness at 9.0 GHz for GO, PANI-GNP, and PANI-GNP-GO. (Reprinted from ref 151 Copyright (2011), with permission from Elsevier)
Although most of the research progress has been made in understanding the structure, processing, and properties of GO/RGO-based compound, there is significantly more to be explored and exploited given the highly versatile properties of the material. GO provides an exciting platform to study engineering, physics, chemistry, and materials science of unique 2D systems as well as offers a route towards realizing conducting polymer graphene composite. Continued involvement of researchers from all disciplines should further uncover the potential of GO/RGO polymer to processible and highly user friendly end product The enhancement in the microwave shielding and absorption properties of the polyaniline nanocomposite has been achieved by the incorporation of GO & RGO along with the magnetic filler in the polyaniline matrix. Now there is a need to form Graphene polymer composite paint that can be easily coat over the electronic encloser. Therefore, from the present studies, it can be concluded that the incorporation of magnetic and dielectric fillers in the polymer matrix lead to better absorbing material which make them futuristic radar absorbing material.
\n\t\t\tIn spite of these interesting developments, a lot remains to be done with regard to both fundamental understanding and the much needed improvement of the method of the designing of electromagnetic shielding materials to operate at higher frequencies for their application.
\n\t\tMedical equipment is a product that can directly affect human lives. They have been and are considerable investments and in many cases have high maintenance costs. That is why it is important to have a well-planned, managed maintenance program that can keep medical equipment in a reliable, safe, and available medical service. In addition, such a management program extends the life of the equipment and minimizes the cost of its maintenance [1].
A modern medical equipment maintenance strategy includes periodic inspection procedures to which preventive maintenance (PM) and corrective maintenance (CM) are added when necessary. Performance inspections ensure that the equipment operates correctly within the limits set by the manufacturer or according to the standards in force for that type of equipment. Safety inspections ensure that the equipment is safe to use for both patients and operators. Preventive maintenance (PM) aims to extend the life of the equipment and reduce the downtime of medical equipment [2].
In addition, there may be some hidden issues that can be easily detected during a scheduled inspection. The technical inspection procedure of medical equipment only ensures that the device is in good working order at the time of inspection and cannot eliminate the possibility of a malfunction during future use. It must be borne in mind that by their nature, electrical and mechanical components can be damaged at any time. Corrective maintenance (CM) restores the operation of a defective device and allows it to be put back into operation in optimal parameters.
Planning a maintenance program requires more effort to establish a comprehensive medical equipment management program. There are a number of critical factors to consider:
Inventory – types and models of medical equipment to be followed by technical staff and the steps by which they are specifically included in specific maintenance programs;
Methodology – identify the method by which maintenance will be provided to the medical equipment included in the program;
Resources – the financial, technical, and human resources included in the program.
In the process of planning a maintenance program, it is essential to determine the types of medical equipment they need to be included in a maintenance management program. This fact will depend on the types of medical services to be provided covered by the program, ranging from primary care clinics to hospitals as well as the range of equipment in them. The clinical engineering department of the hospital is the one that has to identify and select the medical equipment to be included in the inventory and to include it in the maintenance program [3].
A maintenance program can be implemented in several ways, the variety of methodologies available at a given time must be taken into account. For example, the healthcare provider may enter into service contracts with device manufacturers, independent service organizations, or a combination of both, in addition to the assistance that their own technical staff can provide.
As for the resources needed for maintenance, they are difficult to predict. This requires a well-maintained maintenance history, personnel requirement calculations, test equipment as well as their technical knowledge to repair defective equipment. Outside suppliers are required for the maintenance of complex equipment. Maintenance often requires access to equipment that can be difficult to obtain due to budget constraints and purchasing difficulties, especially when buying from abroad (Table 1). In order to meet such challenges, it is important to consider the financial advance, technical, and human resources required to properly carrying out the planned activities [4].
Initial cost | Operating cost | |
---|---|---|
Space, tools, test equipment, and computer resources | Utilities, operation, maintenance, and calibration | |
Recruiting and initial training | Salaries and continuing education | |
Not applicable | Service contract, spare parts, and materials |
Financial resources required for a maintenance program.
A maintenance schedule is also based on a defined number of physical resources. This category includes workspace, tools and test equipment, consumables, spare parts, and maintenance and service manuals required to perform maintenance. Various testing tools and equipment are required to perform PM and/or CM procedures, depending on the type of medical equipment. It is possible to perform many PM and CM with a basic set of electronic service instruments and test equipment (e.g. temperature meter, voltmeter, power indicator, oscilloscope, and electrical safety meter) (Table 2). However, all these involve additional costs that must be provided in the financial and technological management.
Medical device | Test equipment required |
---|---|
All electrical equipment | Electrical safety analyzer |
ICU monitors and ECG machines | Simulators/arrhythmia simulators |
Defibrillators | Defibrillator analyzer |
Electrosurgical units | Frequency electrosurgical analyzer |
Ventilators, heart-lung machine, and anesthesia machine | Pneumatic tester and pneumatic flow meter |
Noninvasive blood pressure monitors | Noninvasive blood pressure simulator |
Anesthesia machines and ventilators, | Gas flow meters |
Test equipment for some medical device category.
Fortunately, in hospitals, we see more and more technology. And this can only make us happy, proving to us that medicine is advancing, so the diagnosis is made earlier and more precisely, the treatment is more personalized and more effective. Overall, technology allows us to better care for the patient for his/her benefit, but also for the doctor, who has powerful tools to practice his/her profession. At the same time, the presence of these increasingly sophisticated medical equipment comes with the need for medical engineers in hospitals who know how to use this equipment, to identify when they are not used correctly or when they no longer work at optimal parameters.
For a patient, the staff of a hospital means doctors, nurses, and sisters, and it is normal to be like that, because only with them they interact but, a hospital in order to operate continuously, 24/7, in safe conditions, there is a whole team of technicians behind it, which makes this possible. Someone has to make sure that the medical equipment, the ventilation systems, the medical gas systems, and the electrical network are working properly, and these are the bioengineers, the clinical engineers, and the medical engineers.
Operational management involves making very diverse decisions, which can be classified into two broad categories: strategic and tactical. Strategic decisions have a longer time horizon and are less structured than tactical ones. They focus on the entire organization, drawing certain lines and directions, while tactical decisions are more focused on departments, teams, and issues. Device management takes place within a generalized business model, so clinical engineers work in collaboration with the financial and procurement departments of the institution to ensure efficient management of technical equipment, but also assistance policies are properly implemented through the efficient use of financial resources [5]. Consequently, the role of clinical engineering includes the development of equipment support strategies, the management and periodic review of these strategies, as well as the management of both fiscal resources and specialized personnel. Various problems may occur with medical devices resulting from device malfunctions, equipment operation problems, or malfunctioning devices [6, 7].
The first maintenance policies developed consisted of interventions on the devices that worked until their accidental shutdown (breakdown) due to wear and tear or due to the occurrence of malfunctions. The intervention is considered satisfactory as long as the device/system is operating at a minimum acceptable level (reactive maintenance) [8].
The development and increase in the complexity of medical equipment have led to the modernization and updating of maintenance techniques and policies. The preventive and predictive activity makes it possible to plan the shutdown, prepare the intervention team, ensure the necessary spare parts, and respectively, reduce to a minimum the parking time for repair [9]. Predictive maintenance is a qualitative leap forward in a modern maintenance system, regardless of the scope or specifics of production, as it provides all the information needed to:
early detection of defects;
their location;
fault diagnosis; and
calculation of the safe operating time of the machine.
Many healthcare providers have now implemented continuous quality improvement programs based on innovation in the way care is provided in order to improve safety, control costs, and make these services more accessible and effective for patients. Staff involved in operational management also use risk management methodologies to optimize hospital resources to provide a healthcare technology management program that focuses on ensuring that the hospital’s clinical work can be performed safely and cost-effectively.
The lack of specialized technical staff, including medical bioengineers and clinical engineers in hospitals, as well as an inefficient maintenance system are the major causes that determine incidents of all kinds. This has been highlighted more than ever, during the pandemic, when hospitals and all their medical equipment were and still are overburdened. During this time, more than ever, we have realized that the rules and standards of hospital care (including the care of medical equipment, medical gas networks, ventilation, electrical networks, etc.) need to be improved, and maintenance policies need to be optimized as quickly as possible.
Healthcare is one of the largest industries in the world, with a high degree of diversity in terms of therapeutic activities and how they are performed. There is compelling evidence that while healthcare brings enormous benefits to all people, the frequency of errors and unwanted events is increasing, directly related to the development of innovation in biomedical technologies. Understanding and ensuring the safety of medical care is an extreme challenge in health system management [10].
For departments and organizations that target medical devices, whether they are manufactured or used, one of the key goals should be patient safety and risk management. Risk management is a complex process of identifying, analyzing, and responding to potential risks, through a documented approach, which uses material, financial, and human resources to achieve objectives, aiming to reduce their exposure to losses [11]. Thus, internal control is directly associated with risk management, because, through the measures taken, a functional framework is reasonably ensured that allows that entity to achieve its objectives [12].
The risk appetite of the organization must be clearly articulated in the policy, and this can be informed through legal and financial issues. Policy should also clearly define roles and responsibilities in risk management. There must also be a periodic review process in which each risk is reviewed to ensure that control measures are effective and that the residual risk is properly classified. The policy should set out the process, methods, and tools used to manage the risks within the organization.
Risk management is a cyclical process, which takes place throughout the course of an activity and involves several stages of work as shown in Figure 1.
Risk management cycle.
The first step in the risk management process involves focusing efforts on identifying all possible sources of risk that could affect in any way the development of the project or activity analyzed. Effective risk management assumes that risk identification is an ongoing process that allows the entity to connect to the process of change and adaptation. An efficient risk management process at the level of the entity must also take into account the priorities of the institutions under coordination/subordination or under authority, which contribute to the achievement of the objectives of the respective entity [13].
The sources of risk come from both inside and outside an organization that provides healthcare services. External sources are those sources of risk that are the result of events outside the organization under analysis. The main factors that can influence the external risk environment and that need to be taken into account are as follows:
regulations and/or legislation – each healthcare provider must identify those laws and regulations under which they operate and which define the limits of action of this entity;
modifying/updating the objectives – in some situations, the treatment of some risks by the managers of the organization is influenced by the external decisions that influence the own activities;
sometimes, budget cuts can affect the achievement/limitation or stoppage of some professional activities or the number of employees.
Due to the fact that in the case of external risk no preventive measures can be taken, the only way to act is by insurance. Internal sources are the result of events within the organization. These sources of risk can be controlled. In this category, we can distinguish the risks of using technology equipment, the risks of specialized labor, or the risks associated with organizational management. These risks can be prevented by simply eliminating the sources that produce them, which is possible due to the fact that they are generated by the activity of the organization, so they come from within it.
There are two main categories in the risk analysis process:
qualitative risk analysis;
quantitative risk analysis.
The results of the qualitative risk analysis are less accurate, as they are more indicative than precise. In the qualitative analysis, the Probability Impact Matrix technique can be used, a technique that combines the two components of risk, thus presenting an overview of it [10]. This method can be applied at several levels, with varying degrees of difficulty. Most healthcare organizations use a 535 risk matrix based on Australian standards AS/4360: 2004, where the two axes correspond to the scales for consequences, sometimes called severity and probability as illustrated in Figure 2 [14].
Probability impact matrix examples.
If these results are not satisfactory, the risk management also provides the quantitative analysis which presents results in numerical form as a result of the calculations made. If the risk analyst cannot give an accurate probability of such an event occurring, he/she can instead calculate the size of the losses or depreciations generated.
In this sense, risk management has developed a series of calculation methods and techniques such as [15]:
SWOT analysis (
Concatenation principle: by concatenating the risks, a chain of risky events is identified, and these will be analyzed together.
Script technique: this technique involves describing one or more possible ways of conducting an event from a concrete situation.
Expected value analysis.
Decision-based tree analysis.
Monte Carlo simulation method.
Measures should be taken to reduce the probability (possibility) of occurrence of the risk and/or to reduce the consequences (impact) on the results (objectives), if the risk is materialized. Risk response is a reduction in risk exposure if it is a threat.
If disposal is not feasible, control measures should be put in place:
Elimination or avoidance
Replacement
Control of risks at source
Separation and isolation
Safe working procedures
Training, instruction, and supervision
Personal protection
Other considerations: social assistance facilities, first aid, and emergency procedures
Lack of control can compromise the entire risk management process.
In general, the risk management framework should not be seen as a single task but should be continually reviewed to ensure that it remains fit for purpose. There are a variety of technical standards for medical devices designed to ensure the consistency of a device’s safety throughout its life [16, 17]. These should be seen as a starting point in the risk profile and are the basis of the medical device directives: directive on implantable active medical devices (90/385/EEC), Medical Devices Directive (93/42/EEC), and directive on in vitro diagnostic medical devices (98/79/EEC). Another useful standard is BS ISO 31100 which sets a framework for incorporating risk management into any organization [18].
A very important component in the management of medical technologies is represented by the realization of a maintenance program in which to take into account the characteristics and failures of medical equipment. At the moment of including such a maintenance strategy, a distinction will have to be made between older medical devices and high-tech devices, as they cannot be effectively managed if the same maintenance strategies are used [19]. The World Health Organization has issued guidelines for the application of corrective maintenance at the hospital level. Corrective maintenance is actually a whole process from identifying the defect to repairing the device and putting it back into operation.
The first step in the corrective maintenance process is to report a fault/incident to a user. Also, a malfunction can be found when a medical technician/bioengineer from the Department of Clinical Engineering performs the periodic technical inspection. In order to make the maintenance process more efficient, the first step is the realization of the finding and then the corrective maintenance is initiated. A reduction in the failure time of the defective medical device can be achieved when the medical technician/bioengineer performs some corrective maintenance steps himself/herself and uses internal expertise or external service providers. This corrective maintenance may be accomplished at various levels:
component level: old generation equipment requires isolation of the fault by troubleshooting and repairing the level of components. In the case of new generation medical equipment, electronic devices, repairing the level of components can be time-consuming and difficult. In addition, this type of maintenance is not feasible, so the repair of the board level or even the system level is applied.
board level: in the case of modern electronic equipment, the faults of a certain circuit board are isolated, and the entire board is replaced.
device or system level: in the case of modern equipment, troubleshooting and repairing at the plate level are sometimes difficult and time-consuming. Therefore, if the cost of a repair exceeds 60% of the value of the purchase of new equipment, it is more profitable to replace the entire device or subsystem.
The type of corrective maintenance applied at the hospital level is dependent on a number of cumulative factors including the availability of financial, physical, and human resources, as well as the urgency of a particular request for repair. One strategy that can be considered is the application of repairs at the device level, in emergency situations and when more time is available, the repair can be used at the plate level or at the component level. If it is proposed to repair the component level, parts may need to be replaced.
Replacement can be done with specialized parts from the manufacturer or with spare parts recovered from malfunctioning or obsolete equipment (only after the announced risk assessment).
In the event of an unforeseen fault, environmental factors must also be considered, such as stabilizing the power supply sources by using voltage regulators, installing uninterruptible power supplies (UPS), using surge protection devices and avoiding connection. Another important environmental aspect is the interaction of medical devices with other utility systems (e.g. medical gas and vacuum systems, temperature and ventilation control systems, water supply, and information technology).
There must be a permanent collaboration with the other categories of engineers in the organization in order to optimize the capacity of the utility systems so that the medical equipment works in optimal parameters. The environment in which medical equipment is used should be controlled in terms of temperature and humidity. There are situations in which some medical equipment is designed to be used in accordance with the specific climate of a country/region. In this case, the maintenance procedures in a particular country or region are adjusted according to these local factors. Other important environmental factors are the age and condition of medical equipment or old facilities built to old standards that are not applicable.
The actions required after the repair is completed include recalibration processes and a performance and safety inspection. These activities are essential for measuring device performance. Once these activities are completed, the medical equipment will be returned for use to the patient care.
In the case of corrective maintenance, a decisive role is played by the periodic technical verification, part of the preventive maintenance process. The technical file of the medical device in which any intervention made on the medical device is recorded is a reference document in corrective maintenance that helps to make decisions. Existing data in the worksheet includes the actions performed, the parts replaced, and their cost helps to identify if or when the parts need to be replaced again and helps to explain the condition of the parts during the current inspection.
An important aspect in the corrective maintenance process is the consideration of safety aspects. In this case, procedures must be included regarding the safety of the technical staff during maintenance, the safety of the user after maintenance, and the general control of infections. In order to increase the safety of service personnel, it is necessary to train and use personal protective equipment and knowledge of techniques that will allow technical personnel to work safely in dangerous conditions.
Following maintenance, in particular following procedures which could have affected the safety features of a medical device, the technical staff must check that the device is safe to use, mechanically and electrically. Particular attention shall be paid to the electrical safety of medical devices so that they are earth-proof and leakage current is measured to ensure that they are within the applicable limits. (In the absence of electrical safety test equipment, technical personnel must rely on careful repair techniques and simple electrical tests to verify the integrity of the device). Physicians should be advised to check the settings of the device and perform basic operational checks before using the device with patients [20].
An important conclusion we can draw is that the best maintenance strategy is to apply the mixed maintenance strategy. This process is due to the fact that we are talking about a very large number of medical equipment and complex technologies. The maintenance process must be divided between the parts: internal maintenance is adopted for surgical lamps, sciatic lamps, and telemetry devices. In the case of critical devices, maintenance is covered by full-risk agreements with authorized manufacturers or service centers.
External maintenance is adopted for anesthesia machines, mechanical ventilators, electrocardiographs, patient monitors, and surgical tables [21].
Good management of medical technologies at the hospital level can minimize malfunctions in medical devices. If we refer to developing countries, here the problem is the limited financial resources. In this case, a proper management of medical technologies, based on increasing reliability and reducing failures, could lead to the provision of good health services in limited economic conditions. Assessing the effectiveness of any maintenance program is critical to optimizing the use of available resources within the hospital. The emphasis cannot be placed solely on scheduled maintenance [22].
Patients’ access to an accurate diagnosis, effective treatment, or rehabilitation process with appropriate medical devices is related to the efficient management of the maintenance of medical devices. This process can increase the efficiency and productivity of medical technology resources, which is especially important when resources are limited (Figure 3) [23].
A summary of basics for evaluating and identifying the mode of operation within the clinical engineering department of any hospital.
A possible approach to medical technology management involves the inclusion of a priority analysis step. The division into three levels of emergency (high, medium, and low) can be proposed based on the operation and implementation of subsequent actions in appropriate stages, appropriate to urgency, criticality, and seriousness. This analysis of priorities can be done both in terms of preventive maintenance, corrective maintenance, and in the case of a replacement program. In this case, the management priority can be recognized by the maintenance [24]
Another operational diagram that can be applied to evaluate the management process of medical technologies is the Ishikawa diagram or the fish bone diagram. This diagram is a verbal tool that has the relationship between an effect (a problem) and all possible causes that influence the effect (Figure 4).
Ishikawa diagram or the fish bone diagram applied to the management process of medical technologies.
The optimization of the functions of the maintenance department can be obtained by implementing a procedure that includes three important aspects: the task of the annual maintenance plan, the time available for the technical department, and the amount of equipment to be maintained. Taking into account these parameters, it is possible to estimate the personnel necessary to perform the maintenance function, responding to the most critical component of the management act – human resources [25]
Block diagram of the process required to calculate the set proposed by the KPI, starting from technological, organizational, and financial data.
A proper evaluation of the medical equipment maintenance process should include the development of a checklist for evaluating medical technology management. Implementing a list can be helpful in ensuring the profitability of health facilities and the reliability of medical equipment. In addition, she/he is involved in decision-making in support of the selection, measurement, repair, and maintenance of medical equipment, in particular for capital equipment managers and hospital medical engineers, and also for the evaluation of this process.
An example of a maintenance management evaluation checklist proposes the inclusion of 15 indicators: type of medical equipment, quality control tests, application of training processes, correct storage of medical equipment and spare parts, existence of maintenance contracts, supervision of the process of operation, the existence of the decommissioning procedure, the existence of the reintegration system in use/system and the reporting of adverse events, ensuring the supply of electricity in optimal conditions, implementation of a process of continuous development of maintenance, general administration, management, and allocation of a separate budget for medical equipment maintenance services [23].
Another approach to evaluating the management process was implemented by Herrera-Galán and included evaluating the performance of the maintenance function by implementing management audits. Assessments include equipment availability, response to a service request, monitoring and control of biomedical equipment, staff training, quality of work performed by maintenance technicians, workload of maintenance technicians, control of work performed by maintenance technicians, effectiveness of annual planning, and maintenance and performance of the department. The results of this research show that the audit technique is a valuable checklist in evaluating the performance of a hospital. And in this case, it was highlighted that the most critical component of the results of a management audit is human resources [26].
Amerion et al. managed to identify the effective factors that influence the management of medical technologies at the level of a military hospital. Following the study, 26 components with an important influence on the management process were extracted. These are user training, human resources, user engagement and experience, the foreign exchange market, regular checks, and trade name. Attention to the evaluation of these components could reduce maintenance costs and increase the lifespan of medical equipment. The process of training users that must be continuous and the quality of human resources are the two main aspects [27].
A general conclusion regarding the implementation of management strategies in the maintenance of medical equipment shows us that the necessary adequate resources underlying are human resources, material, financial, and documentation resources [28].
The maintenance of medical equipment becomes more expensive every year, and to optimize maintenance programs and reduce total cost of ownership, hospital management structures are constantly looking for solutions to extend the time of operation of equipment, in the required safety and technical performance and through the efficient use of available resources. The analysis and substantiation of capital expenditures in medical organizations must be based on quantifiable factors, with a direct impact on the full associated costs. In order to optimize operating and support costs, medical technology management structures develop medical equipment maintenance programs, based on assessments and prioritization, based on risks and costs. The development of alternative plans for medical equipment must take into account the complexity and large number of existing equipment, the skills of its own specialists and their number, the technical means of calibration and control, and the budgetary resources available.
In this regard, healthcare facilities need to implement evidence-based maintenance strategies, through the development of prioritization procedures aimed at a balanced assessment of relevant factors in the life of medical equipment, through an integrated approach to the elements of reliability-based maintenance, on risk-based conditions and maintenance.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Today's modern hospital is highly dependent on different types of medical equipment to help diagnose, monitor, and treat patients. Medical equipment maintenance is important to reduce costs, reduce patient dissatisfaction, treat the patient in a timely manner, and reduce mortality and risks during patient care. Good maintenance management is important to have well-planned and implemented programs through which hospitals can minimize medical device failures or other problems with the operation of medical equipment. Medical equipment plays an important role in the hospital system; therefore, the acquisition, maintenance, and replacement of medical equipment are key factors in hospitals for the implementation of the health service. Thus, in order to ensure the quality of medical devices for the provision of medical care, it is imperative to evaluate the safety of using hospital maintenance management. In order to achieve these goals, hospitals must develop checklists that identify the state of performance of medical equipment maintenance. It is essential for clinical managers and engineers not only to increase the capacity of the hospital but also to predict the risks of sudden failure. Given the lack of unique and comprehensive maintenance management checklists, the current goal is to design and develop medical equipment maintenance management checklists.
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\\n\\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\\n\\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\\n\\nFeel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\\n\\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
\\n"}]'},components:[{type:"htmlEditorComponent",content:'At IntechOpen, the majority of OAPFs are paid by an Author’s institution or funding agency - Institutions (73%) vs. Authors (23%).
\n\nThe first step in obtaining funds for your Open Access publication begins with your institution or library. IntechOpen’s publishing standards align with most institutional funding programs. Our advice is to petition your institution for help in financing your Open Access publication.
\n\nHowever, as Open Access becomes a more commonly used publishing option for the dissemination of scientific and scholarly content, in addition to institutions, there are a growing number of funders who allow the use of grants for covering OA publication costs, or have established separate funds for the same purpose.
\n\nPlease consult our Open Access Funding page to explore some of these funding opportunities and learn more about how you could finance your IntechOpen publication. Keep in mind that this list is not definitive, and while we are constantly updating and informing our Authors of new funding opportunities, we recommend that you always check with your institution first.
\n\nFor Authors who are unable to obtain funding from their institution or research funding bodies and still need help in covering publication costs, IntechOpen offers the possibility of applying for a Waiver.
\n\nOur mission is to support Authors in publishing their research and making an impact within the scientific community. Currently, 14% of Authors receive full waivers and 6% receive partial waivers.
\n\nWhile providing support and advice to all our international Authors, waiver priority will be given to those Authors who reside in countries that are classified by the World Bank as low-income economies. In this way, we can help ensure that the scientific work being carried out can make an impact within the worldwide scientific community, no matter where an Author might live.
\n\nThe application process is open after your submitted manuscript has been accepted for publication. To apply, please fill out a Waiver Request Form and send it to your Author Service Manager. If you have an official letter from your university or institution showing that funds for your OA publication are unavailable, please attach that as well. The Waiver Request will normally be addressed within one week from the application date. All chapters that receive waivers or partial waivers will be designated as such online.
\n\nDownload Waiver Request Form
\n\nFeel free to contact us at funders@intechopen.com if you have any questions about Funding options or our Waiver program. If you have already begun the process and require further assistance, please contact your Author Service Manager, who is there to assist you!
\n\nNote: All data represented above was collected by IntechOpen from 2013 to 2017.
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One challenge comes from the changing perceptions of what learning is all about. The second challenge comes from new learning opportunities that technology now affords. Constructivism, interpretivism, and computing technology, separately and often together, have redesigned the conception of the challenges and opportunities of learning, and brought about new learning possibilities for almost all teaching and learning situations, including traditional classroom teaching, distance learning, and self-learning. Computer-supported learning environments could have good problems that will stimulate students to explore and reflect on their knowledge construction. Students who cannot afford higher education are discouraged from seeking or completing a degree. Distance learning-based programs could increase access for students to higher education, whereas open and distance-learning programs may be difficult to implement in the laboratory sciences, but they have real potential to maximize the use of technology.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Vimbi Petrus Mahlangu",authors:[{id:"196797",title:"Prof.",name:"Vimbi",middleName:"Petrus",surname:"Mahlangu",slug:"vimbi-mahlangu",fullName:"Vimbi Mahlangu"}]},{id:"59935",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.74843",title:"The Challenges of E-learning in South Africa",slug:"the-challenges-of-e-learning-in-south-africa",totalDownloads:2652,totalCrossrefCites:11,totalDimensionsCites:19,abstract:"The University of South Africa (UNISA) is the largest open distance e-learning (ODeL) university in the continent of Africa, with a student headcount more than 300,000. Over two decades after the transition from apartheid to democracy, vast inequalities across race, class, gender and socio-economic status persist in South Africa, with the majority of the African people being the most affected. Demographically, the African people constitute about 80.8% of the country’s total population, compared to whites, who constitute a meagre 8.8%, yet African households carry the highest burden of poverty, living way below the official poverty line of $1.90/day as determined by the World Bank and other international agencies. This chapter explores these inequalities and ponders on the role of e-learning for this poorest section of society in a country where modern technological devises in the form of information and communication technologies (ICTs) and access to the Internet are perceived to be ubiquitous. South Africa’s Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) commits to “an expansion of open and distance education and the establishment of more ‘satellite’ premises where universities or colleges provide classes at places and times convenient to students (including in rural areas)”. This chapter also explores the role of UNISA in the provision of distance learning through structured and sustainable e-learning.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Moeketsi Letseka, Matsephe Martha Letseka and Victor Pitsoe",authors:[{id:"187812",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:"Justice",surname:"Pitsoe",slug:"victor-pitsoe",fullName:"Victor Pitsoe"},{id:"195883",title:"Dr.",name:"Matsephe M.",middleName:null,surname:"Letseka",slug:"matsephe-m.-letseka",fullName:"Matsephe M. 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A survey captures responses on their technological, lifestyle and learning preparedness for the ELS to produce an e-readiness score. A modified DeLone and McLean model evaluates the impact of their level of e-readiness during their use of the ELS. Identifying where and when students have difficulties, pinpointing their deficits or recommending the more appropriate modality could help students achieve a positive course outcome.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Glenda H. E. Gay",authors:[{id:"225677",title:"Dr.",name:"Glenda",middleName:"H. E.",surname:"H.E. Gay",slug:"glenda-h.e.-gay",fullName:"Glenda H.E. 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Prior studies carried out by researchers confirm that technology utilization and adoption in education undeniably helps teachers and learners in the teaching and learning process. This chapter serves as a stepping stone to support teachers to do better in utilizing and adopting technology in education to a certain extent as an alternative of overlooking their thoughts, efforts and desires in blindly trying to vie with the swift change of technology in education in this epoch. 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One challenge comes from the changing perceptions of what learning is all about. The second challenge comes from new learning opportunities that technology now affords. Constructivism, interpretivism, and computing technology, separately and often together, have redesigned the conception of the challenges and opportunities of learning, and brought about new learning possibilities for almost all teaching and learning situations, including traditional classroom teaching, distance learning, and self-learning. Computer-supported learning environments could have good problems that will stimulate students to explore and reflect on their knowledge construction. Students who cannot afford higher education are discouraged from seeking or completing a degree. 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South Africa’s Department of Higher Education and Training (DHET) commits to “an expansion of open and distance education and the establishment of more ‘satellite’ premises where universities or colleges provide classes at places and times convenient to students (including in rural areas)”. This chapter also explores the role of UNISA in the provision of distance learning through structured and sustainable e-learning.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Moeketsi Letseka, Matsephe Martha Letseka and Victor Pitsoe",authors:[{id:"187812",title:"Prof.",name:"Victor",middleName:"Justice",surname:"Pitsoe",slug:"victor-pitsoe",fullName:"Victor Pitsoe"},{id:"195883",title:"Dr.",name:"Matsephe M.",middleName:null,surname:"Letseka",slug:"matsephe-m.-letseka",fullName:"Matsephe M. 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Everyday, e-learning environments bring out new antagonistic concepts. As these new concepts rapidly entered our lives, they began to become indispensable materials in the field of education. New e-learning environments are being used as platforms that are related to each other. They essentially support the concept of e-learning.",book:{id:"6533",slug:"trends-in-e-learning",title:"Trends in E-learning",fullTitle:"Trends in E-learning"},signatures:"Fatih Çağatay Baz",authors:[{id:"241866",title:"Dr.",name:"Fatih Çağatay",middleName:null,surname:"Baz",slug:"fatih-cagatay-baz",fullName:"Fatih Çağatay Baz"}]},{id:"66544",title:"Factors Affecting the Utilization and Adoption of Technology in Education",slug:"factors-affecting-the-utilization-and-adoption-of-technology-in-education",totalDownloads:1061,totalCrossrefCites:3,totalDimensionsCites:3,abstract:"Education is vital in any type of society for the conservation of lives of its associates and the preservation of the public formation. The rationale of this chapter is not only to reveal the role of technology in education but also to reveal the factors affecting the proper utilization and adoption of technology in education. Prior studies carried out by researchers confirm that technology utilization and adoption in education undeniably helps teachers and learners in the teaching and learning process. This chapter serves as a stepping stone to support teachers to do better in utilizing and adopting technology in education to a certain extent as an alternative of overlooking their thoughts, efforts and desires in blindly trying to vie with the swift change of technology in education in this epoch. 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An example of an electric power system is the network that supplies a region’s homes and industry with power. Due to the complexity and nonlinearity of the power system, hand calculations may be very complicated in some cases, especially when the number of buses or inputs is very large. Here comes the role of software for convergence, time saving, and accuracy. 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He is a full professor of signal processing and pattern recognition and is head of the Signals and Communications Department at ULPGC, teaching from 2001 on subjects on signal processing and learning theory. His research lines are biometrics, biomedical signals and images, data mining, classification system, signal and image processing, machine learning, and environmental intelligence. He has researched in 52 international and Spanish research projects, some of them as head researcher. He is co-author of 4 books, co-editor of 27 proceedings books, guest editor for 8 JCR-ISI international journals, and up to 24 book chapters. He has over 450 papers published in international journals and conferences (81 of them indexed on JCR – ISI - Web of Science). He has published seven patents in the Spanish Patent and Trademark Office. He has been a supervisor on 8 Ph.D. theses (11 more are under supervision), and 130 master theses. He is the founder of The IEEE IWOBI conference series and the president of its Steering Committee, as well as the founder of both the InnoEducaTIC and APPIS conference series. He is an evaluator of project proposals for the European Union (H2020), Medical Research Council (MRC, UK), Spanish Government (ANECA, Spain), Research National Agency (ANR, France), DAAD (Germany), Argentinian Government, and the Colombian Institutions. He has been a reviewer in different indexed international journals (<70) and conferences (<250) since 2001. He has been a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Image Processing from 2007 and a member of the IASTED Technical Committee on Artificial Intelligence and Expert Systems from 2011. \n\nHe has held the general chair position for the following: ACM-APPIS (2020, 2021), IEEE-IWOBI (2019, 2020 and 2020), A PPIS (2018, 2019), IEEE-IWOBI (2014, 2015, 2017, 2018), InnoEducaTIC (2014, 2017), IEEE-INES (2013), NoLISP (2011), JRBP (2012), and IEEE-ICCST (2005)\n\nHe is an associate editor of the Computational Intelligence and Neuroscience Journal (Hindawi – Q2 JCR-ISI). He was vice dean from 2004 to 2010 in the Higher Technical School of Telecommunication Engineers at ULPGC and the vice dean of Graduate and Postgraduate Studies from March 2013 to November 2017. He won the “Catedra Telefonica” Awards in Modality of Knowledge Transfer, 2017, 2018, and 2019 editions, and awards in Modality of COVID Research in 2020.\n\nPublic References:\nResearcher ID http://www.researcherid.com/rid/N-5967-2014\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-4621-2768 \nScopus Author ID https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=6602376272\nScholar Google https://scholar.google.es/citations?user=G1ks9nIAAAAJ&hl=en \nResearchGate https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Carlos_Travieso",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Las Palmas de Gran Canaria",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Spain"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"23",title:"Computational Neuroscience",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/23.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"14004",title:"Dr.",name:"Magnus",middleName:null,surname:"Johnsson",slug:"magnus-johnsson",fullName:"Magnus Johnsson",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/14004/images/system/14004.png",biography:"Dr Magnus Johnsson is a cross-disciplinary scientist, lecturer, scientific editor and AI/machine learning consultant from Sweden. \n\nHe is currently at Malmö University in Sweden, but also held positions at Lund University in Sweden and at Moscow Engineering Physics Institute. \nHe holds editorial positions at several international scientific journals and has served as a scientific editor for books and special journal issues. \nHis research interests are wide and include, but are not limited to, autonomous systems, computer modeling, artificial neural networks, artificial intelligence, cognitive neuroscience, cognitive robotics, cognitive architectures, cognitive aids and the philosophy of mind. \n\nDr. Johnsson has experience from working in the industry and he has a keen interest in the application of neural networks and artificial intelligence to fields like industry, finance, and medicine. \n\nWeb page: www.magnusjohnsson.se",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Malmö University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Sweden"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"24",title:"Computer Vision",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/24.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"294154",title:"Prof.",name:"George",middleName:null,surname:"Papakostas",slug:"george-papakostas",fullName:"George Papakostas",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002hYaGbQAK/Profile_Picture_1624519712088",biography:"George A. 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He has (co)authored more than 150 publications in indexed journals, international conferences and book chapters, 1 book (in Greek), 3 edited books, and 5 journal special issues. His publications have more than 2100 citations with h-index 27 (GoogleScholar). His research interests include computer/machine vision, machine learning, pattern recognition, computational intelligence. \nDr. Papakostas served as a reviewer in numerous journals, as a program\ncommittee member in international conferences and he is a member of the IAENG, MIR Labs, EUCogIII, INSTICC and the Technical Chamber of Greece (TEE).",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"International Hellenic University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null},{id:"25",title:"Evolutionary Computation",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/25.jpg",isOpenForSubmission:!0,editor:{id:"136112",title:"Dr.",name:"Sebastian",middleName:null,surname:"Ventura Soto",slug:"sebastian-ventura-soto",fullName:"Sebastian Ventura Soto",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/136112/images/system/136112.png",biography:"Sebastian Ventura is a Spanish researcher, a full professor with the Department of Computer Science and Numerical Analysis, University of Córdoba. 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He is currently a principal researcher in data analytics and optimisation at TECNALIA (Spain), a visiting fellow at the Basque Center for Applied Mathematics (BCAM) and a part-time lecturer at the University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU). His research interests gravitate on the use of descriptive, prescriptive and predictive algorithms for data mining and optimization in a diverse range of application fields such as Energy, Transport, Telecommunications, Health and Industry, among others. In these fields he has published more than 240 articles, co-supervised 8 Ph.D. theses, edited 6 books, coauthored 7 patents and participated/led more than 40 research projects. 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Then take a masters degree in science in Germany (Animal breeding). Take a doctorate in animal science at the UANL.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"309250",title:"Dr.",name:"Miguel",middleName:null,surname:"Quaresma",slug:"miguel-quaresma",fullName:"Miguel Quaresma",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309250/images/9059_n.jpg",biography:"Miguel Nuno Pinheiro Quaresma was born on May 26, 1974 in Dili, Timor Island. He is married with two children: a boy and a girl, and he is a resident in Vila Real, Portugal. He graduated in Veterinary Medicine in August 1998 and obtained his Ph.D. degree in Veterinary Sciences -Clinical Area in February 2015, both from the University of Trás-os-Montes e Alto Douro. He is currently enrolled in the Alternative Residency of the European College of Animal Reproduction. 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He teaches diverse courses in the field of Animal Reproduction and he is the Director of the Veterinary Farm. He also participates in academic postgraduate activities at the Veterinary Faculty of Murcia University, Spain. His research areas include animal physiology, physiology and biotechnology of reproduction either in males or females, the study of gametes under in vitro conditions and the use of ultrasound as a complement to physiological studies and development of applied biotechnologies. Routinely, he supervises students preparing their doctoral, master thesis or final degree projects.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Valencia Catholic University Saint Vincent Martyr",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"309529",title:"Dr.",name:"Albert",middleName:null,surname:"Rizvanov",slug:"albert-rizvanov",fullName:"Albert Rizvanov",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/309529/images/9189_n.jpg",biography:'Albert A. Rizvanov is a Professor and Director of the Center for Precision and Regenerative Medicine at the Institute of Fundamental Medicine and Biology, Kazan Federal University (KFU), Russia. He is the Head of the Center of Excellence “Regenerative Medicine” and Vice-Director of Strategic Academic Unit \\"Translational 7P Medicine\\". Albert completed his Ph.D. at the University of Nevada, Reno, USA and Dr.Sci. at KFU. He is a corresponding member of the Tatarstan Academy of Sciences, Russian Federation. Albert is an author of more than 300 peer-reviewed journal articles and 22 patents. He has supervised 11 Ph.D. and 2 Dr.Sci. dissertations. Albert is the Head of the Dissertation Committee on Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Genetics at KFU.\nORCID https://orcid.org/0000-0002-9427-5739\nWebsite https://kpfu.ru/Albert.Rizvanov?p_lang=2',institutionString:"Kazan Federal University",institution:{name:"Kazan Federal University",country:{name:"Russia"}}},{id:"210551",title:"Dr.",name:"Arbab",middleName:null,surname:"Sikandar",slug:"arbab-sikandar",fullName:"Arbab Sikandar",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/210551/images/system/210551.jpg",biography:"Dr. Arbab Sikandar, PhD, M. Phil, DVM was born on April 05, 1981. He is currently working at the College of Veterinary & Animal Sciences as an Assistant Professor. He previously worked as a lecturer at the same University. \nHe is a Member/Secretory of Ethics committee (No. CVAS-9377 dated 18-04-18), Member of the QEC committee CVAS, Jhang (Regr/Gen/69/873, dated 26-10-2017), Member, Board of studies of Department of Basic Sciences (No. CVAS. 2851 Dated. 12-04-13, and No. CVAS, 9024 dated 20/11/17), Member of Academic Committee, CVAS, Jhang (No. CVAS/2004, Dated, 25-08-12), Member of the technical committee (No. CVAS/ 4085, dated 20,03, 2010 till 2016).\n\nDr. Arbab Sikandar contributed in five days hands-on-training on Histopathology at the Department of Pathology, UVAS from 12-16 June 2017. He received a Certificate of appreciation for contributions for Popularization of Science and Technology in the Society on 17-11-15. He was the resource person in the lecture series- ‘scientific writing’ at the Department of Anatomy and Histology, UVAS, Lahore on 29th October 2015. He won a full fellowship as a principal candidate for the year 2015 in the field of Agriculture, EICA, Egypt with ref. to the Notification No. 12(11) ACS/Egypt/2014 from 10 July 2015 to 25th September 2015.; he received a grant of Rs. 55000/- as research incentives from Director, Advanced Studies and Research, UVAS, Lahore upon publications of research papers in IF Journals (DR/215, dated 19-5-2014.. He obtained his PhD by winning a HEC Pakistan indigenous Scholarship, ‘Ph.D. fellowship for 5000 scholars – Phase II’ (2av1-147), 17-6/HEC/HRD/IS-II/12, November 15, 2012. \n\nDr. Sikandar is a member of numerous societies: Registered Veterinary Medical Practitioner (life member) and Registered Veterinary Medical Faculty of Pakistan Veterinary Medical Council. The Registration code of PVMC is RVMP/4298 and RVMF/ 0102.; Life member of the University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, Lahore, Alumni Association with S# 664, dated: 6-4-12. ; Member 'Vets Care Organization Pakistan” with Reference No. VCO-605-149, dated 05-04-06. :Member 'Vet Crescent” (Society of Animal Health and Production), UVAS, Lahore.",institutionString:"University of Veterinary & Animal Science",institution:{name:"University of Veterinary and Animal Sciences",country:{name:"Pakistan"}}},{id:"311663",title:"Dr.",name:"Prasanna",middleName:null,surname:"Pal",slug:"prasanna-pal",fullName:"Prasanna Pal",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/311663/images/13261_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Dairy Research Institute",country:{name:"India"}}},{id:"202192",title:"Dr.",name:"Catrin",middleName:null,surname:"Rutland",slug:"catrin-rutland",fullName:"Catrin Rutland",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/202192/images/system/202192.png",biography:"Catrin Rutland is an Associate Professor of Anatomy and Developmental Genetics at the University of Nottingham, UK. She obtained a BSc from the University of Derby, England, a master’s degree from Technische Universität München, Germany, and a Ph.D. from the University of Nottingham. She undertook a post-doctoral research fellowship in the School of Medicine before accepting tenure in Veterinary Medicine and Science. Dr. Rutland also obtained an MMedSci (Medical Education) and a Postgraduate Certificate in Higher Education (PGCHE). She is the author of more than sixty peer-reviewed journal articles, twelve books/book chapters, and more than 100 research abstracts in cardiovascular biology and oncology. She is a board member of the European Association of Veterinary Anatomists, Fellow of the Anatomical Society, and Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Dr. Rutland has also written popular science books for the public. https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2009-4898. www.nottingham.ac.uk/vet/people/catrin.rutland",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"University of Nottingham",country:{name:"United Kingdom"}}},{id:"283315",title:"Prof.",name:"Samir",middleName:null,surname:"El-Gendy",slug:"samir-el-gendy",fullName:"Samir El-Gendy",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRduYQAS/Profile_Picture_1606215849748",biography:"Samir El-Gendy is a Professor of anatomy and embryology at the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University, Egypt. Samir obtained his PhD in veterinary science in 2007 from the faculty of veterinary medicine, Alexandria University and has been a professor since 2017. Samir is an author on 24 articles at Scopus and 12 articles within local journals and 2 books/book chapters. His research focuses on applied anatomy, imaging techniques and computed tomography. Samir worked as a member of different local projects on E-learning and he is a board member of the African Association of Veterinary Anatomists and of anatomy societies and as an associated author at local and international journals. Orcid: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-6180-389X",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"246149",title:"Dr.",name:"Valentina",middleName:null,surname:"Kubale",slug:"valentina-kubale",fullName:"Valentina Kubale",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/246149/images/system/246149.jpg",biography:"Valentina Kubale is Associate Professor of Veterinary Medicine at the Veterinary Faculty, University of Ljubljana, Slovenia. Since graduating from the Veterinary faculty she obtained her PhD in 2007, performed collaboration with the Department of Pharmacology, University of Copenhagen, Denmark. She continued as a post-doctoral fellow at the University of Copenhagen with a Lundbeck foundation fellowship. She is the editor of three books and author/coauthor of 23 articles in peer-reviewed scientific journals, 16 book chapters, and 68 communications at scientific congresses. Since 2008 she has been the Editor Assistant for the Slovenian Veterinary Research journal. She is a member of Slovenian Biochemical Society, The Endocrine Society, European Association of Veterinary Anatomists and Society for Laboratory Animals, where she is board member.",institutionString:"University of Ljubljana",institution:{name:"University of Ljubljana",country:{name:"Slovenia"}}},{id:"258334",title:"Dr.",name:"Carlos Eduardo",middleName:null,surname:"Fonseca-Alves",slug:"carlos-eduardo-fonseca-alves",fullName:"Carlos Eduardo Fonseca-Alves",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/258334/images/system/258334.jpg",biography:"Dr. Fonseca-Alves earned his DVM from Federal University of Goias – UFG in 2008. He completed an internship in small animal internal medicine at UPIS university in 2011, earned his MSc in 2013 and PhD in 2015 both in Veterinary Medicine at Sao Paulo State University – UNESP. Dr. Fonseca-Alves currently serves as an Assistant Professor at Paulista University – UNIP teaching small animal internal medicine.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Universidade Paulista",country:{name:"Brazil"}}},{id:"245306",title:"Dr.",name:"María Luz",middleName:null,surname:"Garcia Pardo",slug:"maria-luz-garcia-pardo",fullName:"María Luz Garcia Pardo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/245306/images/system/245306.png",biography:"María de la Luz García Pardo is an agricultural engineer from Universitat Politècnica de València, Spain. She has a Ph.D. in Animal Genetics. Currently, she is a lecturer at the Agrofood Technology Department of Miguel Hernández University, Spain. Her research is focused on genetics and reproduction in rabbits. The major goal of her research is the genetics of litter size through novel methods such as selection by the environmental sensibility of litter size, with forays into the field of animal welfare by analysing the impact on the susceptibility to diseases and stress of the does. Details of her publications can be found at https://orcid.org/0000-0001-9504-8290.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Miguel Hernandez University",country:{name:"Spain"}}},{id:"350704",title:"M.Sc.",name:"Camila",middleName:"Silva Costa",surname:"Ferreira",slug:"camila-ferreira",fullName:"Camila Ferreira",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/350704/images/17280_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated in Veterinary Medicine at the Fluminense Federal University, specialist in Equine Reproduction at the Brazilian Veterinary Institute (IBVET) and Master in Clinical Veterinary Medicine and Animal Reproduction at the Fluminense Federal University. She has experience in analyzing zootechnical indices in dairy cattle and organizing events related to Veterinary Medicine through extension grants. I have experience in the field of diagnostic imaging and animal reproduction in veterinary medicine through monitoring and scientific initiation scholarships. I worked at the Equus Central Reproduction Equine located in Santo Antônio de Jesus – BA in the 2016/2017 breeding season. I am currently a doctoral student with a scholarship from CAPES of the Postgraduate Program in Veterinary Medicine (Pathology and Clinical Sciences) at the Federal Rural University of Rio de Janeiro (UFRRJ) with a research project with an emphasis on equine endometritis.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"41319",title:"Prof.",name:"Lung-Kwang",middleName:null,surname:"Pan",slug:"lung-kwang-pan",fullName:"Lung-Kwang Pan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/41319/images/84_n.jpg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"125292",title:"Dr.",name:"Katy",middleName:null,surname:"Satué Ambrojo",slug:"katy-satue-ambrojo",fullName:"Katy Satué Ambrojo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/125292/images/system/125292.jpeg",biography:"Katy Satué Ambrojo received her Veterinary Medicine degree, Master degree in Equine Technology and doctorate in Veterinary Medicine from the Faculty of Veterinary, CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in Valencia, Spain.Dr. Satué is accredited as a Private University Doctor Professor, Doctor Assistant, and Contracted Doctor by AVAP (Agència Valenciana d'Avaluació i Prospectiva) and currently, as a full professor by ANECA (since January 2022). To date, Katy has taught 22 years in the Department of Animal Medicine and Surgery at the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University in undergraduate courses in Veterinary Medicine (General Pathology, integrated into the Applied Basis of Veterinary Medicine module of the 2nd year, Clinical Equine I of 3rd year, and Equine Clinic II of 4th year). Dr. Satué research activity is in the field of Endocrinology, Hematology, Biochemistry, and Immunology in the Spanish Purebred mare. She has directed 5 Doctoral Theses and 5 Diplomas of Advanced Studies, and participated in 11 research projects as a collaborating researcher. She has written 2 books and 14 book chapters in international publishers related to the area, and 68 scientific publications in international journals. Dr. Satué has attended 63 congresses, participating with 132 communications in international congresses and 19 in national congresses related to the area. Dr. Satué is a scientific reviewer for various prestigious international journals such as Animals, American Journal of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Veterinary Clinical Pathology, Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, Reproduction in Domestic Animals, Research Veterinary Science, Brazilian Journal of Medical and Biological Research, Livestock Production Science and Theriogenology, among others. Since 2014 she has been responsible for the Clinical Analysis Laboratory of the CEU-Cardenal Herrera University Veterinary Clinical Hospital.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"201721",title:"Dr.",name:"Beatrice",middleName:null,surname:"Funiciello",slug:"beatrice-funiciello",fullName:"Beatrice Funiciello",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/201721/images/11089_n.jpg",biography:"Graduated from the University of Milan in 2011, my post-graduate education included CertAVP modules mainly on equines (dermatology and internal medicine) and a few on small animal (dermatology and anaesthesia) at the University of Liverpool. After a general CertAVP (2015) I gained the designated Certificate in Veterinary Dermatology (2017) after taking the synoptic examination and then applied for the RCVS ADvanced Practitioner status. After that, I completed the Postgraduate Diploma in Veterinary Professional Studies at the University of Liverpool (2018). My main area of work is cross-species veterinary dermatology.",institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"291226",title:"Dr.",name:"Monica",middleName:null,surname:"Cassel",slug:"monica-cassel",fullName:"Monica Cassel",position:null,profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/291226/images/8232_n.jpg",biography:'Degree in Biological Sciences at the Federal University of Mato Grosso with scholarship for Scientific Initiation by FAPEMAT (2008/1) and CNPq (2008/2-2009/2): Project \\"Histological evidence of reproductive activity in lizards of the Manso region, Chapada dos Guimarães, Mato Grosso, Brazil\\". Master\\\'s degree in Ecology and Biodiversity Conservation at Federal University of Mato Grosso with a scholarship by CAPES/REUNI program: Project \\"Reproductive biology of Melanorivulus punctatus\\". PhD\\\'s degree in Science (Cell and Tissue Biology Area) \n at University of Sao Paulo with scholarship granted by FAPESP; Project \\"Development of morphofunctional changes in ovary of Astyanax altiparanae Garutti & Britski, 2000 (Teleostei, Characidae)\\". She has experience in Reproduction of vertebrates and Morphology, with emphasis in Cellular Biology and Histology. She is currently a teacher in the medium / technical level courses at IFMT-Alta Floresta, as well as in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Animal Science and in the Bachelor\\\'s degree in Business.',institutionString:null,institution:null},{id:"442807",title:"Dr.",name:"Busani",middleName:null,surname:"Moyo",slug:"busani-moyo",fullName:"Busani Moyo",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Gwanda State University",country:{name:"Zimbabwe"}}},{id:"439435",title:"Dr.",name:"Feda S.",middleName:null,surname:"Aljaser",slug:"feda-s.-aljaser",fullName:"Feda S. Aljaser",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"King Saud University",country:{name:"Saudi Arabia"}}},{id:"423023",title:"Dr.",name:"Yosra",middleName:null,surname:"Soltan",slug:"yosra-soltan",fullName:"Yosra Soltan",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Alexandria University",country:{name:"Egypt"}}},{id:"349788",title:"Dr.",name:"Florencia Nery",middleName:null,surname:"Sompie",slug:"florencia-nery-sompie",fullName:"Florencia Nery Sompie",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Sam Ratulangi University",country:{name:"Indonesia"}}},{id:"428600",title:"MSc.",name:"Adriana",middleName:null,surname:"García-Alarcón",slug:"adriana-garcia-alarcon",fullName:"Adriana García-Alarcón",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428599",title:"MSc.",name:"Gabino",middleName:null,surname:"De La Rosa-Cruz",slug:"gabino-de-la-rosa-cruz",fullName:"Gabino De La Rosa-Cruz",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}},{id:"428601",title:"MSc.",name:"Juan Carlos",middleName:null,surname:"Campuzano-Caballero",slug:"juan-carlos-campuzano-caballero",fullName:"Juan Carlos Campuzano-Caballero",position:null,profilePictureURL:"//cdnintech.com/web/frontend/www/assets/author.svg",biography:null,institutionString:null,institution:{name:"National Autonomous University of Mexico",country:{name:"Mexico"}}}]}},subseries:{item:{id:"7",type:"subseries",title:"Bioinformatics and Medical Informatics",keywords:"Biomedical Data, Drug Discovery, Clinical Diagnostics, Decoding Human Genome, AI in Personalized Medicine, Disease-prevention Strategies, Big Data Analysis in Medicine",scope:"Bioinformatics aims to help understand the functioning of the mechanisms of living organisms through the construction and use of quantitative tools. The applications of this research cover many related fields, such as biotechnology and medicine, where, for example, Bioinformatics contributes to faster drug design, DNA analysis in forensics, and DNA sequence analysis in the field of personalized medicine. Personalized medicine is a type of medical care in which treatment is customized individually for each patient. Personalized medicine enables more effective therapy, reduces the costs of therapy and clinical trials, and also minimizes the risk of side effects. Nevertheless, advances in personalized medicine would not have been possible without bioinformatics, which can analyze the human genome and other vast amounts of biomedical data, especially in genetics. The rapid growth of information technology enabled the development of new tools to decode human genomes, large-scale studies of genetic variations and medical informatics. The considerable development of technology, including the computing power of computers, is also conducive to the development of bioinformatics, including personalized medicine. In an era of rapidly growing data volumes and ever lower costs of generating, storing and computing data, personalized medicine holds great promises. Modern computational methods used as bioinformatics tools can integrate multi-scale, multi-modal and longitudinal patient data to create even more effective and safer therapy and disease prevention methods. Main aspects of the topic are: Applying bioinformatics in drug discovery and development; Bioinformatics in clinical diagnostics (genetic variants that act as markers for a condition or a disease); Blockchain and Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning in personalized medicine; Customize disease-prevention strategies in personalized medicine; Big data analysis in personalized medicine; Translating stratification algorithms into clinical practice of personalized medicine.",coverUrl:"https://cdn.intechopen.com/series_topics/covers/7.jpg",hasOnlineFirst:!0,hasPublishedBooks:!0,annualVolume:11403,editor:{id:"351533",title:"Dr.",name:"Slawomir",middleName:null,surname:"Wilczynski",slug:"slawomir-wilczynski",fullName:"Slawomir Wilczynski",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0033Y000035U1loQAC/Profile_Picture_1630074514792",biography:"Professor Sławomir Wilczyński, Head of the Chair of Department of Basic Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Medical University of Silesia in Katowice, Poland. 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Editor-in-chief of the journal in the field of aesthetic medicine and dermatology - Aesthetica.",institutionString:null,institution:{name:"Medical University of Silesia",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Poland"}}},editorTwo:null,editorThree:null,series:{id:"7",title:"Biomedical Engineering",doi:"10.5772/intechopen.71985",issn:"2631-5343"},editorialBoard:[{id:"5886",title:"Dr.",name:"Alexandros",middleName:"T.",surname:"Tzallas",slug:"alexandros-tzallas",fullName:"Alexandros Tzallas",profilePictureURL:"https://mts.intechopen.com/storage/users/5886/images/system/5886.png",institutionString:"University of Ioannina, Greece & Imperial College London",institution:{name:"University of Ioannina",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"Greece"}}},{id:"257388",title:"Distinguished Prof.",name:"Lulu",middleName:null,surname:"Wang",slug:"lulu-wang",fullName:"Lulu Wang",profilePictureURL:"https://s3.us-east-1.amazonaws.com/intech-files/0030O00002bRX6kQAG/Profile_Picture_1630329584194",institutionString:"Shenzhen Technology University",institution:{name:"Shenzhen Technology University",institutionURL:null,country:{name:"China"}}},{id:"225387",title:"Prof.",name:"Reda R.",middleName:"R.",surname:"Gharieb",slug:"reda-r.-gharieb",fullName:"Reda R. 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